ADVERTISING:

What is an advertisement?
➢ An advertisement is a public notice promoting a product, a service,
an opportunity or a cause.

Types of advertising:
1. Television
2. Pamphlets
3. Radio
4. Magazines
5. Flyers
6. Newspapers
7. Word-of-mouth
8. Poster
9. Billboards

High-pressure advertising: You are told to buy, get or choose the product.

Examples: Buy now / Revolutionary / Don’t be left out / Life changing / Get it
now for the low price of…

Subtle advertising: They suggest you will be better off with their product.

Examples: Would you like to look beautiful? Ever wanted to be rich? Would
you like to be thin and healthy?
The AIDA Principle:
Explanation:
In most cases, the advertiser (or the supplier of the product or service
being advertised) wants the consumer to part with their money. Most
advertising uses the AIDA principle. Make sure you understand the different
steps and can apply them to advertisements.
Attention:
Adverts attract the viewer’s attention, usually with clever language use or
visual images.
ATTENTION - The image of the breakfast and the huge bold colourful writing
above it grab your attention.

Interest:
The advert makes the viewer aware that he/she has a problem or that there
is something missing from his/her life. Adverts usually present an ‘ideal’
lifestyle that viewers would want (appealing to the viewer’s interest).
INTEREST – The fact that the product offers a healthy, full fast breakfast for
such a cheap price, gains the reader’s interest.

Desire:
The viewer is made aware that his/her problem has a solution (the
product!). This creates a desire, want, or need in the viewer.
DESIRE – The adverts appeal to the desire to be able to enjoy a tasty meal
away from home, which will require no work or cleaning up. The price is
also cheap and so the desire to save money will also be appealed to.

Action:
This A (Action) wants the viewer to act on the desire, want or need.

This is done in three ways:

1. The viewer can change behaviour (e.g. switching brands)
2. The viewer can start behaviour (e.g. buying a new product)
3. The viewer can stop behaviour (e.g. stop littering)
In other words, the advert wants the viewer to do something.

ACTION – The reader is promoted to take action by visiting their nearest

Spur.

Features, appeal and analysing:

TERMINOLOGY:
Target Market
The people the advert is meant for. Who will look at this advert? Who will
buy the product or obey the message? Will it be young people, parents,
students, vegetarians etc.

Logo
The image/icon we associated with the product.

Copy/ Supporting Text

This refers to the words in an advertisement.

Slogan
A catchy phrase used for a product or an advertising campaign.

Headline
Sentence or phrase in an advertisement designed to attract the consumer.
Visual (Image)
This refers to the pictures/photos used in the advertisement. They are
always used because they show you what you are missing out on. They
also give you an idea of what you are buying. They are used to sell the
product.

Brand versus Product

Within a brand (the company/organisation) there may be a number of
products.
You will recognise the logo of the following brand:

Persuasive language/techniques
Emotive words – free / cool / loved
Scientific terms – specially formulated / tested / clinically proven
Alliterations – Big Better Butter / Soul Sister (creates flow and makes us
remember it)
Exclamations – oops! / wow!
Rhyme – careline, your friendly airline. (makes us remember the slogan)
Questions – Do you dream of owning a sports car? / Can you afford not to
have this product?

Punctuation
Punctuation is used by advertisers to convey a feeling or idea e.g. an
exclamation mark can mean excitement or pain.
Service
The service being advertised. For example: car insurance, medical aid,
home loans etc.

Product
The object being advertised. For example: Big Mac Burger, King Steer
Burger, Wimpy Burger etc.

Layout
Refers to the way in which different elements of written and visual text are
placed together to form the advertisement.

CARTOONS:
Body language and facial expressions

Used to give non-verbal clues about attitude and mood.

Describe what you SEE first, and then give the associated emotion.

Thought bubble Speech bubble Scream bubble

▪ Thought bubbles look like clouds. They are also used for animals, as
animals cannot actually speak.
 ▪ Speech bubbles have smooth sides or just a line that connects the
words with the character.
▪ Speech/scream bubble with jagged edges and words in bold, show
shouting or loud sounds.
▪ Actions and movements stand alone (see middle frame in the
Garfield cartoon).
▪ A frame is the block in which the cartoon is drawn. The cartoon above
has two frames. When more than one frame is used, it is called a
comic strip. Sometimes there is no line around a frame. This is
usually done to show surprise, shock or a large action (like an
explosion).
▪ The caption is used in a one-frame cartoon. It describes the action or
gives the character’s words as in the following cartoon.

Analysing cartoons:
Analysing cartoons:
o Look carefully at the picture and read the writing attentively.
o Take note of the character’s body language and facial expressions.
o Pay attention to the type of language used.
o Look at the punctuation and the words written in bold.
o Take note of the setting and background details.
o Identify when the viewer’s expectations are overturned to create
humour.
o Determine the intention of the cartoonist.

Use the S-C-L-A-S-H method:

S - Setting: When and where does the action happen? What is the social
context?
C - Characters: What emotions are shown by facial expressions/body
language? What does the body language say about the relationship
between the characters?
L - Language: What words have been used? How is punctuation used?
A - Action: What is happening in the cartoon and how is the action
portrayed?
S - Stereotypes/Symbols: Are there stereotypes? Is anything in the cartoon
a symbol for something else?
H - Humour: Is there irony, a pun (words with double meanings) or
sarcasm?

Movement and sound

➢ Lines, clouds and stars are used to show movement. The lines mimic
the direction of the movement.

➢ Sound is also shown with lines, as well as symbols or words. For loud
sounds, the words will be in capital letters, in bold and there will be
at least one exclamation mark, this is known as onomatopoeia.

Figures of Speech:
Simile:
A direct comparison that always contains the words LIKE or AS.
It is a comparison between two different objects, used to make a
description more vivid.

Examples:
1. Her heart is like gold.
2. As courageous as a lion.
3. she was as sly as a fox.
4. Run like the wind
When asked to explain a simile, you are expected to show your
understanding of the comparison.

Follow these steps:

1. Identify the two objects that are being used in the comparison.
2. Look for the characteristic/ detail that is shared between the two
objects. In what way are they the same?
3. You are now ready to explain it, use the following formula:

Object A has X characteristic and Object B has X characteristic, therefore...

(explanation).

Let's try one:

Example 1:
Her heart is like gold.

Step 1:
Object A - Her heart
Object B – Gold

Step 2:
Gold is known for its wealth, power, and majesty. Gold is highly valued, and
symbolises generosity.

Her heart is valued, generous and majestic.

Step 3 (Your answer given in an assessment):
The simile "Her heart is like gold" is a figurative expression comparing
someone's heart to the precious metal gold. The comparison implies that
the person possesses qualities similar to the characteristics associated
with gold, such as being valuable, precious, and generous. The simile
suggests that the individual has a heart filled with kindness, generosity, and
other positive attributes, emphasising the inherent worth and admirable
nature of their character.

Metaphor:
A comparison of two UNLIKE objects without the use of LIKE or AS in the
comparison.
The comparison is implied rather than stated.

Examples:
1. You are my sunshine.
2. My mom has a heart of gold.
3. My toes were ice blocks.
4. Their voice was music to the crowd's ears.

When asked to explain a metaphor, you are expected to show your

understanding of the comparison.

Follow these steps:

1. Identify the two objects that are being used in the comparison.
2. Look for the characteristic/ detail that is shared between the two
objects. In what way are they the same?
3. You are now ready to explain it, use the following formula:
Object A has X characteristic and Object B has X characteristic, therefore...
(explanation).

Let's try one:

Example 1:
You are my sunshine.

Step 1:
Object A- You
Object B- sunshine

Step 2:
Sunshine is associated with warmth, happiness, illumination, and
positivity.
You may be a person who radiates positivity and warmth.

Step 3 (Your answer given in an assessment):

The metaphor "You are my sunshine" is a figure of speech where the
speaker compares someone to sunshine without using the word "like" or
"as." In this metaphor, the speaker is expressing that the person being
addressed is a source of joy, warmth, and brightness in their life, much like
how sunshine brings light and warmth to the world. It implies that the
individual being referred to has a positive and uplifting impact on the
speaker, making their life happier and more enjoyable. The metaphor adds
depth and emotional resonance to the statement, emphasising the
significance of the person's presence in the speaker's life.
Personification:
Gives human qualities to inanimate objects or abstract ideas.

Examples:
1. The waves danced in the moonlight.
2. The wind tickled the back of my neck.
3. The heart wants what it wants
4. The city that never sleeps

When asked to explain a personification, you are expected to show your

understanding of the comparison.

Follow these steps:

1. Identify the two objects that are being used in the comparison.
2. Look for the characteristic/ detail that is shared between the two
objects. In what way are they the same?
3. You are now ready to explain it, use the following formula:

Object A has X characteristic and Object B has X characteristic, therefore...

(explanation).

Let's try one:

Example 1:
The waves danced in the moonlight.

Step 1:
Object A- Waves
Object B- Dancing

Step 2:
Dancing is associated with celebration, expression, graceful/ rhythmic
movements in a given space, an art expression that is enjoyable to observe.
Waves are swells of water. Waves are known for their consecutive and
continuous movement towards the shore.

Step 3 (Your answer given in an assessment):

The personification in the phrase "The waves danced in the moonlight"
involves attributing human-like qualities or actions to non-human entities,
in this case, the waves. The use of "danced" ascribes the human activity of
dancing to the waves, suggesting a lively and graceful movement as if the
waves are joyfully responding to the moonlight. This personification
enhances the description of the scene, creating a vivid and imaginative
image in which the waves take on a seemingly expressive and animated
quality, engaging in a dance under the enchanting glow of the moonlight.

Oxymoron:
Two words that contradict one another and are placed next to each other to
heighten meaning.

Examples:
1. Organised chaos
2. Deafening silence
• brawling love!
3. The accused felt angry relief when she was proved innocent.
When asked to explain an oxymoron, you are expected to show your
understanding of the two opposing words and how when placed together
they create a dramatic effect in writing.

Follow these steps:

1. Identify the contradicting words.
2. Establish the meaning of each opposing word.
3. You are now ready to explore the effect it has on writing.

Let's try one:

Example 1:
Organised chaos

Step 1:
Organised.
Chaos.

Step 2:
Organized: When something is arranged systematically. When there is
order.
Chaos: Experiencing disorder or confusion. Lacking order.

Step 3:
The oxymoron "organised chaos" combines two seemingly contradictory
terms to create a paradoxical phrase. "Organised" typically suggests order,
structure, and systematic arrangement, while "chaos" implies disorder,
confusion, and lack of organization. In this context, the juxtaposition of
these opposing ideas is used to convey a situation or concept that, despite
its appearance of disorder, possesses a certain degree of structure or
pattern.

"Organised chaos" is often employed to describe scenarios where there is

a method to the madness, or where seemingly random elements are
actually part of a larger, intentional design.

Paradox:
A seemingly absurd statement that when analysed is found to be true.
It is an idea or statement that seems wrong or impossible but actually
makes sense once given deeper thought and analysis.

Examples:
1. You will kill him with your kindness.
2. It was the beginning of the end.
3. Less is more.
4. You have to have money to make money.

When asked to explain a paradox its is your job is to understand and

explain how it's possible for both of those facts to be true despite this
apparent contradiction.

Follow these steps:

1. Identify the absurd statement.
2. Establish the denotative (dictionary) meaning of the statement.
3. You are now ready to explain how the statement can be true.

Let's try one:

Example 1:
You will kill him with your kindness.

Step 1:
Kill with kindness

Step 2:
To kill someone is to harm them thus causing discomfort.
To show kindness is to be helpful and caring.
How can one harm and be helpful and caring someone?

Step 3:
Often used when someone has wronged you, to kill someone with kindness
means to cause them discomfort by being extremely kind and helpful. To
disarm someone with kindness instead of meeting their negativity with
negativity.

Irony:
In verbal irony, the opposite of what is being said is true. Irony is used to
convey tone and feeling. It is when what is stated and what was intended,
differs.
Examples:
1. I can’t wait for my English test! (Did not study for the test).
2. The blind leading the blind.
3. This day couldn't be off to a better start! (A woman spills her morning
coffee on her white silk blouse).
4. What lovely weather! (It is cold and unpleasant outside).

When asked to explain irony, you are expected to show your understanding
of the appearance of a situation (expectation) versus the reality of the
scenario.

Follow these steps:

1. Identify the expectation of the example. Provide the denotative meaning.
2. Look at the scenario, does the denotative meaning fit?
What is the reality of the situation?
3. You are now ready to explain it, use the following formula:
'Expectation of the situation', when in reality 'the reality of the situation'.

Let's try one:

Example 1:
I can’t wait for my English test!

Step 1:
Expectation: The speaker is incredibly excited about the upcoming test.

Step 2:
No, the speaker would not be excited for a test that they did not study and
prefer for.
The speaker is dreading the test because they are unprepared.

Step 3 (Your answer given in an assessment):

The speaker portrays excitement for their upcoming English test, when in
reality the speaker feels dread and unease due to their lack of preparation
for the test.

Litotes:
A form of verbal irony that uses a negative and an opposite to understate
what is intended. It is an ironic understatement.

Examples:
1. You can't say I didn't warn you.
2. That new building is far from pretty
3. She's not a particularly great cook.
4. They do not seem the happiest couple around.

When asked to explain litotes, you are expected to understand the use of
negative and the opposite meaning that is intended.

Follow these steps:

1. Identify the expected meaning of the statement.
2. Identify the use of negative and state how it affects the meaning as found
in step 1.
3. You are now ready to explain the impact it creates in writing.
Let's try one:

Example 1:
You can't say I didn't warn you.

Step 1:
Expectation: The speaker was not warned about a scenario.

Step 2:
By stating "can't say I did not," it actually means "I did warn you."

Step 3 (Your answer given in an assessment):

This sentence says a warning was given indirectly by using a tricky way with
words. It suggests the listener got warned without saying it clearly.

Euphemism:
An unpleasant or painful situation is described with sensitivity and tact.

Examples:
She passed away (instead of saying 'she died').
You are perspiring badly (instead of saying 'you stink')
They were let go from the company (instead of saying 'they were fired').
Ruth is in her golden years (instead of saying 'Ruth is old').
When asked to explain a euphemism, you are expected to understand the
shared meaning. Look to the given scenario to assist you. Your
understanding of synonyms and connotation will assist you here.

Let's try one:

Example 1:
She passed away/she died.
Your answer given in an assessment:

Death is a difficult topic to discuss. Although 'she passed away' and 'she
died' both share the same meaning, by using 'passed away' which does not
directly draw attention to death, it allows the recipient of the message
some distance to the difficult scenario. It makes it sound better than it is.

Hyperbole:
A gross exaggeration that creates humour or emphasis.

Examples:
1. There is a ton of homework to get through.
2. I'm starving (instead of 'I haven't eaten all day').
3. I've told you a million times!
4. I will be in this queue forever.

When asked to explain a hyperbole, you are expected to identify the

characteristic that has been exaggerated and explain how it creates an
effect in writing.
Follow these steps:
1. Identify the exaggeration.
2. Identify the figurative meaning behind the exaggeration.
3. You are now ready to explore the effect it has on writing.

Let's try one:

Example 1:
There is a ton of homework to get through.

Step 1:
A ton of homework

Step 2:
A ton represents the weight of an object. A ton is used to describe
something that is incredibly heavy. There is so much homework that it
weighs a lot.

Step 3:
By exaggerating the weight of the homework and describing it as weighing a
ton, it indicates that the speaker feels that there is an impossible amount
of homework.
Pun:
A clever play on words, often alike in sound but different in meaning. The
double meaning conveys humour.

Examples:
1. The cricket captain was stumped.
2. The duck said to the bartender, "put it on my bill".
3. Broken pencils are pointless.
4. "Ask for me tomorrow, you shall find me a grave man."

When asked to explain a pun, you are expected to show understanding of

both possible meanings and explain the effect it has on writing.

Follow these steps:

1. Identify the word/s that holds a double meaning.
2. State both meanings of the word/s.
3. You are now ready to explain the pun and its effect on the writing piece.

Let's try one:

Example 1:
The cricket captain was stumped.
Step 1:
stumped
Step 2:
Stumped (in cricket): When a batsman is out of their crease and the
wickets are knocked down by the wicket-keeper. It is a form of dismissal in
the game of cricket.

Stumped: A word used to describe someone who is confused or puzzled

about something.

Step 3:
The word 'stumped' means both a form of dismissal of a batsman in a game
of cricket and to be confused or puzzled over something. By describing the
cricket captain as stumped, the reader is left to question which meaning
was truly intended. Perhaps the captain was confused due to their
dismissal from the game.

Rhetorical question:
A question where the answer is not expected. The speaker uses it to
strengthen an argument, make a point or make the reader/listener think.

Examples:
1. What time do you call this?
2. Do I look like a fool to you?
3. "What's in a name?"
4. Is that supposed to be a joke?

When asked to explain a rhetorical question, you are expected to show an

understanding of the point that is being made, rather than providing an
answer.
Follow these steps:
1. Identify the subject/ topic of the question.
2. You are now ready to explain the rhetorical question and the point being
made.

Let's try one:

Example 1:
What time do you call this?

Step 1:
time

Step 2:
By asking "What time do you call this?" the speaker is making a point that
an agreed upon/ expected time was not followed. The speaker is
highlighting the fact that the subject is not on time.

Alliteration:
Is the repetition of a consonant at the beginning of words.

Examples:

1. "I grant I never saw a goddess go;

2. My mistress, when she walks, treads on the ground"
3. She sells seashells on the seashore
4. Dave's dog dove deep in the dam
 5. The teacher taught a lesson on turtles and tortoises.

When asked to explain alliteration, you are expected to show your

understanding of the created 'sound' and it's effect and link to the figurative
meaning of the statement.

Follow these steps:

1. Identify the repeated letter/ sound.
2. Identify the topic of the statement.
3. You are now ready to link the sound, the topic, and the figurative meaning
of the statement.

Let's try one:

Example 1:
"I grant I never saw a goddess go;
My mistress, when she walks, treads on the ground"

Step 1:
Repetition of the hard 'g' sound.

Step 2:
An ordinary woman (my mistress) treads on the ground when she walks.

Step 3 (Your answer given in an assessment):

The repetition of the hard ‘g’ sound creates the stomping sound of ‘treading
on the ground’ ungracefully. The inclusion of this alliteration aligns with the
idea that the woman walks clumsily and with harshness.

Assonance:
The repetition of vowel sounds in words that are close together in a
sentence or verse.
Assonance in writing impacts the pace and rhythm when read- short vowel
sounds speed up the pace, while long vowel sounds slow it down.

Examples:
1. The kind knight rides by
2. The rain in Spain falls mainly on the plain.
3. He eats the sweet treats.

When asked to explain assonance, you are expected to show your

understanding of the repeated vowel sounds and their effect on the piece
of writing.

Follow these steps:

1. Identify the repeated vowel sound.
2. Identify the purpose of the repeated sound. Does it affect the pace or the
rhythm? What effect does it have?
3. You are now ready to link the sound and the effect it has on a piece of
writing.
Let's try one:

Example 1:
The rain in Spain stays mainly on the plain.

Step 1:
Repetition of the long 'a' sound.

Step 2:
The vowel sound created is long and slows the pace of the piece of writing
when read.

Step 3 (Your answer given in an assessment):

By repeating the long 'a' sound through the use of 'ai', the pace is slowed
down. This repetition may affect the mood and rhythm too. By slowing the
pace and the repetition of the drawn-out long 'a' sound, a calm mood is
created. A repeated rhythm aligns with the calm mood through a neat,
repeated, rhythmical structure.

Onomatopoeia:
Words that imitate and reproduce sounds and actions.
The sound heightens the visual effect.

Examples:
1. The snake slithered across the sand.
2. Bang
 3. Whisper
4. Crack

When asked to explain onomatopoeia, you are expected to show your

understanding of the sound that is shared in pronunciation, the actual
sound that the word represents, and the effect it has on a piece of writing.

Follow these steps:

1. Identify the example of onomatopoeia.
2. Identify the effect it has on a piece of writing.
3. You are now ready to link the sound and the effect it has on a piece of
writing.

Let's try one:

Example 1:
The snake slithered across the sand.

Step 1:
Slithered. The 'sl' sound.

Step 2:
The 'sl' sound resembles the sound of a snake as it glides across the sand.
It allows the reader to imagine the scene and can include their experience
of the sound, allowing the reader to become immersed in the experience by
including their sense of hearing.
Step 3 (Your answer given in an assessment):
The sound 'sl' at the beginning of the word 'slither' sounds like the body of a
snake as it glides across a surface, in this case sand. By hearing the sound,
the reader is able to have a heightened experience in imagining the activity
as they include their familiarity with the sound and the topic that is being
read. This will make the topic memorable to the reader.

Sibilance:
The repetition of hissing or hushing sounds, particularly those produced by
the letters "s," "sh," "z," and sometimes "ch."

Examples:
1. The buzz-saw snarled and rattled in the yard.
2. The snake slithered across the sand.

When asked to explain sibilance, you are expected to show your

understanding of the consonant sound that is repeated, and the effect it
has on a piece of writing.

Follow these steps:

1. Identify the example of sibilance.
2. Identify the effect it has on a piece of writing.
3. You are now ready to link the sound and the effect it has on a piece of
writing.
Let's try one:

Example 1:
The buzz-saw snarled and rattled in the yard.

Step 1:
Repeated 'z' and 's' consonant sounds.

Step 2:
This repetitive use of sibilant consonants creates a feeling of discomfort or
unease. This choice of sound aligns with the potential danger associated
with machinery. It mimics the buzzing sound of the saw cutting a piece of
wood.

Step 3:
The "s" sounds mimic the sharp, cutting noises produced by the saw,
creating a visceral and auditory experience for the reader. It adds a sense of
vividness and realism to the description, allowing the reader to almost hear
the unpleasant, discordant sounds of the tool in action.

Consonance:
Consonance is similar to alliteration in the fact that it deals with the
repetition of consonants. However, the repetition in consonance occurs
with the inner consonant sounds, or those at the ends of words, rather than
the consonants at the beginning of the words in a phrase.
Examples:
1. The distant thunder rumbled with a deep consonance, heralding the
impending storm.
2. The old clock marked time with consonant ticks, filling the room with
a rhythmic cadence.
3. The sleek black cat stalked silently through the grass.
4. With each stroke, the painter created consonant swirls of colour.

When asked to explain consonance, you are expected to show your

understanding of the consonant sound that is repeated, and the effect it
has on a piece of writing.

Follow these steps:

1. Identify the example of consonance.
2. Identify the effect it has on a piece of writing.
3. You are now ready to link the sound and the effect it has on a piece of
writing.

Let's try one:

Example 1:
The distant thunder rumbled with a deep consonance, heralding the
impending storm.

Step 1:
Repeated 'd' consonant sound.
Step 2:
The use of consonance in this sentence enhances the auditory experience
for the reader. The repeated "d" sound mimics the rolling and rumbling
nature of distant thunder, which vividly conveys the sound of the
approaching storm.

Step 3:
The repeated "d" sound mimics the rolling and rumbling nature of distant
thunder, which vividly conveys the sound of the approaching storm. The
consonant sounds contribute to the overall mood and atmosphere of the
sentence. The deep, resonant quality of the consonance mirrors the
ominous and powerful nature of an impending storm.

Dictionary Work:
Using a dictionary helps students acquire a wider vocabulary, teaches
correct spelling, and encourages reading comprehension skills.

DICTIONARY SKILLS
A dictionary is an important source of information. It contains far more than
the meanings and spelling of words. When you consult a dictionary you
need to know exactly how a dictionary entry works.
The best way to learn how to use your particular dictionary is to read the
introduction section to find out how entries are arranged.

CONCEPTS:
1. Words are arranged in alphabetical order. Two guide words, the first
and the last on the page, are printed in bold at the top of the page.
They help you to find a word in its alphabetical context.
2. The headword, which is printed in bold, gives the correct spelling. All
the information provided under the headword is called the 'entry'.

3. The pronunciation of the word is usually shown in brackets

immediately after the headword, e.g. (dik-shun). The word is also
divided into syllables. A stress mark (') appears directly after the
syllable that receives the strongest emphasis.

4. The part of speech is also indicated. Abbreviations are used; for

example: (noun); a., adj. (adjective); pron. (pronoun); adv. (adverb);
v.t. (verb transitive); v.i. (verb intransitive); con. (conjunction), prep.
(preposition) ; int. (interjection).

5. The meanings or definitions of the word are given. Different meanings

are numbered. Words derived from the main word by the addition of
prefixes or suffixes are also given.

6. Bold letters show words belonging to the same family as the entry
word.

7. Explanations of idiomatic sayings based on the headword are given.

8. The etymology of a word - its origin - is usually given at the end of the
entry: Gk or Gr. (Greek), L. (Latin), OE (Old English), ME (Middle
English), F. or Fr. (French), G. (German).

9. Synonyms and antonyms may be given.

 10. Capitalisation, when necessary.

11. Plurals of nouns.

12. Spellings in other English (South African English, US English,

British English, etc.)
13. Derived terms and inflections (e.g. I am, you are)

TIPS:
o One word may take the form of different parts of speech:
o noun: The wicket is taking spin.
o v.t.: That spider spins a huge web. (object; verb transitive)
o v.i.: My world spins faster every day. (no object; verb intransitive)
o If you want to know the meaning of a word, ask yourself what part of
speech it is. Then go to that section in the dictionary entry.
o Dictionaries sometimes show the word used in a sentence or phrase,
so that you can see its use in context.

o Usage: The appropriate, current or out of date use of a word is often

indicated by the following abbreviations:
o obsolete (obs.): No longer used, found in very old writing
o archaic (arch): Out of date, old-fashioned, not in current use
o poetic (poet.): Found in poetry, or suitable for use in poetry

o colloquial (colI.): Informal use

o slang (sl.): Very informal use
o dialect (dial.): Found only in certain areas or among certain peoples
o vulgar (vulg.): Unacceptable, vulgar use
Active and Passive Voice:
Active voice:
A sentence is written in active voice when the subject of the sentence
performs the action in the sentence.
e.g. The girl was washing the dog.
[The girl is the subject and the verb is washing. The dog is the direct object.]

Passive voice:
A sentence is written in the passive voice when the subject of the sentence
has an action done to it by someone or something else.
e.g. The dog was being washed by the girl.
Hint: If you see the preposition and article ‘by the’ you will know that it is in
the passive voice.

How to change a sentence from active voice into passive voice:

To change a sentence from active to passive voice, do the following:

Move the active sentence's direct object into the sentence's subject slot
The staff (was the DO, now the Subject)
Place the active sentence's subject into a phrase beginning with the Links
to an external site.preposition Links to an external site.by
The staff ………..by the company (The staff is now the subject and the
action is expected to be performed by the company)

Add an auxiliary verb to the main verb and change the main verb
…are required to watch ('are' is the auxiliary very)

How to change a sentence from the passive voice into the active voice:
To change a passive voice sentence into an active voice sentence, simply
reverse the steps shown above.

1. Move the passive sentence's subject into the active sentence's direct
object slot

2. Remove the auxiliary verb from the main verb and change the main
verb's form if needed
 3. Place the passive sentence's object of the preposition 'by' into the
subject slot.

The effect of using active and passive voice:

Using active voice in your writing means that the subject of the sentence
comes first and performs the action that the rest of the sentence
describes. This is the most straightforward way to present your ideas
because it creates a clear image in the reader's mind of who is doing what.
Using active voice places the emphasis on the subject.

Passive voice, on the other hand, reverses the word order to make the
object and the action come first. It puts the subject at the end of the
sentence, and this construction can obscure, or hide, who is performing
the action in your sentence. The emphasis changes to the object of the
sentence, or the thing that is acted upon.

Active Voice Adds Impact

In most cases, using an active voice will result in shorter, sharper
sentences that are easier for the reader to follow. This makes your writing
clearer and aids the reader in visualizing what's happening, especially
when you use vivid action verbs. For example:
1) The flowers bloomed while I looked for the lost ladybug.
2) The batter stepped to the plate. He tapped the ground once and hit
the ball out of the park.
Active voice is useful in fiction to create vivid images and move the plot
along, but it's also important in academic writing. When you're trying to
explain a complex subject in an essay or persuade a reader of your
argument, it pays to keep your sentences short, clear and convincing.
Active voice makes you sound in control of your writing, which helps the
reader trust what you're saying. For example:
3) The test results prove that the drug works to kill cancer cells.
4) People who run puppy mills care more about profit than pets.
5) The Union army won the Civil War.
While it's true that active voice adds punch to your writing, you may
sometimes want to use the passive voice to minimize the impact of your
sentence or to add some variety to a longer piece to avoid repetition.
Businesses, politicians and other official outlets often use passive voice to
soften a negative sentence or to deflect blame. For example:
6) Refunds will not be issued.
7) Mistakes were made.
It's also appropriate to use passive voice when the subject of the sentence
- the person who performed the action - is unknown. For example:
8) The bank was robbed yesterday. Police are still looking for the
culprits.