Energy and Power 2022, 12(1): 1-8

DOI: 10.5923/j.ep.20221201.01

The Photoelectric Effect and Its Applications

to Solar Cells
Krishiv Bhatia

Monta Vista High School, Cupertino, CA, USA

Abstract The photoelectric effect occurs when electrically charged particles are released from or within a material when
illuminated by light (or electromagnetic radiation). The light ejects electrons from the surface of the metal, and these
electrons can cause an electric current to flow. The phenomenon was discovered in 1887 by the German physicist Heinrich
Hertz. In 1905, Albert Einstein explained the photoelectric effect in a paper for which he won the Nobel Prize in physics in
1921. The photoelectric effect shows that light exhibits particle nature while the other properties like diffraction and
interference indicate the wave nature of light. Hence, light behaves both like a wave and a particle. Hence, particles like
electrons, protons, and even a soccer ball can behave like waves (although the wave properties are only observed at subatomic
scales). This phenomenon is called wave-particle duality. The photoelectric effect has many applications ranging from image
sensors, astronomy, photomultipliers, photoelectron spectroscopy, photocells (or solar cells), photocopiers, photodiodes, and
phototransistors. The photocell is perhaps the most crucial application and is commonly found in solar panels. It works on the
basic principle of the light striking the cathode, which causes the emission of electrons, producing current. The
photomultiplier tube uses the photoelectric effect to convert light intensity into electrical currents.
Keywords Photoelectric effect, Electromagnetic radiation, Albert Einstein, Wave-particle duality, Electron, Electric
current, Photovoltaic, Quantum dots, Perovskites Solar Cells, Crystalline Silicon Solar Cells, Monofacial, Bifacial Solar
Cells, Thin-Film Solar Cells, Organic Photovoltaics, Multijunction solar cells, Concentrated Photovoltaics

electricity [5].
1. Introduction
When light (or electromagnetic radiation) illuminates a
metal, electrons are knocked-off from the surface of the
metal, and these released electrons cause an electric current
to flow. This phenomenon, called the photoelectric effect, is
based on light consisting of tiny packets of energy known as
photons or light quanta, which confirmed the wave-particle
duality nature of light [1].
The photoelectric effect has many applications. Perhaps
the most critical application is the photocell, which is used
in building solar cells. A photocell transforms light into
electrical energy by producing voltage. As such, they can be
used as sensors to detect light [2,3,4].
A solar cell contains a semiconductor material which can
be silicon. When light shines on the solar cell, it knocks off
electrons from the semiconductor material's atoms and
causes an electric current to flow -- that is, electricity.
Multiple solar cells are soldered into circuit boards to form
photovoltaic modules, and modules are combined to produce Figure 1. The Photoelectric Effect [1]
solar cell arrays to generate a more significant amount of
Other applications of photoelectric current include image
* Corresponding author: sensors, photomultipliers, photoelectron spectroscopy,
[email protected] (Krishiv Bhatia) photocopiers, photodiodes, phototransistors, and astronomy.
Received: Jan. 20, 2022; Accepted: Feb. 2, 2022; Published: Feb. 15, 2022 Originally, the application of the photoelectric effect began
Published online at http://journal.sapub.org/ep
with the phototube, a vacuum tube containing a cathode
2 Krishiv Bhatia: The Photoelectric Effect and Its Applications to Solar Cells

made of metal with a small work function so that electrons From a quantum mechanics angle, each particle has
would be easily emitted. The current released by the plate associated with it a wave function 𝛹(x,t), such that |𝛹(x,t)|2
would be gathered by an anode held at a large positive gives the probability of finding it at a point x at time t [1].
voltage relative to the cathode [2,3,4,6,7].
The photomultiplier tube is an extension of the phototube 2.3. The Photocells
that amplifies the photocurrent and is very useful in A photocell is a sensor. It has a resistor whose resistance
spectroscopy research. It is often necessary to measure decreases depending on how much light falls on it. This
feeble light sources. The phototube was replaced by the phenomenon is called photoconductivity. They are used
semiconductor-based photodiode that can detect light and in light-sensitive detector circuits. Figure 2 shows the
turn it into electrical energy. Both photodiodes and Advanced Photonix PDV-P5002 photocell [8].
phototubes are used in imaging technologies [2,3]. Hence, a photocell can detect light. operates on the
The photoelectric effect is also used in other applications principle of photoelectric effect or semiconductor
like scintillators and astronomy. The scintillator emits light photoconductivity: the energy of photons from the incident
when it attracts radiation from either source in the lab or a light knocks off electrons from the semiconductor's surface.
cosmic source. In astronomy applications, the photoelectric This causes the electrons to move thereby decreasing the
effect is used to determine the intensities of stars and their resistance and causing current to flow. Its resisitivity
temperatures [3,4,7]. changes depending on the incident light. So it can act as a
light operated switch [8,9].
Photocells have been used since the mid-1900s in light
2. Research meters. They are used in cameras, camcorders, city street
2.1. The Photoelectric Effect lights, counting devices, fire alarms, burglar alarms, and in
factories as safety sensors [7].
In 1887, the German physicist Heinrich Hertz found that
he could increase the sensitivity of sparking by illuminating
it with UV light. Subsequently, J.J. Thompson discovered
the electron in 1897 and attributed the increased sensitivity
to light pushing electrons [1,2].
However, the conclusion above did not fit with the
classical theory of electromagnetic radiation, that is, light
behaved like transverse waves. It was not clear until Albert
Einstein said that light is a discrete quanta of energy or Figure 2. Advanced Photonix PDV-P5002 [8]
photons. According to Planck's formula, the energy of
photons is proportional to their frequencies [1,2]: 2.4. The Solar Cells (or Photovoltaic Cells)

E = ℏν = ℏc/ƛ (1) A solar cell produces an electric circuit when light falls on
them. They are made of two layers of semiconductor
Where E is the energy of the electromagnetic radiation, ℏ materials like silicon. One is positively charged, while the
is the Planck's constant with a value 1.055*10-34 J.s, ν is the other is negatively charged. When photons from light strike
frequency of the electromagnetic radiation, and c is the speed the solar cell, electrons are knocked loose from the atoms in
of light (3*108 m/s). the semiconductor material. The movement of electrons
Thus, light (or electromagnetic radiation) propagates generates the DC electric current [10,11]. See figure 3.
following linear wave equations but can only be emitted or
absorbed as discrete elements. Hence, it acts as a wave and a
particle simultaneously. This is the wave-particle duality
principle discussed in the next section [1].
So, when the incident light shines on a metal's surface, the
photons collide with the atoms and knock the electrons from
the atom of the metal if the photon's frequency is sufficient to
do that. This is the photoelectric effect [1,2].
2.2. The Wave-Particle Duality
The wave-particle duality refers to the principle that Figure 3. Operations of a solar cell [11]
matter and light exhibit both particle and wave
characteristics. This phenomenon is only detectable on Multiple solar cells are soldered into circuit boards to form
atomic scales. Light can behave like a wave with a frequency photovoltaic modules. Modules can be used individually.
determined by the particle's energy. Alternately, it acts like a But aeveral modules can be interconnected to form arrays to
particle with an energy proportional to the frequency of the generate a greater amount of electricity (see figure 4) [11].
wave [1]. The arrays are in-turn connected to the electrical grid system.
 Energy and Power 2022, 12(1): 1-8 3

Because of this modular structure, PV systems can be built solar capacity produced globally ten years ago to about
to meet almost any electric power need, small or large. A 600 gigawatts produced at the end of last year [15]. The
typical residential rooftop solar system installation has about maximum efficiency of solar cells to date is 38.9% [16]. The
30 modules. See figure 5. The system also has an inverter solar efficiency is impacted by many factors including the
that takes the DC electric current produced by modules and material and is discussed in sec 2.7 [17].
convert it to the AC used to power all of the appliances in the
home [8].

Figure 6. Solar farm in Southern France [15]

2.5. Solar Cells Systems Design

Solar cells need to be mounted on a strong structure that
can withstand severe weather. The structure should be
angled to maximize the incident sunlight based on the local
altitudes [18].
Batteries are used to store the generated electrical current
for powering homes at night or on cloudy days. Since the PV
cells generate DC current, inverters are used to convert it to
AC current so it can flow through the electric grid and power
homes [18].
Figure 4. Wiring multiple photovoltaic modules to form an array [11]
2.6. Solar Cells Performance Factors
Solar cells are used to power devices like calculators,
keyboards, lamps, notebooks, and waste compacting Solar cells performance is the ratio of the electric power
bins. They are also used to charge batteries. Portable generated to the amount of incident light energy [19]. Solar
solar-powered battery chargers include models used to cells perform optimally at lower temperatures since higher
charge mobile phones, provide power to the public in parks temperatures impact the properties of the semiconductor
and streets, and fold-out models to charge automobile material increasing current but lowering voltage more.
batteries [12,13]. The performance of solar cells is impacted by extreme
At solar farms, many solar panels harvest the sun's power temperature increases as they can damage cells shortening
to produce electricity which is then routed to the power grid operating lifetimes. Thermal management can reduce and
[14]. See figure 6. avoid damage [20].
Weather and environmental conditions like clouds, heat,
pollution, dirt, and shade will impact and reduce the
photovoltaic conversion efficiency. Solar backsheet, which
is made from polymer and is placed on the solar panel,
protects the cell from severe weather conditions and reduces
its temperature [5]. New cells are being designed which will
capture more light to increase electricity output (discussed in
sec 2.9).
A cell's efficiency can be increased by reducing the
amount of reflected light from its surface. Untreated silicon
reflects more than 30% of the incident light, which can be
reduced by anti-reflection coatings and textured surfaces
Figure 5. Arrays of photovoltaic modules being installed on rooftops [15]
[20].
The type of material from which solar cells are made
Solar is already the world's fastest-growing energy impacts the efficiency. Solar cells made from
technology. It has seen a jump from 20 gigawatts of installed monocrystalline pure silicon achieve an average efficiency
4 Krishiv Bhatia: The Photoelectric Effect and Its Applications to Solar Cells

of 18-20% while amorphous silicon achieves an average

efficiency of 8-9%. Polycrystalline silicon achieves an
efficiency of over 20% [17,20,23].

Figure 7. Solar Cell Materials [23]

Figure 8. Perovskite solar cells [9]
2.7. Developments in Solar Photovoltaics
2.7.2. Perovskites Solar Cells Challenges
2.7.1. Perovskites Solar Cells But there are four primary challenges that must be
Perovskites solar cells (see figure 8) have immense future simultaneously addressed for perovskite technologies to be
renewable energy potential. Although initial developments commercially successful. Power conversion efficiency is
occurred in 2006, they were published in 2009 and named needed while achieving stability, durability, and scaling
in honor of Russian mineralogist Lev von Perovskite. [24,25].
Perovskite materials include methylammonium lead halides The stability of PSCs is vulnerable to extrinsic conditions
and have good light absorption properties due to their like humidity, moisture, and elevated temperatures, and UV
crystalline structure. Hence, the perovskite solar cells (PSCs) light. Intrinsic factors like defects in perovskite structure
perform well under low and diffuse light [21,22]. and ion migration can also impact the stability of PSCs.
PSCs have become the fastest-growing solar cells Validation, performance verification, and bankability are
technology and are becoming commercially attractive due essential to the commercialization of perovskite technologies
to low production and manufacturing costs, high-efficiency [24].
potential, flexibility, thin design, lightweight, and
2.7.3. Crystalline Silicon Solar Cells
semi-transparency. Over the years, the performance of PSCs
has improved. From less than 4% in 2009, to 10% in 2012, to These are the most common semiconducting material
20% in 2014, the efficiency of PSCs is over 25% today in solar panels. Its efficiencies range from 18-22% for
[15,21,22]. commercially produced solar cells. It occupies more than
90% of the PV market in the world [22,26].

Figure 9. Comparison of growth of Perovskite solar cells compared to other solar cell technologies [21]
 Energy and Power 2022, 12(1): 1-8 5

2.7.4. Concentrated Photovoltaic Cells (CPV) solar industry due to their lower cost, narrow design, ease of
By converging light using lenses and mirrors over a small manufacturing, less waste, flexibility, and lower weight.
part of the solar cell, a large amount of current is generated. They are mainly of 3 types. The amorphous silicon thin-film
These cells have reached an efficiency f 38.9% [16]. cells are easier to produce compared to crystalline cells.
Cadmium-telluride (CdTe) thin-film cells are the second
2.7.5. Bifacial Solar Cells most popular after crystalline cells but need special handling
due to cadmium's toxicity. In addition, tellurium is very
Si-based bifacial technology can produce electric current
rare to find. The copper-indium-gallium-selenide (CIGSe)
from both sides of the panel (front and back) when illuminate
thin-film cells are very promising due to their high efficiency
with light. Compared to standard monofacial panels, bifacial
of 21% and lower cost. Figure 11 shows an example of
solar cells have 11% more efficiency. They have solar panels
thin-film solar cells [22,28].
on both the front and rear sides. Figure 10 shows the Lumos
Solar GSX bifacial modules [27]. 2.7.7. Quantum Dots Solar Cells

Figure 12. Quantum dot solar cell [29]

Figure 10. Lumos Solar GSX bifacial modules [14] Quantum dot (QD) solar cell technology is new and
emerging and has the potential to increase the conversion
2.7.6. Thin-Film Solar Cells efficiency to 66%. QDs are nanoscale (1-100 nm)
semiconductor particles that act as key absorbing PV
material. They can increase current generation efficiency
since more than one bound electron-hole pair (or exciton) are
excited per incoming photon versus other solar cells which
generate only one bound electron-hole pair per photon
[29,30].
By tuning their bandgap, they can spread across wide
energy levels making them suitable for multi-junction solar
cells. They can emit light of various colors when illuminated
by UV light. The wavelength of light emitted depends on its
size. Longer wavelength light is emitted by QDs of larger
size (5-6 nm) but shorter wavelength light is emitted by QDs
of shorter size (2-3 nm). They have applications in solar cells,
Figure 11. Thin-Film CIGSe solar cell [22]
LEDs, quantum computing, microscopy, medical imaging,
and fluorescent labels. Their properties are dependent on
These are highly promising and said to be the future of the their size [31].
Table 1. Solar cells comparison [16]
6 Krishiv Bhatia: The Photoelectric Effect and Its Applications to Solar Cells

2.7.8. Organic Solar Cells (OSCs) 4. Conclusions

OSCs are lightweight, made with carbon compounds, and The photoelectric effect is one of Albert Einstein's greatest
have low fabrication costs. The electricity is conducted and discoveries for which he won the Nobel Prize in Physics in
generated with organic polymers and molecules [16]. 1921. It proves that light has particle-like characteristics in
addition to its wave-like features since it contains many tiny
2.7.9. Solar Cells Comparison
packets of energy called "photons. This is also called the
Table 1 above shows the comparison between QD solar wave-particle duality of light [1,2].
cells, OSCs, CPVs, and PSCs. The photoelectric effect, a key part of quantum mechanics,
disproves the classical electromagnetism principle of light
which says that light traveling as waves transfers energy to
3. Results photoelectrons. It helps in drawing inferences on the
properties of atoms, molecules, and solids [32].
Discovered by Heinrich Hertz in 1887 and explained by
Although the photoelectric effect is used in many
Albert Einstein in 1905 (for which he won the Nobel Prize
applications, including astronomy, scintillators, and
in 1921), the photoelectric effect is significant because
photocopiers, producing electricity from sunlight via solar
it demonstrates that light has particle-like qualities. It
cells is its main use in our daily lives [2,3,4,6,7]. Solar cells
establishes that we can consider light as photons (packets) of
are wired to form modules, and many modules are combined
energy where a photon interacts with an electron, and the
to form solar system arrays. The arrays are installed on
photons must have sufficient energy to knock off each
rooftops to produce electricity [5].
electron [1,2].
The conversion efficiency of photovoltaic cells is their
The photoelectric effect has many applications. Since the
ability to produce electricity from the incident sunlight. The
electric current is triggered by light, it is widely used in light
conversion efficiency is negatively impacted by dirt, shade,
detection systems like "electric eye" door openers. Other
and texture which reflects the sunlight [8,20].
applications of the photoelectric effect include photocopiers,
Technologies are being developed which can improve the
photomultiplier tubes, photodiodes, phototransistors,
performance of solar cells. Perovskite solar cells are the most
scintillators, light meters used in photography, measuring the
promising based on high performance and low production
intensities of stars and their temperatures in astronomy, and
costs, but some challenges need to be resolved prior to
producing electricity via solar cells [2,3,4,6,7].
commercialization [22].
Its major application is in photovoltaic (PV) or solar cells.
The PV cells are made of semiconductor material like silicon
and produce power for an electrical circuit. Many solar cells
are interconnected to form a solar module. Multiple modules
5. Future Research Direction
are connected to form solar cell arrays or solar systems The solar cells field is being actively researched. Many
which are installed on rooftops to provide power to houses or developments and improvements are being made in the
buildings [11,10,5]. Perovskite, crystalline silicon, bifacial, and thin-film solar
Photovoltaic conversion efficiency is the module's ability cells technologies [22].
to convert sunlight into electricity. High temperatures Perovskite solar cells have a low cost and
negatively impact a semiconductor's performance. Although high-performance potential since their efficiency has trended
current increases, it leads to a much larger decrease in up from 3% in 2006 to over 25% today. They have many
voltage. If the material reflects light, it negatively impacts potential applications in solutions processing and advanced
the cell's efficiency. Untreated silicon reflects more than manufacturing - light emitters, diodes, and low-power
30% of the incident light, which can be reduced by electronics. But some challenges on improving their
anti-reflection coatings and textured surfaces. Dirt and shade stability and durability need to be addressed prior to
also reduce the incident light negatively impacting the commercialization [21,24].
conversion efficiency [8,20]. Crystalline silicon, bifacial solar cells, and thin-film solar
With huge increases in conversion efficiency, from about cells are also being actively researched and developed.
3% in 2006 to over 25% today, Perovskite solar cells have Bifacial solar cells went mainstream in 2010 but are
high performance and low production costs potential. currently used in large commercial installations. The
However, they are facing some challenges before they can be challenge to it being adopted for residential installations is
fully commercialized including power conversion efficiency, cost - it needs to be lowered [22,27].
stability and degradation, manufacturability, and technology Multijunction solar cells are being actively researched.
validation. Other materials being developed which improve By stacking different semiconductor materials in layers, cell
the conversion efficiency are crystalline silicon, bifacial efficiency can be improved, but the cost of materials and
solar cells, and thin-film solar cells [21,22]. fabrication needs to be lowered. Research is also being done
to extend it to different PV cell technologies [23].
 Energy and Power 2022, 12(1): 1-8 7

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