MODULE III

TREATMENT OF WATER SUPPLIES

Treatment of Water Supplies

❖ Available raw water must be treated and purified before they are supplied to the public for their uses.
❖ Extent of treatment depends upon the quality and characteristics of raw water and also upon the quality
requirement for the intended use.
❖ Available water must be made safe, good in appearance and attractive to human taste and tongue.

Methods of Purification of Water

Various methods adopted for purifying the public water supplies are:
⚫ 1. Screening
⚫ 2. Plain sedimentation
⚫ 3. Sedimentation aided with coagulation
⚫ 4. Filtration
⚫ 5. Disinfection
⚫ 6. Aeration
⚫ 7. Softening
⚫ 8. Miscellaneous treatment such as fluoridation, recarbonation, liming, desalination, etc.
⚫ Screening: Removes big and visible objects such as trees, branches, sticks, vegetation, fish, animal life, etc.

⚫ Plain Sedimentation: Removes coarser suspended materials

⚫ Sedimentation aided with coagulation: Effectiveness of sedimentation is increased by adding some chemicals

⚫ Filtration: Removes finer particles in suspension which remains even after sedimentation

⚫ Disinfection: Removes pathogenic bacteria

⚫ Aeration: Removes unpleasant taste and odour

⚫ Softening: Removes Hardness of water

⚫ Fluoridation: Addition of soluble fluoride for controlling dental caries

⚫ Liming: Addition of lime for controlling acidity and reduce corrosive action

⚫ Recarbonation: Addition of carbon dioxide to prevent deposition of calcium carbonate scale

⚫ Desalination: Removal of excess salt

SCREENING

⚫ Screens are provided in front of pumps or intake structures to exclude large sized particles like debris, animals,
trees, branches etc
⚫ Screens are of two types- coarse and fine

⚫ Coarse screen
-Placed in front of fine screen. It consists ofparallel iron rods placed vertically or at slight slope at 2-10 cm
centre to centre
- Removes bigger floating bodies and organic solids
- Coarse screens - kept inclined at 45o – 60o to the horizontal- increases opening area -reduces flow velocity -
makes screening more effective
-material which is collected on upstrem side of screen is rmeoved manually or mechanically

⚫ Fine screen
-Consist of woven wire mesh with openings less than 1 cm wide
-removes fine suspended solids
-Fine screens get clogged easily and are to be cleaned frequently - hence avoided these days
-Finer particles are suspended in plain sedimentation tank
Plain Sedimentation

- Most of suspended impurities in water have specific gravity greater than that of water

- In still water these impurities will tend to settle down under gravity

- In normal raw water supplies they remain in suspension because of turbulence in water

- If such turbulence is retarded by offering storage to water, the impurities tend to settle down at bottom of
tank - principle behind sedimentation

- Basin in which flow of water is retarded- sedimentation tank / sedimentation basin / clarifier

-Avg time for which water is detained in tank is called detention period
Theory of sedimentation

Settlement of a particle in water brought to rest is opposed by following factors

1. Velocity of flow -which carries the particles horizontally. Greater the flow area , lesser is the velocity and more
easily particles will settle down

2. Viscosity of water: Highly viscous water resist the settling of particles

3. Size, shape and specific gravity of particles: Greater the specific gravity , more readily particle will settle

The settling velocity of particles is given by Stokes law which takes above three factors into account

---> for d<0.1 mm

[for viscous flow and small sized particles, represented by Re < 50]

Where
Vs – settling velocity
g - acceleration due to gravity
ν - kinematic viscosity of water
G – Specific gravity of particle
d - diameter of particle
Type I Settling (Settling in plain sedimnetation tank)
Discrete, non-flocculent particles in a dilute suspension - settle as separate units, and there is no
apparent flocculation or interaction between the particles - settling of sand particles in sedimentation
tanks

Type II Settling
Settling of flocculent particles in a dilute suspension - flocculate during settling and increase in size and
settle at a faster velocity - settling in clariflocculators
Find the settling velocity of a discrete particle in water under conditions when Reynold’s number is less than 0.5.
The diameter and specific gravity of the particles is 5x10-3cm and 2.65, respectively. Water temperature is
200C (Kinematic viscosity of water at 200C=1.01x10-2 cm2/sec).
Sedimentation Tank

⚫ These are rectangular or circular tank provided with low flow velocity for sedimentation.

Type of sedimentation tank

1. Horizontal flow tank
2. Vertical or up flow tank

1. Horizontal flow tank

(i) Rectangular tank with horizontal/ Longitudinal flow: Direction of flow is horizontal

Two types
I. Continuous flow type
II.Intermittent flow type
I. Continuous flow type
⚫ Velocity of flow is reduced. Water is not brought to rest

⚫ Tank is continuously working without stopping

⚫ It is provided with mechanical scrapping device to continuously remove sludge deposited.

II. Intermittent flow type

⚫ No mechanical scrapper is provided and water is stored for 24 hour

⚫ Suspended impurities settle down and the pure water is taken out

⚫ Tank is cleaned manually for 30 – 36 hours

⚫ Tank is refilled with raw water to continue operation

⚫ It require two tank as one will be under cleaning - for effective working
(ii) Circular tank with radial flow with central feed

⚫ Water enter at the center

⚫ Water flows radially outward from the center towards periphery

⚫ It has low velocity and hence particles get settled

⚫ Clear water is taken out at the periphery

⚫ Mechanical scrapper is provided for sludge removal

(iii) Circular tank with peripheral feed with radial flow

⚫ Raw water is fed from the periphery and the pure water is taken out at the center
2. Vertical or up flow tank

⚫ It has a hopper bottom

⚫ Water is fed at the bottom center
⚫ Up flow velocity decrease as cross sectional area increases
⚫ Clear water withdrawn through circumferential or central weir
Zones of settling

Inlet zone -provide sooth transaition f water and distribute wtaer uniformly across the inlet

Settling Zone -The settling zone is the largest portion of the sedimentation basin. This zone provides the calm
area necessary for the suspended particles to settle.

Sludge zone- located at the bottom of the tank, provides a storage area for the sludge before it is removed for
additional treatment or disposal by scraper or vacuum devices. Flow velocity near sludge zone should be mninimized

Outlet Zone - provide a smooth transition from the sedimentation zone to the outlet - also controls the depth of
water in the basin-Weirs are set at the end of the tank to control the overflow rate and prevent the solids from
leaving the tank before they settle out
Zones in Rectangular Sedimentation Basin

Zones in Cicular Sedimentation Basin

Settling Theory
Assumptions
1. Flow is laminar
2. Particles are evenly distributed in the whole area of tank
3. Entrance and exit does not affect sedimentation efficiency
4.Settled particles does not resuspend

Consider a particle of dia d, which is just removed with a settling velocty of Vs in a settling
basin of size L*B*H. In that case

If Q is the discharge entering the tank, the velocity V is given by V = Q / BH --> (i)

Since every discrete particle is moving with the flowing water and also tending to settle
down, it possesses a horizontal velocity V (the velocity of flowing water) and a settling
velocity Vs in the vertical downward direction. Thus the path of a discrete particle is given
by the vector sum of the flow velocity V and its settling velocity Vs , as shown in Fig
From geometric considerations it can be seen that V/Vs = L/ H
Vs = VH / L

By substituting the value of V from Eq. (i), we get

Vs = (Q / BH) * (H/ L)
or Vs = Q /BL

all the particles with settling velocity Vs equal to or greater than (Q/ BL) will settle down and will be removed
It therefore follows that in the case of a sedimentation tank of given plan area (B × L) and given discharge Q, if all
the particles entering the tank have their settling velocity equal to or greater than Q / BL then all the particles will
settle down and will be removed

The quantity Q/ BL which is the discharge per unit of plan area of a sedimentation tank, is known as surface
overflow rate (S.O.R), or over flow rate, or surface loading rate.

For a given discharge Q entering a sedimentation tank, increasing the plan area (B × L) of the tank will reduce the
surface overflow rate and hence even those particles which are having lower values of their settling velocities will also
settle down and will be removed.

As such an increase in the plan area (i.e., length × width) of a sedimentation tank will increase the settling and
removal efficiency of the tank.

The surface overflow rate is therefore a significant parameter for the design of a continuous flow type sedimentation
tank
 A town has an existing horizontal flow sedimentation tank with an overflow rate of 17m³
/day/m², and it is desirable to remove particles that have settling velocity of 0.1 mm/s.
Assuming the tank is an ideal sedimentation tank, the percentage of particles removal is
approximately equal to
efficiency of settling tank

η= (Vs/Vo ) * 100

steps in design of sedimentation tank (i.e to find L, B, H)

1. Discharge, Overflow rate/surface overflow rate/ surface loading (Vo ) will be given

Vo = Q/A = Q/BL
where A= surface area

2. Assume L/B ratio between 3-5

3. From the detention time and discharge, volume can be found out
V = Q Dt
4. From volume V and values of L and B , H can be calculated

5. By assuming a free board of 0.3 - 0.5 m, total depth = H + free board

6. Check against scour

-Flow velocity should be smaller than the scour velocity to avoid scouring
i.e V < Vd
where Vd =√(8β/f) g (G-1) d

β is a constant = 0.04
f is the Darcy weisbach friction factor= 0.025 – 0.03
Data

1. Overflow rate - 15000-30000 litre/hr/m2 -- type I

- 30000 - 40000 litre/hr/m2 -- type II

2. Detention time Dt - It is the time required for the water to flow through the tank i.e it is the time

for detaining water

Dt= Volume or Capacity of Tank/ Rate of flow or Discharge

Dt= BLH/ Q----- For Rectangular Tank

Dt= d2(0.011 d + 0.785 H)/ Q ---- For Circular Tank

Dt= 4 - 8 hours -- type I

Dt= 2 - 4 hours -- type II

3. Horizontal flow velocity V = 0.3m/min

V Dt = L
4. L/B = 3-5

5. Designed for maximum daily flow = 1.8 q

6.Depth not more than 3 m

** theoretically depth of tank does not affect efficiency

7. Tanks without mechanical sludge remover- additional 0.8 to 1.2 m depth provided
for sludge storage called sludge zone
An ideal horizontal flow settling basin is 3m deep having surface area 900 m2.
Water flows at the rate of 8000 m3/d, at water temperature 200C (μ = 10-3kg/
m.s) and ρ = 1000 kg/m3). Assuming Stokes law to be valid, the proportion
(percentage) of spherical sand particles (0.01 mm in diameter with specific gravity
2.65), that will be removed, is ?
The maximum daily demand at a water purification plant has been estimated to be 12 million
litres per day. Design the dimensions of a suitable sedimentation tank (fitted with mechanical
sludge removal arrangements) for the raw supplies, assuming a detention period of 6 hours and
the velocity of flow is 20 cm per minute (Assume that the water depth in the tank is 4 m and
the free board is 0.5 m)
Two million litres of water per day is passing through a sedimentation tank which is
6 m wide, 15 m long and having a water depth of 3 m. (a) Find the detention time
for the tank. (b) What is the average flow velocity through the tank ? (c) If 60
ppm is the concentration of suspended solids present in turbid raw water, how
much dry solids will be deposited per day in the tank, assuming 70% removal in the
basin, and average specific gravity of the deposit as 2. (d) Compute the overflow
rate.
A rectangular settling tank without mechanical equipment is to treat 1.8 million
litres per day of raw water. The sedimentation period is to be 4 hours, the
velocity of flow 8 cm/minute, and the depth of the water and sediment 4.2 m. If
an allowance of 1.2 m for sediment is made, what should be length and width of
the basin?
 A circular sedimentation tank fitted with standard mechanical sludge removal
equipment is to handle 3.5 MLD of raw water. If the detention period of the tank is
5 hours and the depth of the tank is 3 m. What should be the diameter of the tank?
Short circuit
If water current permit a portion of water to pass directly through the tank
without detained for intended time, the flow is said to be short circuited

Flow through period

Due to short circuiting, actual time will be less than the intended detention time,
actual time is called flow through period

Displacement efficiency =[ Flow through period / Detention time]

SEDIMENTATION AIDED WITH COAGULATION

⚫ Fine suspended particle s and colloidal particles do not settle under plain
sedimentation
⚫ To make them settle, their size is increased by adding some chemicals called
coagulants

Process of coagulation sedimentation

⚫ By adding coagulants, they form a gelatinous precipitate after reacting with

the raw water
⚫ This precipitate called floc attract all fine particles and grow in size
⚫ Hence the bigger sized particle settle under gravity
Chemicals used for coagulation
1. Alum
2. Iron salts
a. Ferrous sulphate
b. Ferric sulphate
c. Ferric chloride
Types of coagulants

Copperas (Ferrous sulphate, FeSO4. 7H2O )

⚫ It is added in conjunction with lime

⚫ Floc formed is ferric hydroxide Fe(OH)3
⚫ works in pH range ≥8.5
⚫ Dose is same as alum
⚫ It is cheaper than alum
⚫ Forms heavy floc
Chlorinated copperas (Ferric sulphate + ferric chloride)

⚫ Ferric sulphate (Fe (SO4)3 ) and Ferric chloride (FeCl3 )

⚫ Both used as a coagulant and its combination is very effective as
it can be used in a wide pH range
⚫ It is added with lime
⚫ Floc formed is ferric hydroxide Fe(OH)3
⚫ pH = 4 – 7 and above 9 for ferric sulphate
= 3.5 – 6.5 and above 8.5 for ferric chloride
Magnesium Carbonate and Lime

⚫ When magnesium carbonate and lime are dissolved in water magnesium hydroxide and calcium
carbonate are formed as follows
⚫ MgCO3+ Ca(OH)2= Mg(OH)2 +CaCO3

⚫ Both Mg(OH)2 and CaCO3 are soluble in water sludge which is in the slurry form. Due to this, it is
not commonly used. However, it is useful in removing organic colour, iron and manganese.
Sodium aluminate (Na2 Al2 O4)

⚫ Floc formed is calcium or magnesium aluminate

⚫ It is 1.5 times costlier than alum

⚫ It cause less hardness

Alum (Aluminium sulphate, Al2(SO4)3.18 H2O)

⚫ Alum reacts with bicarbonate alkalinities of water and form a

gelatinous precipitate of aluminum hydroxide (2 Al(OH)3)
⚫ This floc attract all finer particles and grow in size and settle down

Al2(SO4)3.18 H2O + 3Ca (HCO3)2 à 3Ca(SO4) + 2 Al(OH)3 + 6CO2 + 18H2O

pH of water should be in the range 6.5 - 8.3

Dose of alum
Dose depends on turbidity and color of water

Raw water Dose of alum (mg/l)

Clear water 5
Turbid water 85
Average water 17
Advantages of alum as coagulant
❖ Highly effective
❖ Very cheap and stable
❖ No need of skilled labor
❖ It removes color, taste and odor

Disadvantages
❖ Difficult to dewater and dispose the sludge formed
❖ pH of water should be in th range 6.5 - 8.3
❖ It cause permanent hardness
❖ CO2 evolved will cause corrosion
Comparison of alum and iron salts as coagulant

-Iron salts produce heavy floc and can , therefore remove much more suspended matter than alum

-Iron salts being good oxidizing agent, can remove hydrogen sulphide and its corresponding tastes and
odour from water

-Iron salts can be used over a wider range of pH values

- Iron salts cause staining and promote the growth of iron bacteria in the distribution system

-Iron salts imparts more corrosiveness to water than that by alum

-Handling and storing of Iron salts require more skill and labour, whereas no skilled supervision is
required for alum
Factors Affecting Coagulation Dosage
*pH
The pH of raw water determines the type of coagulant that is suitable for the treatment.

*Temperature
Temperature affects the coagulation due to changes in the viscosity property. Apparently,
coagulation is more effective at high temperature

*Turbidity
The type of coagulant to be used is affected by how turbid the sample is.

*Mixing intensity
The intensity and time of mixing have impact on the performance of the coagulant.
Al2(SO4)3 .18 H2O + 3 Ca(HCO3)2 -------> 2 Al(OH)3 + 3CaSO4 + 6 CO2 + 18H2O
Find the quantity of alum required to treat 13 million litres of water per day at
a treatment plant where 12 ppm of alum dose is required. Calculate also the
amount of CO2 released per litre of water treated.
At a water treatment plant, the coagulation-sedimentation unit clarifies 40
million litres of water each day. The quantity of alum required at the plants is
18 mg/l. If the alkalinity of raw water is 5 mg/l as CaCO3, find out the
quantity of alum and quicklime (having 85% of CaO) required on yearly basis
at the plant.
constituents of a coagulation sedimentation tank

Coagulation sedimentation tank is also called clariflocculator. It consists of 4 units:

1. Feeding device
2. Mixing device/mixing basin
3. Flocculation tank/flocculator
4. Settling /sedimentation tank
-The coagulant is, first of all, fed (either dry or solution form) into the raw water through the
feeding device.
-This mixture is then thoroughly mixed and agitated in the mixing basin.
-The floc which is formed in the mixing basin is then allowed to consolidate in the flocculation tank.
-The flocculated water is finally passed into the sedimentation tank where these flocculated particles
settle down and be removed.
-The resultant water can be taken through the outlet of sedimentation tank.

Coagulation –sedimentation may help in:

-Removing turbidities up to as low value as 10-20 mg/l
-Reducing the bacteria in water
-Reduce B-Coli index by 70%
1. Feeding device

Two types :
1. Dry feeding device - Coagulant fed in powdered form
2. Wet feeding device - Coagulant fed in solution form

The choice between these two depends upon the following factors:

1. The characteristics of coagulant and the convenience with which it can be applied
Chemicals which clog or which are non-uniform cannot be fed by dry device. Alum can be fed by
Dry feeding, whereas copperas by wet feeding

2. Amount of coagulant to be added

If the dose is very small, then it is fed by wet feeding

3. Cost of coagulant and the size of plant

If the plant is small then dry feeding may be chosen, because dry feeding is cheaper and large
plants use wet feeding
Dry feeding device

❖ Consist of a tank with hopper bottom

❖ The coagulant in the powdered form is filled in the hopper tank and is allowed to fall in
to the mixing basin.
❖ Its dose is regulated by the speed of a toothed wheel, or a helical screw.
Wet feeding device
❖ The solution coagulant of required strength is prepared and stored in a tank, from
where it trickle down in to the mixing basin.
❖ The level of solution in the tank and rate of flow is adjusted by means of a float valve
and a conical plug arrangement.
Wet feeding VS Dry feeding
Wet Feeding Dry Feeding

Generally costlier than dry feeding Generally cheaper than dry feeding

Can be easily controlled and adjusted Controlling is difficult

Additional tank for preparing and storing No additional unit required

of solution

Extra labour required Extra labour not required

Eg : Copperas coagulant Eg : Alum

2. Mixing devices
After the addition of coagulant to the water, the mixture is thoroughly mixed so that
the coagulant is fully dispersed into the water. There are two types of mixing basins:

1. Mixing basin with baffle wall

2. Mixing basin with mechanical devices
1. Mixing basin with baffle wall

-Rectangular tank which are divided by baffle walls.

-The baffle wall either be provided in such a way as the water flows horizontally around their ends
(horizontal flow type) or the water move vertically over and under the baffles (vertical flow type).
-The disturbances created by the baffles in the path of flow, give it sufficient mixing.
-Horizontal flow type is more preferred due to its ease of cleaning.
2. Mixing basin with mechanical devices
-It consists of a rectangular tank with a flash mixer.
-The coagulant added to the water is mixed by the flash mixer.
-Flash mixer consists of an impeller driven by an electric motor, and it revolve at high speed.
Design criteria

Mixing basin with baffle wall

-The velocity of flow in the channel between the baffles is 0.15-0.45 m/s
-Detention time 20 – 50 minute
-Knowing these two , length of flow is known
-Capacity of tank for required detention period is also known from water demand
-Capacity divided by length will give cross sectional area of channel
-Total length of flow can be divided by effective flow length of each channel to obtain number of
channels required
-Distance between baffles (x) should not be less than 45 cm
-The clear opening between the end of each baffle and the tank wall (y) should be kept 1.5 times
the distance between the baffles (x)
-The floor of channel should slope towards the outlet.
-For around the baffle type, depth obtained by dividing cross-sectional area of each channel by
distance between baffles
-For around the baffles, depth should not be less than 1.0 m
-The width of “over and under baffles” is obtained by dividing the cross-sectional area of each
channel by the spacing of the baffles.
-The effective depth ( effective depth of flow ) is kept 2 to 3 times the distance between the
baffles
Design water depth for a mixing basin having around the end baffles, in order to treat 48 million
litres per day of water. The tank may be divided into two similar compartments by providing a
longitudinal partition wall, and each half may have a clear width of 8m. Assume suitable values of
detention period and flow velcoty through basin.. Clear distance between the baffles may be kept
equal to minimum permissible. Mention the number of channels in the tank and also overall inside
length of tank
Mixing basin with mechanical devices
-The impeller’s speed is kept between 100 to 120 rpm
- Detention period 0.5 – 2 minute
- Power required for flash mixing 2-5 kW/m3 per minute
3. Flocculation tank /flocculator
-A rectangular tank for slow and gentle stirring to permit build up and agglomeration of the floc
particles.
-Rectangular tanks fitted with paddles operated by electric motors or plain sedimentation tank with
controlled flow velocities are used as floculator

Design:
-Paddles' rotation - 2-3 rpm
-Detention period 20-60 minute ( normally 30 minute)
-The clear distance between the paddles and the wall or the floor of the tank 15-30 cm
4. Settling /sedimentation tank
-Function design and other details same as that of plain sedimentation tank
-Detention period 2 to 4 hours
-SOR 24-30 m3/d/m2

combined Coagulation-cum-sedimentation tanks

-Flocculation tank combined with sedimentation tank (known as coagulation sedimentation tank).
-A plain floc chamber without any mechanical devices is provided before the water enters the
sedimentation chamber.
-Detention period for floc chamber is kept at 15-40 minute and that for settling chamber at about
2-4 hours
-The depth in the floc chamber is kept about half that of in the settling chamber
-Design is same as that of plain sedimentation tank
-Depth of settling tank 3-6m
-Tank is cleaned at intervals of 6 months
Design a coagulation -cum-sedimentation tank with continuous flow for a population of 60000
persons with a daily per capita water allowance of 120 litres. Make suitable assumptions where
needed
Optimum Coagulant Dosage by Jar Test

Jar Test
-The jar test is a common laboratory procedure used to determine the optimum
operating conditions for water or wastewater treatment.
-This method allows adjustments in pH, variations in coagulant or polymer dose,
alternating mixing speeds, or testing of different coagulant or polymer types, on a
small scale in order to predict the functioning of a large scale treatment operation.

Jar Testing Apparatus

-The jar testing apparatus consists of six paddles which stir the contents of six 1
liter containers.
-One container acts as a control while the operating conditions can be varied among
the remaining five containers.
-A rpm guage at the top-center of the device allows for the uniform control of the
mixing speed in all of the containers.
Jar Test Procedure
The jar test procedures involves the following steps:
Fill the jar testing apparatus containers with sample water. One container will be used as a control while the other 5
containers can be adjusted depending on what conditions are being tested. For example, the pH of the jars can be
adjusted or variations of coagulant dosages can be added to determine optimum operating conditions.
Add the coagulant to each container and stir at approximately 100 rpm for 1 minute. The rapid mix stage helps to
disperse the coagulant throughout each container.
Turn off the mixers and allow the containers to settle for 30 to 45 minutes. Then measure the final turbidity in each
container.
Reduce the stirring speed to 25 to 35 rpm and continue mixing for 15 to 20 minutes. This slower mixing speed helps
promote floc formation by enhancing particle collisions which lead to larger flocs.
Residual turbidity vs. coagulant dose is then plotted and optimal conditions are determined. The values that are
obtained through the experiment are correlated and adjusted in order to account for the actual treatment system.