Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

Chapter 1 The atomic nature of matter

Section 1.1 Nanomaterials and nanoparticles

Worked example: Try yourself 1.1.1
CONVERTING KILOMETRES TO NANOMETRES

Convert 2.43 km into nanometres.

Thinking Working

Write the length in metres. 2.43 km = 2430 m

Write the length in scientific notation. 2430 m = 2.43 × 103 m

Multiply by 109 to convert to nanometres. (Hint: to do this, (2.43 × 103) × 109 = 2.4310(3 + 9)
you just need to add 9 to the index on the number 10.) = 2.43 × 1012 nm

1.1 Key questions

1 8.35 cm = 0.0835 m
0.0835 m = 8.35 × 10–2 m
(8.35 × 10–2) × 109 = 8.35 × 10–2+9
= 8.35 × 107 nm
2 a 1.35 cm = 1.35 × 10–2 m
1.35 × 10–2 m × 109 = 1.35 × 107 nm
b 4.2 mm = 4.2 × 10–3 m
4.2 × 10–3 × 109 = 4.2 × 106 nm
3 0.050 mm = 5 × 10–5 m
5 × 10–5 × 109 = 5.0 × 104 nm
5.0 × 104 ÷ 20 = 2500 times larger
4 a
Shape Surface area Volume Surface area
Volume

Cube 24 cm2 8 cm3 3

2 cm × 2 cm × 2 cm

Sphere of radius 1.38 cm 23.9 cm2 11 cm3 2.17

Tube (cylinder) 19 cm 2
6.3 cm 3
3
Radius of 1 cm
Height of 2 cm

b Sphere
c Sphere
d A large SA : V ratio is required for rapid cooling (e.g. on a hot day people spread out). A small SA : V ratio is
required to minimise loss of heat when cold. Hence, people huddle or wrap their arms around themselves to
keep warm.
5 There are two reasons why their size makes nanoparticles useful for transporting medicine. First, their small size
makes it easy for the nanoparticles to get into the body by inhalation, injection or absorption through the skin.
Second, their small size gives nanoparticles a large surface area compared to their volume. This means that a
large number of molecules can be adsorbed onto the surface of a relatively small volume of nanoparticles.

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

Section 1.2 The atomic world

1.2 Key questions

1 Noble gases
2 a Element
b Element
c Compound
d Compound
e Element
f Compound
g Element
h Compound
3 An element is made up of just one type of atom and these atoms are identical. A compound is a molecule that
contains at least two different types of atoms in a definite proportion.
4 a Iron
b Potassium
c Tungsten
d Lead

Section 1.3 Inside atoms

1.3 Key questions

1 10 000–100 000 larger depending on the element
2 Protons and neutrons found in the nucleus
3 The electrostatic attraction of the protons; the negative electrons are attracted to the positive protons and pulled
towards them.

Section 1.4 Classifying atoms

Worked example: Try yourself 1.4.1
CALCULATING THE NUMBER OF SUBATOMIC PARTICLES

235
Calculate the number of protons, neutrons and electrons for the atom with this atomic symbol: 92 U

Thinking Working

The atomic number is equal to the number of protons. Number of protons = Z = 92

Find the number of neutrons. The number of neutrons = A – Z

Number of neutrons = mass number – atomic number = 235 – 92
= 143

Find the number of electrons. The number of electrons = Z = 92

The number of electrons is equal to the atomic number
because the total negative change is equal to the total
positive charge.

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

1.4 Key questions

1 Mass number
2 Z = 15. Protons = 15, electrons = 15. Neutrons = 31 – 15 = 16
3 7 is its atomic number as it has 7 protons. The element that contains 7 protons is nitrogen.
4 Isotopes of the same element have the same atomic number and therefore the same number of protons and
electrons. The number of neutrons is different between isotopes of the same element; therefore they have different
mass numbers.
5 Carbon-14 has a mass number A = 14. The number of neutrons is:
mass number – the atomic number = 14 – 6 = 8
Carbon-12 has a mass number of 12 and therefore has 6 neutrons.
Therefore the difference in the number of neutrons is 8 – 6, which is 2 neutrons.

Section 1.5 Electronic structure of atoms

1.5 Key questions

1 Each line in an emission spectrum corresponds to a specific amount of energy. This energy is emitted when electrons
from higher-energy electron shells transition to a lower-energy shell. Different lines indicate that there are differences
in energy between shells. This is evidence that electrons are found in shells with discrete energy levels.
2 Electrons revolve around the nucleus in fixed, circular orbits.
Electrons’ orbits correspond to specific energy levels in the atom.
Electrons can only occupy fixed energy levels and cannot exist between two energy levels.
Orbits of larger radii correspond to energy levels of higher energy.
3 Energy is emitted as light or electromagnetic radiation.

Section 1.6 Electronic configuration and the shell model

Worked example: Try yourself 1.6.1
ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION FOR UP TO 36 ELECTRONS

Apply the rules of the shell model to determine the electronic configuration of an atom with 34 electrons.

Thinking Working

Recall the maximum number of electrons that each shell Shell (n) Maximum number of electrons
can hold.
1 2
2 8
3 18
4 32

Place the first 18 electrons in the shells from the Shell (n) Electrons in atom
lowest energy to the highest energy. Do not exceed the
1 2
maximum number of electrons allowed.
2 8
3 8
4

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

Place the next two electrons in the fourth shell. Shell (n) Electrons in atom
1 2
2 8
3 8
4 2

Continue filling the third shell until it holds up to 18 Shell (n) Electrons in atom
electrons. Put any remaining electrons in the fourth shell.
1 2
2 8
3 18
4 6

The 10 remaining electrons from the previous step have

gone into the third shell.

Write the electronic configuration by listing the number of 2,8,18,6

electrons in each shell separated by commas.

Worked example: Try yourself 1.6.2

CALCULATING THE NUMBER OF VALENCE ELECTRONS IN AN ATOM

How many valence electrons are present in an atom of sulfur, which has an atomic number of 16?

Thinking Working

Recall the maximum number of electrons that each shell Shell (n) Maximum number of electrons
can hold.
1 2
2 8
3 18
4 32

Place 16 electrons in the shells from the lowest energy to Shell (n) Electrons in atom
the highest energy. Do not exceed the maximum number
1 2
of electrons allowed.
2 8
3 6

Write the electronic configuration by listing the number of The electronic configuration is: 2,8,6.
electrons in each shell separated by commas.

Determine the number of electrons in the outer shell or The number of electrons in the valence shell is 6.
valence shell.

1.6 Key questions

1 Each shell (n) can hold up to 2n2 electrons. The fourth shell always accepts 2 electrons after the third electron has
received 8 electrons. Once the fourth shell has 2 electrons, the third shell will continue to fill.
a 2,3
b 2,8,2
c 2,8,8,2
d 2,8,18,7
2 a 2,2
b 2,8,6
c 2,8,8
d 2,8,2
e 2,8

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

Sc 2,8,9,2

4 a Helium, He
b Fluorine, F
c Aluminium, Al
d Nitrogen, N
e Chlorine, Cl
5 The electronic configuration is 2,8,18,7. Therefore the number of valence electrons is 7.

Section 1.7 The Schrödinger model of the atom

Worked example: Try yourself 1.7.1
WRITING ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATIONS USING THE SCHRÖDINGER MODEL

Write the Schrödinger model of electronic configuration for a vanadium atom with 23 electrons.

Thinking Working

Recall the order in which the subshells fill by listing them 1s, 1 orbital
from lowest energy to highest energy and the number of 2s, 1 orbital
orbitals in each.
2p, 3 orbitals
3s, 1 orbital
3p, 3 orbitals
4s, 1 orbital
3d, 5 orbitals
4p, 3 orbitals

Fill the subshells by assigning two electrons per orbital, Subshell Electrons in Progressive total
starting from the lowest energy subshells until you have subshell of electrons
reached the total number of electrons in your atom.
1s 2 2
2s 2 4
2p 6 10
3s 2 12
3p 6 18
4s 2 20
3d 3 23

Write the electronic configuration by writing each 1s22s22p63s23p63d34s2

subshell with the number of electrons as a superscript.
Remember to group subshells from the same shell.

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

1.7 Key questions

1
Element (atomic number) Electronic configuration using Electronic configuration using the subshell model
the shell model

Boron (5) 2,3 1s22s22p1

Lithium (3) 2,1 1s22s1

Chlorine (17) 2,8,7 1s22s22p63s23p5

Sodium (11) 2,8,1 1s22s22p63s1

Neon (10) 2,8 1s22s22p6

Potassium (19) 2,8,8,1 1s22s22p63s23p64s1

Scandium (21) 2,8,9,2 1s22s22p63s23p63d14s2

Iron (26) 2,8,16 1s22s22p63s23p63d64s2

Bromine (35) 2,8,18,7 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p5

2 The subshell model is a refinement of the shell model. The shell model proposed that all electrons in the one shell
were of equal energy. Evidence from emission spectra indicated that there were different electronic energy levels
(called subshells) within a shell.

CHAPTER 1 REVIEW
1.1 NANOMATERIALS AND NANOPARTICLES

2 a 5 cm = 0.05 m = 5.0 × 10–2 m = 5.0 × 10–2 × 109 = 5.0 × 107 nm

b 12 mm = 0.012 m = 1.2 × 10–2 m = 1.2 × 10–2 × 109 = 1.2 × 107 nm
c 2 km = 2000 m = 2.0 × 103 m = 2.0 × 103 × 109 = 2.0 × 1012 nm
3 Zinc oxide nanoparticles are colourless.

1.2 THE ATOMIC WORLD

4 Atoms are hard, indivisible structures.

5 Monoatomic = helium, neon, krypton.
Molecules = sulfur, oxygen, nitrogen.
Large network = copper, gold, diamond, tin

1.3 INSIDE ATOMS

6 The nucleus
7 The protons and neutrons form the nucleus. The electrons are grouped in shells and occupy the space around the
nucleus.
8 The mass of a proton is approximately equal to the mass of a neutron and is about 1840 times the mass of an
electron. The proton and electron have equal but opposite charges and the neutron has no charge.

1.4 CLASSIFYING ATOMS

9 a Atomic number is 24; mass number is 52

b 24 electrons, 24 protons, 52 – 24 = 28 neutrons
10 No. Isotopes have the same number of protons (atomic number) but different numbers of neutrons (and therefore
different mass numbers). These atoms have different atomic numbers and different mass numbers.
11 Atoms are electrically neutral. The positive charge on one proton balances the negative charge on one electron.
Therefore, for electrical neutrality, there must be an equal number of protons and electrons.

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

12 Most elements have more than one isotope, so they will have more than one mass number. All bromine atoms have
35 protons in their nuclei. No other type of atom has 35 protons in its nucleus (i.e. no other atom has an atomic
number of 35). Isotopes of bromine, however, differ in their mass numbers, so mass number is not fixed for an
element (except for those elements such as sodium, which have only one naturally occurring isotope). In addition,
an isotope of one element may have the same mass number as an isotope of another element.

1.5 ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE OF ATOMS

13 n = 1

1.6 ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION AND THE SHELL MODEL

14 n = 3. The first 2 electrons fill the first shell, the next 8 the second shell, the next 8 the third shell. The next 2 electrons
go into the fourth shell and the remaining 10 electrons go into the third shell.
15 Magnesium. Total of 12 electrons means the element has 12 protons. The element with 12 protons and atomic
number 12 is magnesium.

1.7 THE SCHRÖDINGER MODEL OF THE ATOM

16 a 1s2
b 1s22s22p2
c 1s22s22p5
d 1s22s22p63s23p1
e 1s22s22p63s23p6
f 1s22s22p63s23p63d84s2
g 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p5
17 A fluorine atom contains nine electrons. The electrons are arranged in energy levels called shells; two electrons are in
the first shell and seven electrons are in the second shell, which has higher energy. The electron arrangement in the
shells can be written as 2,7.
Shells are regarded as being made up of energy levels called subshells. The first shell contains an s-type subshell,
which is labelled ‘1s’. The second shell contains both s- and p-type subshells, labelled ‘2s’ and ‘2p’ respectively.
Within subshells, electrons occupy regions of space known as orbitals. An orbital can hold up to two electrons.
Subshells of an s-type contain one orbital, whereas p-type subshells contain three orbitals. The electron arrangement
in the subshells of a fluorine atom can be represented as 1s22s22p5.
18 1s22s22p63s23p4
19 In the Schrödinger model of the atom, electron shells are divided into subshells, and each subshell can have a
different energy level. According to the Schrödinger model, the 4s-subshell is lower in energy than the 3d-subshell.
Therefore, the 4s-subshell begins filling after the 3s- and 3p-subshells but before the 3d-subshell.
20 There is very little difference between the energy levels of the 3d- and 4s-subshells. As orbitals fill in sequence, one
electron at a time, it is more stable for chromium to have all d-orbitals exactly half-filled than to have one empty
d-orbital. Likewise for copper, it is more stable to have all d-orbitals completely filled than to have one half-filled and
a full 4s-orbital.

CONNECTING THE MAIN IDEAS

21 Nothing
22 a Until Rutherford’s work, the plum pudding model of the atom was widely accepted. However, his discovery that a
beam of alpha particles directed at thin gold foil caused a few particles to deflect through high angles led to the
development of a new atomic model.
b Although Rutherford’s atomic model accounted for a number of atomic properties, it was not able to account for
the characteristic emission spectrum of each element. The model was also in conflict with the principles of classical
physics, which suggested that electrons moving in circular orbits should continuously lose energy and spiral into
the nucleus.
c The Bohr model of the atom did not adequately explain why electrons adopted some energy levels but not others.
In addition, calculated frequencies for lines in the emission spectra of atoms with more than one electron gave poor
agreement with measured values.

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

Chapter 2 Electron arrangements and the

periodic table

Section 2.1 The periodic table

2.1 Key questions

1 Groups 1, 2 and 13–18
2 a 1
b 15 – 10 = 5
c 17 – 10 = 7
d 2
3 The element is in period 3 and therefore has three occupied shells. As the element is in group 2, it will have two
valence electrons. This gives an electron configuration of 2,8,2.
4 a i Group 13
ii Group 17
iii Group 1
iv Group 18
v Group 14
vi Group 14
b i 4
ii 2
iii 1
iv 1
v 7
vi 3
c i Silicon, Si 2,8,4 or 1s22s22p63s23p2
ii Beryllium, Be, 2,2 or 1s22s2
iii Argon, Ar, 2,8,8 or 1s22s22p63s23p6
5 Atoms are listed in the periodic table in order of atomic number because the atomic number determines the number
of electrons, and this in turn sets the properties that make each element unique. Relative atomic mass does not relate
directly to either the atomic number or the electron number.

Section 2.2 Trends in the periodic table—Part 1

Worked example: Try yourself 2.2.1
CORE CHARGE

Determine the core charge of an atom of fluorine.

Thinking Working

Determine the number of electrons in an atom of the The atomic number of fluorine is 9. Therefore, an atom of
element, using the periodic table as a reference. fluorine has 9 protons and 9 electrons.

Use the number of electrons to determine the electronic With 9 electrons the electronic configuration is 1s22s22p5.
configuration.

Determine the core charge. There are 2 inner-shell electrons.

Core charge = number of protons – number of inner-shell Core charge = 9 – 2 = +7
electrons

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

2.2 Key questions

1 Carbon has 6 protons and 6 electrons. Its electronic configuration is 1s22s22p2. Carbon has two inner-shell electrons.
Core charge = 6 – 2 = +4.
2 As core charge increases, electronegativity increases.
3 a i F
ii Fr
b i Group 17
ii Group 1
c Elements in group 18, the noble gases, have a very stable electronic configuration and so are unreactive.

Section 2.3 Trends in the periodic table—Part 2

2.3 Key questions

1 a Ionisation energy is the least amount of energy needed to remove an electron from an atom or ion in the gas
phase.
b The factors that affect ionisation energy across a period are the size of the atom (i.e. the distance of the outermost
(highest energy) electron from the nucleus), and the charge on the nucleus.
2 A metalloid is an element that exhibits both metallic and non-metallic properties.
3 Across a period, the number of occupied shells in the atoms remains constant but core charge increases. The valence
electrons become more strongly attracted to the nucleus, so more energy is required to remove an electron from an
atom. Therefore, the first ionisation energy increases across a period.

CHAPTER 2 REVIEW
2.1 THE PERIODIC TABLE

1 a Period 1, s-block
b Period 2, p-block
c Period 3, p-block
d Period 4, d-block
e Period 7, f-block
2 a Period 2, group 2
b Period 3, group 14
c Period 4, group 13
d Period 1, group 18
3 a Elements in the s-block are filling an s-subshell. As an s-subshell accommodates a maximum of two electrons,
there are only two groups of elements in the s-block. They have outer-shell configurations of s1 and s2.
b Elements in the p-block are filling a p-subshell. As a p-subshell accommodates a maximum of six electrons, there
are six groups of elements in the p-block. They have outer-shell configurations of s2p1 to s2p6.
c Elements in the d-block are filling a d-subshell. As a d-subshell accommodates a maximum of 10 electrons, there
are 10 elements in each transition series.
d The lanthanides and actinides are filling an f-subshell. As an f-subshell accommodates a maximum of 14 electrons,
there are 14 elements in each of these series.
4 a Silicon
b Potassium, caesium
c Bromine
d Nitrogen, arsenic

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

2.2 TRENDS IN THE PERIODIC TABLE—PART 1

5 As one moves from left to right across groups 1, 2 and 13–17, the charge on the nucleus increases. Each time the
atomic number increases by one, the electrons are attracted to an increasingly more positive nucleus. Within a period,
the outer electrons are in the same shell—that is, they have the same number of inner-shell electrons shielding them
from the nucleus. Therefore, the additional nuclear charge attracts the electrons more strongly, drawing them closer
to the nucleus and so decreasing the size of the atom.
6 a M
 agnesium and phosphorus, with outer electrons in the third shell, are in the same period. Magnesium has a
nuclear charge of +12 but, with completed inner shells of 1s22s22p6, the outer electrons experience the attraction
of a core charge of +2. The outer-shell electrons of phosphorus, which has a nuclear charge of +15 and the
same number of inner shells as magnesium, are attracted by a core charge of +5. The stronger attraction of the
phosphorus electrons to the core means that more energy is required to remove an electron from a phosphorus
atom than from a magnesium atom.
b Both fluorine and iodine are in group 17, so the outer electrons of each atom experience the attraction of the same
core charge. Because the outer-shell electrons of a fluorine atom are closer to the nucleus than those of an iodine
atom, they are attracted more strongly and so more energy is needed to remove one.
7 a 1s22s22p3
b Period 2 and group 15
c 5
d +5

2.3 TRENDS IN THE PERIODIC TABLE—PART 2

8 As you move across period 2 from lithium to fluorine:

a the radius of the atoms decreases as the core charge increases
b there is a trend from metals (lithium, beryllium) to non-metals (boron, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen and fluorine)
c electronegativity increases as the core charge increases and size of the atoms decreases.
9 a Lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium
b The reactivity of metals increases down a group. This is because the number of electron shells increases down a
group, so the valence electrons are further from the nucleus and more easily lost. Since metals lose electrons in
their reactions, those that lose electrons most easily will be most reactive.
10 a Fluorine
b Aluminium and magnesium are metals. Fluorine has the highest core charge (it is located furthest right on the
periodic table) while also containing the least number of electron shells. This means that fluorine attracts an
electron more strongly than other elements and is therefore the most reactive non-metal.
11 a Nitrogen
b Chlorine
c Chlorine
12 The reactivity decreases then increases. Metal atoms lose electrons in chemical reactions. It is easier for atoms with a
low core charge to do this. These atoms are found on the left-hand side of the periodic table. Moving across the period
from left to right, core charge increases and reactivity decreases. For the non-metals, which are located on the right-
hand side of the period, electrons are gained or shared by their atoms in chemical reactions. So as the core charge
increases from left to right across the periodic table, the reactivity of non-metals increases.

CONNECTING THE MAIN IDEAS

13 Students’ own answers.

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

Chapter 3 Metals

Section 3.1 Properties of metals

Worked example: Try yourself 3.1.1
DETERMINING CHARGES

Determine the charge of an aluminium cation.

Thinking Working

Unreacted aluminium atoms have the same number of Atomic number (Z) of aluminium is 13:
protons and electrons. number of protons is 13, number of electrons is 13

The electrons in an atom are in shells. Shell configuration of calcium:

2,8,3

Only the outer-shell electrons will be lost. Outer shell contains 3 electrons, 13 – 3 = 10 electrons
remaining

Cation charge = number of protons – number of Cation charge = 13 – 10 = +3

electrons

3.1 Key questions

1 a Li atoms have 3 electrons. The electronic structure is 1s22s1. There is one electron in the outer shell. The charge of
the cation will therefore be 1+.
b Mg atoms have 12 electrons. The electronic structure is 1s22s22p63s2. There are two electrons in the outer shell.
The charge of the cation will therefore be 2+.
c Ga atoms have 31 electrons. The electronic structure is 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p1. There are three electrons in the
outer shell. The charge of the cation will therefore be 3+.
d Ba atoms have 56 electrons. The electronic structure is 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p64d105s25p66s2. There are two
electrons in the outer shell. The charge of the cation will therefore be 2+. Another way to approach this is to notice
that barium is in the same group as magnesium. All alkali earth metals form 2+ cations by losing their two outer-
shell electrons.
2 a Both potassium and gold have good thermal and electrical conductivity. However, gold has a higher density, and
higher melting and boiling temperatures than potassium.
b Sodium
c Silver
d Sodium and potassium are in group 1. Gold and silver are transition metals.
3 a Silver, copper, gold, aluminium
b Availability and cost need to be considered; also properties such as malleability and ductility.
4 Sodium belongs to the alkali metals which have relatively low melting and boiling points, relatively low density and are
relatively soft. Iron is a transition metal, which have relatively high melting and boiling points, relatively high density
and are relatively hard.
5 Tensile strength, cost, availability

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

Section 3.2 Metallic bonding

Worked example: Try yourself 3.2.1
ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION OF MAGNESIUM

With reference to the electronic configuration of magnesium, explain why solid magnesium can conduct electricity.

Thinking Working

Using the atomic number of the element, determine the Mg has an atomic number of 12. This means a neutral
electronic configuration of its atoms. (You may need to atom of magnesium has 12 electrons.
refer to a periodic table.) The electronic configuration is 1s22s22p63s2.

From the electronic configuration, find how many outer- Mg has 2 electrons in its outer shell (the 3s2 electrons).
shell electrons are lost to form cations that have a stable, Mg atoms will tend to lose these 2 valence electrons to
noble gas electron configuration. These electrons become form a cation with a charge of 2+.
delocalised. The outer-shell electrons become delocalised and form
the sea of delocalised electrons within the metal lattice.

An electric current occurs when there are free-moving If the Mg is part of an electric circuit, the delocalised
charged particles. electrons are able to move through the lattice towards a
positively charged electrode.

3.2 Key questions

1 a Positive calcium ions
occupy fixed positions
in the lattice

Ca2+ Ca2+ Ca2+ Ca2+

Ca2+ Ca2+ Ca2+ Ca2+

Ca2+ Ca2+ Ca2+ Ca2+

'Sea' of
delocalised electrons

b Strong electrostatic forces of attraction between Ca2+ ions and the delocalised valence electrons
2 Barium has a high melting temperature because there are strong attractive forces between the positive ions and the
delocalised electrons. Barium conducts electricity because the delocalised electrons from the outer shell are free to
move.
3 a Both graphite and metals are lustrous and conduct heat and electricity.
b These properties are explained by the presence of free-moving electrons. Both graphite and metals must contain
delocalised electrons.

Section 3.3 Reactivity of metals

3.3 Key questions

1 2K(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2KOH(aq) + H2(g)   potassium + water → potassium hydroxide + hydrogen
2 a Metals react more energetically further down the group.
b Metal atoms further down the group have more electron shells which cause shielding of the valence electrons from
the core charge, reducing the electronegativity and allowing more spontaneous reaction.
3 Zn > Fe > Au
4 Calcium. Of the three metals, calcium is the highest in the series so most reactive.

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

Section 3.4 Extraction of iron from its ore

3.4 Key questions

1 a False. Slag is less dense and floats on top of the molten iron.
b False. Iron ore contains impurities such as silica, alumina and manganese oxides.
c True
d True
e False. The reaction between carbon in the coke and oxygen to produce carbon dioxide releases a considerable
amount of heat energy to maintain the high temperatures required in the furnace.
2 Fe3O4(l) + 4CO(g) → 3Fe(l) +4CO2(g)    magnetite + carbon monoxide → iron + carbon dioxide
3 Carbon dioxide is the main environmental pollutant from the production of iron in a blast furnace. The carbon dioxide
is formed by the reaction of carbon from the coke with oxygen at high temperatures.
C(s) + O2(g) → CO2(g)
4 The production of iron requires large amounts of coke, which is usually produced on site from coal. Proximity to a coal
mine is required.
The production of iron may generate local environmental pollution. Iron furnaces should be located away from
residential populations, agriculture and conservation areas.
The production of iron requires many workers. A site must have suitable accommodation and support for workers.
The iron produced must be able to be processed and shipped from the production site. Access is required to
transport networks such as ports or railways.

Section 3.5 Modifying metals

3.5 Key questions

1 a A 20-cent coin contains copper and nickel. High-carbon steel contains iron and carbon.
b The 20-cent coin is a substitutional alloy similar to Figure 3.5.3. High-carbon steel is an interstitial alloy, similar to
Figure 3.5.2.
2 The metal in the hooks becomes work hardened and brittle.
3 a Aluminium contains small areas of regular metallic lattice called crystals. When the aluminium is annealed, the
crystal structure is changed to contain more large crystals. Larger crystals are more flexible and easier to shape
than smaller crystals and the metal is less likely to break along crystal boundaries during shaping.
b Quenching the aluminium by heating to the critical temperature and then rapidly cooling causes the growth of
small crystals. These crystals make the metal stiffer and do not allow the metal to deform as easily.
4 An alloy with properties appropriate to the task is selected. The metal is annealed to allow shaping of the chisel. The
chisel is tempered to make the shaft flexible and strong. The tip of the chisel could then be hardened either by work
hardening or local quenching.

Section 3.6 Metallic nanomaterials

3.6 Key questions

1 Gold nanoparticles are not large enough to have a ‘sea’ of delocalised electrons or a consistent surface to reflect light.
2 A is a nanoparticle. B is a nanowire, as the length is more than 5 times the diameter. C is a nanorod, as the length is
between 3 and 5 times the diameter. D is not a nanoparticle as all of its dimensions are above 100 nm.
3 iron + oxygen → iron oxide

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

CHAPTER 3 REVIEW
3.1 PROPERTIES OF METALS

1 Mg, Ca, Sr
2 a Silver
b It is too expensive and tarnishes readily.
c Aluminium, copper (combined with stainless steel)
3 Electrical conductivity
4 a Low density
b High electrical conductivity
c High tensile strength
5 20 in Ca, 18 in Ca2+
6 Al: 1s22s22p63s23p1; Al3+: 1s22s22p6
7 It is able to be drawn into a wire.

3.2 METALLIC BONDING

8 a When a current is applied to the copper wire, the free-moving, delocalised electrons move from one end to the
other and so the copper wire conducts electricity.
b The delocalised electrons in the metal spoon obtain energy from the boiling mixture and move more quickly. These
electrons move freely throughout the spoon, colliding with other electrons and metal ions, transferring energy so
that the spoon becomes warmer and, eventually, too hot to hold.
c A lot of energy is required to overcome the strong forces of attraction between the iron ions and the delocalised
electrons in the metal lattice, so that the iron changes from a solid to a liquid.
d Because of the strong forces of attraction between them, the lead ions and the delocalised electrons form a closely
packed three-dimensional structure. Also, the lead atom itself has a higher mass-to-volume ratio than the sulfur
atom. This means that the density—the mass per volume—is high.
e As the copper is drawn out, the copper ions are forced apart and the delocalised electrons rearrange themselves
around these ions and re-establish strong forces of attraction.
9 a i Valence electrons not restricted to a region between two atoms
ii A regular three-dimensional arrangement of a very large number of positive ions or cations
iii The electrostatic attraction between a lattice of cations and delocalised electrons
b Valence electrons
10 A metal wire contains an extended lattice of metal cations surrounded by a sea of delocalised electrons. The electrons
are charged and free to move and so can conduct electricity.
11 In a metal lattice, metal cations are in a regular three-dimensional arrangement and have a positive charge. The
positive cations are surrounded by a mobile sea of delocalised electrons. This is shown in Figure 3.2.1.

3.3 REACTIVITY OF METALS

12 a Any of the group 2 metals, e.g. magnesium

b Magnetic metals are found in the transition metals
13 Aluminium
14 The bubbles contain hydrogen gas, which is produced when a reactive metal reacts with water.
15 The reaction on the left is more vigorous and the metal must be more reactive. Iron is a more reactive metal than
silver and so iron must be on the left. Silver is less reactive than iron and so silver must be on the right.
16 Metal A is copper. Metal B is sodium. Metal C is aluminium.
17 a False
b True
c False
d False
e True
18 magnesium + oxygen → magnesium oxide

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

3.4 EXTRACTION OF IRON FROM ITS ORE

19 Iron reacts with water and oxygen to produce iron oxides found in ores.
20 a Rocks and minerals from which iron can be economically extracted.
b Naturally occurring solid substances with a definite chemical composition, structure and chemical and physical
properties
c The type of iron oxide that is most often found in iron ore. It has the formula Fe2O3.
d A compound containing iron and oxygen
21 a Substance B and F are carbon dioxide.
b Substance A is coke.
c Solid D is iron ore, which is a mixture of iron oxide and other minerals.
d Limestone is needed to remove unwanted contaminants, such as silica.
22 Iron ore is the source of iron. Limestone is the source of calcium oxide, which reacts with unwanted contaminants to
form molten slag. Coke is used to produce heat and carbon monoxide, which reacts with the iron oxides to form iron
metal. Air is pumped in as a source of oxygen for the combustion of the coke.
23 calcium oxide + silica → calcium silicate

3.5 MODIFYING METALS

24 a Copper and nickel; harder, more corrosion resistant and a silver colour
b Tin and lead; lower melting temperature
c Gold, silver and copper; harder
d Iron, nickel and chromium; resists rusting, stronger
e Mercury and zinc (sometimes a little silver is added); harder, non-toxic
25 Needle 2 < needle 3 < needle 1
Needle 2 has been quenched, producing a hard but brittle metal, so it is the least malleable.
Needle 3 has been tempered, producing a hard but more malleable metal.
Needle 1 has been annealed, producing a soft, malleable metal.
26 Steel is used instead of iron as this alloy is stronger, more flexible and resistant to corrosion. Heating the horseshoe
during the process allows the worker to change the crystal structure through heat treatment. The final shaping and
hammering is an example of work hardening, which aligns the crystals and increases strength.

3.6 METALLIC NANOMATERIALS

27 Nanowire
28 8.34 × 10–7 m is 834 nm. This particle would be too big to be classified as a nanoparticle.
29 The width of a nanowire is in the range of standard nanomaterials. This changes the properties of the metal atoms as
they are not exposed to delocalised electrons in the same way as in bulk metals. The long length of a nanowire is not
enough to give it electrons that behave in the same way as electrons in bulk metals.

CONNECTING THE MAIN IDEAS

30 a i Iron (steel) or aluminium

ii Iron and steel are strong. Aluminium has a low density (light) and can be easily coloured.
iii Iron rusts easily. Aluminium is soft and lacks strength.
b i Copper
ii It is a good conductor of electricity and is ductile.
c i Gold, silver and platinum
ii They are non-reactive, malleable and ductile, lustrous.

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

31 A variety of answers is possible. An example of a possible answer is shown.

metal

metal atoms

consist
of
delocalised
cations
electrons
electrostatic attraction

lattice

32 a Aluminium Al, copper Cu, gold Au, iron Fe, silver Ag

b Aluminium: period 3, group 13, p-block
Copper: period 4, 1st transition series, d-block
Gold: period 6, 3rd transition series, d-block
Iron: period 4, 1st transition series, d-block
Silver: period 5, 2nd transition series, d-block
c Gold and silver
d Copper, gold, iron and silver
e Gold
33 a The positive ions are arranged in a regular, three-dimensional lattice.
b Stress corrosion cracking can occur between the crystal grains.
34 a Na: group 1, period 3
K: group 1, period 4
Ca: group 2, period 4
b Na: 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s1
K: 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 4s1
Ca: 1s2, 2s2, 2p6, 3s2, 3p6, 4s2
c i The atoms of Na are smaller than those of K, so the delocalised valence electrons of Na are closer to the positive
nuclear charge than those of K. The electrostatic forces of attraction between delocalised electrons and cations
are stronger in Na, so Na requires more energy to overcome the metallic bonding to boil the metal.
ii Valence electrons are in the fourth shell in the atoms of both Ca and K. However, there are twice as many valence
electrons in the atoms of Ca. Also, the charge on a calcium cation is +2 as opposed to +1 on the potassium
cation. So the electrostatic forces of attraction between delocalised electrons and cations are stronger in Ca and
so it requires more energy to overcome the metallic bonding to boil the metal.
35 Aluminium is extracted from its ore by electrolysis. There was no source of electricity available for this process until
1886.

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

Chapter 4 Ionic bonding

Section 4.1 Properties and structures of ionic compounds

4.1 Key questions

1 B. Substance B has a melting point of 308°C. B will not conduct electricity at 250°C when it is solid but will when it is
at 350°C when it is molten, which is characteristic of ionic compounds.
2 a The diagram shows that in solid sodium chloride, the sodium and chloride ions are held in fixed positions in the
crystal lattice and are not free to move and conduct electricity.
b Molten sodium chloride contains sodium and chloride ions that are free to move and, therefore, it can conduct
electricity.
3 Aluminium is a metal. It has an electronic configuration of 2,8,3. It would lose 3 electrons to have a valence shell with
8 electrons and therefore become a cation (positive ion).
4 The negative ions are slightly further away from each other than they are from the positive ions in the lattice and the
attractive force of the oppositely charged ions outweighs the repulsive force of two positively charged or two negatively
charged ions near each other.

Section 4.2 Using the ionic bonding model to explain properties

4.2 Key questions

1 The electrostatic forces of attraction between the positive and negative ions holding the lattice together are very strong
and a lot of energy is required to break them apart.
2 a W
 hen hit with a hammer or hard object, the ions move within the lattice so that like-charged ions line up adjacent
to each other.
b When like-charged particles are near each other they repel due to electrostatic repulsion and this causes the ionic
compound to shatter.
3 In solid form the ionic compound forms a crystal lattice. This is a very strong structure as the strong electrostatic
forces of attraction between the positively charged cations and negatively charged anions means that the ions are not
free to move. For a substance to be able to conduct electricity, the particles not only need to be charged but also free
to move. In solid form these particles cannot move, but when heated so the ionic compound is now molten, they are
able to conduct electricity.
4 Salad; salami; saline; expressions such as ‘salt of the Earth’, ‘take with a pinch of salt’, ‘worth one’s salt’; and
superstitions, such as throwing salt over one’s shoulder to keep away evil spirits.

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

Section 4.3 Formation of ionic compounds

Worked example: Try yourself 4.3.1
WRITING EQUATIONS FOR REACTIONS BETWEEN METAL AND NON-METAL ATOMS

Write an equation for the reaction between calcium and phosphorus atoms. Show the electronic configurations for
each element before and after the reaction.

Thinking Working

Write the symbol and the electronic configuration for the Ca (2,8,8,2)
metal atom.

How many electrons will the metal atom lose from its 2
outer shell when it reacts?

Write the symbol and the electronic configuration of the Ca2+ (2,8,8)
metal ion that will be formed.

Write the symbol and the electronic configuration for the P (2,8,5)
non-metal atom.

How many electrons will the non-metal atom gain in its 3

outer shell when it reacts?

Write the symbol and the electronic configuration of the P3– (2,8)
non-metal ion that will be formed.

The total number of electrons lost by metal atoms must metal atom : non-metal atom = 3:2
equal the total number of electrons gained by non-metal
atoms. What is the lowest number ratio of metal atoms to
non-metal atoms that will allow this to happen?

Using the ratio of metal ion : non-metal ion calculated 3Ca (2,8,8,2) + 2P (2,8,5) → 3Ca2+ (2,8,8) + 2P3– (2,8,8)
above, write a balanced equation for the reaction. Show
the electron configurations for both the reactant atoms
and the product ions.

4.3 Key questions

1 Cations: calcium, aluminium. Anions: nitrogen, fluorine and phosphorus. Metals form cations and non-metals form
anions. Metals have low electronegativities and so it is easier for metals to lose electrons than it is for non-metals.
2 a

19+ 9+ 19+ 9+
and and

K (2,8,8,1) F (2,7) K+ (2,8,8) F– (2,8)

12+ 16+ 12+ 16+

and and

Mg (2,8,2) S (2,8,6) Mg2+ (2,8) S2– (2,8,8)

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

9+ 9+

F (2,7) F– (2,8)

13+ 9+ 13+ 9+
and and

Al (2,8,3) F (2,7) Al3+ (2,8) F– (2,8)

9+ 9+

F (2,7) F– (2,8)

11+ 11+

Na (2,8,1) 8+ Na+ (2,8) 8+

and and

O (2,6) O2– (2,8)

Na (2,8,1) Na+ (2,8)

13+ 8+ 8+

13+

Al (2,8,3) O (2,6) O2– (2,8)

Al3+ (2,8)
8+ 8+
and and

O (2,6) O2– (2,8)

13+

13+ 8+ 8+
Al3+ (2,8)

Al (2,8,3) O (2,6) O2– (2,8)

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

3 Group 2 metals have two electrons in their valence shell. They lose these two electrons and therefore become
positively charged, as they still have the original number of protons but have lost two electrons. Cations are ions with
a positive charge.
4 The electronic configuration of an atom of potassium is 1s22s22p63s23p64s1 and that of an atom of chlorine is
1s22s22p63s23p5. Because an atom of K has one more electron than an atom of a noble gas and an atom of Cl
has one less, in a reaction one K atom can donate one electron to one Cl atom to give K+ (1s22s22p63s23p6) and
Cl– (1s22s22p63s23p6), both of which have the electronic configuration of the noble gas argon. The formula of this
compound is, therefore, KCl.
Calcium, however, has the electronic configuration of 1s22s22p63s23p64s2. A Ca atom will lose two electrons to gain a
noble gas configuration. Because each Cl atom will gain only one electron, there will be two chlorine atoms for each
Ca atom. This reaction will therefore produce Ca2+ (1s22s22p63s23p6) ions and Cl– (1s22s22p63s23p6) ions. The formula
of the compound is, therefore, CaCl2.
5 a Na (2,8,1) + Cl (2,8,7) → Na+ (2,8) + Cl– (2,8,8)
b Mg (2,8,2) + O (2,6) → Mg2+ (2,8) + O2– (2,8)
c 2Al (2,8,3) + 3S (2,8,6) → 2Al3+ (2,8) + 3S2– (2,8,8)

Section 4.4 Chemical formulas of simple ionic compounds

Worked example: Try yourself 4.4.1
STEPS IN WRITING A CHEMICAL FORMULA

Determine the chemical formula of the ionic compound formed between barium and fluoride ions. You may need to
refer to Tables 4.4.1 and 4.4.2 on page 99.

Thinking Working

Write the symbol and charge of the two ions forming the Ba2+ and F–
ionic compound.

Calculate the lowest common multiple of the two 2×1=2

numbers in the charges of the ions.

Calculate how many positive ions are needed to equal the One Ba2+ ion
lowest common multiple.

Calculate how many negative ions are needed to equal Two F– ions
the lowest common multiple.

Use the answers from the previous two steps to write the BaF2
formula for the ionic compound. Write the symbol of the
positive ion first.
(Note that 1 is not written as a subscript.)

4.4 Key questions

1 B. Potassium sulfide. Atoms A and B are combining in a ratio of 2:1. Therefore the charge on the A ion must be +1
and the charge on the B ion must be –2. If A+ has the same electron configuration as argon (2,8,8), then A+ must be
the potassium ion. B2– has the same electron configuration so therefore must be a sulfide ion.
2 a 2:1
b 1:3
c 3:2
d 1:1
e 1:2

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

3 a NaCl
b KBr
c ZnCl2
d K2O
e BaBr2
f AI2I3
g AgBr
h ZnO
i BaO
j Al2S3
4 a Potassium chloride
b Calcium oxide
c Magnesium sulfide
d Potassium oxide
e Sodium fluoride

Section 4.5 Writing formulas of more complex ionic compounds

4.5 Key questions

1 a Na2CO3
b Ba(NO3)2
c Al(NO3)3
d Ca(OH)2
e Zn(SO4)2
f KOH
g KNO3
h ZnCO3
i K2SO4
j Ba(OH)2
2 a CuCl
b Fe2O3
c CuO
d Cr2(SO4)3
e FeO
f Pb(NO3)2
g PbO2
h Sn(NO3)2
3 a Magnesium hydroxide
b Sodium carbonate
c Iron(II) sulfate
d Copper(II) sulfate
e Barium nitrate
f Copper(I) sulfate
g Iron(III) sulfate
h Ammonium nitrate
i Disodium hydrogen phosphate

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

CHAPTER 4 REVIEW
4.1 PROPERTIES AND STRUCTURES OF IONIC COMPOUNDS

1 a A
 ssemble equipment to test conductivity. Add a globe to the circuit. When the electrodes are touching the solid
magnesium chloride, the globe will not light up.
b Using the same equipment with molten sodium chloride, the globe will glow. Care is needed, as sodium chloride
melts at 801°C.
c If a crystal of sodium chloride was hit firmly with a hammer, it would shatter. Again, care is needed—safety glasses
must be worn.
2 a Both metallic and ionic lattices
b Both metallic and ionic lattices
c Both metallic and ionic lattices
d Ionic lattices only
e Both metallic and ionic lattices
3
non-metal atoms metal atoms

gain electrons lose electrons

to form to form

negatively charged positively charged

ions (anions) ions (cations)

which combine which is held

to form together by
electrostatic forces
an ionic lattice
of attraction

4.2 USING THE IONIC BONDING MODEL TO EXPLAIN PROPERTIES

4 a T
 he electrostatic forces of attraction between the positive and negative ions are strong and will be overcome only
at high temperatures.
b The strong electrostatic forces of attraction between the ions mean that a strong force is needed to break up the
lattice, giving the ionic crystals the property of hardness. However, the crystal lattice will shatter when a strong force
is applied, suddenly causing ions of like charge to become adjacent to each other and be repelled.
c In the solid state, the ions are not free to move. However, when the solid melts or dissolves in water, the ions are
free to move and conduct electricity.
5 a Na+, Cl–; Mg2+, O2–
b MgO. More energy is required to overcome the stronger forces. The higher melting temperature therefore reflects
the solid with stronger forces between particles.
c The strength of electrostatic attraction between ions will depend on the size of the ions and on their charge. The
Mg2+ ion is slightly smaller than the Na+ ion, and the O2– ion is much smaller than the Cl– ion. More importantly,
the Mg2+ ion and the O2– ions each have twice the charge of the Na+ ion and the Cl– ion. The attraction between
the ions in MgO is therefore much stronger than in NaCl. Magnesium oxide therefore has a much higher melting
temperature.
6 The strength of the forces remains unchanged, but the kinetic energy of the ions increases until the forces can no
longer hold the ions in the solid lattice, and the lattice breaks up as the solid melts.
7 a Solid ionic compounds do not conduct electricity.
b Ionic compounds are hard.
c In solution ionic compounds conduct electricity.

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

4.3 FORMATION OF IONIC COMPOUNDS

8 a

3+ 17+ 3+ 17+
and

Li (2,1) Cl (2,8,7) Li+ (2) Cl– (2,8,8)

9+ 9+

12+ 12+
F (2,7) and F– (2,8)

Mg (2,8,2) 9+ 9+
Mg2+ (2,8)

F (2,7) F– (2,8)

19+ 19+

K (2,8,8,1) 16+ K+ (2,8,8) 16+

and

19+ 19+
S (2,8,6) S2– (2,8,8)

K (2,8,8,1) K+ (2,8,8)
d
12+
12+

7+ 7+
Mg+ (2,8) and
Mg (2,8,2)

N (2,5) N3– (2,8)

12+ 12+

Mg (2,8,2) Mg+ (2,8) 7+

7+

12+ 12+
N3– (2,8)
N (2,5)

Mg (2,8,2) Mg+ (2,8)

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

9 a 2,8
b 2,8
c 2,8
d 2,8
10 b CD3
c EF
d G3H
e KL
11 a MgCl2 or MgF2
b NaCl or CaS
c Na2O or K2S
d Na3N or Li3N
e AlCl3 or AF3
f Mg3N2
12 Elements in group 17 of the periodic table have seven electrons in their outer shell so only need to gain one electron
to satisfy the octet rule. This means they become more negative by gaining one electron.
13 a Mg (2,8,2) + 2Cl (2,8,7) → Mg2+ (2,8) + 2Cl– (2,8,8)
b 2Al (2,8,3) + 3O (2,6) → 2Al3+ (2,8) + 3O2– (2,8)

4.4 CHEMICAL FORMULAS OF SIMPLE IONIC COMPOUNDS

14 a KBr. Potassium ion has a charge of +1, bromide ion has –1.
b MgI2. Magnesium ion has a charge of +2, iodide ion has –1.
c CaO. Calcium ion has a charge of +2, oxide ion has –2.
d AlF3. Aluminium ion has a charge of +3, fluoride ion has –1.
e Ca3N2. Calcium ion has a charge of +2, nitride ion has –3.
15 a CuCl
b Ag2O
c Li3N
d KI
16 The subscripts represent the ratio of metal to non-metal ions in the ionic compound.

4.5 WRITING FORMULAS OF MORE COMPLEX IONIC COMPOUNDS

17 a i –3
ii +1
iii –2
b i Y2SO4
ii K2Z
iii Y3X
iv Y2Z
18 a CuNO3
b CrF2
c K2CO3
d Mg(HCO3)2
e Ni3(PO4)2
19 a Ammonium carbonate
b Copper(II) nitrate
c Chromium(III) bromide

CONNECTING THE MAIN IDEAS

20 a Agree. Both metallic and ionic lattices do contain positive ions in a regular arrangement.
In a metallic lattice, the positive ions are surrounded by delocalised electrons; in an ionic lattice, negative ions
alternate with the positive ions.

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

b Agree. In a metallic lattice, each positive ion attracts the delocalised electrons in its region, and each delocalised
electron is attracted to all neighbouring positive ions. In an ionic lattice, each positive ion is attracted to the negative
ions that surround it, and vice versa.
c Agree. In a metallic solid, there will be repulsion between the positive ions, and between the delocalised electrons.
The particles are arranged to minimise these repulsions.
In an ionic lattice, the arrangement of alternating positive and negative ions also minimises repulsion between like
charges.
d Agree. The energy required to remove the outer electron(s) is known as the ionisation energy, with each electron
removed having a specific ionisation energy. Metals with low ionisation energy, such as sodium and potassium,
form positive ions more readily than metals with high ionisation energies.
e Disagree. Although this is true, it is not the reason ionic solids do not conduct. In a metal, delocalised electrons
are free to move so it conducts electricity; in an ionic solid, the ions are not free to move so it does not conduct
electricity.
21 A possible answer is shown.

atoms

may be
either

metals non-metals

lose valence gain valence

electrons electrons
attraction
cations anions

ionic
compounds

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

Chapter 5 Quantifying atoms and molecules

Section 5.1 Masses of particles

Worked example: Try yourself 5.1.1
CALCULATING RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS FROM ISOTOPIC MASSES AND PERCENTAGE ABUNDANCES

Mass spectrum of magnesium, Mg

100
90
80
Abundance (%)

70
60
50
40
30
20
10

10 20 30 m/z

Boron has two isotopes. Their relative isotopic masses and percentage abundances are provided. Calculate the relative
atomic mass of boron.
Isotope Relative isotopic mass Relative abundance (%)
10
B 10.013 19.91
11
B 11.009 80.09

Thinking Working

Determine the relative isotopic masses and abundances for each First isotope: relative isotopic mass 10.013;
isotope. abundance 19.91%
Second isotope: relative isotopic mass
11.009; abundance 80.09%

Substitute the relative isotopic masses and abundance into the formula (10.013 × 19.91) + (11.009 × 80.09)
Ar =
for calculating relative atomic mass: 100
(relative isotopic mass × % abundance) + (relative isotopic mass × % abundance)
Ar =
100

Calculate the relative atomic mass. Give your answer to two decimal 199.36 + 881.71
Ar = = 10.811
places. 100

Express the answer to two decimal places. Ar(B) = 10.81

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

Worked example: Try yourself 5.1.2

CALCULATING PERCENTAGE ABUNDANCE OF EACH ISOTOPE FROM THE MASS SPECTRUM

Figure 5.1.8 shows a simplified mass spectrum of lead. From this mass spectrum, calculate the percentage
abundances of each of its three isotopes.

208
Pb

206
Pb

207
Pb

205 206 207 208 209

m/z

Figure 5.1.8 Mass spectrum of lead.

Thinking Working

Measure the peak height for each isotope using a ruler. From the spectrum, the height of each peak is:
Pb = 3.1 cm
206

Pb = 2.4 cm
207

Pb = 5.6 cm
208

Calculate the total peak height for the three isotopes by Total peak height = 3.1 + 2.4 + 5.6 = 11.1 cm
adding the individual peak heights.

Substitute the peak height for each isotope into the 3.1
% abundance 206
Pb = × 100 = 28%
formula: 11.1
peak height 2.4
% abundance = × 100 % abundance 207
Pb = × 100 = 22%
total peak height 11.1
5.6
% abundance 208
Pb = × 100 = 50%
11.1

Worked example: Try yourself 5.1.3

CALCULATING PERCENTAGE ABUNDANCES FROM RELATIVE ATOMIC MASS AND THE RELATIVE ISOTOPIC MASSES

The relative atomic mass of copper is 63.54. The relative isotopic masses of its two isotopes are 62.95 and 64.95.
Calculate the relative abundances of the isotopes in naturally occurring copper.

Thinking Working

State the relative abundances of the two isotopes in terms of x, where x Abundance of 62.95 isotope = x
is the abundance of the lighter isotope. Abundance of 64.95 isotope = 100 – x
Abundance of lighter isotope = x.
The abundance of heavier isotope must equal 100 – x.

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

Substitute the relative isotopic masses, relative abundances and 62.95x + (64.95(100 – x))
63.54 =
relative atomic mass into the formula: 100
(relative isotopic mass × % abundance) + (relative isotopic mass × % abundance)
Ar =
100

Expand the top line of the equation. 62.95x + 6495 – 64.95x

63.54 =
100

Solve the equation to find x, the relative abundance of the lightest 6354 = 62.95x + 6495 – 64.95x
isotope. 6354 – 6495 = 62.95x – 64.95x
–141 = –2x
x = 70.50%

Determine the abundance of the heavier isotope. Abundance of 64.95 isotope

= 100 – x
= 100 – 70.50
= 29.50%

Worked example: Try yourself 5.1.4

CALCULATING THE RELATIVE MOLECULAR MASS OF MOLECULES

Calculate the relative molecular mass of nitric acid (HNO3).

Thinking Working

Use the periodic table to find the relative atomic mass for Ar(H) = 1.0
the elements represented in the formula. Ar(N) = 14.0
Ar(O) = 16.0

Determine the number of atoms of each element present, 1 × H atom

taking into consideration any brackets in the formula. 1 × N atom
3 × O atoms

Determine the relative molecular mass by adding the Mr = 1 × Ar(H) + 1 × Ar(N) + 3 × Ar(O)
appropriate relative atomic masses. = 1 × 1.0 + 1 × 14.0 + 3 × 16.0
= 63.0

Worked example: Try yourself 5.1.5

CALCULATING THE RELATIVE FORMULA MASS OF IONIC COMPOUNDS.

Calculate the relative formula mass of copper(II) nitrate (Cu(NO3)2).

Thinking Working

Use the periodic table to find the relative atomic mass for Ar(Cu) = 63.5
the elements represented in the formula. Ar(N) = 14.0
Ar(O) = 16.0

Determine the number of atoms of each element present, 1 × Cu atom

taking into consideration any brackets in the formula. 1 × 2 = 2 N atoms
3 × 2 = 6 O atoms

Determine the relative formula mass by adding the Relative formula mass
appropriate relative atomic masses. = 1 × Ar(Cu) + 2 × Ar(N) + 6 × Ar(O)
= 63.5 + 2 × 14.0 + 6 × 16.0
= 187.5

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

5.1 Key questions

1 A is incorrect because the relative atomic mass is a weighted average of the masses of the two isotopes, taking into
account their abundances.
C is incorrect because the lighter isotope 35
Cl is more abundant than the heavier isotope Cl.
37

D is incorrect because isotopes have the same number of protons and different numbers of neutrons.
B is the correct answer.
(15.995 × 99.76) + (16.999 × 0.04) + (17.999 × 0.20)
2 a Ar(O) =
100
= 15.999
(106.9 × 51.8) + (108.9 × 48.2)
b Ar(O) =
100
= 107.9
(1.008 × 99.986) + (2.014 × 0.014) + (3.016 × 0.0001)
c Ar(O) =
100
= 1.008
3 Let the percentage abundance of the lighter isotope be x%/.
∴ percentage abundance of the heavier isotope will be (100 – x)%
(6.02 × x) + (7.02 × (100 – x))
6.94 =
100

  694 = 6.02x + 702 – 7.02x

x = 8%
Percentage abundance of the lighter isotope is 8%.
peak height
4 a % abundance 90
Zr = × 100 = 51%
total peak height
peak height
% abundance 91
Zr = × 100 = 11%
total peak height
peak height
% abundance 92
Zr = × 100 = 17%
total peak height
peak height
% abundance 94
Zr = × 100 = 17%
total peak height
peak height
% abundance 96
Zr = × 100 = 4%
total peak height
(90 × 51) + (91 × 11) + (92 × 17) + (94 × 17) + (96 × 4)
b Ar(Zr) = = 91
100

5 a Mr = 2 × Ar(H) + Ar(S) + 4 × Ar(O)

= 2 × 1.0 + 32.1 + 4 × 16.0
= 98.1
b Mr = Ar(N) + 3 × Ar(H)
= 14.0 + 3 × 1.0
= 17.0
c Mr = 2 × Ar(C) + 6 × Ar(H)
= 2 × 12.0 + 6 × 1.0
= 30.0
6 a Mr = Ar(K) + Ar(Cl)
= 39.1 + 35.5
= 74.6
b Mr = 2 × Ar(Na) + Ar(C) + 3 × Ar(O)
= 2 × 23.0 + 12.0 + 3 × 16.0
= 106.0
c Mr = 2 × Ar(Al) + 3 × Ar(S) + 12 × Ar(O)
= 2 × 27.0 + 3 × 32.1 + 12 × 16.0
= 342.3

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

Section 5.2 Introducing the mole

Worked example: Try yourself 5.2.1
CALCULATING THE NUMBER OF MOLECULES

Calculate the number of molecules in 1.6 moles of carbon dioxide (CO2).

Thinking Working

List the data given in the question next to the appropriate The number of carbon dioxide molecules is the unknown,
symbol. Include units. so:
N(CO2) = ?
n(CO2) = 1.6 mol
NA = 6.02 × 1023

Rearrange the formula to make the unknown the subject. N

n=
NA
so N(CO2) = n × NA

Substitute in data and solve for the answer. N(CO2) = n × NA

= 1.6 × 6.02 × 1023
= 9.6 × 1023 molecules

Worked example: Try yourself 5.2.2

CALCULATING THE NUMBER OF ATOMS

Calculate the number of hydrogen atoms in 0.35 mol of methane (CH4).

Thinking Working

List the data given in the question next to the appropriate The number of hydrogen atoms is the unknown so:
symbol. Include units. N(H) = ?
n(CH4) = 0.35 mol
NA = 6.02 × 1023

Calculate the amount, in mol, of hydrogen atoms from n(H) = n(CH4) × 4

the amount of methane molecules and the molecular = 0.35 × 4
formula.
= 1.4 mol

Rearrange the formula to make the unknown the subject. N

n=
NA
so N(H) = n × NA

Substitute in data and solve for the answer. N(H) = n × NA

= 1.4 × 6.02 × 1023
= 8.4 × 1023 atoms

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

Worked example: Try yourself 5.2.3

CALCULATING THE NUMBER OF MOLES OF PARTICLES GIVEN THE NUMBER OF PARTICLES

Calculate the amount, in mol, of magnesium atoms represented by 8.1 × 1020 magnesium atoms.

Thinking Working

List the data given in the question next to the appropriate The number of mol of magnesium atoms is the unknown
symbol. Include units. so:
n(Mg) = ?
N(Mg) = 8.1 × 1020 atoms
NA = 6.02 × 1023

Rearrange the formula to make the unknown the subject. N

n=
NA
n is the unknown so rearrangement not required

Substitute in data and solve for the answer. N

n(Mg) =
NA
8.1 × 1020
=
6.02 × 1023
= 0.0013 mol

Worked example: Try yourself 5.2.4

CALCULATING THE NUMBER OF MOLES OF ATOMS GIVEN THE NUMBER OF MOLES OF MOLECULES

Calculate the amount, in mol, of hydrogen atoms in 0.75 mol of water (H2O).

Thinking Working

List the data given in the question next to the appropriate The number of mol of hydrogen atoms is the unknown
symbol. Include units. so:
n(H) = ?
n(H2O) = 0.75 mol

Calculate the amount, in mol, of hydrogen atoms from n(H) = n(H2O) × 2

the amount of water molecules and the molecular = 0.75 × 2
formula.
= 1.5 mol

5.2 Key questions

1 Number of particles = amount (mol) × NA
a N(Na) = 2.0 × 6.02 × 1023
= 1.2 × 1024 atoms
b N(N2) = 0.10 × 6.02 × 1023
= 6.02 × 1022 molecules
c N(C) = 20.0 × 6.02 × 1023
= 1.20 × 1025 atoms
d N(H2O) = 4.2 × 6.02 × 1023
= 2.5 × 1024 molecules
e N(Fe) = 1.0 × 10–2 × 6.02 × 1023
= 6.02 × 1021 atoms
f N(CO2) = 4.62 × 10–5 × 6.02 × 1023
= 2.78 × 1019 molecules
2 Remember: Avogadro’s number, NA, is 6.02 × 1023.
number of particles
Amount (mol) =
NA
3.0 × 1023
a n(H2O molecules) =
NA
= 0.5 mol

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

1.5 × 1023
b n(Ne atoms) =
NA
= 0.25 mol
4.2 × 1025
c n(Fe atoms) =
NA
= 70 mol
4.2 × 1025
d n(C2H5OH molecules) =
NA
= 70 mol
3 Remember: Avogadro’s number, NA, is 6.02 × 1023.
number of particles
Amount (mol) =
NA
1.0 × 1020
a n(Na atoms) =
NA
= 1.7 × 10 mol
–4

1.0 × 1020
b n(Al atoms) =
NA
= 1.7 × 10–4 mol
1.0 × 1020
c n(Cl2 molecules) =
NA
= 1.7 × 10–4 mol
4 a Each Cl2 molecule has 2 Cl atoms.
∴ n(Cl atoms) = 0.4 × 2
= 0.8 mol
b Each methane molecule has 4 H atoms.
∴ n(H atoms) = 4 × 1.2
= 4.8 mol
c Each ethane molecule has 6 H atoms.
∴ n(H atoms) = 6 × 0.12
= 0.72 mol
d Each sulfate ion has 4 O atoms.
∴ n(O atoms) = 4 × 1.5
= 6.0 mol

Section 5.3 Molar mass

Worked example: Try yourself 5.3.1
CALCULATING THE MASS OF A SUBSTANCE

Calculate the mass of 4.68 mol of sodium carbonate (Na2CO3).

Thinking Working

List the data given to you in the question. m(Na2CO3) = ? g

Remember that whenever you are given a formula, you n(Na2CO3) = 4.68 mol
can calculate the molar mass. M(Na2CO3) = 2 × 23.0 + 12.0 + (3 × 16.0) = 106.0 g mol–1

Calculate the mass of sodium carbonate using: m

n= , so m = n × M
m M
n=
M m(Na2CO3) = 4.68 × 106.0
= 496 g

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

Worked example: Try yourself 5.3.2

CALCULATING THE NUMBER OF MOLECULES

Calculate the number of sucrose molecules in a teaspoon (4.2 g) of sucrose (C12H22O11).

Thinking Working

List the data given to you in the question. N(C12H22O11) = ?

Convert mass to grams if required. Remember that M(C12H22O11) = (12 × 12.0) + (22 × 1.0) + (11 × 16.0)
whenever you are given a formula you can calculate the = 342.0 g mol–1
molar mass. m(C12H22O11) = 4.2 g

Calculate the amount, in mol, of C12H22O11, using: m

n(C12H22O11) =
m M
n= 4.2
M =
342.0
= 0.012 mol

Calculate the number of C12H22O11 molecules using: n

n= , so N = n × NA
N NA
n=
NA N(C12H22O11) = 0.012 × 6.02 × 1023
= 7.4 × 1021 molecules

5.3 Key questions

1 a Mr = 2 × Ar(N)
= 2 × 14.0
= 28.0
b Mr = Ar(N) + 3 × Ar(H)
= 14.0 + 3 × 1.0
= 17.0
c Mr = 2 × Ar(H) + Ar(S) + 4 × Ar(O)
= 2 × 1.0 + 32.1 + 4 × 16.0
= 98.1
d Mr = Ar(Fe) + 3 × Ar(N) + 9 × Ar(O)
= 55.8 + 3 × 14.0 + 9 × 16.0
= 241.8
e Mr = 2 × Ar(C) + 4 × Ar(H) + 2 × Ar(O)
= 2 × 12.0 + 4 × 1.0 + 2 × 16.0
= 60.0
f Mr = Ar(S)
= 32.1
g Mr = 6 × Ar(C) + 8 × Ar(H) + 6 × Ar(O)
= 6 × 12.0 + 8 × 1.0 + 6 × 16.0
= 176.0
h Mr = Ar(Cu) + Ar(S) + 4 × Ar(O) + 5 × Mr(H2O)
= 63.5 + 32.1 + 4 × 16.0 + 5 × 18.0
= 249.6
2 It is useful to remember the formula m = nM, where m is the mass in grams, n the amount of substance in mol, and
M the molar mass. Use a periodic table to work out the molar masses.
a m(Na atoms) = 1.0 mol × 23 g mol–1
= 23.0 g
b m(O2) = 2.0 mol × 32.0 g mol–1
= 64.0 g
c m(CH4) = 0.10 mol × 16.0 g mol–1
= 1.60 g
d m(Al2O3) = 0.25 mol × 102 g mol–1
= 25.5 g

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

m
3 It is useful to remember the formula n = , where m is the mass in grams, n the amount of substance in mol, and
M

M the molar mass. Use a periodic table to work out the molar masses.
5
a n(H atoms) = = 5 mol
1
5
b n(H2) = = 2.5 mol
2
2.7
c n(Al atoms) = = 0.10 mol
27
0.4
d n(CH4) = = 0.025 mol
16
0.10
e n(O2) = = 0.0031 mol
32
0.10
f n(O atoms) = = 0.0063 mol
16
1.2 × 10 –3

g n(P4) = = 9.7 × 10–6 mol

124
1.2 × 10–3
h n(P atoms) = = 3.9 × 10–5 mol
31
m
4 Use the formulas: Number of particles = n × NA, where NA = 6.02 × 1023 and n = , where m is the mass in grams,
M

n the amount of substance in mol, and M the molar mass. Use a periodic table to work out the molar masses.
23
a n(Na) = = 1.0 mol
23
Number of Na atoms = 1.0 × 6.0 × 1023 = 6.0 × 1023 atoms
4.0
b n(Ar) = = 0.10 mol
39.95
Number of Ar atoms = 0.10 × 6.0 × 1023 = 6.0 × 1022 atoms
0.243
c n(Mg) = = 0.01 mol
24.3
Number of Mg atoms = 0.01 × 6.0 × 1023 = 6.0 × 1021 atoms
10.0
d n(Au) = = 0.051 mol
196.97
Number of Mg atoms = 0.051 × 6.0 × 1023 = 3.1 × 1022 atoms
m
5 Use the formulas: Number of particles = n × NA, where NA = 6.02 × 1023 and n = , where m is the mass in grams,
M

n the amount of substance in mol, and M the molar mass. Use a periodic table to work out the molar masses.
16
a i n(O2) = = 0.50 mol
32
Number of O2 molecules = 0.5 × 6.0 × 1023 = 3.0 × 1023 molecules
2.8
ii n(N2) = = 0.10 mol
28
Number of N2 molecules = 0.1 × 6.0 × 1023 = 6.0 × 1022 molecules
3.2
b n(SO2) = = 0.050 mol
64
Number of SO2 molecules = 0.05 × 6.0 × 1023 = 3.0 × 1022 molecules
Each molecule contains 2 oxygen atoms.
So, number of oxygen atoms = 6.0 × 1022 atoms.
288
c n(NH3) = = 16.9 mol
17
Number of NH3 molecules = 16.9 × 6.02 × 1023 = 1.017 × 1025 molecules
Each molecule contains 4 atoms (1 of N and 3 of H).
So, total number of atoms = 4.0 × 1.017 × 1025 = 4.07 × 1025 atoms.

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

Section 5.4 Percentage composition and empirical formulas

Worked example: Try yourself 5.4.1
CALCULATING PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION

Calculate the percentage by mass of nitrogen in ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3).

Thinking Working

Find the molar mass of the compound. M(NH4NO3) = (2 × 14.0) + (4 × 1.0) + (3 × 16.0)
= 80.0 g mol–1

Find the total mass of the element in one mole of the mass of N in 1 mol = 2 × M(N)
compound. = 2 × 14.0
= 28.0 g

Find the percentage by mass of the element in the % by mass of N in NH4NO3

compound. mass of N in 1 mol of NH4NO3
= × 100
molar mass of NH4NO3
28.0
= × 100
80.0
= 35.0%

Worked example: Try yourself 5.4.2

DETERMINING THE EMPIRICAL FORMULA

0.50 g of magnesium is heated and allowed to completely react with chlorine. 1.96 g of white powder is formed.
Determine the empirical formula of the compound.

Thinking Working

Write down the mass, in g, of all elements present in the m(Mg) = 0.50 g    m(Cl) = 1.96 – 0.50 = 1.46 g
compound. If masses are given as percentages, assume
that the sample weighs 100 g, then the percentages
become masses in grams.

Calculate the amount, in mol, of each element in the 0.50 1.46

n(Mg) =      n(Cl) =
compound using: 24.3 35.5
m = 0.0206 mol     = 0.0411 mol
n=
M

Simplify the ratio by dividing each number of moles by 0.0206 0.0411

       
the smallest number of moles calculated in the previous 0.0206 0.0206
step. This gives you a ratio of the number of atoms of = 1         = 2
each element.

Find the simplest whole number ratio. 1:2

Write the empirical formula. MgCl2

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

Worked example: Try yourself 5.4.3

DETERMINING MOLECULAR FORMULA

A compound has the empirical formula C2H5. The molar mass of this compound was determined to be 58 g mol–1.
What is the molecular formula of the compound?

Thinking Working

Calculate the molar mass of one unit of the empirical Molar mass of a C2H5 unit = 2 × 12.0 + 5 × 1.0
formula. = 29.0 g mol–1

Determine the number of empirical formula units in the 58

Number of C2H5 units =
molecular formula. 29.0
=2

Determine the molecular formula of the compound. Molecular formula = 2 × C2H5

= C4H10

5.4 Key questions

1 a Percentage by mass of an element
mass of 1 element in mol of compound
= × 100
mass of 1 mol of the compound
Use a periodic table to work out the molar masses. For example, M(Fe2O3) = 159.6 g mol–1.
2 × 55.8 × 100
∴ %(Fe) =
159.6
= 69.9%
3 × 238.03 × 842.09
b %(U) =
159.6
= 84.8%
14 × 100
c %(N) =
53.5
= 26.2%
6 × 16 × 100
d %(O) =
187.5
= 51.2%
2 a The empirical formula provides the simplest whole-number ratio of atoms in a compound. The number of moles
m
of each atom is found by using n = , where m is the mass in grams, and M is the molar mass in g mol–1.
M

H Cl
Mass 2.74 g 97.26 g
Molar mass 1 g mol–1 35.5 g mol–1
m 2.74 97.26
Amount using n = n= = 2.74 mol n= = 2.74 mol
M 1 35.5

Divide all by the smallest amount 70 2.74

=1 =1
14 2.74

Round off to whole numbers 1 1

∴ empirical formula is HCl
C O
b Mass 42.9 g 57.1 g
Molar mass 12 g mol–1 16 g mol–1
m 42.9 57.1
Amount using n = n= = 3.575 mol n= = 3.57 mol
M 12 16

Divide all by the smallest amount 3.575 3.57

=1 =1
3.57 3.57

Round off to whole numbers 1 1

∴ empirical formula is CO

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

c When 6.03 g is the mass of magnesium in 10.0 g of the compound, the mass of oxygen is (10.0 – 6.03) = 3.97 g.
Mg O
Mass 6.03 g 3.97 g
Molar mass 24.3 g mol –1
16 g mol–1
m 6.03 3.97
Amount using n = n= = 0.248 mol n= = 0.248 mol
M 24.3 16

Divide all by the smallest amount 0.248 0.248

=1 =1
0.248 0.248

Round off to whole numbers 1 1

∴ empirical formula is MgO

d When 2.4 g is the mass of carbon in 3.2 g of the hydrocarbon, the mass of hydrogen is (3.2 – 2.4) = 0.8 g.
C H
Mass 2.4 g 0.8 g
Molar mass 12 g mol–1 1 g mol–1
m 2.4 0.8
Amount using n = n= = 0.2 mol n= = 0.8 mol
M 12 1

Divide all by the smallest amount 0.2 0.8

=1 =4
0.2 0.2

Round off to whole numbers 1 1

∴ empirical formula is CH4

3 a The molecular formula is always a whole-number multiple of the empirical formula. The empirical formula provides
the simplest whole-number ratio of atoms in a compound. The number of moles of each atom is found by using
m
n= , where m is the mass in grams and M is the molar mass.
M

Molar mass of a CH unit (empirical formula) = 12 + 1 = 13 g mol–1

Molar mass of the compound (molecular formula) = 78 g mol–1
78
∴ number of CH units in one molecule = =6
13
∴ molecular formula is C6H6 (which is benzene)
b Molar mass of an HO unit (empirical formula) = 1 + 16 = 17 g mol–1
Molar mass of the compound (molecular formula) = 34 g mol–1
34
∴ number of OH units in one molecule = =2
17
∴ molecular formula is H2O2
c Molar mass of a CH2O unit (empirical formula) = 12 + (2 × 1) + 16 = 30 g mol–1
Molar mass of the compound (molecular formula) = 90 g mol–1
90
∴ number of CH2O units in one molecule = =3
30
∴ molecular formula is C3H6O3
d Molar mass of an NO2 unit (empirical formula) = 14 + (16 × 2) = 46 g mol–1
Molar mass of the compound (molecular formula) = 46 g mol–1
46
∴ number of NO2 units in one molecule = =1
46
∴ molecular formula is NO2
e Molar mass of a CH2 unit (empirical formula) = 12 + (1 × 2) = 14 g mol–1
Molar mass of the compound (molecular formula) = 154 g mol–1
154
∴ number of CH2 units in one molecule = = 11
14
∴ molecular formula C11H22

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

4 a The molecular formula is always a whole-number multiple of the empirical formula. The empirical formula provides
the simplest whole-number ratio of atoms in a compound. The number of moles of each atom is found by using
m
n= , where m is the mass in grams and M is the molar mass in g mol–1.
M

A hydrocarbon contains only carbon and hydrogen.

Hence, %H = 100 – 85.7 = 14.3%
H Cl
Mass 14.3 g 85.7 g
Molar mass 1 g mol–1 12 g mol–1
m 14.3 85.7
Amount using n = n= = 14.3 mol n= = 7.14 mol
M 1 12

Divide all by the smallest amount 14.3 7.14

=2 =1
7.14 7.14

Round off to whole numbers 2 1

∴ empirical formula is CH2

b Molar mass of a CH2 unit (empirical formula) = 12 + 2 = 14 g mol–1

Molar mass of the compound (molecular formula) = 70 g mol–1
70
∴ number of CH2 units in one molecule = =5
14
∴ molecular formula is C5H10
5 a The molecular formula is always a whole-number multiple of the empirical formula. The empirical formula provides
the simplest whole-number ratio of atoms in a compound. The number of moles of each atom is found by using
m
n= , where m is the mass in grams and M is the molar mass in g mol–1.
M

C H O
Mass 1.8 g 0.3 g 2.4 g
Molar mass 12 g mol–1 1 g mol–1 16 g mol–1
m 1.8 0.3 2.4
Amount using n = n= = 0.15 mol n= = 0.30 mol n= = 0.15 mol
M 12 1 16

Divide all by the smallest amount 0.15 0.30 0.15

=1 =2 =1
0.15 0.15 0.15

Round off to whole numbers 1 2 1

∴ empirical formula is CH2O

b Molar mass of a CH2O unit (empirical formula) = 12 + (2 × 1) + 16 = 30 g mol–1

Molar mass of the compound (molecular formula) = 180 g mol–1
180
∴ number of CH2O units in one molecule = =6
30
∴ molecular formula is C6H12O6

CHAPTER 5 REVIEW
5.1 MASSES OF PARTICLES

1 The relative atomic mass of carbon is the weighted average of the isotopic masses of all carbon isotopes (i.e. 12C, 13C
and 14C). Small amounts of 13C and 14C make this average slightly greater than 12, the relative isotopic mass of the
12
C isotope.
(101.9049 × 0.96) + (103.9036 × 10.97) + (104.9046 × 22.23) + (105.9032 × 27.33) + (107.9039 × 26.71) + (109.9044 × 11.800)
2 Ar(Pd) =
100

= 106.4

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

(35.978 × 0.307) + (37.974 × 0.060) + (39.974 × 99.633)

3 a Ar(Pd) =
100

= 39.96
(38.975 × 93.3) + (39.976 × 0.011) + (40.974 × 6.69)
Ar(K) =
100

= 39.11
b Although potassium atoms have one more proton than argon atoms, the most abundant isotope of argon has
22 neutrons, giving it a relative atomic mass close to 40. The most abundant isotope of potassium has only
20 neutrons, giving it a relative atomic mass close to 39.
4 a Peak heights 50
Cr = 0.3 units, 52
Cr = 12 units, Cr = 1 unit,
53
Cr = 0.2 units, Total height = 13.5 units
54

Percentages 50
Cr = 2.2%, 52
Cr = 88.9%, Cr = 7.4%,
53
Cr = 1.5%
54

(50 × 2.2) + (52 × 88.9) + (53 × 7.4) + (54 × 1.5)

b Ar(Cr) =
100
= 52
5 Let the percentage abundance of the lighter isotope be x%.
∴ percentage abundance of the heavier isotope will be (100 – x)%
(x × 150.92) + ((100 – x) × 152.92)
∴ 151.96 =
100

∴ x = 48.0
∴ proportions of the isotopes are 48.0% and 52.0%.
6 a Let the percentage abundance of the lighter isotope be x%.

∴ percentage abundance of the heavier isotope will be (100 – x)%

(x × 68.95) + ((100 – x) × 70.95)
∴ 69.72 =
100
∴ x = 61.5
∴ proportion of the lighter isotope = 61.5%
b 20.2% (calculated by using the same process as for part a.)
7 a The relative molecular mass, Mr, is the sum of the relative atomic masses, Ar, of the elements in the compound.
∴ Mr(H2O) = 2 + 16
= 18
b Mr(P4) = 4 × 31
= 124
c Mr(CO) = 12 + 16
= 28
8 a Relative formula mass zinc bromide = 65.4 + 2 × 79.9 = 225.2
b Relative formula mass barium hydroxide = 137.3 + 2 × 16.0 + 2 × 1.0 = 171.3
c Relative formula mass iron(III) carbonate = 2 × 55.8 + 3 × 12.0 + 9 × 16.0 = 297.6

5.2 INTRODUCING THE MOLE

m
9 It is useful to remember the formula n = , where m is the mass in grams, n the amount of substance in mol, and
M

M the molar mass. Remember also that the number of particles in 1 mol, Avogadro’s number, NA = 6.02 × 1023.
number of particles
Use the formula: n = . Use a periodic table to work out the molar masses.
NA
4.50 × 1023
a n(H2O) = = 0.75 mol
6.02 × 1023

b n(CH4) = 15.0 mol

c n(Cl2) = 3.8 × 104 mol

1
d n(C12H22O11) = = 1.7 × 10–24 mol
6.02 × 1023

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

10 a i N(NH3) = n × NA = 1.45 × 6.02 × 1023 = 8.73 × 1023 molecules

ii N(atoms) = N(NH3) × 4 = 8.73 × 1023 × 4 = 3.49 × 1024 atoms
b i N(H2S) = n × NA = 0.576 × 6.02 × 1023 = 3.47 × 1023 molecules
ii N(atoms) = N(H2S) × 3 = 3.47 × 1023 × 3 = 1.04 × 1024 atoms
c i N(HNO3) = n × NA = 0.0153 × 6.02 × 1023 = 9.21 × 1021 molecules
ii N(atoms) = N(HNO3) × 5 = 9.21 × 1021 × 5 = 4.61 × 1022 atoms
d i N(C12H22O11) = n × NA = 2.5 × 6.02 × 1023 = 1.5 × 1024 molecules
ii N(atoms) = N(C12H22O11) × 45 = 1.5 × 1024 × 45 = 6.8 × 1025 atoms

5.3 MOLAR MASS

11 The molar mass, M, has the same numerical value as the relative molecular mass, Mr, which is the sum of the relative
atomic masses, Ar, of the elements in the compound. The molar mass, M, is the actual mass of one mole and so has
the unit g mol–1.
12 a 55.8 g mol–1
b Mr(H2SO4) = 2 + 32 + 64 = 98
∴ Mr(H2SO4) = 98 g mol–1
c Mr(Na2O) = (2 × 23) + 16 = 62
∴ Mr(Na2O) = 62 g mol–1
d Mr(Zn(NO3)2) = 65.4 + (2 × 14) + (6 × 16) = 189.4
∴ Mr(Zn(NO3)2) = 189.4 g mol–1
e Mr(H2NCH2COOH) = (5 × 1) + 14 + (2 × 12) + (2 × 16) = 75
∴ Mr(H2NCH2COOH) = 75.0 g mol–1
f Mr(Al2(SO4)3) = (2 × 27) + (3 × 32) + (12 × 16) = 342
∴ Mr(Al2(SO4)3) = 342 g mol–1
g Mr(FeCl3.6H2O) = 55.8 + (3 × 35.5) + (12 × 1) + (6 × 16) = 270
∴ Mr(FeCl3.6H2O) = 270 g mol–1
13 It is useful to remember the formula m = nM, where m is the mass in grams, n the amount of substance in mol, and
M the molar mass.
a m(C2H6) = 0.060 × (24 + 6) = 1.8 g
b m(C6H12O6) = 0.32 × ((6 × 12) + (12 × 1) + (6 × 16)) = 58 g
c m((NH2)2CO2) = 6.8 × 10–3 × ((2 × 14) + (4 × 1) + 12 + 16) = 0.41 g
d m(Cu) = 6.12 × 63.5 = 389 g
m
14 a It is useful to remember the formula n = , where m is the mass in grams, n the amount of substance in mol,
M

and M the molar mass in g mol–1. Use the periodic table to work out the molar masses.
1.201
a n(C) = = 0.10 mol
12
10.0
b n(S8) = = 0.0389 mol
257
20
c n(CH4) = = 1.25 mol
16
0.300
d n(C6H4(OCOCH3)COOH) = = 0.00167 mol
180
3 500 000
e n(Al2O3) = = 3.4 × 104 mol
102
mass of 1 mole molar mass
15 a Mass of one atom = =
number of particles in a mole NA
40.1
Mass of one calcium atom = = 6.67 × 10–23 g
6.0 × 1023
18
b Mass of one water molecule = = 3.0 × 10–23 g
6.02 × 1023
44
c Mass of one CO2 molecule = = 7.3 × 10–23 g
6.02 × 1023

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

m 4.2
16 a i n(P4) = = = 0.034 mol
M 4 × 31.0
ii N(P4) = n × 6.02 × 1023 = 2.04 × 1022 molecules
iii Total number of atoms = 4 × 2.04 × 1022 = 8.2 × 1022 atoms
m 75.0
b i n(S8) = = = 0.292 mol
M 8 × 32.1
ii N(S8) = n × 6.02 × 1023 = 1.75 × 1023 molecules
iii Total number of atoms = 0.292 × 8 × 6.02 × 1023 = 1.41 × 1024 atoms
m 0.32
c i n(HCl) = = = 0.0088 mol
M 1.01 × 35.5
ii N(HCl) = n × 6.02 × 1023 = 5.3 × 1021 molecules
iii Total number of atoms = 0.0088 × 2 × 6.02 × 1023 = 1.1 × 1022 atoms
m 2.2 × 10–2
d i n(C4H12O6) = = = 1.22 × 10–4 mol
M (6 × 12.01) + (12 × 1.01) + (6 × 16.0)
ii n(C6H12O6) = n × 6.02 × 1023 = 7.3 × 1019 molecules
iii Total number of atoms = 1.22 × 10–4 × 24 × 6.02 × 1023 = 1.8 × 1021 atoms
m
17 It is useful to remember the formula n = , where m is the mass in grams, n the amount of substance in mol, and
M

M the molar mass in g mol–1. Use the periodic table to work out the molar masses of iron and water.
M(Fe) = 55.8 g mol–1 and M(H2O) = 18.0 g mol–1

20
∴ n(H2O) =
18

∴ n(Fe) needed = 1.11 mol

∴ m(Fe) needed = 1.11 × 55.8 = 62.0 g
m
18 It is useful to remember the formula n = , where m is the mass in grams, n the amount of substance in mol, and
M

M the molar mass in g mol–1. Use the periodic table to work out the molar masses.
20
a i n(NaCl) = = 0.100 mol
18
ii n(Na+) = n(NaCl) = 0.100 mol
n(Cl–) = n(NaCl) = 0.100 mol
45.0
b i n(CaCl2) = = 0.405 mol
111
ii n(Ca2+) = n(CaCl2) = 0.405 mol
n(Cl–) = 2 × n(CaCl2) = 2 × 0.405 = 0.81 mol
1.68
c i n(Fe2(SO4)3) = = 0.00420 mol
399.6
ii n(Fe3+) = 2 × n(Fe2(SO4)3) = 0.008 40 mol
n(SO42–) = 3 × n(Fe2(SO4)3) = 0.0126 mol
m
19 It is useful to remember the formula M = , where m is the mass in grams, n the amount of substance in mol,
n

and M the molar mass in g mol–1. Remember also that the number of particles in 1 mol is Avogadro’s number,
number of particles
NA = 6.02 × 1023. Use the formula: n =
NA
72
a M(substance) = = 144 g mol–1
0.5
6.02 × 1022
b n(substance) = = 0.1 mol
NA
10
M(substance) = = 100 g mol–1
0.1

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

m
20 It is useful to remember the formula M = , where m is the mass in grams, n the amount of substance in mol,
n
and M the molar mass in g mol–1.
80
a M(substance) = = 40 g mol–1
2
All other parts follow the same process.
b 98 g mol–1
c 44 g mol–1
d 106 g mol–1
21 It is useful to remember the formula m = nM, where m is the mass in grams, n the amount of substance in mol, and
M the molar mass. Use a periodic table to find the molar masses of iron and silver, M = 55.8 g mol–1 and 108 g mol–1,
respectively.
Remember also that the number of particles in 1 mol is NA.
m(Cu) = 100 g
m(Fe) = 4.0 × 55.8 = 223 g
1.2 × 1024
n(Ag) = = 2.0 mol
NA

∴ m(Ag) = 2.0 × 108 = 216 g

∴ B is correct: 4.0 mol of iron atoms has the greatest mass
22 It is useful to remember the formula m = nM, where m is the mass in grams, n the amount of substance in mol,
and M the molar mass in g mol–1. Remember also that the number of particles in 1 mol is, Avogadro’s number,
NA = 6.02 × 1023.
a M(antibiotic) = 12 500 g mol–1 = 1.25 × 104 g mol–1
2.0 × 10–3
b n(antibiotic) = = 1.6 × 10–7 mol
1.25 × 10–4
c Number of molecules = nNA
= 1.6 × 10–7 × 6.02 × 1023 = 9.6 × 1016 molecules

5.4 PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION AND EMPIRICAL FORMULAS

mass of 1 element in 1 mol of compound
23 Percentage by mass of an element = × 100
mass of 1 mol of the compound

Use a periodic table to work out the molar masses. A useful check of these answers is provided by seeing that they
add up to 100%, or somewhere close to that value.
a M(Al) = 27 g mol–1, M(O) = 16 g mol–1, M(Al2O3) = 102 g mol–1
2 × 27
%(Al) = × 100 = 52.9%
102
3 × 16
%(O) = × 100 = 47.1%
102
b Cu 65.1%; O 32.8 %; H 2.1 %
c M(Mg) = 24.3 g mol–1, M(Cl) = 35.5 g mol–1, M(MgCl2.6H2O) = 203.3 g mol–1
24.3
%(Mg) = × 100 = 12.0%
203.3
2 × 35.5
%(Cl) = × 100 = 34.9%
203.3
12 × 1
%(H) = × 100 = 5.9%
203.3
6 × 16
%(O) = × 100 = 47.2%
203.3
d Fe 27.9%; S 24.1%; O 48.0%
e H 1.0%; Cl 35.3%; O 63.7%

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

mass of 1 element in 1 mol of compound

24 Percentage by mass of an element = × 100
mass of 1 mol of the compound

Use a periodic table to work out the molar masses. A useful check of these answers is provided by seeing that they
add up to 100%, or close to that value.
a M(C10H8) = 128 g mol–1, M(H) = 1 g mol–1, M(C) = 12 g mol–1
10 × 12
%(C) = × 100 = 93.8%
108
b %C = 40%
c %C = 19.9%
d %C = 60.0%
25 The empirical formula provides the simplest whole-number ratio of atoms in a compound. The number of moles
m
of each atom is found by using n = , where m is the mass in grams and M is the molar mass.
M
a C O
Mass 42.9 g 57.1 g
Molar mass 12 g mol –1
16 g mol–1
m 42.9 57.1
Amount using n = n= = 3.575 mol n= = 3.57 mol
M 12 16

Divide all by the smallest amount 3.575 3.569

=1 =1
3.569 3.569

Round off to whole numbers 1 1

∴ empirical formula is CO

b C O
Mass 27.2 g 72.8 g
Molar mass 12 g mol –1
16 g mol–1
m 27.2 72.8
Amount using n = n= = 2.267 mol n= = 4.55 mol
M 12 16

Divide all by the smallest amount 2.267 4.55

=1 =2
2.267 2.267

Round off to whole numbers 1 2

∴ empirical formula is CO2

c C O H
Mass 54.5 g 36.4 g 9.1 g
Molar mass 12 g mol–1 16 g mol–1 1 g mol–1
m 34.8 364 9.1
Amount using n = n(O) = = 4.54 mol n= = 2.275 mol n= = 9.1 mol
M 16 16 1

Divide all by the smallest amount 4.54 2.275 9.1

= 1.99 =2 =4
2275 2.275 2.275

Round off to whole numbers 2 2 4

∴ empirical formula is C2H4O

d Fe S O
Mass 1.72 g 1.48 g 3.02 g
Molar mass 55.8 g mol–1 32 g mol–1 16 g mol–1
m 1.72 1.48 3.02
Amount using n = n= = 4.54 mol n= = 2.275 mol n= = 0.189 mol
M 55.8 32 16

Divide all by the smallest amount 0.031 0.046 0.189

=1 = 1.5 =6
0.031 0.031 0.031

Round off to whole numbers 2 3 12

∴ empirical formula is Fe2S3O12, which is Fe2(SO4)3

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

e C Cl H
Mass 9.6 g 4.7 g 0.67 g
Molar mass 12 g mol –1
35.5 g mol –1
1 g mol–1
m 9.6 4.7 0.67
Amount using n = n= = 0.800 mol n= = 0.132 mol n= = 0.67 mol
M 12 35.5 1

Divide all by the smallest amount 0.800 0.132 0.67

=6 =1 =5
0.132 0.132 0.132

Round off to whole numbers 6 1 5

∴ empirical formula is C6H5Cl

f C H
Mass 4.42 g 0.842 g
Molar mass 12 g mol –1
1 g mol–1
m 4.42 0.842
Amount using n = n= = 0.368 mol n= = 0.842 mol
M 12 16

Divide all by the smallest amount 0.368 0.842

=1 = 2.3
0.368 0.368

Round off to whole numbers 1×7=7 16

∴ empirical formula is C7H16

26 The empirical formula provides the simplest whole-number ratio of atoms in a compound. The amount of each atom
m
is found by using n = , where m is the mass in grams and M is the molar mass in g mol–1. Use a periodic table to
M

find the molar masses of C, H, N and O.

C H N O
Mass 32 g 6.7 g 18.7 g 42.6 g
Molar mass 12 g mol –1
1 g mol –1
14 g mol –1
16 g mol–1
m 32 6.7 18.7 42.6
Amount using n = n= = 2.67 mol n= = 6.7 mol n= = 1.34 mol n= = 2.66 mol
M 12 1 14 16

Divide all by the smallest amount 2.67 6.7 1.34 2.66

= 1.99 =5 =1 = 1.99
1.34 1.34 1.34 1.34

Round off to whole numbers 2 5 1 2

∴ empirical formula is C2H5NO2

27 The empirical formula provides the simplest whole-number ratio of atoms in a compound. The amount of each atom
m
is found by using n = , where m is the mass in grams and M is the molar mass in g mol–1. Use a periodic table to
M

find the molar masses of W and S.

W S
Mass 1.84 g 0.64 g
Molar mass 184 g mol–1 32 g mol–1
m 1.84 0.64
Amount using n = n= = 0.01 mol n= = 0.02 mol
M 184 32

Divide all by the smallest amount 0.01 0.02

=1 =2
0.01 0.01

Round off to whole numbers 1 2

∴ empirical formula is WS2

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

28 a Step 1: Calculate mass of each element present in 100 g.

m(C) = 52.2 g
m(O) = 34.8 g
m(H) = 100 – 52.2 – 34.8 = 13 g
Step 2: Calculate amount, in mol, of each element present.
m 52.2
n(C) = = = 4.35 mol
M 12
34.8
n(O) = = 2.175 mol
16
13
n(H) = = 13 mol
1
Step 3: Convert to whole-number ratios.
4.35
n(C) = =2
2.175
2.175
n(O) = =1
2.175
13
n(H) = =6
2.175
Step 4: Write as empirical formula: C2H6O
b Step 1: Calculate molar mass of one empirical formula unit.
M = 2 × 12 + 6 × 1 + 16
= 46 g mol–1
Step 2: Calculate molar mass of compound.
m 100
M= = = 46 g mol–1
M 2.17
Step 3: Calculate number of empirical formula units in compound.
46
no. of units = =1
46
Step 4: Write molecular formula: C2H6O
29 The empirical formula provides the simplest whole-number ratio of atoms in a compound. The amount of each atom
m
is found by using n = , where m is the mass in grams and M is the molar mass in g mol–1. Use a periodic table to
M
find the molar masses of P and O.
O P
Mass 0.456 – 0.200 = 0.256 g 0.200 g
Molar mass 16 g mol –1
31 g mol–1
m 0.256 0.200
Amount using n = n= = 0.016 mol n= = 0.00645 mol
M 16 31

Divide all by the smallest amount 0.016 0.00645

= 2.5 =1
0.00645 0.00645

Round off to whole numbers 5 2

∴ empirical formula is P2O5

30 The empirical formula provides the simplest whole-number ratio of atoms in a compound. The amount of each atom
m
is found by using n = , where m is the mass in grams and M is the molar mass in g mol–1. Use a periodic table to
M
find the molar masses of C and H.
C H
Mass 90.0 g 100 – 90.0 = 10.0 g
Molar mass 12 g mol –1
1 g mol–1
m 90 10.0
Amount using n = n= = 7.5 mol n= = 10 mol
M 12 1

Divide all by the smallest amount 7.5 10

=1 = 1.3
7.5 7.5

Round off to whole numbers 1×3=3 1.3 × 3 = 4

∴ empirical formula is C3H4

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

31 The empirical formula provides the simplest whole-number ratio of atoms in a compound. The amount of each atom
m
is found by using n = , where m is the mass in grams and M is the molar mass in g mol–1. Use a periodic table to
M
find the molar mass of O.
Ni O
Mass 3.370 g 4.286 – 3.370 = 0.916 g
Molar mass ? g mol–1 16 g mol–1
m 3.370 0.916
Amount using n = n= n= = 0.0573 mol
M M(Ni) 16

n(Ni) 0.370 1
= ×
n(O) M(Ni) 0.0573
0.370 1 1
As the empirical formula is NiO, × =
M(Ni) 0.0573 1
0.370
∴ M(Ni) = = 58.9 g mol–1
0.0573

32 The empirical formula provides the simplest whole-number ratio of atoms in a compound. The amount of each atom
m
is found by using n = , where m is the mass in grams and M is the molar mass in g mol–1. Use a periodic table to
M
find the molar mass of Cl.
W Cl
Mass 4.150 g 8.950 – 4.150 = 4.800 g
Molar mass ? g mol–1 35.5 g mol–1
m 4.150 4.800
Amount using n = n= n= = 0.0135 mol
M M(W) 35.5

n(W) 4.150
=
n(Cl) M(W) × 0.135
4.150 1
As the empirical formula is WCl6, =
M(W) × 0.135 6
6
∴ M(W) = 4.150 × = 184.2 g mol–1
0.135

33 The empirical formula provides the simplest whole-number ratio of atoms in a compound. The amount of each atom
m
is found by using n = , where m is the mass in grams and M is the molar mass in g mol–1. Use a periodic table to
M
find the molar mass of O.
X O
Mass 3.72 g 4.80 g
Molar mass ? g mol–1 16 g mol–1
m 3.72 4.80
Amount using n = n= n= = 0.3 mol
M M(X) 16

n(X) 3.72
=
n(O) M(X) × 0.3
3.72 4
As the empirical formula is X4O10, =
M(X) × 0.3 10
3.72 × 10
∴ M(X) = = 31.0 g mol–1
0.3 × 4

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

34 The empirical formula provides the simplest whole-number ratio of atoms in a compound. The amount of each atom
m
is found by using n = , where m is the mass in grams and M is the molar mass in g mol–1. Use a periodic table to
M
find the molar mass of C and H.
a C H
Mass 42.9 g 17.25 g
Molar mass 12 g mol–1 1 g mol–1
m 82.75 17.25
Amount using n = n= = 6.89 mol n= = 17.25 mol
M 12 1

Divide all by the smallest amount 6.89 17.25

=1 = 2.5
6.89 6.89

Round off to whole numbers 1×2=2 2.5 × 2 = 5

∴ empirical formula is C2H5

Molar mass of a C2H5 unit (empirical formula) = 24 + 5 = 29 g mol–1.

Molar mass of the compound (molecular formula) = 58 g mol–1.
58
∴ number of C2H5 units in one molecule = =2
29
∴ molecular formula is C4H10
b P4O10
c C6H12O6
d The molecular formula is always a whole-number multiple of the empirical formula. The empirical formula provides
m
the simplest whole-number ratio of atoms in a compound. The amount of each atom is found by using n = ,
M
where m is the mass in grams and M is the molar mass in g mol–1. Use a periodic table to find the molar masses
of O, S and H.
C S O
Mass 0.164 g 5.25 g 9.18 g
Molar mass 1 g mol–1 32 g mol–1 16 g mol–1
m 0.164 5.25 9.18
Amount using n = n= = 0.164 mol n= = 0.164 mol n= = 0.574 mol
M 1 32 16

Divide all by the smallest amount 0.164 0.164 0.574

=1 =1 = 3.5
0.164 0.164 0.164

Round off to whole numbers 1×2=2 1×2=2 3.5 × 2 = 7

∴ empirical formula is H2S2O7

Molar mass of a H2S2O7 unit (empirical formula) = (2 × 1) + (2 × 32) + (7 × 16) = 178 g mol–1.
Molar mass of the compound (molecular formula) = 178 g mol–1.
178
∴ number of H2S2O7 units in one molecule = =1
178
∴ molecular formula is H2S2O7

CONNECTING THE MAIN IDEAS

35 a The relative isotopic mass of an isotope is the mass of an atom of that isotope relative to the mass of an atom of
12
C, taken as 12 units exactly. For example, the relative isotopic mass of the lighter of the two chlorine isotopes
(see Table 5.1.3, page 112) is 34.969.
b The relative atomic mass of an element is the weighted average of the relative masses of the isotopes of the
element on the 12C scale. For example, the relative atomic mass of boron (see Worked example: Try yourself 5.1.1,
on page 113) is 10.81.
c The relative molecular mass (Mr) of a compound is the mass of one molecule of that substance relative to the mass
of a 12C atom, which is 12 exactly. For example, the relative molecular mass of carbon dioxide is 44.0.
d Relative formula mass is calculated by taking the sum of the relative atomic masses of the elements in the formula.
Relative formula mass (rather than relative molecular mass) is the appropriate term to use for ionic compounds, as
these do not contain molecules. For example, the relative formula mass of sodium chloride is 58.5.

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

e The molar mass of an element is the mass of one mole of the element. It is equal to the relative atomic mass of the
element expressed in grams. For example, the molar mass of magnesium is 24.3 g mol–1. Note that relative atomic
mass and molar mass of an element are numerically equal. However, relative atomic mass has no units because it
is the mass of one atom of the element compared with the mass of one atom of the carbon-12 isotope. The molar
mass of a compound is the mass of one mole of the compound. It is equal to the relative molecular or relative
formula mass of the compound expressed in grams. For example, the molar mass of sodium chloride is 58.5 g
mol–1.
36 a The molecular formula is always a whole-number multiple of the empirical formula. The empirical formula provides
m
the simplest whole-number ratio of atoms in a compound. The amount of each atom is found by using n = ,
M
where m is the mass in grams and M is the molar mass in g mol–1. Use a periodic table to find the molar masses
of C, H, N and O.
Take 100 g of caffeine. Mass of oxygen can be found by subtraction
= 100 – (49.48 + 5.15 + 28.87)
= 16.5 g
C H N O
Mass 49.48 g 5.15 g 28.87 g 16.5 g
Molar mass 12.0 g mol –1
1.01 g mol –1
32 g mol –1
16 g mol–1
m 49.48 5.15 28.87 16.5
Amount using n = n= = 0.4.17 mol n= = 5.10mol n= = 2.06 mol n= = 1.03 mol
M 12.0 1.01 14.0 16

Divide all by the 4.17 5.10 2.06 1.03

= 4.04 = 5.0 = 2.0 = 1.0
smallest amount 1.03 1.03 1.03 1.03

Round off to whole 4 5 2 1

numbers
∴ empirical formula is C4H5N2O

1
b Molar mass of caffeine = 38.8 × = 194 g mol–1
0.2
c The molecule must contain a whole number of (C4H5N2O) units.
Molar mass of a C4H5N2O unit is
(4 × 12.0) + (5 × 1.01) + (2 × 14.0) + (16.0) = 97 g mol–1.
If the compound has a molar mass of 194 g mol–1, then the number of (C4H5N2O) units in a molecule
molar mass of compound
=
molar mass of one unit
194 g mol–1
= =2
97 g mol–1
The molecular formula of caffeine is therefore 2 × (C4H5N2O); that is, C8H10N4O2.
m 1.00
d n(caffeine) = =
Mr 194
= 5.15 × 10–3 mol
e N(caffeine) molecules = n(caffeine) × NA
= 5.15 × 10–3 × 6.02 × 1023 = 3.10 × 1021 molecules of caffeine
f N(atoms in caffeine) = N(molecules) × 6.02 × 1023 = 7.44 × 1024 atoms

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

37 a D, F, E, A, C, B
b Step 1: Calculate mass of compound after reaction.
m = 21.068 – 20.310 = 0.758 g
Step 2: Calculate mass of oxygen.
m = 0.758 – 0.542 = 0.216 g
Step 3: Calculate amount, in mol, of oxygen.
m
n=
M
0.126
= = 0.0135 mol
16
Step 4: Use mole ratios to determine amount of metal.
Ratio is 1:1, so n = 0.0135 mol
Step 5: Calculate molar mass of metal.
m 0.542
M= = = 40.1
n 0.135
Step 6: Fill in table.
Metal Oxygen
Mass (g) 0.542 0.216
Relative atomic mass 40.1 16.0
Moles 0.0135 mol 0.0135 mol
Ratio 1 1

c Refer to periodic table to identify metal as calcium.

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

Chapter 6 Materials made of molecules

Section 6.1 Properties of non-metallic substances

6.1 Key questions

1 Non-metallic elements: H2 and Br2 as they consist of only one type of atom. Non-metallic compounds: NO2 as it
consists of more than one type of atom (nitrogen and oxygen).
2 A molecule is a discrete group of atoms of known formula, bonded together.
3 a Non-metals do not conduct electricity because they do not contain free-moving charged particles (neither
delocalised electrons nor ions).
b Non-metals have low melting and boiling temperatures because they have weak intermolecular bonds between
molecules.
4 a True. Methane is formed from two types of non-metal atoms (carbon and hydrogen).
b False. Methane contains 5 atoms (1 carbon and 4 hydrogen atoms).
c True. There are 5 atoms per molecule and so 4 molecules will have 20 atoms.
d False. Bonds in the molecule are intramolecular bonds.
5 When sugar turns to a liquid, it is melting; the intermolecular bonds are broken. When the liquid turns black and
a gas is produced, the intramolecular bonds are broken, allowing new substances to be produced.

Section 6.2 Covalent bonding

Worked example: Try yourself 6.2.1
ELECTRON DOT DIAGRAMS

Draw an electron dot diagram of the molecule formed from nitrogen and hydrogen atoms.

Thinking Working

Write the electronic configuration of the atoms in the N electronic configuration: 2,5
molecule. H electronic configuration: 1

Determine how many electrons each atom requires for N requires 3 electrons
a stable outer shell. H requires 1 electrons

Draw an electron dot diagram of the likely molecule, Draw an electron dot diagram of the molecule.
ensuring that each atom has a stable outer shell. H
Electrons not involved in bonding will be in non-bonding
(lone) pairs. H N
H

6.2 Key questions

1 a Hydrogen requires 1 electron to complete its outer shell, so it forms a single covalent bond.
b 3. Nitrogen requires 3 electrons to complete its outer shell, so it forms a triple covalent bond.
c 2. Oxygen requires 2 electrons to complete its outer shell, so it forms a double covalent bond.
d 1. Fluorine requires 1 electron to complete its outer shell, so it forms a single covalent bond.

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

2 fluorine (F2) hydrogen fluoride (HF)

F F F F H F H F

water (H2O) tetrachloromethane (CCl4)

O Cl
O Cl

H H Cl C Cl
H H
C
Cl
phosphine (PH3) Cl Cl
Cl

H P H P
butane (C4H10)
H
H H H
H H H H

carbon dioxide(CO2) H C C C C H

H H H H

O C O O C O H H
H H
H C C
H C C
H
H
H H
3 a 1
b 2
c 3
d 4
e 1
f 0
4 To complete its outer shell, the oxygen atom uses two of its outer-shell electrons to form two single bonds or a double
bond with suitable non-metal atoms. The remaining four electrons in the outer shell are not required for bonding, as
the outer shell is now complete, and they arrange themselves as two lone pairs around the oxygen atom.
5 a CCl4
b NBr3
c SiO2
d HF
e PF3
6 a Ball-and-stick model
b Electron dot diagram
c Space-filling model

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

CHAPTER 6 REVIEW
6.1 PROPERTIES OF NON-METALLIC SUBSTANCES

1 The strength of the intermolecular bonds in pure hydrochloric acid (hydrogen chloride) must be relatively weak.
Since the pure hydrochloric acid exists as a gas at room temperature, it must have a low boiling temperature, which
indicates that not much energy is required to break the intermolecular bonds between molecules.
2 Non-metallic substances do not conduct electricity.
3 Intramolecular bonds are the forces that hold the atoms within a molecule together. In carbon dioxide molecules
they are the bonds between the carbon atoms and the oxygen atoms. Intermolecular bonds are the forces between
one molecule and its neighbouring molecules. It is the intermolecular bonds that are broken when carbon dioxide
sublimes.
4 a Space-filling model
b Valence structure
c Ball-and-stick model
d Electron dot diagram

6.2 COVALENT BONDING

5 D. Each hydrogen atom has one electron only. If two atoms share an electron each they both obtain a complete outer
shell. A single covalent bond is formed.
6 a 6. Each nitrogen atom shares three electrons with the other nitrogen atom.
b 3. Each nitrogen atom shares three electrons with the other nitrogen atom, so three bonding pairs are formed,
which is equal to a triple covalent bond.
c Each nitrogen atom has two non-bonding electrons, making a total of four when both atoms are counted.
7 B. To have a formula XY4, atom X must require four more outer-shell electrons and atom Y must require one. The likely
molecule is CH4 as carbon has four outer-shell electrons and hydrogen requires one more.
Oxygen has 6 valence electrons and needs to form 2 covalent bonds. Hydrogen has one valence electron and needs
to form one bond. For OH4, each hydrogen would need to form a single covalent bond, giving a total of 4, but oxygen
only needs to form 2, so this option is incorrect. Bromine has 7 valence electrons. Each bromine needs to form a
single covalent bond, giving a total of 4, but hydrogen only needs to form one bond, so this option is incorrect. Carbon
has 4 outer-shell electrons and needs to form 4 bonds. Oxygen has 6 valence electrons and needs to form 2 covalent
bonds, to have a total of 8, but carbon only needs to form 4, so this option is incorrect.
8 Atom X requires 2 electrons to form a stable outer shell. Each atom of element Y can share 1 electron. Therefore the
molecular formula will be XY2.
9 Neon will not form bonds to other atoms as it has a stable outer shell.
10 a 0
b 1
c 3
d 4
H

H H H N H Cl O O

11 The diagrams of each molecule below show the number of electron pairs.
a 2 bonding electrons, 6 non-bonding electrons

H Br

b 4 bonding electrons, 4 non-bonding electrons

H O O H

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

c 8 bonding electrons, 24 non-bonding electrons

F C F

d 14 bonding electrons, 0 non-bonding electrons

H H

H C C H

H H

e 6 bonding electrons, 20 non-bonding electrons

F P F

f 4 bonding electrons, 16 non-bonding electrons

Cl O Cl

g 8 bonding electrons
H

H C H

h 4 bonding electrons, 4 non-bonding electrons

S H

12 a The bonds are similar in that they all involve the sharing of electron pairs between two atoms; that is, they are
covalent bonds.
b They differ in the number of electron pairs shared: one pair (fluorine), two pairs (oxygen) and three pairs (nitrogen).
13 a H

O O O O
H
H
O O O O
H

b In a single bond there are two electrons that are shared between the atoms, whereas in a double bond there are
four electrons. The net attraction is stronger and more energy is needed to break the double bond than the single
bond.
c Oxygen has six outer-shell electrons and completes its outer shell by forming two single covalent bonds or a double
bond with another non-metal. There is no need for the oxygen to form a triple bond or three single covalent bonds
as this exceeds its requirement of two electrons to complete its outer shell.

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

CONNECTING THE MAIN IDEAS

14 Metallic: Ag, Cu; ionic: CuCl2, CaS; molecular: NH3, HCl, H2O
Ag and Cu are both metals. This can be determined from general knowledge, their position in the periodic table or
from their electronic configuration.
CuCl2 and CaS are both formed from a combination of a metal and non-metal(s). This is characteristic of ionic
compounds.
NH3, HCl, H2O are compounds made from non-metals. They are composed of small molecules.
15 a True. Carbon dioxide is formed from two types of non-metal atoms (carbon and oxygen).
b True. Carbon dioxide contains 3 atoms (1 carbon and 2 oxygen atoms).
c False. There are 2 oxygen atoms per molecule and so 33 molecules will have 66 oxygen atoms.
d True. Bonds in the molecule are intramolecular bonds.
e False. There are 2 double covalent bonds in a molecule of carbon dioxide.
f True. Each oxygen atom has 2 lone pairs of electrons. As there are 2 oxygen atoms, there are 4 lone pairs of
electrons in a molecule of carbon dioxide.

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

Chapter 7 Intermolecular forces

Section 7.1 Shapes of molecules

Worked example: Try yourself 7.1.1
PREDICTING THE SHAPE OF MOLECULES

Predict the shape of a molecule of hydrogen sulfide (H2S).

Thinking Working

Draw the electron dot diagram for the molecule.

H P H
H

Count the number of bonds and lone pairs on the central There are two bonds and two lone pairs.
atom.

Determine how the groups of electrons will be arranged Because there are four electron pairs, the groups will be
to get maximum separation. arranged in a tetrahedral arrangement.

Deduce the shape of the molecule by considering the The sulfur and hydrogen atoms are a bent or V-shape.
arrangement of just the atoms.

7.1 Key questions

1 The VSEPR theory is based on the principle that negatively charged electron pairs in the outer shell of an atom repel
each other. As a consequence, these electron pairs are arranged as far away from each other as possible.
2 4. One pair is in the single bond between the fluorine and hydrogen atoms; the other three pairs exist as lone pairs of
electrons.
3 a
S

H
H

b
H I

c
Cl

Cl Cl
Cl

d
P

H H
H

e
S C S

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

4 a V-shaped
b Linear
c Tetrahedral
d Pyramidal
e Linear
5 a Tetrahedral
b Pyramidal
c V-shaped

Section 7.2 Properties of covalent molecular substances

Worked example: Try yourself 7.2.1
COMPARING THE POLARITY OF COVALENT BONDS

Compare the polarity of the covalent bonds in nitrogen monoxide (NO) and hydrogen chloride (HCl).

Thinking Working

Use the table of electronegativity values in Figure 7.2.3 NO: nitrogen 3.04; oxygen 3.44
on page 163 to find the electronegativities of the atoms HCl: hydrogen 2.20; chlorine 3.16
in each molecule.

For each molecule, subtract the lowest electronegativity NO: 3.44 – 3.04 = 0.40
value from the highest value. HCl: 3.16 – 2.20 = 0.96

Determine which molecule has the biggest difference in HCl is more polar than NO.
electronegativity in order to determine the more polar
molecule.

7.2 Key questions

1 a O
b C
c N
d N
e F
f F
2 a P–F
b C–H
3 Hydrogen–nitrogen bond, carbon–nitrogen bond, sulfur–nitrogen bond, oxygen–nitrogen bond, nitrogen–nitrogen bond
4 δ‒
Cl

δ+
C
Cl δ‒
δ‒ Cl

δ‒ Cl

5 a Polar
b Polar
c Polar
d Polar
e Non-polar

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

Section 7.3 Types of intermolecular forces

7.3 Key questions

1 Hydrogen chloride and chloromethane would form dipole-dipole forces.
2 C. Hydrogen chloride
3 Dipole–dipole forces: a to h; hydrogen bonds: a, g, h
4 H
O

O
H
H
H
O O H

H H H
O
H
H

Because of hydrogen bonding, ice is less dense than liquid water, and so ice floats on water. (For most liquids, the
solid is denser than the liquid.) This is good news for fish, but not good news for travellers on the Titanic!
5
N
H H H
H
O H

H
6 a Dispersion forces only
b Dispersion forces and hydrogen bonding
c Dispersion and dipole–dipole forces
d Dispersion forces and hydrogen bonding
e Dispersion forces only

CHAPTER 7 REVIEW
7.1 SHAPES OF MOLECULES

1 PCl3 – pyramidal, HOCl – V-shaped, CHCl3 – tetrahedral, HF – linear

2 V-shaped
3 Beryllium does not obey the octet rule in this molecule and forms only two single bonds. Each bond has two
electrons, so there are four bonding electrons involved in bonding.
4 a Tetrahedral
b Pyramidal
c Tetrahedral
d V-shaped
e Pyramidal

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

7.2 PROPERTIES OF COVALENT MOLECULAR SUBSTANCES

5 a Non-polar

S C S

b Polar

Oδ−

Clδ+ Clδ+
c Non-polar
H

Si

H H
H
d Polar
H

H Ce
H
e Non-polar
H H

H C C H

H H
f Non-polar
Cl

Cl Cl
Cl
6 The O–H bond in water is the most polar bond.
7 a Non-polar
b Polar
c Non-polar
d Polar
e Polar
8 Si–O, H–Br, N–O, O–Cl, F–F

7.3 TYPES OF INTERMOLECULAR FORCES

9 a SO3: i non-polar ii dispersion forces

b SiCl4 i non-polar ii dispersion forces
c CF4 i non-polar ii dispersion forces
d NF3 i polar ii dipole–dipole attraction
e CH3NH2 i polar ii hydrogen bonding
10 A and C. Compounds CCl4 and CO2 are both non-polar, and so intermolecular forces operating between these
molecules will be dispersion forces.
11 Melting temperatures increase down the table because the molecules increase in mass and size and there are more
electrons in the molecules; therefore, the strength of the dispersion forces increases.

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

12 CF4 has a slightly higher boiling temperature (–128°C) than OF2 (–145°C), indicating that the forces between
molecules in CF4 are stronger. OF2 is slightly polar; CF4 is non-polar. OF2 molecules are held together by forces of
dipole–dipole attraction and dispersion forces. Although CF4 molecules are attracted by dispersion forces only, the
much larger size of CF4 molecules makes the dispersion forces stronger than the sum of the dipole–dipole forces
and the dispersion forces between OF2 molecules.
13 Neon exists as single atoms, with the only forces of attraction being dispersion forces. As Ne atoms have very few
electrons, the dispersion forces are extremely weak. Neon therefore has a very low boiling temperature. Hydrogen
fluoride molecules, however, are very polar and so are held together by electrostatic attraction between permanent
dipoles. Because hydrogen is bonded to the very electronegative fluorine, the forces between molecules are hydrogen
bonds. These are relatively strong intermolecular bonds and HF, therefore, has a much higher boiling temperature
than Ne. (The dispersion forces operating between HF molecules are extremely weak.)
14 a CCl4
b CH4 and CCl4 are both non-polar and so are held together in a lattice only by dispersion forces. CCl4 is the larger
of these two molecules and has more electrons, so the dispersion forces between CCl4 molecules will be greater
than those between CH4 molecules. As there are stronger dispersion forces between molecules of CCl4 than for
CH4, it takes more energy to vaporise CCl4.
15 Iodine is a much larger molecule, so it has more electrons and therefore the dispersion forces are much stronger
in iodine than in fluorine.
16 A permanent dipole is formed if there is a difference in electronegativity between the two atoms that form a bond.
The more electronegative atom has a partial negative charge and the less electronegative atom has a partial positive
charge. In larger molecules, individual bonds may be polar but if the molecule is symmetrical the molecule will not
have a permanent dipole overall and is non-polar. Asymmetry in the molecule causes an asymmetry in the electron
distribution around the molecule, causing one end of the molecule to develop a partial negative charge while the other
end develops a partial positive charge. The positive and negative ends of neighbouring molecules attract each other,
forming dipole–dipole bonds.
A temporary dipole is caused by random fluctuations in the electron distributions around the molecule. The electrons
are constantly moving and can occasionally concentrate at one end of the molecule, causing that end to develop a
temporary negative charge while the other end develops a temporary positive charge. This temporary dipole can then
induce dipoles in the neighbouring molecules. The induced dipoles attract each other. Such attractions are known as
dispersion forces and are present between all molecules.

CONNECTING THE MAIN IDEAS

17 N N

O O

O C O

a i N2
ii O2
iii CO2
b i NH3, HCl, H2O, CHCl3
ii N2, Cl2, O2, CH4, CO2, CCl4
iii NH3, H2O
18 If water was a linear molecule, the polarity of the two O–H bonds would cancel each other out and make the molecule
non-polar. As water is polar, it cannot be a linear molecule.
19 The intermolecular bonds that hold molecules together in covalent molecular substances are much weaker (100
times) than the chemical bonds holding the atoms together in ionic, metallic and covalent network substances. As a
result, it takes much less heat energy to break the intermolecular bonds holding covalent molecular solids and liquids
together and these substances have relatively low melting and boiling points.

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

Chapter 8 Carbon lattices and carbon

nanomaterials

Section 8.1 Carbon lattices

8.1 Key questions

1 It can form four covalent bonds. Carbon atoms can form single, double and triple covalent bonds. Carbon atoms can
bond to each other.
2 a To sublime is to turn from a solid directly into a gas.
b Diamond and graphite contain extended networks of strong covalent bonds, which must be overcome to allow the
material to sublime.
3 a Diamond is hard because it has strong covalent bonds throughout the lattice, with all atoms being held in fixed
positions.
Graphite is soft because there are weak dispersion forces between the layers in graphite, so layers can be made to
slide over each other easily.
b Diamond is a non-conductor of electricity because all of its electrons are localised in covalent bonds and are not
free to move.
Graphite is able to conduct electricity because it has delocalised electrons between its layers of carbon atoms.
4 a Graphite is used as a dry lubricant because the dispersion forces between the layers in graphite enable the layers
to slide over each other easily and to reduce the friction between moving parts.
b The strong covalent bonding throughout the lattice means that the carbon atoms are fixed in place. This makes the
diamond very hard and suitable as a material for cutting other less hard materials.

Section 8.2 Carbon nanomaterials

8.2 Key questions

1 Fullerenes are similar to graphite in that they are allotropes of carbon in which each carbon atom has bonds to 3
other carbon atoms. Fullerenes conduct electricity and heat, similar to graphite. Fullerenes differ from graphite in that
they are nanomaterials, which give them different physical properties.
2 Each carbon atom in a buckyball is covalently bonded to 3 other carbon atoms. Each carbon atom has one free
electron, which is shared between the other carbon atoms in the sphere. The structure consists of hexagonal and
pentagonal rings of atoms.
3 Each carbon atom in a graphene sheet is covalently bonded to 3 other carbon atoms. Each carbon atom has one free
electron that is shared with the other carbon atoms in the sheet. The structure consists of hexagonal rings of atoms.
The sheet is one atom thick but may be of any length and width.
4 Carbon nanotubes are immensely strong for their mass. They can theoretically be produced with any length, allowing
for very long cables to be produced. A space elevator would require an extremely strong, long and uniform cable to be
produced.

CHAPTER 8 REVIEW
8.1 CARBON LATTICES

1 Carbon exists in different forms with different arrangements of atoms.

2 Refer to Figure 8.1.8. Carbon atoms bond covalently to three other carbon atoms in graphite to form layers. These
layers consist of hexagonal rings connected to each other. The fourth electron in each carbon atom is delocalised,
which explains its electrical conductivity. There are weak dispersion forces between layers of graphite, allowing the
layers to slide over each other and enabling it to act as a lubricant.

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

3 Charcoal has many pores and pockets giving it a very large surface area. The surface of charcoal may form dispersion
forces with the coloured contaminants. The coloured contaminants may also be trapped in the internal pores of the
charcoal.
4 Diamond consists of an extended three-dimensional network of strong covalent bonds, which must be overcome for
sublimation to occur.
5 a Methane is an example of a molecular substance. It has strong, covalent intramolecular bonds and very weak
intermolecular bonds. Diamond is an example of a covalent network lattice. It has strong covalent bonds
throughout its structure.
b Due to the weak dispersion forces between molecules, methane will have extremely low boiling and melting points.
If it were a solid it would be crystalline, brittle and soft. Due to its extended covalent lattice, diamond is extremely
hard, does not exist as a liquid and has a very high sublimation point.

8.2 CARBON NANOMATERIALS

6 Carbon atoms in diamond have a tetrahedral bond geometry; carbon atoms in graphene have a trigonal planar bond
geometry.
7 It is composed of single layers and the covalent bonding in each layer is very strong.
8 A carbon nanotube is like a cylinder of graphene with half a buckyball on each end.

CONNECTING THE MAIN IDEAS

Allotrope name Diamond Graphite Carbon nanotube Graphene

Bonding Each carbon is bonded Each carbon is bonded Each carbon is bonded Each carbon is bonded
feature to 4 others in a network to 3 others in a layered to 3 others in a to 3 others in a layer one
lattice structure structure cylindrical shape atom thick

Properties Hard, brittle Conducts electricity, soft Very strong, conducts Very strong, conducts
electricity electricity

10 The common structural feature of graphene and graphite is their layered structure. Both contain layers of carbon
atoms with each carbon bonded to three neighbouring atoms, with three covalent bonds. Each carbon atom still has
another valence electron that is delocalised in the layer, explaining the electrical conductivity of both allotropes. The
bonding between the atoms in the layer is strong. Graphene is just a single layer but graphite contains layer upon
layer.
This gives rise to the different properties of graphite and graphene. Graphene is very strong. There are dispersion
forces between layers in graphite, allowing the layers to slide past each other. Graphite can therefore act as a
lubricant. Both allotropes have a high sublimation point.
11 a A
 n electric circuit is used that contains a light globe and a power supply. When the power supply is switched
on the light globe will glow if the circuit is complete. The diamond must conduct electricity for the circuit to be
complete and the light globe to glow. For this to occur, the diamond must contain charged particles that are free
to move. Since the light globe does not glow, the diamond is not an electrical conductor and therefore does not
contain free-moving charged particles.
b Graphite, graphene and nanotubes are all conductive of electricity. Diamond is non-conductive of electricity.

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

Chapter 9 Organic compounds

Section 9.1 Crude oil as a source of raw materials

Worked example: Try yourself 9.1.1
IUPAC NAMING SYSTEM FOR ALKANES

Write the systematic name for the following molecule.

CH3

CH3 CH2 CH CH2 CH3

Thinking Working

Identify the longest carbon chain in the molecule. The longest chain has 5 carbons in the longest chain.
The name of the molecule is based on this longest chain. The stem name is based on pentane.

Number the carbons starting from the end closest to the CH3
branch.
CH3 CH2 CH CH2 CH3

1 2 3 4 5
Note: In this molecule, it does not matter which end the
numbering begins at as the side branch comes off central
carbon which is the third carbon.

Identify the branch. The side chain is a methyl group.

Combine all components. The name of the molecule is 3-methylpentane.

9.1 Key questions

1 A, D
2 a CH4
b Methane is a hydrocarbon because it is a compound of carbon and hydrogen.
c Carbon has the electronic configuration of 2,4. Each carbon atom needs four electrons to complete its outer
shell. Hydrogen has an electronic configuration of 1. Each hydrogen needs one electron to complete its outer
shell. Because both atoms need electrons, they will share electrons, that is, form covalent bonds. It will take four
hydrogen atoms to provide the four electrons required by each carbon atom.
d This tetrahedral arrangement gives minimum electrostatic repulsion between the four pairs of bonding electrons.
The hydrogen atoms are arranged around the central carbon atom in a tetrahedral configuration.
H

C
H H
H

3 a P
 ropane. This hydrocarbon contains three carbon atoms so the stem name is prop-. Its formula fits the general
formula of an alkane, CnH2n + 2 (n = 3 so 2 × 3 + 2 = 8). Hence the name of the hydrocarbon is propane.
b C3H8(g) + 5O2(g) → 3CO2(g) + 4H2O(g)
c H H H

H C C C H

H H H

d CH3CH2CH3

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

4 a Butane. The longest chain of carbon atoms is 4 and there are no branches.
b Heptane. The longest chain of carbon atoms is 7 and there are no branches. Note that the prefix hept- rather than
sept- is used to denote 7.
c 2-Methylpentane. The longest chain of carbon atoms is 5, giving the stem name of pentane, and there is one
methyl, –CH3, branch on carbon number 2 when numbered from the end closest to the branch.
d 2-Methylbutane. The longest chain of carbon atoms is 4, giving the stem name of butane, and there is one methyl,
–CH3, branch on carbon number 2 when numbered from the end closest to the branch.
e 2,4-Dimethylpentane. The longest chain of carbon atoms is 5, giving the stem name of pentane, and there are two
methyl, –CH3, branches: one on carbon number 2 and the other on carbon number 4 when numbered in either
direction. Dimethyl is used in addition to the two numbers to indicate the presence of two separate methyl groups.
5 a Butane
b Methylpropane
c 2,4-Dimethylpentane
d 3-Methylhexane
6 a Hexane
H H H H H H

H C C C C C C H

H H H H H H
b 3-Methylhexane
H

H C H
H H H H H

H C C C C C C H

H H H H H H

c 3,3-Dimethylpentane
H

H C H
H H H H

H C C C C C H

H H H H
H C H

d 3-Ethyl-2-methylpentane
H

H C H

H C H
H H H H

H C C C C C H

H H H H
H C H

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

Section 9.2 Unsaturated hydrocarbons

Worked example: Try yourself 9.2.1
IUPAC NAMING SYSTEM FOR UNSATURATED HYDROCARBONS

Write the systematic name for the following molecule.

H C
H H
H C
C H
C C
H
H C
H H
H
H

Thinking Working

Identify the longest carbon chain in the molecule that There are 4 carbons in the longest chain.
contains the double or triple bond. The name is based on butene.
The name of the molecule is based on this longest chain.

Number the carbon atoms starting from the end closest Number each carbon atom.
to the double or triple bond.
H
Note the position of any double or triple bond.
H C
H H
H 3 C 2
4 C H
C C
H 1
H C
H H
H
H
There is a double bond on carbon number 1 so the
longest chain is but-1-ene.

Identify any branches and the number carbon that it is The side chains are methyl groups and they are on
on. carbons numbered (from smallest to largest) 2 and 3.

Combine all components. The name of the molecule is 2,3-dimethylbut-1-ene.

9.2 Key questions

1 Ethene (C2H4), propene (C3H6), methylpropene (C4H8), pentene (C5H10), octene (C8H16)
2 a 4. The structure of methylpropene is based on propene with a methyl group attached.
b 8
c Methylpropene is an isomer of butene (C4H8).
3 B. The condensed structural formula shows the arrangement of the atoms in a molecule, but does not show the
bonds. A is the molecular formula of pentyne. D is the structural formula of pentyne and C is the condensed
structural formula of pentene.
4 a 5. The structure of 3-methylbut-1-yne is based on but-1-yne with a methyl group attached.
b 8. Methylpropene is an isomer of pentyne (C5H8).
c Pentyne
5 a Hept-3-ene
b Hex-3-yne
c 2,3-Dimethylbut-2-ene.

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

6 a But-2-ene
H
H
C
H H

C C
H
H

H
H
b Hex-1-yne
H H H H

H C C C C C C H

H H H H

c 4-Methylpent-1-ene
H

H C H
H H H H

H C C C C C H

H H H
d 4,4-Dimethylpent-1-yne
H

H C H
H H

H C C C C C H

H H
H C H

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

Section 9.3 Alcohols

Worked example: Try yourself 9.3.1
IUPAC NAMING SYSTEM FOR ALCOHOLS

Write the systematic name for the following molecule.

H H H

H C C C H

H O H

Thinking Working

Identify the longest carbon chain in the molecule. There are three carbons in the longest chain.
The name of the molecule is based on this longest chain. The name is based on propane.

Identify the functional group that is present. There is a hydroxyl group present.

Number the carbon atoms starting from the end closest H H H

to the functional group.
H C C C H
1 2 3

H O H

Identify the position(s) and the type(s) of branch. There are no branches in this molecule.

Combine all components. Place the number for the The name of the molecule is propan-2-ol.
position of the branch in front of the prefix, and the
number for the position of the hydroxyl group in front
of the –ol ending.

Worked example: Try yourself 9.3.2

IUPAC NAMING SYSTEM FOR ALCOHOLS

Write the systematic name for the following molecule.

CH3 CH CH CH CH3

CH3 OH CH3

Thinking Working

Identify the longest carbon chain in the molecule. There are 5 carbons in the longest chain. The name is
The name of the molecule is based on this longest chain. based on pentane.

Identify the functional group that is present. There is a hydroxyl group present.

Number the carbon atoms starting from the end closest The functional group will be on C3.
to the functional group.

Identify the position(s) and the type(s) of branches. There is a methyl (–CH3) group on C2 and on C4 so the
prefix ‘dimethyl’ will be used.

Combine all components. Place the number for the The name of the molecule is 2,4-dimethylpent-3-ol.
position of the branch in front of the prefix, and the
number for the position of the hydroxyl group in front
of the –ol ending.

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

9.3 Key questions

1 C. CH3OH is the smallest alcohol with the shortest carbon chain.
2 C
3 CH3OH, C4H9OH, C5H11OH
4 a Butan-2-ol
b 3-Methylheptan-2-ol
c 2,3-Dimethylhexan-1-ol
5 a Pentan-3-ol
H H H H H

H C C C C C H

H H O H H

H
b 3-Methylpentan-1-ol
H H H H H

H O C C C C C H

H H H H
H C H

c 2,5-Dimethylhexan-3-ol
H
H
H C H
H H O H H

H C C C C C C H

H H H H H
H C H

6 a The correct name is butan-1-ol. Carbon number 4 should be labelled carbon number 1 as that is the end closest
to the hydroxyl group.
H H H H

H C C C C O H
4 3 2 1

H H H H

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

b The correct name is 2-methylheptan-3-ol. One of the mislabelled methyl branches is actually part of the longest
carbon chain. Consequently, the hydroxyl group is on carbon number 3.
H

H C H
1
OH H H H H

H C C C C C C H
2 3 4 5 6 7

H H H H H
H C H

H
c The correct name is 2,3-dimethylbutan-2-ol. Carbon number 3 should be labelled carbon number 2 as that is the
end closest to the hydroxyl group.
H

H C H
H H

H C CH C C H
4 3 2 1

H OH H
H C H

Section 9.4 Carboxylic acids

Worked example: Try yourself 9.4.1
IUPAC NAMING SYSTEM FOR CARBOXYLIC ACIDS

Write the systematic name for the following molecule.

O

CH3 CH CH2 CH2 CH2 C

CH3 OH

Thinking Working

Identify the functional group that is present. There is a carboxyl group present.

Identify the longest carbon chain that includes the There are six carbons in the longest chain, so the stem
carboxyl carbon. This atom will be C1. name is based on hexane.
The stem name of the molecule is based on this longest
chain.

Number the carbon atoms starting from the end The functional group will be on C1.
incorporating the functional group.

Identify the position(s) and the type(s) of branches. There is a methyl group on C5.

Combine all components. Place the number for the The name of the molecule is 5-methylhexanoic acid.
position of the branch in front of the prefix and using
the –oic acid ending.

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

9.4 Key questions

1 D
2 A. Option B is incorrect because alcohols can also form hydrogen bonds. Options C and D are unrelated.
3 a CH3CH2CH2COOH
b (CH3)2CHCOOH
c CH3CH2CH(CH3)CH(CH3)COOH
d (CH3)3CHCH2COOH
4 a Propanoic acid
b 2-Methylbutanoic acid
c 2-Ethylhexanoic acid
d 3,4-Dimethylpentanoic acid
5 a H H H H H H O

H C C C C C C C

H H H H H H O

b H H H O

H C C C C O H

H H
H C H

H
c H

H C H
H H H O

H C C C C C O H

H H H
H C H

H
d H

H C H

H C H
H H H O

H C C C C C

H O
H H
H C H H

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

Section 9.5 Esters

Worked example: Try yourself 9.5.1
IUPAC NAMING SYSTEM FOR ESTERS

Write the systematic name for the following molecule.

H H H O H

H C C C C O C H

H H H H

Thinking Working

Locate the ester functional group. There are four carbons in the chain, which includes the
Starting from the carbonyl carbon, determine the number carbonyl carbon, so the last part of the molecule’s name
of carbon atoms in the chain attached to it and name is butanoate.
according to the stem name, adding the suffix ‘-oate’.

Count how many carbons are bonded to the singly There is one carbon bonded to the single bonded oxygen
bonded oxygen atom. The alkyl group bonded to the atom, so the alkyl group is methyl.
singly bonded oxygen atom is then added in front of the
name.

Combine the two components, placing the alkyl part of The name of the molecule is methyl butanoate.
the name first.

9.5 Key questions

1 C
2 C. Methyl = 1 carbon atom; propanoate = 3 carbon atoms. 3 + 1 = 4 carbon atoms in total. Option C is correct
because ethyl = 2 carbon atoms; ethanoate = 2 carbon atoms: 2 + 2 = 4 carbon atoms
3 a 2. Methyl = 1 carbon atom; methanoate = 1 carbon atom: 1 + 1 = 2 carbon atoms
b 5. Ethyl = 2 carbon atoms; propanoate = 3 carbon atoms: 2 + 3 = 5 carbon atoms
c 4. Propyl = 3 carbon atoms; methanoate = 1 carbon atom: 3 + 1 = 4 carbon atoms
d 9. Pentyl = 5 carbon atoms; butanoate = 4 carbon atoms: 5 + 4 = 9 carbon atoms
e 7. Butyl = 4 carbon atoms; propanoate = 3 carbon atoms: 4 + 3 = 7 carbon atoms
4 a CH3COOCH3
b CH3CH2COOCH2CH3
c CH3COOCH2CH3
d CH3CH2CH2COOCH2CH2CH3
5 a Methylpropanoate
b Ethylpropanoate
c Butylethanoate
d Butylbutanoate

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

Section 9.6 Determining formulas of organic compounds

Worked example: Try yourself 9.6.1
CALCULATING PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

8.38 g of an organic compound contains 5.44 g carbon, 1.13 g hydrogen and 1.81 g oxygen. Determine the
percentage composition of the compound. Give all answers to three significant figures.

Thinking Working

Divide the mass of the first element by the total mass of mass of the element present
% carbon = × 100
the compound and multiply by 100. total mass of the compound
5.44
= × 100
8.38
= 64.9%

Divide the mass of the second element by the total mass mass of the element present
% hydrogen = × 100
of the compound and multiply by 100. total mass of the compound
1.13
= × 100
8.38
= 13.5%

Repeat the previous step for any further elements in the mass of the element present
% oxygen = × 100
compound. total mass of the compound
1.81
= × 100
8.38
= 21.6%

Add up all the elemental percentages to check that they If your calculations above are correct, then
equal 100%. (If they don’t, then check your calculations Total % elements = % carbon + % hydrogen + % oxygen
and rounding off.)
= 64.9 + 13.5 + 21.6
= 100%

Worked example: Try yourself 9.6.2

CALCULATING EMPIRICAL FORMULA FROM PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION

Chemical analysis of an organic compound present in the gaseous emissions from a factory shows that its percentage
composition is 40.0% carbon, 6.7% hydrogen and the remainder is oxygen. Find its empirical formula.

Thinking Working

Assume that there is 100 g of the compound, so C : 40.0 g

percentages convert directly to masses. H : 6.7 g
Write down the mass, in g, of all elements present in O : 100 – 40.0 – 6.7 = 53.3 g
the compound.

Calculate the amount, in mol, of each element in the 40.0

n(C) =
compound using: 12.0
m = 3.33
n=
M

6.7
n(H) =
1.0
= 6.7

53.3
n(O) =
16.0
= 3.33

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

Simplify the ratio by dividing all of the numbers of moles 3.33

C=
by the smallest number of moles calculated above. This 3.33
gives you a ratio by number of atoms. =1

6.7
H=
3.33
=2

3.33
O=
3.33
=1

Find the simplest whole number ratio. C  :  H  :  O

1     2       1

Write the empirical formula. CH2O

Worked example: Try yourself 9.6.3

CALCULATING THE MOLECULAR FORMULA OF A COMPOUND

A compound has the empirical formula CH. The molar mass of this compound is 78 g mol–1. What is the molecular
formula of the compound?

Thinking Working

Calculate the molar mass, in g mol–1, of one unit of the M(CH) = 12.0 + 1.0
empirical formula.
= 13.0

Determine the number of empirical formula units in the Number of empirical formula units
molecular formula.
molar mass
=
molar mass of empirical formula unit
78
=
13.0
=6
Multiply the empirical formula by this factor to The molecular formula is 6 × CH
determine the molecular formula of the compound. i.e. C6H6

9.6 Key questions

4.66
1 D. × 100 = 68.1%
6.84
mass of element present
2 % of element = × 100
total mass of the compound
6.13
% of carbon = × 100 = 76.6%
8.00
0.51
% of hydrogen = × 100 = 6.4%
8.00

Mass of oxygen = mass of compound – mass of carbon – mass of hydrogen

= 8.00 – 6.13 – 0.51 = 1.36 g
1.36
% of oxygen = × 100 =17%
8.00

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

3 a Carbon = 60.0 g; oxygen = 26.7 g; hydrogen = 100.0 – 60.0 – 26.7 = 13.3 g

60.0
b n(C) = = 5.00 mol
12.0
26.7
n(O) = = 1.67 mol
16.0
13.3
n(H) = = 13.3 mol
1
5.00
c C= = 2.99
1.67
1.67
O= =1
1.67
13.3
H= = 7.96
1.67
d C:O:H=[Link]
e C3H8O
m 152.7
4 M(mannitol) = = = 182.0 g mol–1
M 0.8390

M(EF) = (3 × 12.0) + (7 × 1.0) + (3 × 16.0) = 91.0 g mol–1

molar mass
number of empirical formula units =
molar mass of empirical formula unit
182.0
= =2
91

Molecular formula = 2 × C3H7O3 = C6H14O6

CHAPTER 9 REVIEW
9.1 CRUDE OIL AS A SOURCE OF RAW MATERIALS

1 Carbon can form a large number of compounds for several reasons. Carbon atoms can use two electrons each to
bond to form very long chains. This leaves the other two valence electrons able to bond other non-metal atoms onto
the chain. In addition, there can be double and triple bonds between carbon atoms as well as ring structures. All these
possible variations mean that an enormous number of different compounds containing carbon can be formed.
2 A
3 a Alkanes
b C17H36
c C15H32
d Percentage by mass of an element
mass of element in 1 mol of compound
= × 100
mass of 1 mol of compound
M(C16H34) = 226 g mol–1
16 × 12.0
∴ %(C) = × 100
226
= 85.0%
85.0 × 275 g
So, M(C) in 275 g of compound =
100
= 234 g
4 a CH4(g) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)
b 2C6H14(l) + 19O2(g) → 12CO2(g) + 14H2O(g)
c Methylpropane is an isomer of butane, C4H10: 2C4H10(g) + 13O2(g) → 8CO2(g) + 10H2O(g)
d C31H64(s) + 47O2(g) → 31CO2(g) + 32H2O(g)

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

5 a Ethane
H H

H C C H

H H

b Methylpropane
H H H

H C C C H

H H
H C H

H
c 3-Methylpentane
H

H C H
H H H H

H C C C C C H

H H H H H
d Pentane
H H H H H

H C C C C C H

H H H H H
9.2 UNSATURATED HYDROCARBONS

6 a Alkane
b Alkene
c Alkane
d Alkyne
e Alkene
f Alkane
g Alkyne
7
But-1-ene But-2-ene Methylpropene
H H H H H
H
C C H H H C C H H C H

H C C H H C C H C C H

H H H H H C H

8 a Hex-2-ene
b 3,4-Dimethylpent-1-yne
c 4-Methylhex-2-yne

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

9 a 2C2H2(g) + 5O2(g) → 4CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)

b C3H6(g) + Br2(org) → C3H6Br2(org)
c C4H8(g) + H2O(l) → C4H9OH(l)
d C2H4(g) + HCl(g) → C2H5Cl(l)

9.3 ALCOHOLS

10 hydroxyl; polar; hydrogen; intermolecular; small

11 a T
 rue. A functional group is an atom or group of atoms that changes the chemical and physical properties of
a molecule.
b True.
c False. Alcohols contain the hydroxyl functional group.
12 Alcohols contain a hydroxyl group so hydrogen bonds can form between alcohol molecules. Hydrogen bonds are
stronger than the dispersion forces found between alkane molecules. This results in alcohols having a higher boiling
point than their corresponding alkane.
13 a H
 ydrogen bonds and dispersion forces are the intermolecular forces in both methanol and butan-1-ol, but butan-
1-ol has a higher boiling point because it is a larger molecule, so the dispersion forces between its molecules are
stronger.
b In butanol, the hydroxyl group could be placed at either carbon number 1 or 2, hence a number is required to
indicate its position. In methanol, there is only one carbon atom so the position of the hydroxyl group does not
need to be indicated.

9.4 CARBOXYLIC ACIDS

14 D. Only Option D contains the carboxyl functional group (–COOH).

15 A.
16 As the length of the carbon chain increases, the proportion of the carboxylic acid molecule that is non-polar increases,
decreasing its solubility in water.
17 a Pentanoic acid
b 3-Methylbutanoic acid
c 4-Methylhexanoic acid
d 3-Ethylpentanoic acid

9.5 ESTERS

18 a Methylethanoate
b Ethylethanoate
c Ethylpropanoate
19 a CH3COOH(l) + CH3CH2CH2OH(l) → CH3COOCH2CH2CH3(l) + H2O(l)
b Esterification reaction
c Sulfuric acid acts as a catalyst
20 a Ester functional group is circled in red.
O OH

C CH3

H C O C
C C O

C C
C
H H

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

b
The alcohol The carboxylic acid
O OH O H

C
H O C C H
H C O H
H
C C

C C
C
H H

9.6 DETERMINING THE FORMULAS OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

21 m(C) = 92.3% × mass of hydrocarbon = 1.15 g

1.15 1.15
mass of hydrocarbon = = = 1.25 g
92.3% 0.923

m(H) = mass of hydrocarbon – m(C) = 1.25 – 1.15 g = 0.10 g

22 Empirical formula Relative molecular mass Molecular formula
CH 78.0 C6H6
CH3 30.0 C2H6
CH2O 90.0 C3H6O3
C3H6O 116.0 C6H12O2
CH2 98.0 C7H14

23 a The molecular formula is always a whole-number multiple of the empirical formula. The empirical formula provides
m
the simplest whole-number ratio of atoms in a compound. The amount of each atom is found by using n = ,
M
where m is the mass in grams and M is the molar mass in g mol . –1

C H
Mass 85.7 g 14.3 g
Molar mass 12 g mol –1
1 g mol–1
m 85.7 14.3
Amount using n = n= = 7.14 mol n= = 14.3 mol
M 12.0 1.0

Divide all by the smallest amount 7.14 14.3

=1 =2
7.14 7.14

∴ empirical formula is CH2

b Molar mass of a CH2 unit (empirical formula) = 12 + 2 = 14 g mol–1

Molar mass of the compound (molecular formula) = between 40 and 50 g mol–1
∴ Number of CH2 units in one molecule = 3
∴ Molecular formula is C3H6
c Alkene
24 a C O H
Mass 40.0 g 6.7 g 9.1 g
Molar mass 10.0 6.7 53.3
n= = 3.33 mol n= = 6.7 mol n= = 3.33 mol
12.0 1.0 16.0

Simplest mole ratio 3.33 6.7 3.33

=1 =2 =1
3.33 3.33 3.33

∴ EF = CH2O

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

m 15.0
b M(compound) = = = 60.0 g mol–1
n 0.250
M(EF) = 12.0 + (2 × 1.0) + 16.0 = 30.0 g mol–1
molar mass
number of empirical formula units =
molar mass of empirical formula unit
60.0
=2
30.0
Molecular formula = 2 × CH2O = C2H4O2

CONNECTING THE MAIN IDEAS

25 a Single covalent bond

b Hydroxyl group
c Methyl group
d Carboxyl group
26 Student poster
27 a An alkene contains one double carbon–carbon bond, which requires two carbon atoms. The first alkene is therefore
ethene.
b The carbon atom has four electrons in the outer shell, which are available for sharing with other atoms to produce
four covalent bonds.
28 a Polyunsaturated: contains many double bonds; mono-unsaturated: contains one double bond; saturated: contains
only single bonds between carbon atoms.
b Individual student response required.

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

Chapter 10 Polymers

Section 10.1 Types of polymers

10.1 Key questions

1 a CH2
b CH2
c CH
d C2H3Cl
2 a Monomer formula C3H6, polymer formula has three monomers: C9H18
b Monomer formula C2H3Cl, polymer formal has 6 monomers: C12H18Cl6
c Monomer formula C2H4, polymer formal has 65 monomers: C130H260
3 The repeating units from the monomer are –CH2CF2– so there are 4 in this segment.
4 Polymers usually consist of thousands to millions of monomer repeating units, so this would not be considered a
polymer.
5 a High-density polyethene (HDPE) is made of relatively unbranched chains of polyethene, which can pack more
closely together than the chains of low-density polyethene (LDPE). LDPE contains branched chains of polyethene
that cannot pack together as closely. HDPE is therefore stronger and slightly less flexible than LDPE. Both HDPE
and LDPE are chemically unreactive, waterproof, non-conductors and only slightly permeable to gases.
b i LDPE
ii HDPE
iii LDPE
6 a
CH3 H CH3 H CH3 H
C C + C C + C C
H H H H H H
Catalyst

H H H
CH3 CH3 CH3
C C C
C C C
H H H
H H H

b
F F F F F F
C C + C C + C C

F F F F F F
Catalyst

F F F
F F F
C C C
C C C
F F F
F F F

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

c H CN H CN H CN

C C + C C + C C

H H H H H H

catalyst

CN CN CN
H H H
C C C
C C C
H H H
H H H

Section 10.2 Designing polymers for a purpose

10.2 Key questions

1 a Weak dispersion forces
b Dipole–dipole attractions
c Weak dispersion forces
d Weak dispersion forces
e Dipole–dipole attractions
2 Monomers from left to right: ethene, 1,1,2,2-tetrafluoroethene, ethene, 1,1,2,2-tetrafluoroethene
3 –H (in polyethene)
–F (in Teflon)
–Cl (in polyvinyl chloride)
–C6H5 (in polystyrene)
–NC12H8 (in polyvinyl carbazole)
4 a Increased crystallinity
b Increased crystallinity
c Decreased crystallinity
5 a Isotactic
b H H

C C

H CH3

c 3 units are shown.

d This section is likely to be part of a crystalline region as the small side groups and isotactic arrangement will allow
for close packing and strong interchain bonding.
6 a Increase flexibility
b Improved heat insulating properties or mechanical properties
c Increased crystallinity resulting in a harder, more brittle polymer

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

CHAPTER 10 REVIEW
10.1 TYPES OF POLYMERS

1 a H H

C C

Cl H
b 6
c Dipole–dipole bonds
2 a M
 onomers are small molecules that are able to react to form long chains of repeating units, called polymers. Often
contains a carbon–carbon double bond.
b When the material is heated, the bonds between molecules are broken and the molecules become free to move.
c When the material is heated it does not melt, but at high temperatures, covalent bonds are broken and the material
decomposes or burns. It cannot be moulded into a different shape.
d One or more covalent bonds that connect neighbouring polymer chains.
e A chemical added to plastics to make them more flexible.
3 a False
b False
c False
d True
4 A, C, and D can act as monomers in addition polymerisation; B, propane, cannot as it does not contain a double bond.
5 a The ethene molecule has a carbon-to-carbon double bond.
b H H

C C
H H
Ethene has this structural formula because it ensures each atom has a stable outer-electron shell, and this
arrangement of atoms gives the minimum repulsion between electron pairs.
c Ethane cannot undergo addition polymerisation because it is a saturated compound.
6 a Several thousand ethene monomers react to make one molecule of polyethene.
b Ethene (CH2=CH2) is unsaturated because it contains a double bond. Polyethene is saturated because it contains
only single bonds between carbon atoms.
c The empirical formula is the simplest whole-number ratio of elements in a compound. The empirical formula of
ethene (CH2=CH2) is CH2.
7
CH3 H H H
CH3 CH3
C C C
C C C
H
H H
H H H

CI H H H
CI CI
C C C
C C C
CI
CI CI
H H H

CH3 H H H
CH3 CH3
C C C
C C C
CI
H H
O.COCH3 O.COCH3 O.COCH3

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

8 a i

ii

iii

polymer easily stretched Some stretching but no stretching possible

polymer tends to return
to its original shape.

9 An elastomer has occasional crosslinking that prevent the chains from slipping past each other too far and pull the
chains back to their original positions when the force is removed. See Figure 10.1.15.
10 Thermosetting polymers have much stronger inter-chain bonds than thermoplastic polymers.
11 The inter-chain bonds in thermosetting polymers are about the same strength as the covalent bonds within chains.
When heated strongly both the inter-chain and within chain bonds break.
12 H H
C C

H O COCH3

10.2 DESIGNING POLYMERS FOR A PURPOSE

13 Distinguishing between thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers is important. The former get soft when heated,
whereas the latter remain rigid and will char if heating continues.
a Thermosetting
b Thermoplastic
c Thermosetting
d Thermoplastic
e Thermoplastic
14 As the polymer chains are held further apart by the plasticisers, it makes it easier for the polymer chains to slide over
each other. As a result, these materials have a lower softening temperature, and are more malleable and soft.
15 Polymers without extensive branching and regular chain structures are most likely to form crystalline regions.
16 a PVC is flexible, non-conducting, strong, has a high melting point and low flammability.
b PVC has no free charged particles to conduct electricity. It has strong inter-chain bonding due to dipoles, which
increase its strength and raise its melting point. PVC contains strong bonds that do not burn easily and it produces
chemicals that extinguish flames when burned. PVC is plasticised to make it flexible.
17 Ultra-high molecular weight polyethene has very long polymer chains that cause stronger inter-chain forces than for
HDPE.
18 Left: C8H8; middle: C3H3N; right: C4H6
19 a Thermoplastic with high melting temperature
b Lower density/more transparent polymer
20 Thermoplastic

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

CONNECTING THE MAIN IDEAS

21 a The polymer used in saucepan handles

b Saucepan handles are much harder and more resistant to the effect of heat than elastic bands. The polymer on
the outside of the golf ball is also very hard, but, unlike the polymer in saucepan handles, is quite elastic.
22 The relative molecular mass would have increased. The melting point of the polymer would have increased. The
overall strength of inter-chain forces would have increased. The electrical conductivity of the polymer would have
remained the same.

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

Chapter 11 Research investigation

Section 11.1 Planning a research investigation

11.1 Key questions

1 a Evaluate
b Compare
c Contrast
d Justify
2 D. The nuclear accident in Fukushima was due to radioactive material being released from a nuclear power plant.
3 a Secondary
b Primary
c Primary
d Secondary
4 A and C. The company and the research scientist are more likely to be biased because they have vested interests in
the outcomes. For example, if a research scientist has received financial support from a pharmaceutical company,
there is the possibility that the scientist might try to influence the findings in favour of the company.
5 B. Repeating experiments and presenting results support the reliability of an experiment.
6 A. In APA style, the in-text citation should list the first author’s last name and the year of publication.

Section 11.2 Communicating scientific ideas

11.2 Key questions

1 C. It is best to simplify or explain difficult words. ‘Anthropogenic’ describes pollutants originating from human activity.
2 Model Advantages Limitations
a Space-filling models Useful for representing the sharing of Sizes of atoms may not be accurate.
space between 2 atoms where a pair of
shared electron orbitals overlap. Useful
for representing the overall 3D structure
of molecules.
b Ball-and-stick models Useful for representing the three- Covalent bonds between atoms are often
dimensional structure of molecules. Show shown as ‘lines’ that do not represent
each covalent bond. actual bond length.
c Structural formula Easy to draw. Molecules are actually three-dimensional.

3 A. The first C is part of a methyl group, CH3, the second C has 2 methyl groups attached to it, i.e. C(CH3)2, the third C
in the chain has 2 H atoms attached to it, the fourth C has both a H atom and a methyl group attached, CH(CH3), and
the final carbon is part of a methyl group.
4 a Economic
b Social
c Social
d Environmental
5 B. The symbol of the unit gram is g.

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

Section 11.3 Writing a scientific report

11.3 Key questions

1 B. Scientific writing should not use biased or absolute language.
2 D. First-person narrative uses the pronoun ‘I’.
3 The statement ‘Many repeats of the procedure were conducted’ is unquantified. ‘Thirty repeats of the procedure were
conducted’ is better because the number of trials is quantified.
4 B. A scientific article should always be written using objective language. A concluding paragraph must summarise
the information presented in the article and connect it with the title. It should also include limitations, possible
applications of the research and potential future research.

CHAPTER 11 REVIEW
11.1 PLANNING A RESEARCH INVESTIGATION

1 C
2 a Reflect
b Create
c Analyse
d Investigate
e Apply
f Identify
g Describe
3 C. All of these sources are secondary sources.

11.2 COMMUNICATING SCIENTIFIC IDEAS

4 C
5 C. The charge on the chloride ion is –1, therefore the charge on the copper ion is +2. Transition metals often can form
more than one ion. To distinguish Cu2+ from Cu+, Roman numerals are needed, thus copper(II).
6 C. Environmental factors are not mentioned in this excerpt. Medical implications fall into the social category, and costs
and availability to certain groups and not others are economical and ethical factors.

11.3 WRITING A SCIENTIFIC REPORT

7 a Accuracy
b Critical thinking
c Precision
d Validity of data
e Reliability of data
f Authority of data
8 a B. The article (advertisement) uses emotive language to imply that butter is healthier than margarine.
b What’s in it for you? It tastes better, naturally. Dairy Good. Good food. Good taste.

CONNECTING THE MAIN IDEAS

9 a i Social
ii Bombarding
b ‘Through an electron microscope, Stevens’ material looks like a bed of nails, each nail one thousandth the width
of a human hair and one thousandth the length of a grain of rice.’

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

c Possible answers:
1 This article is written in a scientific way because:
• Evidence is provided to support arguments; e.g. ‘After one week there was a six-fold increase …’
• Credible sources are cited, e.g. Molly Stevens and her team from Imperial College, London.
2 This article is written in a non-scientific way because:
• Colloquial language is occasionally used such as ‘But placing DNA inside cells is tricky’.
d B. Further details would enable the reader to easily find the original article to read further, or confirm the
information summarised.

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

Chapter 12 Properties of water

Section 12.1 Essential water

12.1 Key questions

1 a Physical properties that are unusual to water include:
• relatively high melting and boiling temperatures for its molecular size
• decrease in density on freezing
• high heat capacity
• high latent heat of fusion and evaporation for a substance of its molecular size
b The bond between H and O atoms in water is highly polar. As a result, hydrogen bonds exist between water
molecules. Hydrogen bonds are stronger than other intermolecular bonds (although still weaker than the covalent
intramolecular bonds) and so require more energy to break. Thus, water has a relatively high melting and boiling
temperatures. Hydrogen bonding between water molecules in ice results in a very open arrangement of molecules
so ice is less dense than liquid water.
2 δ–

O
overall
Hδ+ dipole
δ+
H

O H
bonds
polar

3 Each water molecule has two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. The oxygen atom has two pairs of non-bonding
electrons, each of which can form one hydrogen bond.
So the maximum number of water molecules with which one water molecule can form hydrogen bonds is four: up to
two hydrogen bonds involving the two hydrogen atoms and up to two hydrogen bonds involving the two pairs of non-
bonding electrons on the oxygen atom.
4 a H2S, H2Se, H2Te, H2Po, H2O
b With the exception of water, the boiling points of the group 16 hydrides increase going down the group. This is
due to increasing strength of dispersion forces as the molecules increase in mass. Water has a significantly higher
boiling point than the other compounds due to the hydrogen bonds between its molecules.
5 a In ice, the distribution of hydrogen bonds in water is almost tetrahedral in shape. In order for these hydrogen bonds
to form as the water solidifies, the water molecules must move into these positions, so occupying more volume
than in liquid water.
b

c As it freezes, water expands, unlike most liquids. This is because of hydrogen bonding. Each water molecule is
surrounded by four others in what is almost a crystal-type situation. (See Figure 12.1.7, which shows the variation
in density of water with temperature.) Therefore, ice is less dense than liquid water, and it floats on liquid water.
(For most liquids, the solid is denser than the liquid.) This is good news for fish, but not good news for travellers
on the Titanic!

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

Section 12.2 Heat capacity

Worked example: Try yourself 12.2.1
CALCULATING THE AMOUNT OF ENERGY REQUIRED TO HEAT A SPECIFIED MASS OF A SUBSTANCE USING
SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY

Calculate the heat energy, in kJ, needed to increase the temperature of 375 g of water by 45.0°C.

Thinking Working

Find the specific heat capacity (C) of the substance from The specific heat capacity of water is 4.18 J g–1 °C–1.
the data in Table 12.2.1.

To calculate the quantity of heat energy in joules, use the q = 4.18 × 375 × 45
formula: = 7.05 × 104 J
q = C × m × ∆T

Express the quantity of energy in kJ. Remember that to q = 7.05 × 104 × 10–3
convert from J to kJ, you multiply 10–3. = 70.5 kJ

12.2 Key questions

1 D
2 Copper, iron, chlorofluorocarbon, concrete, glass, aluminium, wood, ethanediol, water
3 q = C × m × ∆T
= 0.48 × 5.0 × 12 = 29 J
4 Convert the mass of water in kg to a mass in g (1000 g = 1 kg)
1.5 × 1000 = 1500 g
q = C × m × ∆T
= 4.18 × 1500 × 15
= 94 050 J
The answer asks you to give your answer in kJ. To convert from joules to kilojoules divide by 1000.
94 050 J = 94 kJ
5 a 198 kJ
q = C × m × ∆T
= 4.18 × 600 × (100 – 21)
= 4.18 × 600 × 79
= 198 132 J
= 198 kJ
b q = C × m × ∆T
= 0.13 × 600 × 79
= 6162 J
= 6.2 kJ
6 32°C
q = C × m × ∆T°C
q
So rearranging the equation ∆T =
C×m
10 000
∆T =
4.18 × 250
10 000
=
1045

= 9.57°C
This is the change in temperature, so to work out the final temperature:
Temperature reached = 22°C + 9.57°C = 32°C
(Only to 2 sig figs as the energy is given as 10 kJ. When changing the unit you can’t change the no. of sig figs.)

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

7 C = 0.39 J g–1 °C–1, therefore the unknown is copper.

q = C × m × ∆T
q
Rearranging the equation C =
m × ∆T
9750
C= = 0.39 J g–1 °C–1
500 × 50

From Table 12.2.1: C = 0.39 J g–1 °C–1 is copper.

Section 12.3 Latent heat

Worked example: Try yourself 12.3.1
CALCULATING THE HEAT ENERGY REQUIRED TO EVAPORATE A GIVEN MASS OF WATER AT ITS BOILING
TEMPERATURE

Calculate the heat energy, in kJ, required to evaporate 75.0 g of water at 100°C.

Thinking Working

Determine the amount, in mol, of the substance using the 75.0

n=
formula: 18.0
m = 4.17 mol
n=
M

Find the relevant latent heat value of the substance. Water is being evaporated so the latent heat of
vaporisation of water is required.
L = 44.0 kJ mol–1

Calculate the heat energy, in kJ, using the formula: q = 4.17 × 44.0
q=n×L = 70.5 kJ

Section 12.3 Key questions

1 At the melting point the flat region of the graph represents the substance changing from a solid to a liquid. The energy
change is equal to the latent heat of fusion. At the boiling point the flat region of the graph represents the substance
changing from a liquid to a gas. The energy change is equal to the latent heat of vaporisation.
2 Hydrogen bonding
3 The latent heat of fusion is the energy required to change the state of water from a solid to a liquid. This only requires
the breaking of some of the hydrogen bonds between water molecules. The latent heat of vaporisation is much higher
as the phase change from liquid to gas requires all the hydrogen bonds between water molecules to be broken.
4 110 kJ
Water is evaporating, so latent heat of fusion is required (44.0 kJ mol–1).
q=n×L
= 2.50 × 44.0
= 110 kJ
5 1 mL of water has a mass of 1 g so 100 mL has a mass of 100 g
100
n= = 5.56 mol
18.0

q=n×L
= 5.56 × 44.0
= 245 kJ

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

6 100 kJ
m
n=
M
300
=
18.0

= 16.7 mol
The ice is melting so the latent heat of fusion of water is required.
q=n×L
= 16.7 × 6.0
= 100 kJ

CHAPTER 12 REVIEW
12.1 ESSENTIAL WATER

1 Water is a polar molecule. Within a single molecule, hydrogen and oxygen atoms are held together by strong covalent
bonds. Between different molecules, the most significant forces are hydrogen bonds.
It is the relatively high strength of the intermolecular forces that give water its unique properties of:
• relatively high boiling point, 100°C
• relatively high latent heat values 6.0 kJ mol–1 and 44.0 kJ mol–1
• relatively high specific heat capacity 4.18 J g–1 °C–1.
2 a Water molecule
b Hydrogen atom
c Hydrogen bond (and dispersion forces)
d Covalent bond
3 a Intermolecular forces are those between one molecule and other molecules. For water, these are hydrogen bonds.
Intramolecular forces are those holding the atoms together within a molecule. For water, these are covalent bonds.
b Covalent bonds are stronger. Evidence for this is the high temperatures required to break the bonds between the
oxygen and hydrogen atoms inside the water molecule and so decompose it into its constituent gases. Changing
liquid water into gaseous water involves breaking hydrogen bonds to separate one molecule from another. The
lower temperatures needed to do so indicate that hydrogen bonds are weaker.
4 Water has a significantly higher melting point than hydrogen sulfide due to the hydrogen bonds between water
molecules. Hydrogen sulfide cannot form hydrogen bonds.
5 It is the high polarity of the water molecule that allows relatively strong hydrogen bonding to occur between
molecules. As a consequence, a relatively large quantity of energy is required to break the hydrogen bonds between
water molecules when water changes from a liquid to a gas. This gives water a high boiling point.
6 Water has a high latent heat of vaporisation. Water is effective as a cooler because it absorbs a relatively large amount
of energy when it evaporates, giving it a high latent heat of vaporisation.

12.2 HEAT CAPACITY

7 D
q
∆T =
C×m

So the change in temperature of a substance (∆T) is dependent upon the amount of heat energy transferred to the
substance (q, option C), the mass of the substance (m, option A) and the heat capacity of the substance (C), which is
related to the types of bonds present in the substance (option B).
8 85.7 kJ
250 mL of water has a mass of 250 g
q = C × m × ∆T
= 4.18 × 250 × (100 – 18)
= 4.18 × 250 × 82
= 85 690 J
= 85.7 kJ

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

9 420 kJ
For water, 1 mL weighs 1 g, so 1.500 L of water (1500 mL) weighs 1500 g .
q = C × m × ∆T
= 4.18 × 1500 × (90 – 23)
= 4.18 × 1500 × 67
= 420 090 J
= 420 kJ
10 9.6 kJ
1.0 kg = 1000 g
q = C × m × ∆T
= 2.4 × 1000 × 4.0
= 9600 J
= 9.6 kJ
11 67.7°C
q = C × m × ∆T
q
Rearrange for ∆T =
C×m
12 500
= = 42.7°C
0.39 × 750

Therefore final temperature = 25 + 42.7 = 67.7°C = 68°C

12 0.42 J g–1 °C–1

q
Rearrange for C =
m × ∆T
50
=
15 × 8.0

= 0.42 J g–1 °C–1

12.3 LATENT HEAT

13 Definition Property
a The temperature at which a liquid evaporates to form a gas Boiling point
b The heat energy required to melt a solid to a liquid at its Latent heat of fusion
melting point
c The amount of heat energy required to increase a specific Specific heat capacity
mass of a substance by a certain amount, e.g. 1 g by 1°C
d The heat energy required to evaporate a liquid to a gas at Latent heat of vaporisation
its boiling point

14 B. Latent heat results in the change of state of a substance.

15 a The crystal lattice of ice is disrupted and molecules have greater freedom of movement. During this time, all solid
ice is being converted to liquid water.
b The added energy is taken up in overcoming the hydrogen bonds between molecules, separating the molecules to
form a gas.
16 611 kJ
m
n=
M
250
=
18.0

= 13.9 mol
The water is evaporating, so the latent heat of vaporisation is required.
q=n×L
= 13.9 × 44.0
= 611 kJ

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

17 409 g
q
q = n × L can be rearranged to make the formula n =
L
1000
so n =
44.0

= 22.7 mol
m=n×M
= 22.7 × 18.0
= 409 g
18 First calculate the amount, in mol, of water.
m
n=
M
500
=
18.0

= 27.8 mol
The heat energy required for melting the ice is then calculated:
q = 6.0 × 27.8
= 167 kJ
The heat energy required for evaporating the water is calculated:
q = 44.0 × 27.8
= 1223 kJ
Difference in heat energies = 1223 – 167 = 1056 kJ
19 Water’s high latent heat of vaporisation means that living organisms need only release small amounts of water onto
their skin to efficiently cool themselves. If the value were lower, the water would evaporate more easily, so more sweat
would need to be produced to cool the body down. Living organisms would be at a greater risk of dehydration or
overheating.

CONNECTING THE MAIN IDEAS

20 a The specific heat capacity of ethanol is almost half that of water. For the same amount of energy the change in
temperature of ethanol will be almost twice that of water.
b Water has a higher specific heat capacity than ethanol due to the greater strength of its hydrogen bonds. Also
for the same mass there are more molecules per gram of water than ethanol meaning that there will be a greater
number of hydrogen bonds per gram of water. Heating 100 g of ethanol from 0°C to 20°C will require less energy
than the energy needed to heat 100 g of water over the same temperature range.
21 0.80 J g–1 °C–1
q=n×L
water is melting so need to use latent heat of fusion 6.0 kJ mol–1
9.0
n(water) = = 0.50 mol
18.0

q = 0.50 × 6.0
= 3.0 kJ of energy absorbed by the ice
q = C × m × ∆T
Rearrange for C
q
C=
m × ∆T

∆T = 150 – 0
= 150 (not all of the ice has melted so the final temperature of the metal rod must still be at the melting point
of water, 0°C)
3000
C=
25 × 150

= 0.80 J g–1 °C–1

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

Chapter 13 Water, the universal solvent

Section 13.1 Water as a solvent

13.1 Key questions

1 a Water – solvent
b Wine – solution
c Ethanol – solute
d Sugar – solute
2 They all have water as the solvent.
3 a Ammonia (NH3–) – soluble
b Oxygen gas (O2) – likely to be insoluble
c Hydrogen chloride (HCl) – soluble
d Methanol (CH3OH) – soluble
e Methane (CH4) – likely to be insoluble
f Hydrogen fluoride (HF) – soluble
g Carbon dioxide (CO2) – likely to be insoluble
4 The solute–solvent forces are stronger than the solute–solute and solvent–solvent forces.
5
Shape Surface area

Dissolution The process by which a substance is dissolved in a solvent.

Solution A liquid mixture in which a solute is dispersed throughout a solvent.

Solvent The major component of a solution.

Solute The minor component of a solution.

Soluble Capable of dissolving

Insoluble Incapable of dissolving

6 CH4 (methane). Methane is a non-polar molecule. According to the principle of ‘like dissolves like, a non-polar
substance will not dissolve in a polar solvent such as water.
7 When sugar dissolves in water, (1) the solute–solute bonds between sugar molecules must be broken, (2) the solvent–
solvent bonds between water molecules must also be broken and (3) new solute–solvent bonds form.

Section 13.2 Water as a solvent of molecular substances

13.2 Key questions

1 B, methanol, CH3OH, and E, ethylene glycol, HOCH2CH2OH
An –OH group is polar and can form hydrogen bonds with water. As a consequence, methanol and ethylene glycol
dissolve readily in water.
Hydrogen chloride contains polar covalent molecules; however, its molecules are not able to form hydrogen bonds
with water molecules.
Ammonium sulfate and sodium hydroxide are ionic compounds containing polyatomic ions.
Diamond has a covalent lattice structure and is insoluble in water.
Hydrogen gas consists of non-polar molecules and will not dissolve in water.
H2O(l)
2 CH3OH(l) CH3OH(aq)
H2O(l)
C6H12O6(s) C6H12O6(aq)

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

3 • Hydrogen bonds between water molecules are broken.

• Hydrogen bonds between ethanol molecules are broken.
• New hydrogen bonds form between ethanol molecules and water molecules.
4 HI(s) + H2O(l) → H3O+(aq) + I–(aq)
5 Covalent bonds within hydrogen chloride molecules are broken.
Hydrogen bonds between water molecules are broken. The HCl ionises and produces Cl– and H+ ions. Covalent bonds
form between H+ ions and water to produce hydronium ions. Ion–dipole bonds form between the Cl– and H3O+ ions and
polar water molecules.

Section 13.3 Water as a solvent of ionic compounds

Worked example: Try yourself 13.3.1
DETERMINING IF IONIC COMPOUNDS ARE SOLUBLE OR INSOLUBLE IN WATER

Is ammonium phosphate ((NH4)3PO4) soluble or insoluble in water? You will need to refer to the solubility table to
complete this question.

Thinking Working

Identify the ions that are present in the ionic compound. Ammonium (NH4+) and phosphate (PO43–)

Check the solubility tables to see if compounds Compounds containing ammonium ions are soluble.
containing the cation are usually soluble or insoluble
in water.

Check the solubility tables to see if compounds Ammonium phosphate is a noted water soluble
containing the anion are usually soluble or insoluble phosphate ion containing compound.
in water.

13.3 Key questions

H2O(l)
1 NaNO3(s) Na+(aq) + NO3–(aq)
H2O(l)
Ca(OH)2(s) Ca2+(aq) + 2OH–(aq)

2 Oδ–
Hδ+ Hδ+
Hδ+ Hδ+
O δ–

Hδ+ Hδ+ Hδ+ Hδ+

Oδ– Na+ Oδ– Oδ– Cl– Oδ–

Hδ+ Hδ+ Hδ+ Hδ+

Oδ–
Hδ+ Hδ+
Hδ+ Hδ+ Oδ–
represents ion–dipole interaction

The positive sodium ion attracts the partial negative charges on the oxygen atoms in the water molecule. The negative
chloride ion attracts the partial positive charges on the hydrogen atoms in the water molecule.
3 A, B, D, E, H
4 A, C, D, E, F, H
5 a Na+/CO32–
b Ca2+/NO3–
c K+/Br–
d Fe3+/SO42–
e Cu2+/Cl–

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

6 a Nitrates are highly soluble in water. If found on Earth, they would dissolve in rainwater and wash into the oceans.
Therefore, they are found only in areas of low rainfall.
b The high solubility of sodium, chloride and sulfate ions results in them dissolving and flowing into the world’s
oceans.

Section 13.4 Precipitation reactions

Worked example: Try yourself 13.4.1
PREDICTING THE PRODUCTS OF A PRECIPITATION REACTION

What precipitate, if any, will be produced when solutions of sodium sulfide, and copper(II) nitrate are added together?
You will need to refer to the solubility tables (Tables 13.3.1 and 13.3.2) to complete this question.

Thinking Working

Identify which ions are produced by each of the ionic Ions produced are Na+(aq), S2–(aq), Cu2+(aq) and NO3–(aq)
compounds in the mixture.

Identify which two new combinations of positive and Na+(aq) and NO3–(aq)
negative ions are possible in the mixture of the solutions. Cu2+(aq) and S2–(aq)

Use the solubility table to check which, if any, of these Compounds containing sodium ions or nitrate ions
combinations will produce an insoluble compound. are usually soluble, so sodium nitrate will not form
a precipitate.
Compounds containing sulfide ions are usually insoluble,
so copper(II) sulfide will form as a precipitate.

Worked example: Try yourself 13.4.2

WRITING EQUATIONS FOR PRECIPITATION REACTIONS

Write a balanced equation for the reaction between copper(II) sulfate and sodium hydroxide, in which the precipitate
is copper(II) hydroxide. Identify the spectator ions in this reaction.

Thinking Working

Write an incomplete, unbalanced equation showing the CuSO4(aq) + NaOH(aq) → Cu(OH)2(s)

reactants and the precipitate product. Include symbols
of state.

Add to the equation above the formula of the other CuSO4(aq) + NaOH(aq) → Cu(OH)2(s) + Na2SO4(aq)
compound formed in the reaction.

Balance the equation. CuSO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) → Cu(OH)2(s) + Na2SO4(aq)

Write the formulas of the ions that do not form a Na+(aq) and SO42–(aq) are spectator ions.
precipitate in the reaction. These are the spectator ions.

13.4 Key questions

1 a A precipitate of silver carbonate
b A precipitate of lead(II) hydroxide
c A precipitate of magnesium sulfide
d No precipitate
Silver, lead and magnesium ions are not found in the solubility table. However, the anions that each of these
are combined with in these questions all form compounds that are usually insoluble. It is also worth noting that
compounds containing sodium and nitrate ions are usually soluble.
The iron(II) ion is also not found in the solubility table. However, iron(II) does not appear in the ‘exceptions’ column
of the table for either nitrates or sulfates, both of which generally form soluble compounds.

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

2 Chemicals containing the ions Na+, K+, NH4+ and NO3– almost never form a precipitate.
a i magnesium sulfide
ii silver chloride
iii aluminium hydroxide
iv magnesium hydroxide
b i K2S(aq) + MgCl2(aq) → MgS(s) + 2KCl(aq)
ii CuCl2(aq) + 2AgNO3(aq) → 2AgCl(s) + Cu(NO3)2(aq)
iii AlCl3(aq) + 3KOH(aq) → Al(OH)3(s) + 3KCl(aq)
iv MgSO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) → Mg(OH)2(s) + Na2SO4(aq)
3 a i AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) → AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq)
ii Ag+(aq) + Cl–(aq) → AgCl(s)
b i CuSO4(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) → CuCO3(s) + Na2SO4(aq)
ii Cu2+(aq) + CO32–(aq) → CuCO3(s)
c i (NH4)2SO4(aq) + BaCl2(aq) → BaSO4(aq) + 2NH4Cl(aq)
ii SO42–(aq) + Ba2+(aq) → BaSO4(aq)
d i K2S(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) → PbS(s) + 2KNO3(aq)
ii S2–(aq) + Pb2+(aq) → PbS(s)
e i 3CaCl2(aq) + 2Na3PO4(aq) → 6NaCl(aq) + Ca3(PO4)2(s)
ii 3Ca2+(aq) + 2PO43–(aq) → Ca3(PO4)2(s)
f i 2NaOH(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) → 2NaNO3(aq) + Pb(OH)2(s)
ii 2OH–(aq) + Pb2+(aq) → Pb(OH)2(s)
4 a Na+/NO3–
b Na+/SO42–
c NH4+/Cl–
d K+/NO3–
e Na+/Cl–
f Na+/NO3–

CHAPTER 13 REVIEW
13.1 WATER AS A SOLVENT

1 Dispersion forces, hydrogen bonds, covalent bonds.

2 A solution is most likely to form when the polarity of bonding of the solute is similar to that of the solvent. The bonds
formed between solute and solvent are then similar to those that existed between solute particles and between solvent
particles. Water, being polar, is therefore a good solvent for ionic and polar substances.
3 Using the ‘like dissolves like’ rule, only polar substances will dissolve in water. Nitrogen is a non-polar molecule so will
not dissolve well. Ethene is a non-polar hydrocarbon that will not be expected to dissolve in water. Ethanol, however,
is a small polar molecule that can be expected to dissolve in water.
Full explanation:
• Nitrogen, N2, is a covalent molecular substance. It is composed of non-polar molecules, so nitrogen would not be
expected to dissolve well in water.
• Ethane, C2H6, is also a molecular compound. Ethane molecules contain slightly polar covalent bonds that are
distributed symmetrically across the molecule. This makes the entire molecule non-polar, so ethane would be
expected to not dissolve in water.
• Ethanol, C2H5O, is a molecular compound that dissolves in water by forming hydrogen bonds with water molecules.
4 Carbon is slightly more electronegative than hydrogen, so each C–H bond is slightly polar. However, the resulting
partial charges are distributed symmetrically across the octane molecule, making the molecule non-polar overall.
The energy released in the formation of solute–solvent bonds is not enough to overcome the intermolecular bonds
between solute molecules and the intermolecular bonds between solvent molecules, so octane will not dissolve in
water.

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

5 a Biological context
Water dissolves wastes in the body so they can be safely removed from cells and the body.
Water dissolves glucose and other nutrients so they can be transported around the body for use in energy
production.
Water dissolves nutrients so they can be transported around plants.
b Domestic context
Aqueous solutions are the basis for many drinks including tea, coffee, cordial, wine and soft drinks.
Most paints used for residential purposes are water-based, meaning they contain solutes dissolved in water.
Much cleaning in the home relies on water being able to dissolve detergents.
c Industrial context
Farmers add water-soluble fertilisers to increase crop growth.
Many medicines are water-soluble.
Water is used as a solvent in the production of paints, foods, paper and other products.

13.2 WATER AS A SOLVENT OF MOLECULAR SUBSTANCES

6 C6H12O6 and C3H7OH are polar molecules. They contain the polar –OH group and so are able to form hydrogen bonds
with water.
HI and HNO3 contain polar molecules but they are unable to form hydrogen bonds with water. They dissolve by
ionising.
I2, CH4 and C2H4 are non-polar covalent molecules. They do not dissolve well in polar water.
7 Y, Z, X
As the CH3OH molecule is polar, it will dissolve readily in polar solvents. Because CH3OH dissolves in Y, it can be
ascertained that Y is a polar solvent. The non-polar nature of a CH4 molecule means CH4 will dissolve readily in
non-polar solvents. It can be concluded that X is a non-polar solvent because CH4 completely dissolves in it. CH3OH
molecules and CH4 molecules partially dissolve in Z, which indicates it is more polar than X. No information is given
about methanol dissolving in Z, although it can be implied.
8 DDT is most likely non-polar because it is soluble in fats, which are non-polar, and insoluble in polar water.

13.3 WATER AS A SOLVENT OF IONIC COMPOUNDS

9 a Dissociation
b i Cu2+(aq), NO3–(aq)
ii Zn2+(aq), SO42–(aq)
iii NH4+(aq), PO43–(aq)
10 a K+/CO32–
b Pb2+/NO3–
c Na+/OH–
d Na+/SO42–
e Mg2+/Cl–
f Zn 2+/NO3–
g K+/S2–
h Fe3+/NO3–
H2O(l)
11 a MgSO4(s) Mg2+(aq) + SO42–(aq)
H2O(l)
b Na2S(s) 2Na+(aq) + S2–(aq)
H2O(l)
c KOH(s) K+(aq) + OH–(aq)
H2O(l)
d (CH3COO)2Cu(s) 2CH3COO–(aq) + Cu2+(aq)
H2O(l)
e Li2SO4(s) 2Li+(aq) + SO42–(aq)

12 Hydrated hydronium ions and chloride ions. Hydrogen chloride is a polar molecule that cannot form hydrogen bonds.
When added to water, the molecule ionises to form a hydronium ion, H3O+, and a chloride ion, Cl–. These ions become
hydrated by ion–dipole attractions. There will also be water molecules and a very, very few HCl molecules.

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

13 Magnesium ions are cations; they have a positive charge. This means the negatively charged non-bonding electron
pairs on the oxygen atoms in the water molecules are attracted to them.
The water molecules arrange around the magnesium ion with their oxygen atoms, rather than the hydrogen atoms,
closest to the chloride ion.
Chloride ions are anions; they have a negative charge. This means the hydrogen atoms in the water molecules, which
have a partial positive charge, are attracted to them. The water molecules arrange around the chloride ion with their
hydrogen atoms, rather than the oxygen atoms, closest to the chloride ion.
14 There are a number of possible answers to this question. Use the information in Tables 13.3.1 and 13.3.2. For
example, Na2CO3, Li2CO3 and K2CO3 are soluble, whereas CaCO3, MgCO3 and Ag2CO3 are insoluble.
15 There are a number of possible answers to this question. Use the information in Tables 13.3.1 and 13.3.2. For
example, Na2SO4, K2SO4 and (NH4)2SO4 are soluble, whereas CaSO4, BaSO4 and PbSO4 are insoluble.
16 Potassium ions and bromide ions are held in the ionic lattice by ionic bonds that are based on electrostatic attraction.
These ionic bonds in the solute break when it dissolves in water.
Water, the solvent, has hydrogen bonds between water molecules.
When potassium bromide is added to water, the hydrogen atoms of the water molecules are attracted to the negative
bromide ions, and the oxygen atoms of the water molecules are attracted to the positive potassium ions.
Ion–dipole bonds form between the ions and water molecules and the surface ions are pulled into solution. Gradually
the ionic lattice dissociates and a solution is formed.

13.4 PRECIPITATION REACTIONS

17 a True
b True
c False
d False
e True
f False
18
NaOH KBr NaI MgSO4 BaCl2

Pb(NO3)2 Pb(OH)2 PbBr2 PbI2 PbSO4 PbCl2

KI BaI2

CaCl2 Ca(OH)2 CaSO4

Na2CO3 MgCO3 BaCO3

Na2S MgS BaS

19 According to Tables 13.3.1 and 13.3.2, Fe2+ would precipitate in the presence of PO43– and S2– to produce Fe3(PO4)2
and FeS.
20 a barium sulfate
b none
c lead(II) sulfate
d None
21 a NH4Cl(aq) + AgNO3(aq) → NH4NO3(aq) + AgCl(s)
Ag+(aq) + Cl–(aq) → AgCl(s)
b Fe Cl2(aq) + Na2S(aq) → FeS(s) + 2NaCl(aq)
Fe2+(aq) + S2–(aq) → FeS(s)
c Fe(NO3)3(aq) + 3KOH(aq) → 3KNO3(aq) + Fe(OH)3(s)
Fe3+(aq) + 3OH–(aq) → Fe(OH)3(s)
d CuSO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) → Cu(OH)2(s) + Na2SO4(aq)
Cu2+(aq) + 2OH–(aq) → Cu(OH)2(s)
e Ba(NO3)2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) → BaSO4(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)
Ba2+(aq) + SO42–(aq) → BaSO4(s)

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

22 a CuSO4(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) → CuCO3(s) + Na2SO4(aq)

Cu2+(aq) + CO32–(aq) → CuCO3(s)
Spectator ions: Na+, SO42–
b AgNO3(aq) + KCl(aq) → AgCl(s) + KNO3(aq)
Ag+(aq) + Cl–(aq) → AgCl(s)
Spectator ions: K+, NO3–
c Na2S(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) → PbS(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)
Pb2+(aq) + S2–(aq) → PbS(s)
Spectator ions: Na+, NO3–
d FeCl3(aq) + 3NaOH(aq) → Fe(OH)3(s) + 3NaCl(aq)
Fe3+(aq) + 3OH–(aq) → Fe(OH)3(s)
Spectator ions: Na+, Cl–
e Fe2(SO4)3(aq) + 6KOH(aq) → 2Fe(OH)3(s) + 3K2SO4(aq)
Fe3+(aq) + 3OH–(aq) → Fe(OH)3(s)
Spectator ions: K+, SO42–

CONNECTING THE MAIN IDEAS

23 i Ionic compound e Dissolves in water by dissociating, then forming ion–dipole

bonds with water
ii Compound composed of polar molecules with –OH groups d Dissolves in water by forming hydrogen bonds with water
iii Compound composed of small polar molecules in which a d
hydrogen atom is covalently bonded to an atom of a group
17 element
iv Non-polar molecular compound c Does not dissolve in water
v Compound composed of covalent molecules with a large a Does not dissolve in water due to the size of the
non-polar end and one –OH group. molecule

24 a A
 mmonia is a highly polar molecule and forms hydrogen bonds with water. It is therefore very soluble in water.
Methane, however, is non-polar. Weak (dispersion) forces would occur between methane and water, and these are
unable to disrupt the stronger hydrogen bonds between water molecules. Therefore, methane does not dissolve
in water.
b Glucose dissolves in water because it has very polar –OH groups that can form hydrogen bonds with water
molecules. Sodium chloride is ionic; hence, there are ion–dipole attraction between the ions and water. This is
strong enough to overcome the attraction between the sodium ions and chloride ions in the solid NaCl lattice.
25 Adding aqueous silver nitrate to a sample of each solution would distinguish between the two solutions. The sample
that contained NaCl would form a white precipitate of AgCl(s); the glucose solution would not form a precipitate.
Note electrical conductivity could also be used as the solution of dissociated ions (NaCl) would conduct an electrical
current but glucose is a neutral covalent compound so would not conduct an electrical current.

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

Chapter 14 Aqueous solutions

Section 14.1 Solubility

Worked example: Try yourself 14.1.1
SOLUBILITY CURVE CALCULATIONS

Use the solubility curve below to find how many grams of potassium nitrate (KNO3) will dissolve in 100 g of water
at 70°C.

200

180
KNO3
160

140
Solubility (g/100 g)

120

100

80

60

40

20

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Temperature (°C)

Thinking Working

Draw a vertical line from the required temperature

on the horizontal axis to intersect with the 200
appropriate solubility curve.
180
KNO3
160

140
Solubility (g/100 g)

120

100

80

60

40

20

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Temperature (°C)

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

Draw a horizontal line from the intersection point

of the vertical line drawn in the previous step. The 200
point where this horizontal line intersects with
the vertical axis will give the mass of dissolved 180
substance. KNO3
160

140

Solubility (g/100 g)
120

100

80

60

40

20

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Temperature (°C)

Read the solubility from the graph. The horizontal line intersects with the vertical axis at 140 g.
Therefore, the mass of that will dissolve in 100 g of water at
70°C is 140 g.

Worked example: Try yourself 14.1.2

SOLUBILITY CURVES

A 120 g sample of sodium nitrate (NaNO3) is added to 300 mL of H2O at 40°C. Use Figure 14.1.2 on page 337 to
calculate how much more NaNO3 needs to be added to make the solution saturated with NaNO3 at 40°C.

Thinking Working

Use the solubility curve to find the mass of solute in Imagine a line drawn from 40°C on the horizontal axis to
a saturated solution of 100 g of H2O at the required the solubility curve for NaNO3 and find the corresponding
temperature. value on the vertical axis. The value is 110 g.

Use the amount of solute that will dissolve in 100 g The density of water is 1.0 g mL–1, so 300 mL of water
of H2O to find the mass of solute to make a saturated will weigh 300 g. So three times the mass of solute can
solution in the mass of H2O for this question. dissolve in 300 g of water as in 100 g.
m(NaNO3) = 3 × 110 g
= 330 g

To find out how much extra solute you need to add, find 120 g of NaNO3 has already been added to 300 g H2O. So
the difference between the mass of solute needed to the extra mass of NaNO3 needed:
make a saturated solution and how much has already = 330 g – 120 g
been added.
= 210 g

14.1 Key questions

1 a Saturated. According to the solubility table, this solution contains exactly the amount of sodium chloride necessary
to saturate 100 g of water at 18°C.
b Unsaturated. A saturated solution of calcium carbonate in 100 g of water at 18°C contains 0.0013 g of solute.
This solution contains less than 0.0013 g of dissolved calcium carbonate in 100 g of water, so the solution must
be unsaturated.

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

c Supersaturated. A saturated solution of sugar in 100 g of water at 18°C contains 200 g of dissolved sugar.
Therefore a solution in 50 g contains 100 g of sugar. This solution contains more than 100 g of dissolved sugar,
so the solution must be supersaturated.
2 C. A supersaturated solution is one that contains more solute than would normally be dissolved in a saturated
solution. At 18°C, 35 g of sodium chloride would form a saturated solution in 100 g of water, so 17.5 g dissolves in
50 g of water. If 50 g of water at 18°C contained 20 g dissolved sodium chloride, it would therefore be supersaturated.
3 The solubility curve represents the maximum mass of solute that can be dissolved at a set temperature. The green dot
represents a supersaturated solution as it is above the solubility curve. The orange dot represents a saturated solution
as it lies on the solubility curve. The blue dot represents an unsaturated solution as it lies below the solubility curve.
4 a 40 g
b 160 g
c 20 g
5 a 48 g
b 200 g
c 70 g
The mass that will dissolve in each case is the mass found from the solubility curve multiplied by 2 as the question
asks for the amount in 200 g of solvent, not 100 g.
6 a Supersaturated. At 50°C 120 g of NaNO3 will dissolve in 100 g of water. As the solution has 150 g of water the
150
mass for a saturated solution will be 120 × = 180 g, which is less than 200 g.
100
b Unsaturated. At 20°C, 200 g of sucrose will dissolve in 100 g of water. As the solution has 200 g of water the mass
200
for a saturated solution will be 200 × = 400 g. The temperature of the solution is far greater than 20°C,
100
therefore the solution could hold more solute.
c Unsaturated. At 80°C, 58 g of CuSO4.5H2O will dissolve in 100 g of water. As the solution has 20 g of water the
20
mass for a soluble solution will be 58 × = 11.6 g, which is greater than 8 g.
100

Section 14.2 Crystallisation

Worked example: Try yourself 14.2.1
CRYSTALLISATION

200 g of sucrose is dissolved in 100 g water at 20°C. What mass of sucrose crystals will form if the temperature is
reduced to 10°C?

Thinking Working

Identify the mass of solute dissolved in the original Mass of sucrose in original solution = 200 g
solution.

Find the maximum mass of solute hat will remain The solubility curve of sucrose shows that the maximum
dissolved in 100 g water at the final temperature. mass that will dissolve at 10°C is 190 g.

Calculate the mass of solute crystals that will form in the Mass of crystals formed = original mass – remaining
solution at the final temperature. = 200 – 190
= 10 g

14.2 Key questions

1 D. The maximum mass of oxygen that will dissolve in 1 kg water at 60°C is 0.023 g. The mass of oxygen that will leave
the solution is 0.033 – 0.023 = 0.010 g.
2 A. The table shows the solubility of carbon dioxide in 1 kg water at 20°C and at 60°C. The solubility of carbon dioxide
in 500 g water at these temperatures will be halved. At 20°C, 0.85 g of carbon dioxide will dissolve. At 60°C, 0.29 g of
carbon dioxide will dissolve. The mass of carbon dioxide that will dissolve in 500 g water at 40°C would be expected
to be between these two values.

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

3 B. At 55°C the maximum amount of KNO3 that will dissolve in 100 g of water is 100 g. Therefore the mass of KNO3
that will crystallise out of the solution at this temperature is 140 – 100 = 40 g.
4 20 g. The solubility curve for CuSO4.5H2O shows that the maximum amount of solute that will dissolve in 100 g of
solution at 60°C is 40 g. Therefore the mass of crystals will be 60 – 40 = 20 g.
5 55 g. The solubility curve for NaNO3 shows that the maximum amount of solute that will dissolve in 100 g of water at
50°C is 120 g. Therefore the mass that may dissolve in 50 g of water will be 60 g. As this is greater than the amount
present it will all remain dissolved.
6 Granite is a rock that is formed from magma cooling beneath the Earth’s surface. This means the crystals are formed
slowly. Crystals formed from slow cooling are larger than those formed from cooling quickly. Magma that cools above
the surface forms basalt, the cooling process is faster, and therefore the crystals in basalt are smaller than those in
granite.

Section 14.3 Concentration of solutions

Worked example: Try yourself 14.3.1
CALCULATING CONCENTRATION IN g L–1 (GRAMS PER LITRE)

What is the concentration, in g L–1, of a solution containing 5.00 g of glucose in 250 mL of solution?

Thinking Working

Change the volume of solution so it is expressed in litres. 250

250 mL =
1000
= 0.250 L

Calculate the concentration in g L–1. mass of solute (in g)

c=
volume of solution (in L)
5.00
=
0.250
= 20.0 g L–1

Worked example: Try yourself 14.3.2

CALCULATING CONCENTRATION IN PARTS PER MILLION (ppm)

A sample of tap water was found to contain 0.0537 g of NaCl per 250.0 g of solution. Calculate the concentration of
NaCl in parts per million (ppm).

Thinking Working

Calculate the mass of solute in mg. Mass of solute (NaCl) in mg:

Remember: = 0.0537 × 1000
mass (in mg) = mass (in g) × 1000 = 53.7 mg

Calculate the mass of solution in kg. 250.0

Mass of solution in kg =
1000
Remember:
mass (in g) = 0.2500 kg
mass (in kg) =
1000

Calculate the concentration of the solution in mg kg–1. Concentration of NaCl in ppm

This is the same as concentration in ppm. mass of solute (in g)
=
mass of solution (in kg)
53.7
=
0.2500
= 215 mg kg–1
= 215 ppm

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

Section 14.3 Key questions

60 mL 5.0 g
1 D. Volume in litres = = 0.060 L. Concentration of sugar = = 83 g L–1
1000 0.060
m(CaCl2) in mg 25
2 a c(CaCl2) = = = 5.0 ppm
m(solution) in kg 5.0
m(Pb(NO3)2) in mg
b c(Pb(NO3)2) =
m(solution) in kg
m(Pb(NO3)2) = 1.25 g × 1000 = 1250 mg
2000 g
m(solution) = = 2.000 kg
1000
1250
c(Pb(NO3)2) = = 625 ppm
2.000
m(MgSO4) in mg
c c(MgSO4) =
m(solution) in kg
m(MgSO4) = 4.0 × 10–3 g × 1000 = 4.0 mg
150 g
m(solution) = = 0.150 kg
1000
4.0
c(MgSO4) = = 27 ppm
0.150

3 To find the % (m/v) the mass of each nutrient in grams is divided by the volume in millilitres and multiplied by 100.
35.0
Sugar = × 100 = 14.0% (m/v)
250
7.5
Fat = × 100 = 3.0% (m/v)
250

4 Parts per billion is the same as micrograms per kilogram.

Mass of ciguatera in μg = 15 mg × 1000 = 15 000 μg
15 000
The lethal concentration = = 214 ppb
70

Section 14.4 Molar concentration

Worked example: Try yourself 14.4.1
CALCULATING MOLAR CONCENTRATIONS (MOLARITY)

Calculate the molar concentration of a solution that contains 0.24 mol of glucose dissolved in 500 mL of solution.

Thinking Working

Convert the given volume to litres. 500

V(glucose) =
1000
= 0.500 L

Calculate the molar concentration using the formula: n

c(glucose) =
n V
c= 0.24
V =
0.500
= 0.48 mol L–1 or 0.48 M

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

Worked example: Try yourself 14.4.2

CALCULATING MOLARITY GIVEN THE MASS OF SOLUTE

Calculate the concentration, mol L–1, of a solution that contains 4000 mg of ethanoic acid (CH3COOH) dissolved in
100 mL of solution.

Thinking Working

Convert the volume to litres. 100

V(CH3COOH) =
1000
= 0.100 L

Convert the mass to grams. 4000

m(CH3COOH) =
1000
= 4.000 g

Calculate the molar mass of the solute. M(CH3COOH) = (12.0 × 2) + (1.0 × 4) + (16.0 × 2)
= 600 g mol–1

Calculate the number of mol of solute using the formula: m

n(CH3COOH) =
m M
n= 4.000
M =
60.0
= 0.0667 mol

Calculate the molar concentration using the formula: n

c(CH3COOH) =
n V
c= 0.0667
V =
0.100
= 0.0667 mol L–1 or 0.667 M

Worked example: Try yourself 14.4.3

CALCULATING THE NUMBER OF MOLES OF SOLUTE IN A SOLUTION

Calculate the amount, in moles, of potassium permanganate (KMnO4) in 100 mL of a 0.0250 M solution of the
compound.

Thinking Working

Convert the given volume to litres. 100

V(KMnO4) =
1000
= 0.100 L

Calculate the amount of compound, in moles, using the n(KMnO4) = c × V

formula: = 0.0250 × 0.100
n=c×V = 0.00250 moL

14.4 Key questions

1 B. Convert the mass of H2O2 to moles:
M(H2O2) = (1.0 × 2) + (16.0 × 2) = 34.0 g mol–1
m(H2O2) 5.00
n(H2O2) = = = 0.147 mol
M(H2O2) 34.0
120 mL
Volume = = 0.120 L
1000
0.147
Concentration = = 1.23 M
0.120

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

25 mL
2 a Volume = = 0.025 L
1000
2 × 10–3
Concentration = = 0.08 M
0.025
1.23
b Concentration = = 0.3 M
4.1
1.8 × 103
c Concentration = = 0.19 M
9.3 × 103
2.0
3 a Concentration = = 0.25 M
8.0
500 mL 0.25
b Volume = = 0.5 L, concentration = = 0.50 M
1000 0.5
200 mL 0.0876
c Volume = = 0.2 L, concentration = = 0.438 M
1000 0.2

4 Convert the mass of AgNO3 to moles:

M(AgNO3) = 107.9 + 14.0 + (16.0 × 3) = 169.9 g mol–1
m(AgNO3) 5.09
n(AgNO3) = = = 0.0300 mol
M(AgNO3) 169.9
250 mL 0.0300
Volume = = 0.250 L, concentration = = 0.120 M
1000 0.250

5 Convert the mass of CaCl2 to moles:

M(CaCl2) = 40.1 + (35.5 × 2) = 111.1 g mol–1
m(CaCl2) 1.223
n(CaCl2) = = = 1.101 × 10–2 mol
M(CaCl2) 111.1
1.101 × 10–2
Concentration = = 7.10 × 10–3 M
1.55

6 a Amount = c × V = 0.1 × 0.22 = 2.2 × 10–2 mol

10 mL
b Volume = = 0.01 L, amount = c × V = 0.64 × 0.01 = 6.4 × 10–3 mol
1000
15.6 mL
c Volume = = 0.0156 L, amount = c × V = 0.0150 × 0.0156 = 2.34 × 10–4 mol
1000
1.5 × 10–1 mL
d Volume = = 1.5 × 10–4 L, amount = c × V = 5.2 × 1.5 × 10–1 = 0.78 mol
1000

Section 14.5 Dilution

Worked example: Try yourself 14.5.1
QUESTIONS INVOLVING DILUTION

Calculate the concentration of the solution formed when 95.0 mL of water is added to 5.00 mL of 0.500 M HCl.

Thinking Working

Write down the value of c1 and V1. c1 = 0.500 M

Note: c1 and V1 refer to the original solution, before water V1 = 5.00 mL
was added.

Write down the value of V2. V2 = 5.00 mL + 95.0 mL

Note: V2 is the total volume of the original solution plus = 100.0 mL
the added water.

Transpose the equation c1V1 = c2V2 to allow calculation of c1V1 = c2V2

the concentration, c2, of the new solution. c1V1
c2 =
V2

Calculate the concentration of the diluted solution. 0.500 × 5.00

c2 =
100
= 0.0250 M

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

Worked example: Try yourself 14.5.2

CONCENTRATION UNIT CONVERSIONS

What is the concentration, in ppm, of a 0.0100 M solution of NaOH? Remember that concentration in ppm is the
same as mg L–1.

Thinking Working

Calculate the number of moles of solute in 1.00 L of the n(NaOH) = c × V

solution. = 0.0100 × 1.00
= 0.0100 mol

Calculate the mass, in grams, of solute in 1.00 L of the M(NaOH) = 23.0 + 16.0 + 1.0
solution. = 040.0 g mol–1

m(NaOH) = n × M
= 0.0100 × 40.0
= 0.400 g

Calculate the mass, in mg, of solute in 1.00 L of the m(NaOH) = 0.400 g × 1000
solution. = 400 mg

Express the concentration of the solute in ppm. c(NaOH) = 400 ppm

14.5 Key questions

c1V1 1.2 × 5.0
1 a V2 = 10.0 mL + 5.0 mL = 15.0 mL, c2 = = = 0.4 M
V2 15.0
c1V1 0.1 × 3.0
b V2 = 1.0 L + 3.0 L = 4.0 L, c2 = = = 0.075 M
V2 4.0
c1V1 0.5 × 5.0
c V2 = 5.0 mL + 95.0 mL = 100.0 mL, c2 = = = 0.025 M
V2 100.0
250 mL c2V2 0.30 × 0.250
2 D. V2 = = 0.250 L, V1 = = = 0.0075 L = 7.5 × 10–3 L
1000 c1 10

3 Mass of ammonia in 1 L of original solution = 15 g

M(NH3) = 14 + (1.0 × 3) = 17.0 g mol–1
m(NH3) 15
n(NH3) = = = 0.88 M
M(NH3) 17
0.88
c1 = = 0.88 M, V2 = 25 mL +250 mL = 275 mL
1.0
c1V1 0.88 × 25.0
c2 = = = 8.0 × 10–2 M
V2 275.0

4 In 1 L of solution there will be 170 g of NaOH.

M(NaOH) = 23.0 + 1.0 + 16.0 = 40.0 g mol–1
m(NaOH) 170 4.25
n(NaOH) = = = 4.25 mol, c(NaOH) = = 4.25 mol L–1
M(NaOH) 40.0 1.0

CHAPTER 14 REVIEW
14.1 SOLUBILITY

1 a 50 g
b 10.5 g
c 25 g

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

200 g
2 a × 500 g = 1000 g
100 g
40 g
b × 50 g = 20 g
100 g
40 g
3 × 100 g = 160 g to be dissolved, therefore temperature must be 10°C.
25 g

14.2 CRYSTALLISATION

4 The maximum amount of potassium nitrate that will dissolve in 100 g water at 30°C is 50 g. Therefore the maximum
amount that will dissolve in 200 g water is 100 g. There was initially 160 potassium nitrate dissolved, so the amount
that will crystallise out is 160 – 100 = 60 g.
5 As the temperature increases, the solubility of most gases in water decreases. This means that less oxygen and other
gases will be available to aquatic life.
6 0.5 mmol in 500 mL gives 1.0 mmol in 1 L. According to Figure 14.2.8, 23°C and 1.0 mmol L–1 corresponds to carbon
monoxide, CO.
7 Table 14.2.1 shows that at 20°C, 1 kg water can dissolve 529 g ammonia.
2 kg
The mass in 2 kg of water is 529 g × = 1058 g.
1 kg

The mass of ammonia that will leave the solution at 20°C is 1200 – 1058 = 142 g.

14.3 CONCENTRATION OF SOLUTIONS

m(Pb) in mg 12
8 a Concentration of lead (ppm) = = = 2 ppm
m(solution) in kg 6
m(Pb) in mg
b Percentage by mass = × 100, mass of solution = 6 kg × 1 000 000 = 6 000 000 mg
m(solution) in kg
12
% (m/m) = × 100 = 2 × 10–4 %
6 000 000
15
9 % (m/m) = × 100 = 5.0%
300
mass (in mg)
10 Concentration of active ingredient (mg L–1) =
volume of solution (in L)
5.0 mL 2.00
Volume of solution = = 0.0050 L, concentration = = 400 mg L–1
1000 0.0050
mass (in g)
Concentration of active ingredient (% (m/v)) = × 100
volume (in mL)
2.00 mg
Mass of active ingredient = = 2.00 × 10–3 g
1000
2.00 × 10–3
% (m/v) = × 100 = 4.0 × 10–2
5.0

14.4 MOLAR CONCENTRATION

n 160 mL 0.380
11 C = , volume = = 0.160 L, c(NaBr) = = 2.38 M
V 1000 0.160
n
12 c = , M(NaOH) = 23.0 + 16.0 + 1.0 = 40.0 g mol–1,
V
m(NaOH) 30
n(NaOH) = = = 0.75 mol,
M(NaOH) 40
0.75
c(NaOH) = = 0.375 M = 0.38 M
2.0

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

n
13 c = , in 1 L of solution there will be 42.6 g of solute,
V

M(Na2SO4) = (23.0 × 2) + 32.1 + (16.0 × 4) = 142.1 g mol–1

m(Na2SO4) 42.6
n(Na2SO4) = = = 0.300 mol
M(Na2SO4) 142.1
0.300
c(Na2SO4) = = 0.300 M
1
12 mL
14 a Volume = = 0.012 L, n = cV = 0.22 × 0.012 = 2.6 × 10–3 mol
1000
150 mL
b Volume = = 0.150 L, n = cV = 0.0250 × 0.150 = 3.75 × 10–3 mol
1000
3.15 mL
c Concentration = = 0.00315 M, n = cV = 0.00315 × 7.2 = 2.3 × 10–2 mol
1000
100 mL
15 a Volume = = 0.100 L
1000
n(NH3) = cV = 1.2 × 0.100 = 0.120 mol
M(NH3) = 14.0 + (1.0 × 3) = 17.0 g mol–1
m(NH3) = n(NH3) × M(NH3)
= 0.120 × 17.0 = 2.04 g
20 mL
b Volume = = 0.020 L
1000
n(AgNO3) = cV = 0.50 × 0.020 = 0.010 mol
M(AgNO3) =107.9 + 14.0 + (16.0 × 3) = 169.9 g mol–1
m(AgNO3) = n(AgNO3) × M(AgNO3) = 0.010 × 169.9 = 1.7 g

14.5 DILUTION
c1V1 5.00 × 50.0
16 c2 = = = 1.00 M
V2 250
c1V1 4.0 × 25
17 V2 = = = 62.5 mL, so volume to be added = 62.5 – 25 = 37.5 mL
c2 1.6
1.5 mL
18 n(CaCl2) in the original solution = c × V, volume = = 0.00150 L
1000

n(CaCl2) = 0.0500 × 0.00150 = 7.50 × 10–5, and therefore 1.50 × 10–4 mol of Cl– ions
M(Cl–) = 35.5 g mol–1
m(Cl–) = n(Cl–) × M(Cl–) = 1.50 × 10–4 × 35.5 = 5.33 × 10–3 g
m(Cl–)
Concentration of final solution (ppm) =
V(Cl–) in L

m(Cl–) = 5.33 × 10–3 g × 1000 = 5.33 mg

5.33
c(Cl–) = = 0.533 ppm
10.0

CONNECTING THE MAIN IDEAS

19 × 6.0 × 1023 (a) ÷M

number of number of mass

particles mole (in g)

(b) ÷ 6.022 × 1023 (c) ×M

(d) ÷V concentration (e) ×V

(molarity)

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

20 a The solubility curve for potassium nitrate shows that 140 g of solute will dissolve in 100 g of water at 70°C. The
500
mass in 500 g of water is 140 g × = 700 g.
100
b The solubility curve for potassium nitrate shows that 140 g of solute will dissolve in 100 g of water at 70°C. The
50
mass in 50 g of water is 140 g × = 70 g. The mass required to be added is 70 – 25 = 45 g.
100
c The solubility curve for potassium nitrate shows that 68 g of solute will dissolve in 100 g of water at 40°C. The
50
mass in 50 g of water is 68 g × = 34 g. The mass that will remain undissolved is 100 – 34 = 66 g.
100
n m(KNO3)
d c= , n(KNO3) =
V M(KNO3)
M(KNO3) = 39.1 + 14.0 + (3 × 16.0) = 101.1 g mol–1
34
n(KNO3) = = 0.34 mol
101.1
50 mL
Volume = = 0.050 L
1000
0.34
c(KNO3) = = 6.7 M
0.050

21 a Figure 14.1.3 shows that 120 g of solute per 100 g water will make a saturated solution at 50°C. In 150 g of water,
150
the mass of solute is 120 g × = 180 g.
100
b At 30°C only 100 g of solute will dissolve per 100 g of water. In 150 g of water, the mass of solute is
150
100 g × = 150 g. The mass of crystals that form will be = 180 – 150 = 30 g.
100
n m(NaNO3)
c c= , n(NaNO3) =
V M(NanO3)
M(NaNO3) = 23.0 + 14.0 + (16.0 × 3) = 85 g mol–1
30
n(NaNO3) = = 0.35 mol
85
250 mL
Volume = = 0.250 L
1000
0.35
c(NaNO3) = = 1.4 M
250
c1V1 1.4 × 50
d c2 = , V2 = 700 + 50 = 750 mL, c2 = = 9.4 × 10–2 M
V2 750
In 1 L of solution there would be 0.094 mol of solute.
m(NaNO3) = n(NaNO3) × M(NaNO3)
M(NaNO3) = 23.0 + 14.0 + (16.0 × 3) = 85 g mol–1
m(NaNO3) = 0.094 × 85.0 = 8.0 g
m (in g) 8.0
Concentration (in g L–1) = = = 8.0 g L–1
V (in L) 1.0

22 Figure 14.1.3 shows that 20 g of solute will make a saturated solution at 20°C. The mass of solute in 1 L of solution
1000
is 20 g × = 200 g.
100
n m(CuSO4.5H2O)
c= , n(CuSO4.5H2O) =
V M(CuSO4.5H2O)

M(CuSO4.5H2O) = 63.5 + 32.1 + (16.0 × 4) + 5 × ((1.0 × 2) + 16.0) = 249.6 g mol–1

200
n(CuSO4.5H2O) = = 0.80 mol
249.6
0.80
c(CuSO4.5H2O) = = 0.80 M
1.0

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

Chapter 15 Acid–base reactions in water

Section 15.1 Introducing acids and bases

15.1 Key questions

1 HBr(g) + H2O(l) → H3O+(aq) + Br–(aq)
2 H2SO4/HSO4– and H2NO3+/HNO3
3 a H2O
b H3O+
c CH3NH2
4 a NH4+
b CH3COOH
c H2PO4–
d HCO3–
5 Brønsted–Lowry acid–base reactions are those involving the exchange of a proton (H+ ion). The acid donates the
proton to the base. In the reaction below, the HCl loses a proton to the base.
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
The ionic equation provides a clearer way (by eliminating spectator ions) of noting the reaction between the H+ and
OH– ions neutralising to form water.
H+(aq) + OH–(aq) → H2O(l)
6 Acting as an acid, whereby the reactant donates one proton:
a HCO3– + H2O(l) → CO32–(aq) + H3O+(aq)
b HPO42– + H2O(l) → PO43–(aq) + H3O+(aq)
c HSO4– + H2O(l) → SO4–(aq) + H3O+(aq)
d H2O(l) + H2O(l) → OH–(aq) + H3O+(aq)
Acting as a base, whereby the reactant accepts one proton:
a HCO3– + H2O(l) → H2CO3(aq) + OH–(aq)
b HPO42– + H2O(l) → H2PO4–(aq) + OH–(aq)
c HSO4– + H2O(l) → H2SO4(aq) + OH–(aq)
d H2O + H2O(l) → H3O+(aq) + OH–(aq)

Section 15.2 Strength of acids and bases

15.2 Key questions

1 a HClO4(aq) + H2O(l) → H3O+(aq) + ClO4–(aq)
b HCN(aq) + H2O(l) ↔ H3O+(aq) + CN–(aq)
c CH3NH2(aq) + H2O(l) ↔ CH3NH3+ (aq) + OH–(aq)
2 (1) H3AsO4(aq) + H2O(l) → H3O+(aq) + H2AsO4–(aq)
(2) H2AsO4–(aq) + H2O(l) → H3O+(aq) + HAsO42–(aq)
(3) HAsO42–(aq) + H2O(l) → H3O+(aq) + AsO43–(aq)
3 A. A strong acid readily donates a proton to a water molecule to form the hydronium ion. The complete ionisation
of the acid molecule is indicated by the use of a single arrow, →.
4 Stronger acids more readily ionise, forming ions in solution. As perchloric acid is stronger, more hydronium ions
would be present in solution than in a solution of ethanoic acid, making it a better conductor of electricity.

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

Section 15.3 Acidity of solutions

Worked example: Try yourself 15.3.1
CALCULATING THE CONCENTRATION OF HYDRONIUM AND HYDROXIDE IONS IN AN AQUEOUS SOLUTION

For a 5.6 × 10–6 M HNO3 solution at 25°C, calculate the concentration of:
• H3O+
• OH–

Thinking Working

Find the concentration of hydronium ions (H3O+). HNO3 is a strong acid, so it will ionise completely in
solution. Each molecule of HNO3 donates one proton to
water to form one H3O+ ion:
HNO3(aq) + H2O(l) → H3O+(aq) + NO3–(aq)
Because HNO3 is completely ionised in water,
5.6 × 10–6 M will produce a solution with a concentration
of H3O+ ions of 5.6 × 10–6 M:
i.e [H3O+] = 5.6 × 10–6 M

Use the expression for the ionisation constant of water to Kw = [H3O+][OH–] = 1.00 × 10–14 M2
calculate the concentration of OH– ions. 1.00 × 10–14
[OH–] =
[H3O+]
Since [H3O+] = 5.6 × 10–6 M
1.00 × 10–14
[OH–] =
5.6 × 10–6
[OH ] = 1.8 × 10–9 M
–

Worked example: Try yourself 15.3.2

CALCULATING THE pH OF AN AQUEOUS SOLUTION FROM [H3O+]

What is the pH of a solution in which the concentration of [H3O+] is 6 × 10–9 M? Express your answer to two significant
figures.

Thinking Working

Note down the concentration of [H3O ] ions in the

+
[H3O+] = 6 × 10–9 M
solution.

Substitute the value of [H3O+] into: pH = –log10[H3O+]

pH = –log10[H3O ]
+
= –log10[6 × 10–9] (use your calculator)
Use the logarithm function on your calculator to calculate = 8.2
the answer.

Worked example: Try yourself 15.3.3

CALCULATING pH IN A SOLUTION OF A BASE

What is the pH of a 0.01 M solution of Ba(OH)2 at 25°C?

Thinking Working

Write down the reaction in which Ba(OH)2 dissociates. In water, each mole of Ba(OH)2 completely dissociates to
release 2 moles of OH− ions.
Ba(OH)2(aq) → Ba2+(aq) + 2OH–(aq)

Determine the concentration of [OH–] ions. [OH−] = 2 × [Ba(OH)2]

= 2 × 0.01 M
= 0.02 M

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

Determine the [H3O+] in the diluted solution by Kw = [H3O+][OH–] = 1.00 × 10–14 M2

substituting the [OH–] into the ionic product of water: Kw
[H3O+] =
Kw = [H3O+][OH–] = 1.00 × 10–14 M2 [OH–]
1.00 × 10–14
=
0.02
= 5 × 10–13

Substitute the value of [H3O+] into: pH = –log10[H3O+]

pH = –log10[H3O+] = –log10[5 × 10–13] (use your calculator)
Use the logarithm function on your calculator to calculate = 12.3
the answer.

Worked example: Try yourself 15.3.4

CALCULATING pH IN A SOLUTION WHERE THE SOLUTE CONCENTRATION IS NOT GIVEN

What is the pH of a solution at 25°C that contains 0.50 g KOH in 500 mL of solution?

Thinking Working

Determine the number of moles of KOH. m

n(KOH) =
M
0.50
=
56.0
= 8.9 × 10–3 mol

Write the equation for dissociation of KOH. KOH(aq) → K+(aq) + OH–(aq)

KOH is completely dissociated in water.

Determine the number of moles of OH based on the

–
n(OH–) = n(KOH)
dissociation equation. = 8.9 × 10–3 mol

Use the formula for determining concentration given n = 8.9 × 10–3 mol
number of mole and volume: V = 0.500 L
n 8.9 × 10–3
c= c=
V 0.500
= 0.0179 M

Determine the in the diluted solution by substituting the Kw = [H3O+][OH–] = 1.00 × 10–14 M2
into the ionic product of water: Kw
[H3O+] =
Kw = [H3O+][OH–] = 1.00 × 10–14 M2 [OH–]
1.00 × 10–14
=
0.0179
= 5.6 × 10–13

Substitute the value of into: pH = –log10[H3O+]

pH = –log10[H3O+] = –log10[5.6 × 10–14] (use your calculator)
Use the logarithm function on your calculator to calculate = 12.25
the answer.

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

Worked example: Try yourself 15.3.5

CALCULATING [H3O+] IN A SOLUTION OF A GIVEN pH

Calculate the [H3O+] in a solution of pH 10.4 at 25°C.

Thinking Working

Decide which form of the relationship between pH and As you have the pH and are calculating [H3O+], use:
[H3O+] should be used: [H3O+] = 10–pH
pH = –log10[H3O+]
or
[H3O+] = 10–pH

Substitute the value of pH into the relationship expression [H3O+] = 10–pH

and use a calculator to determine the answer. = 10–10.4
= 4 × 10–11 M

15.3 Key questions

1 Kw = [H3O+][OH–] = 1.00 × 10–14
1.00 × 10–14
[OH–] =
[H3O+]
1.00 × 10–14
[OH–] = = 1.00 × 10–11
0.001

2 Kw = [H3O+][OH–] = 1.00 × 10–14

1.00 × 10–14
[OH–] =
[H3O+]
1.00 × 10–14
[OH–] = = 1.75 × 10–6
5.70 × 10–9

3 Kw = [H3O+][OH–] = 1.00 × 10–14

1.00 × 10–14
[OH+] =
[OH–]
1.00 × 10–14
[OH+] = = 1.0 × 10–9
1.0 × 10–5

4 pH = –log10[H3O+]
= –log100.01
=2
5 As nitric acid is a strong acid, the concentration of H3O+ ions is 0.0010 M.
pH = –log10[H3O+]
= –log100.0010
=3
6 [H3O+] = 10–pH
= 10–6
= 1.0 × 10–6 (or 0.000001) M
7 M(HCl) = M(H) + M(Cl)
= 1.0 + 35.5
= 36.5
As HCl completely dissociates to H3O+ and Cl–, n(HCl) = n(H3O+), therefore n(H3O+) = 0.01 mol.
n 0.01
c= = = 0.050 M
V 0.20

[H3O+] = 0.050 M
pH = –log10[H3O+]
= –log100.050 = 1.3
= 1.3

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

Section 15.4 Dilution of acids and bases

Worked example: Try yourself 15.4.1
CALCULATING MOLAR CONCENTRATION AFTER DILUTION

Calculate the molar concentration of nitric acid when 80.0 mL of water is added to 20.0 mL of 5.00 M HNO3.

Thinking Working

The number of moles of solute does not change during c1V1 = c2V2
a dilution.
So c1V1 = c2V2, where c is the concentration in M and V
is the volume of the solution. (Each of the volume units
must be the same, although not necessarily litres.)

Identify given values for concentrations and volumes Remember that 80.0 mL was added to 20.0 mL, so the
before and after dilution. final volume is 100.0 mL.
Identify the unknown. c1 = 5.00 M
V1 = 20.0 mL
V2 = 100.0 mL
You are required to calculate c2, the concentration after
dilution.

Transpose the equation and substitute the known values c1 × V1

c2 =
into the equation to find the required value. V2
5.00 × 20.0
=
100.0
= 1.00 M

Worked example: Try yourself 15.4.2

CALCULATING THE VOLUME OF WATER TO BE ADDED IN A DILUTION

How much water must be added to 15.0 mL of 10.0 M NaOH to dilute the solution to 2.00 M?

Thinking Working

The number of moles of solute does not change during c1V1 = c2V2
a dilution.
So c1V1 = c2V2, where c is the concentration in M and V
is the volume of the solution. (Each of the volume units
must be the same, although not necessarily litres.)

Identify given values for concentrations and volumes c1 = 10.0 M

before and after dilution. V1 = 15.0 mL
Identify the unknown. c2 = 2.00 M
You are required to calculate V2, the volume of the diluted
solution.

Transpose the equation and substitute the known values c1 × V1

V2 =
into the equation to find the required value. c2
10.0 × 15.0
=
2.00
= 75.0 mL

Calculate the volume of water to be added. Volume of dilute solution = 75.0 mL

Initial volume of NaOH = 15.0 mL
So 75.0 – 15.0 = 60.0 mL of water must be added.

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

Worked example: Try yourself 15.4.3

CALCULATING THE pH OF A DILUTED ACID

10.0 mL of 0.1 M HCl is diluted to 30.0 mL. Calculate the pH of the diluted solution.

Thinking Working

Identify given values for concentrations and volumes c1 = 0.1 M

before and after dilution. V1 = 10.0 mL
V2 = 30.0 mL
c2 = ?

Calculate c2, which is the concentration of H3O after+ c1 × V1

c2 =
dilution, by transposing the formula: V2
0.1 × 10.0
c1V1 = c2V2 =
30.0
= 0.03 M

Calculate pH using: pH = –log10[H3O+]

pH = –log10[H3O+] = –log10(0.03)
Use the logarithm function on your calculator to calculate = 1.5
pH.

Worked example: Try yourself 15.4.4

CALCULATING THE pH OF A DILUTED BASE

15.0 mL of 0.02 M KOH is diluted to 60.0 mL. Calculate the pH of the diluted solution.

Thinking Working

Identify given values for concentrations and volumes c1 = 0.02 M

before and after dilution. V1 = 15.0 mL
V2 = 60.0 mL
c2 = ?

Calculate c2, which is the concentration of [OH–] after c1 × V1

c2 =
dilution, by transposing the formula: V2
0.02 × 15.0
c1V1 = c2V2 =
60.0
= 0.005 M

Determine the [H3O+] in the diluted solution by Kw = [H3O+][OH–] = 1.00 × 10–14 M2

substituting the [OH–] into the ionic product of water: Kw
[H3O+] =
Kw = [H3O+][OH–] = 1.00 × 10–14 M2 [OH–]
1.00 × 10–14
=
0.005
= 2 × 10–12 M

Calculate pH using: pH = –log10[H3O+]

pH = –log10[H3O ] +
= –log10(2 × 10–12)
Use the logarithm function on your calculator to calculate = 11.7
pH.

15.4 Key questions

1 c1V1 = c2V2, c1 = 0.01 M, V1 = 3.0 L, V2 = 4.0 L, c2 = ?
0.01 × 3.0 = c2 × 4.0
0.10 × 3.0
c2 = = 0.075 M
4.0

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

2 c1V1 = c2V2, c1 = 2.0 M, V1 = 10 mL, V2 = ?, c2 = 0.50 M

2.0 × 10 = 0.50 × V2
2.0 × 10
V2 = = 40 mL
0.50

Final volume – initial volume = 40 – 10 = 30 mL so 30 mL of water needs to be added.

3 c1V1 = c2V2, c1 = 0.60 M, V1 = 20 mL, V2 = ? , c2 = 0.10 M
0.60 × 20 = 0.10 × V2
0.60 × 20
V2 = = 120 mL
0.10

Final volume – initial volume = 120 – 20 = 100 mL, so 100 mL of water needs to be added.
4 This increases the pH by one unit.
5 c1V1 = c2V2, c1 = 0.100 M, V1 = 20.0 mL, V2 = 50.0 mL, c2 = ?
0.100 × 20.0 = c2 × 50.0
0.100 × 20.0
c2 = = 0.040 M
50.0

As NaOH dissociates completely to Na+ and OH–, [NaOH] = [OH–], therefore [OH–] = 0.040 M
Kw = [H3O+][OH–] = 1.00 × 10–14
1.00 × 10–14 = [H3O+] × 0.040
1.0 × 10–14
[H3O+] = = 2.5 × 10–13
0.040

pH = –log10[H3O+]
pH = –log102.5 × 10–13 = 12.6
6 a i The concentration of H3O+ ions equals the concentration of a monoprotic acid = 0.0010 M = 10–3 M.
1.00 × 10–14 M2 1.00 × 10–14 M2
ii [OH–] = = = 1 × 10–11 M
[H3O+] 0.0010 M
iii pH = –log10[H3O+] = –log(10–3 M) = 3
b i [H3O+] = 0.030 M
1.00 × 10–14 M2 1.00 × 10–14 M2
ii [OH–] = = = 3.33 × 10–13 M
[H3O ]
+
0.030 M
iii pH = –log10[H3O+] = –log(0.030 M) = 1.52
c i NaOH dissociates completely to Na+ and OH–, [NaOH] = [OH–], therefore [OH–] = 0.010 M.
1.00 × 10–14 M2
[H3O+] = = 1.0 × 10–12 M
0.010 M
ii From part a, [OH–] = 0.010 M
iii pH = –log10[H3O+] = –log(10–12 M) = 12
d i 10–4.5 M HCl = [H3O+] = 3.16 × 10–5 M
1.00 × 10–14 M2 1.00 × 10–14 M2
ii [OH–] = = = 3.16 × 10–10 M
[H3O+] 3.16 × 10–5 M
iii pH = –log10[H3O+] = –log(3.16 × 10–5 M) = 4.5
e i [OH–] = 2 × [Ba(OH)2] = 2 × 0.0050 M = 0.010 M
1.00 × 10–14 M2
[H3O+] = = 1.0 × 10–12 M
0.010 M
ii From part a, [OH–] = 0.010 M
iii pH = –log10[H3O+] = –log(1.0 × 10–12 M) = 12

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

Section 15.5 Reactions of acids and bases

Worked example: Try yourself 15.5.1
WRITING AN IONIC EQUATION FOR AN ACID–BASE REACTION

Write an ionic equation for the reaction that occurs when sulfuric acid is added to potassium hydroxide solution.

Thinking Working

What is the general reaction? Identify the products Acid + metal hydroxide → salt + water
formed. A solution of potassium sulfate and water is formed.

Identify the reactants and products. Reactants:

Indicate the state of each, i.e. (aq), (s), (l) or (g). H2SO4 is ionised in solution, forming H+(aq) and
SO42+(aq).
KOH is dissociated in solution, forming K+(aq) and
OH–(aq).
Products:
Potassium sulfate is dissociated and exists as K+(aq) and
SO42–(aq).
Water is a molecular compound and its molecular
formula is H2O(l).

Write the equation showing all reactants and products. H+(aq) + SO42–(aq) + K+(aq) + OH–(aq) → K+(aq) +
(There is no need to balance the equation yet.) SO42–(aq) + H2O(l)

Identify the spectator ions: the ions that have an (aq) K+(aq) and SO42–(aq)
state both as a reactant and as a product.

Rewrite equation without the spectator ions. H+(aq) + OH–(aq) → H2O(l)

Balance the equation with respect to number of atoms Note that if hydronium ions are represented as H3O+(aq),
of each element and charge. rather than as H+(aq), this reaction would be written as:
H3O+(aq) + OH–(aq) → 2H2O(l)

Worked example: Try yourself 15.5.2

WRITING IONIC EQUATIONS FOR REACTIONS BETWEEN ACIDS AND METAL CARBONATES

What products are formed when a solution of hydrochloric acid is added to a solution of sodium hydrogen carbonate?
Write an ionic equation for this reaction.

Thinking Working

What is the general reaction? Identify the products. Acid + metal hydrogen carbonate → salt + water +
carbon dioxide
Products of this reaction are sodium chloride in solution,
water and carbon dioxide gas

Identify the reactants and products. Indicate the state Reactants:

of each, i.e. (aq), (s), (l) or (g). Hydrochloric acid is ionised in solution, forming H+(aq)
and Cl–(aq) ions.
Sodium hydrogen carbonate dissociates in solution and
exists as Na+(aq) and HCO3–(aq) ions.
Products:
Sodium chloride is dissociated into Na+(aq) and Cl–(aq)
ions.
Water has the formula H2O(l).
Carbon dioxide has the formula CO2(g).

Write the equation showing all reactants and products. H+(aq) + Cl–(aq) + Na+(aq) + HCO3–(aq) → Na+(aq) +
(There is no need to balance the equation yet.) Cl–(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

Identify the spectator ions. Na+(aq) + Cl–(aq)

Rewrite the equation without the spectator ions. The balanced equation with spectator ions omitted is:
Balance the equation with respect to number of atoms H+(aq) + HCO3–(aq) → H2O(l) + CO2(g)
of each element and charge. Note that if hydronium ions are represented as H3O+(aq),
rather than as H+(aq), this reaction would be written as:
H3O+(aq) + HCO3–(aq) → 2H2O(l) + CO2(g)

Worked example: Try yourself 15.5.3

WRITING IONIC EQUATIONS FOR REACTIONS BETWEEN ACIDS AND REACTIVE METALS

Write an ionic equation for the reaction that occurs when aluminium is added to a dilute solution of hydrochloric acid.

Thinking Working

What is the general reaction? Identify the products Acid + reactive metal → salt + hydrogen
formed. Hydrogen gas and aluminium chloride solution are
produced.

Identify the reactants and products. Indicate the state Reactants:

of each, i.e. (aq), (s), (l), (g). Aluminium is a solid, Al(s).
Hydrochloric acid is ionised, forming H+(aq) and Cl–(aq)
ions.
Products:
Hydrogen gas, H2.
aluminium chloride is dissociated into Al3+(aq) and
Cl–(aq) ions.

Write the equation showing all reactants and products. H+(aq) + Cl–(aq) + Al(s) → Al3+(aq) + Cl–(aq) + H2(g)
(There is no need to balance the equation yet.)

Identify the spectator ions. Cl–(aq)

Rewrite equation without the spectator ions. 6H+(aq) + 2Al(s) → 2Al3+(aq) + 3H2(g)
Balance the equation with respect to number of atoms
of each element and charge.

15.5 Key questions

1 a Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) → MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)
Mg(s) + 2H+ (aq) → Mg2+(aq) + H2(g)
b Ca(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Ca(s) + 2H+(aq) → Ca2+(aq) + H2(g)
c Zn(s) + 2CH3COOH(aq) → Zn(CH3COO)2 + H2(g)
Zn(s) + 2H+(aq) → Zn2+(aq) + H2(g)
d 2Al(s) + 6HCl(aq) → 2AlCl3(aq) + 3H2(g)
2Al(s) + 6H+(aq) → 2Al3+(aq) + 3H2(g)
2 a Magnesium sulfate
b Calcium chloride
c Zinc acetate
d Aluminium chloride
3 a i ZnO(s) + H2SO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
ii ZnO(s) + 2H+(aq) → Zn2+(aq) + H2O(l)
b i Ca(s) + 2HNO3(aq) → Ca(NO3)2(aq) + H2(g)
ii Ca(s) + 2H+(aq) → Ca2+(aq) + H2(g)
c i Cu(OH)2(s) + 2HNO3(aq) → Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2H2O(l)
ii Cu(OH)2(s) + 2H+(aq) → Cu2+(aq) + 2H2O(l)

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

d i Mg(HCO3)2(s) + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl2(s) + 2H2O(l) + 2CO2(g)

ii Mg(HCO3)2(s) + 2H+(aq) → Mg2+(aq) + H2O(l)
e i SnCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) → SnSO4(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
ii SnCO3(s) + 2H+(aq) → Sn2+(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
4 The first step, as in the development of any equation, is to write the correct chemical formulas for each of the
chemicals involved.
a 2KOH(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → K2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
OH–(aq) + H+(aq) → H2O(l)
b NaOH(aq) + HNO3(aq) → NaNO3(aq) + H2O(l)
OH–(aq) + H+(aq) → H2O(l)
c Mg(OH)2(s) + 2HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l)
Mg(OH)2(s) + 2H+(aq) → Mg2+(aq) + 2H2O(l)
d CuCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) → CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
CuCO3(s) + 2H+(aq) → Cu2+(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
e KHCO3(aq) + HF(aq) → KF(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
HCO3–(aq) + H+(aq) → H2O(l) + CO2(g)
f Zn(s) + 2HNO3(aq) → Zn(NO3)2(aq) + H2(g)
Zn(s) + 2H+(aq) → Zn2+(aq) + H2(g)
g CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
CaCO3(s) + 2H+(aq) → Ca2+(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
h NaHCO3(s) + CH3COOH(aq) → CH3COONa(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
NaHCO3(s) + H+(aq) → Na+(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

Section 15.6 Ocean acidity

15.6 Key questions

1 D. Carbon dioxide is sparingly soluble in water. It reacts to a limited extent with water, forming carbonic acid. Carbonic
is a weak acid and is partially ionised, forming hydrogen carbonate and hydronium ions. The hydrogen carbonate ions
are also ionised and form further hydronium ions and carbonate ions. There will also be a very low concentration of
OH–(aq) ions because of the ionisation of water molecules.
2 Step 1. H2CO3(aq) + H2O(l) → H3O+(aq) + HCO3–(aq)
Step 2. HCO3–(aq) + H2O(l) → H3O+(aq) + CO32–(aq)
3 Calcium carbonate formed through calcification.
4 CO32–(aq) + H3O+(aq) → HCO3–(aq) + H2O(l)

CHAPTER 15 REVIEW
15.1 INTRODUCING ACIDS AND BASES

1 a NH4+
b HCl
c HCO3–
d H3O+
e CH3COOH(aq)

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

2 Remember that if a chemical acts as a base, it will accept a proton. In this question, the proton comes from a water
molecule, but this is not always the case. If a chemical acts as an acid, it must be able to donate one or more protons.
a PO43–(aq) + H2O(l) → HPO42–(aq) + OH–(aq)
b The H2PO4– accepts a proton from water, and acts as a base:
H2PO4–(aq) + H2O(l) → H3PO4(aq) + OH–(aq)
The H2PO4– donates a proton to the water, and acts as an acid:
H2PO4–(aq) + H2O(l) → HPO42–(aq) + H3O+(aq)
c H2S(aq) + H2O(l) → HS–(aq) + H3O+(aq)
3 a Cl–
b H3O+
c OH–
d SO42–
4 a Sulfuric acid (H2SO4) is a diprotic acid because each molecule can donate two protons to a base:
i.e. H2SO4(aq) + H2O(l) → H3O+(aq) + HSO4–(aq)
HSO4–(aq) + H2O(l) → H3O+(aq) + SO42–(aq)
The HSO4– ion, however, is amphiprotic because it can act as either an acid or a base, depending on the
environment. In water it will undergo both acid and base reactions. For example:
As an acid: HSO4–(aq) + H2O(l) → H3O+(aq) + SO42–(aq)
As a base: HSO4–(aq) + H2O(l) → OH–(aq) + H2SO4(aq)
b A strong acid is one that ionises completely in solution (e.g. HCl). A concentrated acid is one in which there is
a large amount of acid dissolved in a given volume of solution; for example, 5 M HCl and 5 M CH3COOH are
concentrated acids.
5 H

O H
H
H donated
O
6 The first step, as in the development of any equation, is to write the correct chemical formulas for each of the
chemicals involved.
a HCl(aq) + KOH(aq) → KCl(aq) + H2O(l)
OH−(aq) + H+(aq) → H2O(l)
This is a Brønsted–Lowry acid–base reaction. H+ donated to OH−.
b 2HNO3(aq) + Mg(s) → Mg(NO3)2(aq) + H2(g)
This is an acid reacting with a metal, not a Brønsted–Lowry acid–base reaction.
c AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) → AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq)
This a precipitation reaction.
d CuO(s) + H2SO4(aq) → CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
CuO(s) + 2H+(aq) → Cu2+(aq) + H2O(l)
This is a Brønsted–Lowry acid–base reaction. H+ donated to O2−.

15.2 STRENGTHS OF ACIDS AND BASES

7 HClO4(aq) + H2O → H3O+(aq) + ClO4–(aq)

8 HClO3(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ H3O+(aq) + ClO3–(aq)
9 NH3(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ OH–(aq) + NH4+(aq)
10 H2PO4–(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ H3PO4 (aq) + OH–(aq)

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

15.3 ACIDITY OF SOLUTIONS

11 At 25°C, [OH–] × [H3O+] = 1 × 10–14 M2

(Note: [ ] denotes concentration in molar units.)
1.00 × 10–14 M2
∴ [OH–] =
[H3O+]
a 10–11 M
b 10–9 M
c 1.8 × 10–6 M
d 2.9 × 10–3 M
e 1.5 × 10–13 M
f 4.5 × 10–2 M
12 a i pH = –log10[H3O+]
[H3O+] = 10–pH (or 10 to the power of pH)
= 10–1
= 0.1 M
ii At 25°C, [OH–] × [H3O+] = 1 × 10–14 M2
1.00 × 10–14 M2
∴ [OH–] =
[H3O+]
1.00 × 10
–14
M 2

= = 1.0 × 10–13 M
0.10 M
b i 10–3 M
ii 10–11 M
c i 10–7 M
ii 10–7 M
d i 2 × 10–12 M
ii 5 × 10–3 M
13 A solution with a pH of 7.4 is basic.
At 25°C, [H3O+] × [OH–] = 1 × 10–14 M2 and pH = –log10[H3O+]
The assumption made is that at body temperature (approximately 38°C), the ionisation of water is not significantly
different from that at 25°C.
14 Remember: pH = –log10[H3O+]
pH = 3
∴ [H3O+] = 10–3 M
pH = 5
∴ [H3O+] = 10–5 M
∴ the difference is a factor of 100.
15 a [H+] = 10–pH = 0.001 M
1.00 × 10–14 M2 1.00 × 10–14 M2
[OH–] = = = 1.0 × 10–11 M
[H+] 10–3 M
b [H+] = 10–10 M, [OH–] = 10–4
c [H+] =3.16 × 10–9 M, [OH–] = 3.16 × 10–6 M
d [H+] =1.58 × 10–6 M, [OH–] = 6.3 × 10–9 M
e [H+] =2.5 × 10–10 M, [OH–] = 4.0 × 10–5 M
f [H+] =3.16 × 10–14 M, [OH–] = 0.316 M
16 pH = –log10[H3O+] = –log105.3
1.00 × 10–14 M2
[H3O+] = 10–5.3, [OH–] = = 2.0 × 10–9 M
10–5.3 M

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

15.4 DILUTION OF ACIDS AND BASES

17 Remember to use [OH–] × [H3O+] = 1 × 10–14 M2 at 25°C and pH = –log10[H3O+].

a pH = 2, ∴ [H3O+] = 10–2 or 0.01 M
b The formula for amounts of substance in solution is n = c × V (where n is the amount in moles, c the concentration
in mol L−1 and V the volume of the solution in litres).
n = 0.01 × 0.500 = 0.005 mol
18 These three questions have two steps.
Step 1. Dilution questions are best answered using the formula c1V1 = c2V2, where c is the concentration in mol L−1
and V is the volume of the solution. Each of the volume units needs to be the same, although not necessarily litres.
Step 2. Also remember, pH = pH = –log10[H3O+]
10
a c2 = 0.25 × = 0.05 M
50
∴ [H3O+] = 0.05 M
pH = –log10(0.005 M) = 1.3
20
b c2 = 0.0050 × = 2 × 10–4 M
500
∴ [OH–] = 2.0 × 10–4 M
1.00 × 10–14 M2 1.00 × 10–14 M2
[H3O+] = = = 5.0 × 10–11 M
[OH–] 2 × 10–4 M
pH = –log10(5.0 × 10–11 M) = 10.3
10
c c2 = 0.15 × (1.5 L has been converted to mL to maintain identical units)
1500
= 0.001 M
∴ [H3O+] = 0.001 M = 10–3 M
∴ pH = 3
19 c1V1 = c2V2, c1 = 18.0 M, V1 = ?, c2 = 2.00 M,V2 = 1.00 L
2.00 × 1.00
V1 = = 0.111 L = 111 mL
18.0

20 Initial pH = 2. [H3O+] = 10–pH = 10–2 = 0.010 M

Final pH = 4. [H3O+] = 10–pH = 10–4 = 1.00 × 10–4 M
c1V1 = c2V2, c1 = 0.010 M, V1 = 10.0 mL, c2 = 1.00 × 10–4 M,V2 = ?
0.010 × 10.0
V2 = = 1000 mL
1.00 × 10–4

Volume of water added = final volume – initial volume = 1000 – 10.0 = 990 mL
21 pH(initial) = –log10[H3O+] = 1.0
c1V1 = c2V2, c1 = 0.10 M, V1 = 40.0 mL, c2 = ?,V2 = 500 mL
0.10 × 40.0
c2 = = 8 × 10–3 M
500

pH(final) = –log10(8 × 10–3) = 2.10

Therefore the pH will increase.

15.5 REACTIONS OF ACIDS AND BASES

22 a HNO3(aq) + KOH(aq) → KNO3(aq) + H2O(l)

b H2SO4(aq) + K2CO3(aq) → K2SO4(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
c 2H3PO4(aq) + 3Ca(HCO3)2(s) → Ca3(PO4)2(s) + 6H2O(l) + 6CO2(g)
d 2HF(aq) + Zn(OH)2(s) → ZnF2(aq) + 2H2O(l)
23 E. An acid reacts with a base to produce a salt plus water. In this case, the salt produced is magnesium chloride,
which is soluble in water and exists as magnesium ions and chloride ions.
24 2H+(aq) + CO32–(aq) → H2O(l) + CO2(g)
25 A carbonate
26 a 2Al(s) + 3H2SO4(aq) → Al2(SO4)3(aq) + 3H2(g)
b 2Al(s) + 6H+(aq) → 2Al3+(aq) + 3H2(g)

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

15.6 OCEAN ACIDITY

27 Ca2+(aq) + CO32–(aq) → CaCO3(s)

28 Photosynthesis
29 H2CO3(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ H3O+(aq) + HCO3–(aq)
HCO3–(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ H3O+(aq) + CO32–(aq)
30 a Krill eggs will not hatch at lower pH, therefore there will be a lower number of krill.
b Krill are a food source for many marine animals. If the number of krill cannot sustain organisms that feed directly
on them, such as seals, penguins and small fish, then organisms such as killer whales and larger fish also would
not survive. This will lead to an overall decrease in the number of large species that live within specific ecosystems.

CONNECTING THE MAIN IDEAS

31 Solution A: weaker base, few freely moving charged particles—ammonia

Solution B: neutral, no freely moving charged particles—glucose
Solution C: strong base, many freely moving charged particles—sodium hydroxide
Solution D: strong acid, many freely moving charged particles—hydrochloric acid
Solution E: weaker acid, few freely moving charged particles—ethanoic acid
32 a i A Brønsted–Lowry acid is a proton donor.
ii A strong base is a substance that ionises completely in water.
iii Molarity is a measure of concentration of a solution expressed in mol L–1.
iv The conjugate acid of a base contains one more hydrogen ion (proton) than the base.
b An amphiprotic substance can act as an acid (proton donor) or a base (proton acceptor).
Acting as an acid: HCO3–(aq) + H2O(l) → CO32–(aq) + H3O+(aq)
Acting as a base: HCO3–(aq) + H2O(l) → H2CO3(aq) + OH–(aq)
33
Bronsted–Lowry
acids and bases
proton proton
donor acceptor

acid base

contains example

hydrogen ion Cl–

sometimes
called

proton, example conjugate

hydronium pair
HCl
ion H+, H3O+

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

Chapter 16 Redox reactions in water

Section 16.1 Introducing redox reactions

Worked example: Try yourself 16.1.1
IDENTIFYING OXIDATION AND REDUCTION

Write the oxidation and reduction half-equations for the reaction with the overall equation:
2Na(s) + Cl2(g) → 2NaCl(s)

Thinking Working

Identify the ions in the product. NaCl is made up of Na+ and Cl– ions.

Write the half-equation for the oxidation of the reactant Na(s) → Na+(s) + e–
that forms positive ions and balance the equation with
electrons.

Write the half-equation for the reduction of the reactant Cl2(g) + 2e– → 2Cl–(s)
that forms negative ions and balance the equation with
electrons.

Worked example: Try yourself 16.1.2

WRITING SIMPLE HALF-EQUATIONS

When a piece of copper metal is placed into a silver nitrate solution, silver metal is formed and the solution gradually
turns blue, indicating the presence of copper(II) ions in solution. The oxidation and reduction reactions can be
represented by two half-equations.
Write these half-equations and identify the substances that are oxidised and reduced.

Thinking Working

Identify one reactant and the product it forms and write Ag+(aq) → Ag(s)
them on each side of the equation.
Balance the equation for the element.

Add electrons to balance the equation for charge. Ag+(aq) + e– → Ag(s)

To decide whether the reactant is oxidised or reduced, Electrons are gained, so this is reduction.
remember that oxidation is loss of electrons and The Ag+(aq) is being reduced.
reduction is gain of electrons.

Identify the second reactant and the product it forms, Cu(s) → Cu2+(aq)
and write them on each side of the equation.
Balance the equation for the element.

Add electrons to balance the equation for charge. Cu(s) → Cu2+(aq) + 2e–

To decide whether the reactant is oxidised or reduced, Electrons are lost, so this is oxidation.
remember that oxidation is loss of electrons and The Cu(s) is being oxidised.
reduction is gain of electrons.

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

Worked example: Try yourself 16.1.3

WRITING OVERALL REDOX EQUATIONS FROM HALF-EQUATIONS

Potassium metal is oxidised by oxygen gas in air to form solid potassium oxide.
Write the half-equations for the reaction and hence write the balanced overall equation.

Thinking Working

Identify one reactant and the product it forms, and write O2(g) → 2O2–(s)
them on each side of the equation.
Balance the equation for the element.

Add electrons to balance the equation for charge. O2(g) + 4e– → 2O2–(s)

Identify the second reactant and the product it forms, K(s) → K+(s)
and write them on each side of the equation.
Balance the equation for the element.

Add electrons to balance the equation for charge. K(s) → K+(s) + e–

Multiply one equation by a suitable factor to ensure that (K(s) → K+(s) + e–) × 4
the number of electrons is balanced. 4K(s) → 4K+(s) + 4e–

Add the oxidation and the reduction half-equations O2(g) + 4e– → 2O2–(s)
together, cancelling out electrons so that none are in 4K(s) → 4K+(s) + 4e–
the final equation. Combine ions to create the formula
When the electrons have been cancelled, the overall
of the product.
equation is:
4K(s) + O2(g) → 2K2O(s)

16.1 Key questions

1 a Oxidation
b Reduction
c Reduction
d Oxidation
2 a Fe(s) → Fe3+(aq) + 3e– – oxidation
b K(s) → K+(aq) + e– – oxidation
c F2(g) + 2e– → 2F–(aq) – reduction
d O2(g) + 4e– → 2O2–(aq) – reduction
3 a Fe(s) has been oxidised to Fe2+(aq).
b Fe(s) → Fe2+(aq) + 2e–
c H+(aq)
d H+(aq) has been reduced to H2
e 2H+(aq) + 2e– → H2(g)
f Fe(s)
g Fe2+(aq)/Fe(s) and H+(aq)/H2(g)
4 a Magnesium is oxidised, copper ions are reduced.
b Mg(s) → Mg2+(aq) + e–
c Cu2+(aq) + 2e– → Cu(s)
d Mg(s) + Cu2+(aq) → Mg2+(aq) + Cu(s)
e oxidant Cu2+; reductant Mg
f The solution loses some of its blue colour due to the loss of Cu2+(aq), which reacts to form Cu(s).
5 a Cu2+
b Cu

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

6 a CaO
b Ca(s)
c Ca(s) → Ca2+(s) + 2e–
d O2(g)
e O2(g) + 4e– → 2O2–(s)
f 2Ca(s) + O2(g) → 2CaO(s)
g Calcium has been oxidised by oxygen to calcium ions. The oxygen has gained electrons from the calcium.
The oxygen has been reduced by calcium to oxide ions. The calcium has lost electrons to the oxygen.

16.1 Extension

Worked example: Try yourself 16.1.4

WRITING HALF-EQUATIONS FOR COMPLEX REDOX REACTIONS

Potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) reacts with potassium iodide (KI) in acidified solution. The dichromate ion (Cr2O72−) is
reduced to form Cr3+ , and the iodide ion (I−) is oxidised to I2.
Write:
a the half equation for the oxidation of the I− to I2
b the half equation for the reduction of Cr2O72− to Cr3+
c an overall ionic equation for the reaction.
(The potassium ions are spectators and do not appear in the ionic equation.)

Thinking Working

The oxidation of I− to I2 is represented by a simple 2I−(aq) → I2(aq) + 2e−

half-equation:

The half-equation to represent the reduction of Cr2O72− to Cr3+ is more complex and will require the use of H+ (aq) and
H2O(l).

Balance all atoms in the half equation except Cr2O72− → 2Cr3+

oxygen and hydrogen.

Balance the oxygen atoms by adding water. Cr2O72− → 2Cr3+ + 7H2O

(Oxygen atoms react to form water in acidic
solution.)

Balance the hydrogen atoms by adding H+ ions Cr2O72− + 14H+ → 2Cr3+ + 7H2O
(which are present in the acidic solution).

Balance the charges on both sides of the Cr2O72−(aq) + 14H+(aq) + 6e− → 2Cr3+(aq) + 7H2O(l)
equation by adding electrons to the more positive
side. Add states.

Add the oxidation half equation to the reduction 3 × [2I−(aq) → I2(aq) + 2e−]
half equation to get the overall equation, Cr2O72−(aq) + 14H+(aq) + 6e− → 2Cr3+(aq) + 7H2O(l)
making sure that the number of electrons used
Cr2O72−(aq) + 14H+(aq) + 6I−(aq) → 2Cr3+(aq) + 7H2O(l) + 3I2(aq)
in reduction equals the number of electrons
released during oxidation.

1 a Step 1: Balance all atoms in the half-equation except oxygen.

SO42– → SO2
Step 2: Balance the oxygen atoms by adding water molecules.
SO42– → SO2 + 2H2O
Step 3: Balance the hydrogen atoms by adding H+ ions (which are present in acidic solution).
SO42– + 4H+ → SO2 + 2H2O
Step 4: Balance the charge by adding electrons to the more positive side.
SO42– + 4H+ + 2e– → SO2 + 2H2O
Step 5: Add symbols of state.
SO42–(aq) + 4H+(aq) + 2e– → SO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
Use the same method to balance the other half-equations.

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

b H2O2(aq) → O2(g) + 2H+(aq) + 2e–

c H2S(g) → S(s) + 2H+(aq) + 2e–
d MnO4–(aq) + 4H+(aq) + 3e– → MnO2(s) + 2H2O(l)
e Ta2O5(s) + 10H+(aq) + 10e– → 2Ta(s) + 5H2O(l)
f SO32–(aq) + H2O(l) → SO4–(aq) + 2H+(aq) + 2e–
g IO3–(aq)+ 6H+(aq) + 6e– → I–(aq) + 3H2O(l)
2 a H2O2(aq) + 2H+(aq) + 2e– → 2H2O(l) × 4
PbS(s) + 4H2O(l) → PbSO4(s) + 8H+(aq) + 8e– × 1
4H2O2(aq) + PbS(s) → PbSO4(s) + 4H2O(l)
b I2(aq) + 2e– → 2I–(aq)
H2S(g) → S(s) + 2H+(aq) + 2e–
I2(aq) +H2S(g) → 2I– (aq) + S(s) + 2H+(aq)
c SO32–(aq) + H2O(l) → SO42–(aq) + 2H+(aq) + 2e– × 5
MnO4–(aq) + 8H+(aq) + 5e– → Mn2+(aq) + 4H2O(l) × 2
5SO32–(aq) + 2MnO4–(aq) + 6H+(aq) → 5SO42–(aq) + 2Mn2+(aq) + 3H2O(l)
d NO(g) + 2H2O(l) → NO3–(aq) + 4H+(aq) + 3e– × 2
Cr2O72–(aq) + 14H+(aq) + 6e– → 2Cr3+(aq) + 7H2O(l)
2NO(g) + Cr2O72–(aq) + 6H+(aq) → 2NO3–(aq) + 2Cr3+(aq) + 3H2O(l)

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

Section 16.2 The reactivity series of metals

Worked example: Try yourself 16.2.1
PREDICTING METAL DISPLACEMENT REACTIONS

Predict whether copper will displace gold from a solution containing gold ions and, if appropriate, write the overall
equation for the reaction.

Thinking Working

Locate the metal and the metal ions in the reactivity Metals (reducing agents) are found on the right-hand
series. side of the reactivity series and the metal ions (oxidising
agents) are on the left-hand side of the reactivity series.
Au+(aq) + e– → Au(s)
Ag+(aq) + e– → Ag(s)
Cu2+(aq) + 2e– → Cu(s)

Determine whether the metal is below (and to the right We can see from the reactivity series that Cu is on the
of) the metal ion in the table. If this is the case, there will right-hand side because it is a reducing agent and it is
be a reaction. below Au+, so there will be a reaction.

Write the reduction reaction for the metal ions directly Au+(aq) + e– → Au(s)
as it is written in the reactivity series, including states.

Write the oxidation reaction for the metal from the Cu(s) → Cu2+(aq) + 2e–
reactivity series, writing the metal on the left-hand side
of the arrow (as a reactant). Include states.

Combine the two half-equations, balancing electrons, (Au+(aq) + e– → Au(s)) × 2

to give the overall equation for the reaction. Cu(s) → Cu2+(aq) + 2e–
2Au+(aq) + Cu(s) → 2Au(s) + Cu2+(aq)

16.2 Key questions

1 For reactions to occur spontaneously, the aqueous cation in the solution must be a stronger oxidant than the cation
of the metal added.
a No
b No
c Yes
d Yes
e Yes
f Yes
g No
2 a 3Cu2+(aq) + 2Al(s) → 3Cu(s) + 2Al3+(aq)
b No reaction
c 2Ag+(aq) + Zn(s) → 2Ag(s) + Zn2+(aq)
3 Use iron and lead to test the solutions.
The copper(II) nitrate will react with both iron and lead.
The tin nitrate will react only with the iron.
The zinc nitrate will not react with either of the metals.

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

Section 16.3 Corrosion

16.3 Key questions

1 2Fe(s) + O2(aq) + 2H2O(l) → 2Fe2+(aq) + 4OH–(aq)
4Fe(OH)2(s) + O2(aq) + 2H2O(l) → 4Fe(OH)3(s)
2 Near the coast, moisture in the air contains a higher amount of dissolved salts (e.g. NaCl(aq)). Salts are good
electrolytes and accelerate the rusting process. They do this because they facilitate the production of ions at the
oxidation and reduction sites of a corroding metal.
3 a Magnesium and zinc
b Only metals more reactive (i.e. more easily oxidised) than iron will act as sacrificial anodes. These more reactive
metals will be oxidised in preference to the iron. The iron will become the cathode (the site of reduction) and no
oxidation of the iron will take place.
4 Reduction of oxygen occurs when there is plenty of moisture and the oxygen concentration is high; that is, at or just
above the surface of the water. A cathodic region forms here. The anodic region, then, is close to the cathode and
where the oxygen concentration is less; that is, just below the surface. Oxidation, or corrosion, therefore occurs more
rapidly below the surface.
5 As zinc is more reactive than steel, it will be the anode and steel will be the cathode. Oxidation, and so corrosion,
of the nails will thus be prevented.

CHAPTER 16 REVIEW
16.1 INTRODUCING REDOX REACTIONS

1 D. The first half-equation shows that sodium metal, Na(s), is losing electrons, so is being oxidised. It must therefore
be the reducing agent. The second half-equation shows that Ag+(aq) is gaining electrons, so it is being reduced. The
Ag+(aq) must therefore be the oxidising agent.
2 A.
3 B. In this reaction, the half-equation for sodium is Na(s) → Na+(s) + e–. Each sodium atom loses one electron.
4 C. The equation is not balanced correctly as it is written. Because the silver ion has a +1 charge, Ag+ ions and Cu
atoms will react in a 2:1 ratio in the reaction. The equation is balanced when it is written as:
2Ag+(aq) + Cu(s) → 2Ag(s) + Cu+(aq)
5 a Oxidation is the gain of oxygen atoms; reduction is the loss of oxygen atoms.
b Oxidation is the loss of electrons; reduction is the gain of electrons.
6 The conjugate redox pairs are Zn2+(aq)/Zn(s) and Co2+(aq)/Co(s).
7 a Oxidation
b Oxidation
c Reduction
d Reduction
8 a Ag+(aq) + e– → Ag(s)
b Cu(s) → Cu2+(aq) + 2e–
c Zn(s) → Zn2+(aq) + 2e–
9 a Mg(s) oxidised, Cu2+(aq) reduced
b Zn(s) oxidised, Ag+(aq) reduced
c CO(g) oxidised, PbO(s) reduced
d Ca(s) oxidised, H+(aq) reduced
e Fe(s) oxidised, Pb2+(aq) reduced

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

10 a Zinc
b Zn(s) → Zn2+(aq) + 2e–
c H+(aq)
d 2H+(aq) + 2e– → H2(g)
e H+(aq)
f Zn(s)
g Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)

16.2 THE REACTIVITY SERIES OF METALS

11 Ag, Cu, Sn, Ni, Mg, Li

12 a Zn(s) + 2Ag+(aq) → Zn2+(aq) + 2Ag(s)
b No reaction
c No reaction
d Mg(s) + Pb2+(aq) → Mg2+(aq) + Pb(s)
e No reaction
f No reaction
g No reaction
h Pb(s) + 2Ag2+(aq) → Pb2+(aq) + 2Ag(s)
13 a No
b Zn(s) + 2AgNO3(aq) → Zn(NO3)2(aq) + 2Ag(s)
c Zn(s) + SnCl2(aq) → ZnCl2(aq) + Sn(s)
d Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
14 Place 10 mL of each solution into a clean test-tube. Add a small piece of magnesium ribbon to each solution. The
magnesium should be coated by displaced metal in the silver nitrate and lead nitrate solutions, but not in the sodium
nitrate. The lead coating will be black. Over time, the silver coating will change from black to silver as more metal is
deposited. To confirm the identity of the silver nitrate solution, take a fresh sample and add a small piece of copper.
Copper will displace silver from the solution, giving silver deposit and a blue solution. Copper will not displace lead
from the solution.
15 Zinc
16 Coatings of metals other than iron would be expected on the nails placed in 1 M solutions of CuSO4 and Pb(NO3)2.
These solutions contain oxidants that are strong enough to react with iron metal. The iron, in turn, reduces the metal
ions in the solution, forming a coating on the nail.

16.3 CORROSION

17 D. A coating of paint will prevent contact between the metal and oxygen and water, so corrosion will not occur as long
as the coating of paint is complete.
18 C. Water is very cold deep in the sea, so any reaction that occurs will do so very slowly. Rusting requires there to be
water and oxygen for it to occur. The distance from the surface of the ocean, hence the low concentration of oxygen,
and the cold temperature of the deep-sea would retard the corrosion of the iron.
19 Fe2+(aq) + OH–(aq)
Fe(OH)2(s)
Fe(OH)3(s)
Fe2O3.xH2O
20 Cathodic protection involves protection of a metal, usually iron, by making it the cathode of a cell. The metal can
either be joined to a more reactive metal, such as zinc, or be connected to the negative terminal of a DC power source.
21 Copper is not a very reactive metal and so is not easily oxidised.
22 As the less reactive coating of tin on the nail was hammered, it would probably be damaged exposing the iron to
water and oxygen. The more reactive iron will now donate electrons to the tin accelerating its rate of corrosion.
23 Near the seaside, moisture in the air contains a higher amount of dissolved salts (e.g. NaCl(aq)). Salts are good
electrolytes and accelerate the rusting process. They do this because they facilitate the production of ions at the
oxidation and reduction sites of a rusting metal.

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

CONNECTING THE MAIN IDEAS

24 Individual students’ responses required.

25 a Ag+(aq); Mg2+(aq)
b Mg(s); Ag(s)
c A coating of silver will form on the lead when it is placed in silver nitrate solution because Ag+ ions are stronger
oxidants than Pb2+ ions.
d Zinc and magnesium
26 Experiment 1 gives you evidence that T is a more reactive metal than R.
Experiment 2 suggests that S is a less reactive metal than T as it does not displace T from a solution of its salt,
T(NO3)2.
Experiment 3 indicates that S is a less reactive metal than R as it does not displace R from a solution of its salt, RNO3.
The information above tells you that S is less reactive than both T and R and that R is less reactive than T, so the
correct order of increasing reactivity is S < R < T.
27 Group A will be oxidised because metals tend to lose electrons to non-metals when they react. Group B will be
reduced because non-metals tend to gain electrons when they react.
28 a Tin is not very reactive and so does not corrode readily. It protects the steel layer under it from corroding by
preventing its contact with water and oxygen.
b Zinc is too reactive to be used inside food cans. It would be oxidised easily by the contents of the can and so
contaminate the food.
c If a can is dented, the tin layer may be cracked, exposing the steel underneath to the contents of the can. The steel
forms an anode and the tin, which is less reactive, forms the cathode. The steel rapidly corrodes and contaminates
the food. Rust that forms may flake off, leaving a hole in the can.

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

Chapter 17 Water sample analysis

Section 17.1 The availability of drinking water

17.1 Key questions

1 Surface water has the highest risk of contamination since it can be easily polluted. It is not a protected water source
like mains water where the water is tested and treated if needed.
2 Reservoirs provide water for reticulated water supplies through a system of pipes to individual households.
3 Most of the freshwater on Earth is locked in ice caps, glaciers or the soil.
4 Australia is the driest inhabited continent. Rainfall in Australia is extremely variable. Most of the rain that falls
evaporates before it can enter rivers and reservoirs.

Section 17.2 Water quality

17.2 Key questions

1 A. Use of an amber glass container is not a requirement for sampling for mercury and no temperature is specified
for the preservation of the sample.
2 Sample should be taken upstream from where the person taking the sample stands.
3 To determine if the water is mixed and therefore what depth to take the samples. If the temperature is consistent,
it can be assumed that the water is thoroughly mixed and samples can be taken half way down. If there is a
temperature variation, then accurate information can only be obtained if a sample is taken in the middle of each
temperature region.

CHAPTER 17 REVIEW
17.1 THE AVAILABILITY OF DRINKING WATER

1
oceans reservoirs rivers

is mostly in
is mostly obtained from
other water sources

is only
Earth’s drinking desalinated
water 2.5% water water
of

is

to bore
quality sampled
ensure water

2 A. Ice. Most of the drinkable water is found in the ice caps, although it is not readily accessible.
3 Bore water is water collected in aquifers (underground water-bearing rock) below the Earth’s surface.
4 Most Australians live in the capital cities and their drinking water is supplied from reservoirs, as cities in Australia
obtain their water from protected sources.

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

5 Oceans, ice caps and glaciers, groundwater, ground ice and permafrost, lakes, soil moisture, atmosphere as water
vapour, rivers

17.2 WATER QUALITY

6 Considerations include:
• which chemical is to be analysed
• why the testing is to take place
• what are the health risks associated with the sampling
• which equipment is required
• what is the sample size required for the selected test
• what method is to be used to record the measurements
• where and at what depths should the samples should be taken
• how to obtain a representative sample
• what are the labelling, storage and transport requirements for the sample
7 D. Humidity. Temperature, depth and location must be recorded and future measurements made at the same depth
and location. The humidity has no significant effect on the result.
8 Arsenic, cadmium and copper are below the Australian Drinking Water Guideline levels and therefore acceptable.
Lead and mercury are above the Guideline levels and therefore unacceptable.
9 a Unsafe position
b Sample taken from surface of groundwater
c Container not sterile
d Container not protected from light
e Water sample not secured safely
10 Water samples are collected for analysis and comparison against water quality standards to determine its suitability
for intended use and, if necessary, treatment required to purify the water. Protocols exist for obtaining these water
samples to ensure they are collected in a consistent manner with the correct equipment. Without protocols, accurate
data cannot be guaranteed.

CONNECTING THE MAIN IDEAS

11 Water can be used as a coolant in energy production, such as in power plants. It is used to remove wastes or as a
cleaning agent in industries ranging from food production to car manufacture. Farming activities use large volumes
of water for irrigation.

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

Chapter 18 Analysis for salts in water

Section 18.1 The source of salts in water

18.1 Key questions

1 Heavy metals have a relatively high density. Examples of metals with a relatively high density that are toxic to living
organisms include lead, mercury, copper, cadmium, chromium and the metalloid arsenic.
2 Toxic heavy metal levels are increased in our waterways by combustion of fuels and wastes (indirect), improper
disposal of batteries, natural deposits in the Earth, and leaching from landfill.
3 A: Organometallic substances contain metal and non-metal atoms. They must have at least one metal–carbon bond
to be defined as organometallic. Each of the other options consist of at least one compound that does not contain
carbon.
4 a calcium ions, iron ions, magnesium ions
b 2C17H35COO– (aq) + Ca2+(aq) → Ca(C17H35COO)2(s)
5 Carbonate ions from the washing soda precipitate calcium and magnesium ions from solution. This reaction takes
place before the calcium and magnesium ions can react with the stearate ions from the soap. The soap is, therefore,
much more effective in its washing action.
Ionic equation: CO32–(aq) + Ca2+(aq) → CaCO3(s) or CO32–(aq) + Mg2+(aq) → MgCO3(s)
6 Total dissolved solids (TDS)
7
Electrical conductivity, EC (mS cm–1) a TDS (mg L–1) b Fit or unfit to drink

240 144 Fit

3200 1920 Fit

12 000 7200 Unfit

8 Group I and group II metal ions are usually safe to drink at low concentrations, but heavy metal ions are not.
Very toxic: Cu2+, Pb2+, Cd2+, Hg2+.
Relatively safe: Na+, Mg2+, Li2+, K+

Section 18.2 Gravimetric analysis

Worked example: Try yourself 18.2.1
USING MOLE RATIOS

Solutions of lead(II) nitrate and potassium iodide are mixed together, forming 0.30 mol of solid lead(II) iodide. How
many moles of potassium iodide reacted in this reaction?

Thinking Working

Write a balanced equation for the reaction. 2Kl(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) → Pbl2(s) + 2KNO3(aq)

Determine the number of moles of the ‘known n(Pbl2) = 0.30 mol

substance’. The known substance is the one you are
provided information about in the question.
coefficient of unknown n(Kl) 2
Find the mole ratio: mole ratio = =
coefficient of known n(Pbl2) 1
The ‘unknown substance’ is the one whose moles you are
required to calculate.

Calculate the number of moles of the unknown substance 2

n(Kl) = 0.30 ×
from: 1
= 0.60 mol
n(unknown) = n(known) × (mole ratio)

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

Worked example: Try yourself 18.2.2

MASS–MASS STOICHIOMETRIC PROBLEMS

A reaction between solutions of sodium sulfate and barium nitrate produces a precipitate of barium sulfate with
a mass of 2.440 g. Calculate the mass of sodium sulfate required to produce this precipitate.

Thinking Working

Write a balanced equation for the reaction. Na2SO4(aq) + Ba(NO3)2(aq) → BaSO4(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)

Calculate the number of moles of the known substance 2.440

n(BaSO4) =
(the precipitate): 233.4
mass (m) = 0.01045 mol
n=
molar mass (M)

Calculate the mole ratio: n(Na2SO4) 1

mole ratio = =
coefficient of unknown n(BaSO4) 1
mole ratio =
coefficient of known

Calculate the number of moles of the known substance: 1

n(Na2SO4) = 0.01045 ×
1
n(unknown) = n(known) × mole ratio
= 0.01045 mol

Calculate the mass of the unknown substance: m(Na2SO4) = 0.01045 × 142.1

m = n(unknown) × molar mass = 1.486 g

Worked example: Try yourself 18.2.3

GRAVIMETRIC ANALYSIS

Water discharged from a mining plant contains silver ions present as silver nitrate (AgNO3). Excess potassium
chromate (K2CrO4) solution is added to a 50.0 g sample of water to precipitate the silver as silver chromate. The
precipitate is heated to produce 1.32 g of silver chromate (Ag2CrO4).
Calculate the percentage mass of silver in the water supply. (The molar mass of Ag2CrO4 is 331.7 g mol–1.)

Thinking Working

Write a balanced equation for the precipitation reaction. 2Ag2NO3(aq) + K2CrO4(aq) → Ag2CrO4(s) + 2KNO3(aq)

Calculate the number of moles of precipitate using: m

n(Ag2CrO4) =
m M
n= 1.32
M =
331.7
= 3.98 × 10–3 mol

Use the balanced equation to find the mole ratio of the n(AgNO3) 2
mole ratio = =
‘known’ and ‘unknown’ substances. n(Ag2CrO4) 1

The ‘known substance’ is the one you are provided about

in the question; the ‘unknown substance’ is the one
whose mass you are required to calculate.

Calculate the moles of unknown substance. 2

n(Ag2NO3) = 3.98 × 10–3 ×
1
= 7.96 × 10–3 mol

Calculate the mass of unknown substance in the sample. The question asks for % of silver not silver nitrate, so
using mole ratios:
n(Ag) = n(AgNO3) = 7.96 × 10–3 mol
m(Ag) = n × M
= 7.96 × 10–3 × 107.9
= 0.859 g

Calculate the percentage mass of the unknown substance 0.859

% Ag = × 100
in the 50.0 g of sample. 50.0
= 1.72%

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

18.2 Key questions

1 C. AgNO3(aq) + LiBr(aq) → AgBr(s) + LiNO3(aq)
This equation shows silver bromide precipitating from the mixture of solutions of silver nitrate and lithium bromide.
To be used for gravimetric analysis the chemical reaction must form a solid (precipitation reaction).
2 a False
b True
c True
d True
e True
Gravimetric analysis cannot be used if a salt is insoluble. Even if the salt is soluble, the technique still requires at
least one of the ions in the salt to form insoluble substances when other reactants are added. For accurate results,
the precipitate should be washed carefully and then dried thoroughly. The precipitate must be relatively stable so
that its composition does not change during heating.
3 Poor practice initially displayed Impact
Precipitate is not dried to constant mass. Mass of the precipitate is high due to the presence of water.
Precipitate is not washed with deionised water. Mass of the precipitate is high due to the presence of
impurities.
Precipitate is left on the sides of the flask. Precipitate is pure but its measured mass is lower than it
should be.
Precipitate decomposes when heated. The composition of the precipitate is not consistent.

4 m(Ca(NO3)2) = 8.95 g
Working:
5.64
n(Ca(PO4)2) = = 0.0182 mol
310.2

n(Ca(NO3)2) = 0.0182 × 3 = 0.0545 mol

m(Ca(NO3)2) = 0.0545 × 164 = 8.95 g
5 a Silver nitrate. All nitrate salts are highly soluble but AgCl is insoluble.
AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) → AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq)
b The mass of the precipitate will be used to initially calculate the number of moles of silver chloride.
n(NaCl) 1
c Mole ratio = =
n(AgCl) 1
4.68
6 a n(Al2(CO3)3 = = 0.020 mol
234
n(Al(NO3)3) 2
b Mole ratio = =
n(Al2(CO3)3) 1
c m(Al(NO3)3) = 0.04 × 213 = 8.52 g
7 m(Hg(CH3COO)2) = 3.38 g
Working:
4.82
n(Hgl2) = = 0.0106 mol
454.4
n(Hg(CH3COO)2) 1
Mole ratio = =
n(Hgl2) 1

m(Hg(CH3COO)2) = 0.0106 × 318.7 = 3.38 g

8 50.00 mL sample of hard water measured.
Excess of sodium carbonate is added.
Reaction mixture is filtered.
Precipitate is dried.
Precipitate is weighed.
Number of mole of precipitate is calculated.
Number of mole of calcium is calculated.
Mass of calcium ions is calculated.

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

Section 18.3 Calculations involving excess reactants

Worked example: Try yourself 18.3.1
MASS–MASS STOICHIOMETRY CALCULATION WITH ONE REACTANT ‘IN EXCESS’

A solution containing 0.600 g of lead(II) nitrate is added to a solution containing 2.60 g of potassium iodide.
An equation for the reaction is:
2KI(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) → PbI2(s) + 2KNO3(aq)

(a) Which reactant is the limiting reactant?

Thinking Working

Calculate the number of moles of each of the reactants m

m Use the equation n = .
M
in the equation using n = or n = c × V as appropriate.
M 0.600
For Pb(NO3)2: n(Pb(NO3)2) = = 1.81 × 10–3 mol
331.2
2.60
For KI: n(Kl) = = 1.57 × 10–2 mol
166.0

Use the coefficients of the equation to find the limiting The equation shows that 2 mol of KI reacts with 1 mol of
reactant. Pb(NO3)2
So to react all of the Pb(NO3)2 you will require
2
× n(Pb(NO3)) of KI
1
2
× 1.81 × 10–3 = 3.62 × 10–3 mol
1
As there is 1.57 × 10–2 mol available, the KI is in excess.
So, Pb(NO3)2 is the limiting reactant (it will be completely
consumed).

(b) What will be the mass of the precipitate?

Thinking Working

Find the mole ratio of the unknown substance to the From the equation coefficients:
limiting reactant from the equation coefficients: coefficient of (Pbl2) 1
×
coefficient of unknown coefficient of (Pb(NO3)2) 1
mole ratio =
coefficient of limiting reactant

Calculate the number of moles of the unknown substance 1

n(Pbl2) = n(Pb(NO3)2) ×
using the number of moles of the limiting reactant: 1
1
n(unknown) = n(limiting reactant) × mole ratio = 1.81 × 10–3 ×
1
= 181 × 10–3 mol

Calculate the mass of the unknown substance using: Molar mass of PbI2 = 461.0 g mol–1
m(unknown) = n(unknown) × molar mass m(Pbl2) = 1.81 × 10–3 × 461.0
= 0.835 g

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

18.3 Key questions

1 B Calculate the number of moles of aluminium and of oxygen.
D Refer to the balanced equation.
A Use mole ratios to determine which reactant is limiting.
E Calculate the number of moles of aluminium oxide that forms.
C Calculate the mass of aluminium oxide that forms.
2
Nitrogen molecules Hydrogen molecules Ammonia molecules Nitrogen molecules in Hydrogen molecules
available available produced excess in excess

2 10 4 0 4

879 477 318 720 0

9 mol 6 mol 4 mol 7 mol 0 mol

Explanation
• Both nitrogen molecules will react with 2 × 3 = 6 hydrogen molecules to produce 2 × 2 = 4 ammonia molecules,
so 10 – 6 = 4 hydrogen molecules will be in excess.
1 2
• All 477 hydrogen molecules will react with 477 × = 159 nitrogen molecules to produce 477 × = 318 ammonia
3 3
molecules. 879 – 159 = 720 nitrogen molecules will be in excess.
1 2
• All 6 mol hydrogen molecules will react with 6 × = 2 mol nitrogen molecules to produce 6 × = 4 mol ammonia
3 3
molecules. 9 – 2 = 7 nitrogen molecules will be in excess.
3 a 2Na(s) + Cl2 → 2NaCl(s)
m 25.0
b n(Na) = = = 1.09 mol
M 23.0
m 50.0
n(Cl2) = = = 0.704 mol
M 71.0
n(Na) 2
=
n(Cl2) 1
Sodium is the limiting reagent; use the moles of sodium to calculate n(NaCl):
n(NaCl) 1
=
n(Na) 1
n(NaCl) = n(Na) = 1.09 mol
m(NaCl) = n × M = 1.09 × 58.5 = 63.8 g
4 a In the equation for the reaction:
coefficient of Kl 2
= =2
coefficient of Pb(NO3)2 1
2 mol of KI react with 1 mol of Pb(NO3)2
In this case, not all the Pb(NO3)2 can react and it will be in excess.
From the equation:
1 1
n(Pb(NO3)2) reacted = × n(KI) = × 1.0 = 0.50 mol
2 2
So, Pb(NO3)2 is in excess by (1.0 – 0.50) = 0.50 mol.
b In the equation for the reaction:
coefficient of Kl 2
= =2
coefficient of Pb(NO3)2 1
2 mol of KI react with 1 mol of Pb(NO3)2 .
In this case, not all the Pb(NO3)2 can react and it will be in excess.
From the equation:
1
n(Pb(NO3)2) reacted = × n(KI)
2
1
= × 0.5 = 0.25 mol
2
So, Pb(NO3)2 is in excess by (2.0 – 0.25) = 1.75 mol

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

1.00
c n(Pb(NO3)2) = = 0.00302 mol
331
1.50
n(Kl) = = 0.00904 mol
166
In the equation for the reaction:
coefficient of Kl 2
= =2
coefficient of Pb(NO3)2 1
2 mol of KI react with 1 mol of Pb(NO3)2.
In this case, not all of the KI can react and some of it will be in excess. This means that Pb(NO3)2 is the limiting
reactant.
The equation shows that 1 mol of PbI2 precipitate will form for every 1 mol of Pb(NO3)2 that reacts.
n(PbI2) = n(Pb(NO3)2) = 0.00302 mol
m(PbI2) = 0.00302 × 461 = 1.39 g
d n(Pb(NO3)2) = c × V = 1.00 × 0.0500 = 0.0500 mol
n(KI) = c × V = 0.500 × 0.0750 = 0.0375 mol
coefficient of Kl 2
= =2
coefficient of Pb(NO3)2 1
2 mol of KI react with 1 mol of Pb(NO3)2.
In this case, not all of the Pb(NO3)2 can react and some of it will be in excess. This means KI is the limiting reactant.
The equation shows that 1 mol of PbI2 precipitate will form for every 2 mol of KI that reacts.
1 1
n(Pbl2) = × n(KI) = × 0.0375 = 0.00188 mol
2 2
m(PbI2) = 0.00188 × 461 = 8.64 g

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

Section 18.4 Determining salt concentration by colorimetry and

UV–visible spectroscopy
Worked example: Try yourself 18.4.1
USING A CALIBRATION CURVE

Determine the lead level in a solution using the following colorimetry data.
Concentration of Pb2+ (mg L–1) Absorbance
2.5 0.18
5.0 0.35
7.5 0.51
10.0 0.68
Sample 0.60

Thinking Working

Construct a calibration curve from the data above. Calibration curve

Concentration will be on the horizontal axis. Absorbance

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
5 10 15 20
Concentration (µg mL–1)

Mark where the absorption of the sample lies on the Calibration curve
calibration curve by tracing a horizontal line to the curve. Absorbance

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
5 10 15 20
Concentration (µg mL–1)

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

Draw a vertical line from the absorbance value to the Calibration curve
x-axis. Absorbance

0.7

0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0
5 10 15 20
Concentration (µg mL–1)

Determine the concentration of the sample by reading The concentration of Pb2+ in the sample can be
the concentration value for the unknown solution from determined from the graph as 8.8 mg L–1.
the x-axis.

18.4 Key questions

1 a 0.080 M solution
b 0.30 M solution
2 Copper sulfate is blue because it transmits blue light and absorbs light of other frequencies. Since a colorimeter
measures the amount of light absorbed by a sample, light of a colour other than blue must be used when measuring
the concentration of a copper sulfate solution.
3 Blue. The sample is absorbing light with wavelengths of 600–700 nm. This means that the sample is absorbing red
and yellow light but not blue light. If the sample is not absorbing blue light, the dye will observed to be blue. Blue is
the complement of red and yellow light.
4 a An absorbance of 0.24 corresponds to a concentration of 0.15 M Fe2+ from the calibration graph.
b Allowing for the dilution of the sample, the original solution was diluted by a factor of 4 so the concentration of Fe2+
ions in the tank water was 0.15 × 4 = 0.6 M.
c Fe2+ ions are oxidised to Fe3+ with acidified permanganate (MnO4–/H+) before the addition of KSCN. Reaction of
KSCN with Fe3+ forms the highly coloured red metal complex FeSCN2+. The concentration of the complex can then
be determined using spectrophotometry.
Fe3+ (aq) + SCN–(aq) → FeSCN2+ (aq)
5
Solution Complementary colour

Green Purple

Purple Green

Orange Blue

Green–yellow Violet

Blue-green Red

Green Purple

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

6 a AAS Calibration Curve for Sodium Analysis

0.18

0.16

0.14

0.12
Absorbance

0.1

0.08

0.06

0.04

0.02

0
20 40 60 80 100
Concentration of sodium (mg L–1)

b Concentration = 175 mg L–1

Mark where the absorption of 0.42 of the sample lies on the calibration curve by tracing a horizontal line to the
curve. Then drawing a vertical line from the curve to the horizontal axis. Read the concentration from the x-axis.
7 Blue is the complementary colour of orange. If potassium dichromate solutions are analysed in a colorimeter, a
blue filter should be used. The sample will be placed in a glass or plastic cell and light directed at it. The higher
the concentration of the solution, the more light is absorbed and the lower the intensity of the light arriving at the
detector.
8 a There are two strong absorption peaks at 420 nm and 660 nm.
b Either 660 nm or 420 nm wavelengths could be used as chlorophyll absorbs strongly at both.

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

Section 18.5 Determining concentration by atomic absorption

spectroscopy
Worked example: Try yourself 18.5.1
USING A CALIBRATION CURVE TO DETERMINE CONCENTRATION

Determine the concentration of sodium in a sample given the data in the following table.

Concentration of sodium (mg L–1) 20 40 60 80 Sample

Absorbance 0.041 0.080 0.121 0.159 0.104

Thinking Working

Construct a calibration curve using the concentrations AAS Calibration Curve for Sodium Analysis
of the standard solutions and their absorbance.
0.18

0.16

0.14

0.12
Absorbance

0.1

0.08

0.06

0.04

0.02

0
20 40 60 80 100
Concentration of sodium (mg L–1)

Mark where the absorption of the sample lies on the AAS Calibration Curve for Sodium Analysis
calibration curve. This can be done by finding the
absorption of the sample on the y-axis and moving
horizontally right until you reach the calibration curve 0.18
and marking that point.
0.16

0.14

0.12

0.1
Absorbance

0.08

0.06

0.04

0.02

0
20 40 60 80 100
Concentration of sodium (mg L–1)

The sample’s absorption is 0.104.

Determine the concentration of the sample by reading From the graph it can be determined that the concentration
off the graph on the x-axis at the point where the of sodium in the sample is 52 mg L–1.
sample’s absorption lies on the calibration curve.

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

18.5 Key questions

1 When a sample containing copper is heated in the flame of a Bunsen burner, the flame turns a green colour. This is
because the electrons in the copper atoms absorb energy and move to higher energy shells and then emit light that
corresponds to a green colour as they return to lower energy shells.
2 An emission spectrum is the spectrum of the light emitted by an element when it is heated. Atoms must be heated
so that electrons move to higher energy levels, before returning to lower levels and emitting light.
3
Component Description

Monochromator Selects a specific wavelength of light

Detector Measures the amount of light

Hollow source cathode lamp Produces light with wavelengths that are absorbed by the metal being analysed

Flame Where the sample is sprayed and light is absorbed

Computer Converts the amount of light detected into the amount of light absorbed by the sample

4 C. AAS does not heat a sample to a sufficient temperature to analyse all elements. It can, however, be used to analyse
most metals but not non-metals.
5 a AAS Calibration Curve for
Potassium Analysis

0.25

0.2
Absorbance

0.15

0.1

0.05

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Concentration of potassium (mg L–1)

b From the graph the concentration of potassium in the sample is 4.8 mg L–1.
AAS Calibration Curve for
Potassium Analysis

0.25

0.2
Absorbance

0.15

0.1

0.05

1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Concentration of potassium (mg L–1)

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

CHAPTER 18 REVIEW
18.1 THE SOURCE OF SALTS IN WATER

1 a Any three of the following human activities lead to an increase in salts in our waterways: mining and industry
lead to an increase of mercury and other heavy metals in the water system, the burning of fuels containing trace
amounts of mercury, leaching from landfill, incorrect disposal of batteries and fluorescent light bulbs.
Run off from agriculture increases ammonium and phosphate levels due to fertilisers. Sewage treatment and
domestic grey water increase levels of phosphate.
b They can be removed by precipitation reactions. Addition of calcium hydroxide will result in the precipitation of
insoluble heavy metal hydroxides.
Methylmercury (CH3Hg+) is on organometallic compound produced in industry and from the burning of mercury-
containing substances.
Methylmercury and tetraethyl lead are organometallic compounds because they contain at least one bond between
a carbon atom and the metal.
2 Salt solutions will conduct electricity due to the presence of ions. The higher the concentration of the ions, the higher
the electrical conductivity. Conductivity readings are taken at a standard temperature of 25°C. Electrical conductivity
readings cannot be used to identify the actual metal ions present in a natural water sample.
3 B. A 0.1 M solution of LiNO3 will be more conductive than a 0.001 M solution of KCl. Ethanoic acid and ammonia do
not ionise completely, so the number of ions in 0.1 M solutions will be less than in a 0.1 M solution of LiNO3.
4 Another example of an organometallic compound is methylmercury. Organometallic compounds are substances with
at least one carbon–metal bond.

18.2 GRAVIMETRIC ANALYSIS

5
Ca(NO3)2 Na3PO4 Ca3(PO4)2 NaNO3

27 mol 18 9.0 54

0.72 0.48 mol 0.24 0.44

0.54 0.36 0.18 mol 1.08

1.2 0.8 0.4 2.4 mol

6 a lead(II) chloride, lead(II) hydroxide, copper(II) hydroxide

b Pb(NO3)2(aq) + CuCl2(aq) → PbCl2(s) + Cu(NO3)2(aq)
Pb2+(aq) + 2Cl–(aq) → PbCl2(s)
Pb(NO3)2(aq) + Ba(OH)2(aq) → Pb(OH)2(s) + Ba(NO3)2(aq)
Pb2+(aq) + 2OH–(aq) → Pb(OH)2(s)
CuCl2(aq) + Ba(OH)2(aq) → Cu(OH)2(s) + BaCl2(aq)
Cu2+(aq) + 2OH–(aq) → Cu(OH)2(s)
2
7 n(KOH) = × n(Fe(OH)2)
1
1
n(FeSO4) = × n(KOH)
2
2
n(KOH) = × n(K2SO4)
1
1
n(Fe(OH)2) = × n(FeSO4)
1

8 %(Ag) = 18.3%
0.169
n(AgCl) = = 0.00118 mol
143.4

n(Ag) = n(AgCl) = 0.00118 mol

m(Ag) = n × M = 0.00118 × 107.9 = 0.127 g
0.127
%(Ag) = × 100 = 18.3%
0.693

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

9 Step 1: Write a balanced equation.

Ag+(aq) + Cl–(aq) → AgCl(s)
Step 2: Calculate the amount of AgCl.
0.693 g
n(AgCl) = = 0.004438 mol
143.32 g mol–1

Step 3: From the equation, 1 mol of NaCl produces 1 mol of AgCl.

n(NaCl) 1
=
n(AgCl) 1

n(NaCl) = 0.004438 mol

Step 4: Calculate the mass of salt.
m(NaCl) = 0.004438 × 58.44 = 0.2594 g
Step 5: Convert to percentage.
0.2594
%(NaCl) = × 100 = 3.0698%
8.45

Step 6: Express the answer with the correct number of significant figures.
%(NaCl) = 3.07%
10 a Step 1: Find the percentage of P in Mg2P2O7.
2 × 30.97
%(P) = × 100 = 27.83%
222.56
Step 2: Using the %(P) in Mg2P2O7, calculate the mass of P in precipitate.
m(P) = 27.83% of 0.085
27.83
× 0.085 = 0.02366 g
100
Step 3: Calculate the percentage (P) in 2.0 g of washing powder.
0.02366 g
%(P) = = 1.183%
2.0 g
Step 4: Express the answer with the correct number of significant figures.
%(P) = 1.2%
b You would need to consider the fact that the percentage of phosphate in the washing powder is greater than
the percentage of the phosphorus.
11 The mass of the precipitate is higher than it should be. The experimental errors that could lead to a high result
include the precipitate was not dried completely, the precipitate was not washed, the presence in the solution of
other metal ions that form precipitates.

18.3 CALCULATIONS INVOLVING EXCESS REACTANTS

12
Carbon atoms Oxygen molecules Carbon dioxide Carbon atoms in Oxygen molecules in
available available molecules produced excess excess

8 20 8 0 12

1000 3000 1000 0 2000

9 mol 6 mol 6 mol 3 mol 0 mol

13 a Oxygen is in excess.
b 1.5 mol of sodium oxide is produced.
n(O2) 1
=
n(Na) 4

Since the n(O2) required is , oxygen is in excess and sodium is the limiting reagent.

Next, calculate the number of mole of sodium oxide from the number of mole of sodium.
n(Na2O) 2 1
= =
n(Na) 4 2
1
n(Na2O) = 3 × = 1.5 mol
2

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

14 a m(S) = 22.6 g

16
n(H2S) = = 0.471 mol
34
20
n(SO2) = = 0.313 mol
64
From the balanced equation the number of mole of H2S needs to be double that of SO2. It is not; therefore,
H2S is the limiting reactant.
3
n(S) = × 0.471 = 0.707 mol
2
∴ m(S) = n × M = 0.707 × 32 = 22.6 g
b m(SO2) = 4.93 g
This is calculated by following the steps below.
1
n(SO2 reacting) = × 0.471 = 0.236 mol
2
n(SO2 remaining) = 0.313 – 0.236 = 0.077 mol
∴ m(SO2) = n × M = 0.077 × 64 = 4.93 g
4.40
15 a n(P4O6) = = 0.0200 mol
220.0
3.00
n(l2) = = 0.01182 mol
253.8
Use n(P4O6) provided to find n(I2) needed to react completely with the P4O6. From the equation, 8 mol of I2
reacts with 5 mol of P4O6.
n(l2) 8
=
n(P4O6) 5
8 8
n(I2) required = × n(P4O6) = × 0.0200 = 0.0320 mol
5 5
n(I2) available = 0.01182 mol
So, there is insufficient I2 to react with all the P4O6, so I2 is the limiting reagent and P4O6 is in excess.
Use n(I2) provided to find n(P4O6) needed to react completely with the equation, 8 mol of I2 reacts with
5 mol of P4O6.
8 8
n(P4O6) required = × n(l2) = × 0.01182 = 0.00738 mol
5 5
n(P4O6) available = 0.0200 mol
So, P4O6 is in excess by 0.0200 – 0.00738 = 0.0126 mol
∴ m(P4O6) in excess = 0.0126 × 220 = 2.77 g
b Use the amount of the limiting reagent, I2, to determine the amount of P2I4 formed. From the equation,
8 mol of I2 reacts to form 4 mol of P2I4.
n(P2O4) = 4
n(I2) = 8
4 × 0.01182
So, n(P2l4) = = 0.00591 mol
8
∴ m(P2I4) = 0.00591 × 569.6 = 3.37 g
c Use the amount of the limiting reagent, I2, to determine the amount of P4O10 formed. From the equation,
8 mol of I2 reacts to form 3 mol of P4O10.
n(P4O10) = 3
n(I2) = 8
3 × 0.01182
So, n(P4O10) = = 0.00443 mol
8
∴ m(P4O10) = 0.00443 × 284.0 = 1.26 g
d Total mass of products = 3.37 + 1.26 = 4.63 g
4.63 g of products formed plus 2.78 g unreacted P4O6 = 7.40 g, which is consistent with the total mass of reactants
used initially.

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

18.4 DETERMINING SALT CONCENTRATION BY COLORIMETRY AND UV–VISIBLE SPECTROSCOPY

16

IIIIIIIIIII
III II
II II
II

II
II

II
II

III
IIIII

IIIII
light source detector recorder

monochromator

sample solution

17 a 800 nm
b Light is absorbed in the red region.
c The solution would be blue.
18
Component Function

Detector Measures the intensity of light.

Filter Selects a range of wavelengths of light.

Light source Provides ultraviolet and visible light of all wavelengths.

Monochromator Allows selection of light of a particular wavelength.

Glass cell Transparent container that holds the sample.

Recorder Displays the absorbance measurement.

19 a 39 mg L–1
b Step 1: Using the answer from part a, calculate the mass of P in the 0.250 g sample of detergent powder, assuming
that the density of the solution is 1 g mL–1.
32 mg L–1 is 32 mg per litre (1000 mL) = ? mg per 250 mL solution
250
m(P) = 32 × = 8.0 mg
1000
Step 2: Calculate the percentage of P in the 0.250 g sample of detergent powder.
8 mg
%(P) = × 100 = 3.2% (to 2 significant figures)
250 mg
c Orange light of wavelength 600 nm is strongly absorbed by a blue solution.
20 a False
b False
c True
d False

18.5 DETERMINING CONCENTRATION BY ATOMIC ABSORPTION SPECTROSCOPY

21 a Copper gives a green flame.

b It is necessary vaporise traces of other substances that could lead to a false result.
c Copper wire would give the flame a green colour, and so interfere with the test. The wire must be made of an
element that does not change the colour of the Bunsen burner flame.
d Flame tests are rarely used for analysis by today’s chemists because relatively few elements may be analysed in
this way and the presence of one element (sodium, for example) may mask the presence of another. Also colours
emitted by some elements are similar and difficult and distinguish, and because a relatively large amount of
sample is needed to give a clear colour.

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

22 When atoms absorb energy, it is often possible for electrons to be promoted to various higher energy levels. Electrons
can return to the ground state from these excited states by undergoing a number of transitions of different energy.
(This is shown in the diagram.) Each transition results in a line of specific energy in the emission spectrum.

3rd
excited
level

2nd
excited Particular energies are
level
emitted, depending on
Energy

how the electron

returns to the lowest
energy level
1st
excited
level

Initially, the
electron is
excited to a
higher energy
level

Lowest
energy
level

23 Absorption occurs in the flame.

The sample is sprayed into the flame and the light from the lamp is passed through the flame. The metal atoms in the
sample absorb some of the light passing through the flame. The higher the concentration of the metal, the more light
is absorbed in the flame.
24 a Both involve the absorption of electromagnetic radiation of particular wavelengths characteristic of the substance
under investigation. The amount of radiation absorbed is measured by a detector. The amount of light absorbed
is proportional to the amount of the light-absorbing substance in the sample.
b In AAS, the sample is sprayed into a flame and light of a particular wavelength is passed through the flame. Atoms
of the element being analysed absorb some of the radiation and the amount of light absorbed indicates the
amount of the element present in the sample. AAS can be used to detect most metals.
In UV–visible spectroscopy, two lights are used to produce radiation covering the visible and UV spectrum. The
‘light’ is passed through a prism to produce the desired wavelength; for UV analysis a silica sample holder is
used. UV spectroscopy can be used to analyse many colourless compounds as well as coloured ones. It can
give information about the structure of the substance. UV–visible spectroscopy can be used to determine the
concentration of atom ion and molecules include complex organic substances.
25 a Calibration of AAS-Lead

0.25

0.2
Absorbance

0.15

0.1

0.05

5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
Concentration (mg L–1)
b From the graph, the concentration of lead in the sample is 26 mg L–1.

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

CONNECTING THE MAIN IDEAS

26
Technique Feature

Electrical conductivity Ions flow between electrodes in a solution.

Atomic emission spectroscopy A sample is injected into a flame.

Colorimeter A filter is used to select a range of wavelengths of visible light.

UV–visible spectrophotometer A monochromator allows complementary light of an exact

wavelength to be used.

Gravimetric analysis The mass of a precipitate is used to determine the

concentration of a salt.

27 a Al2(SO4)2(aq) + 3Ba(NO3)2(aq) → 3BaSO4(s) + 2Al(NO3)2(aq)

Na2SO4(aq) + Ba(NO3)2(aq) → BaSO4(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)
b n = 0.0161 mol
3.76
n(BaSO4) = = 0.0161 mol
233.4
n(SO42–) = n(BaSO4) = 0.0161 mol
c n(Al2(SO4) = 0.00403 mol
n(Na2SO4) = 0.00403 mol
The total number of moles of sulfate is 0.0161. Since Al2(SO4)3 and Na2SO4 are present in equimolar amounts,
the number of moles of sulfate from the AI2(SO4)3 is three times that of the Na2SO4.
0.0161
n(Na2SO4) = = 0.00403 mol
4
n(Al2(SO4) = 3 × 0.00403 = 0.0121 mol
28 a Fe2O3
b n(Fe) = 2 n(Fe2O3) = 2 × 2.4 = 4.8 mol
c No. All compounds containing sodium ions are soluble in water.
29 a Use a green filter. (A complementary colour to red needs to be used in the calorimeter.)
1
b Mole ratio will be .
1
c The observance obtained from a sample needs to be plotted on a calibration curve constructed from a series
of standard solutions of the FeSCN– complex.
d The lamp used must match the element being tested. A hollow cathode lamp with an iron (Fe) filament should
be used.

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

Chapter 19 Analysis for organic compounds

in water

Section 19.1 Organic contaminants in water

19.1 Key questions

1 A and B. Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are organic contaminants that are resistant to environmental
degradation. Heavy metals, minerals and organometallic compounds are not regarded as organic contaminants.
Crude oil is not regarded as a POP because the alkanes in crude oil break down more rapidly in the environment than
DDT or dioxins.
2 A, D and E. POPs can remain in the body for a long time. They impact upon the nervous system and reproductive
organs. They are also linked to cancer.
3 B. PVC is a polymer called polyvinylchloride. It contains chlorine atoms, one of the elements present in most dioxins.
4 D. Dioxins are not soluble in water but they are soluble in fat. Blood and urine are both water-based solutions.
5 B. Oil and water do not mix. This leads to oil forming slicks when it spills into the ocean.
6 Dioxins can be formed from the burning of organic chemicals containing chlorine atoms. The dioxins can end up in
water supplies. They are usually insoluble in water, so they become attached to plants or sediments. When consumed
by an animal they are usually stored in fat They can have adverse effects on your health.
7 C, D and F. Ethanol and ethanoic acid are regularly consumed by humans, so small quantities in waste water are
acceptable as they dissolve in water and are easily degraded. Methanol is also water soluble and decomposes
relatively quickly in the environment.

Section 19.2 Principles of chromatography

Worked example: Try yourself 19.2.1
CALCULATING Rf VALUES

Calculate the Rf value of the blue component in Figure 19.2.5 on page 499.

Thinking Working

Record the distance the component has moved from the Distance from origin of blue component = 3 cm
origin and the distance the solvent front has moved from Distance from origin of solvent front = 10 cm
the origin.
distance of component from origin 3
Rf = Rf (blue component) =
distance of solvent front from origin 10
= 0.3

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

19.2 Key questions

1 B. Ethanol is the mobile phase in this example. The pigments contain the components to be separated and the paper
is the stationary phase. There will be ethanol vapour in the air in the jar, but this is not the mobile phase.
2
Adsorption The attraction of one substance to the surface of another

Desorption The breaking of the attraction between a substance and the surface to which the substance
is adsorbed

Components The different compounds in the mixture, which can be separated by chromatography

Polar molecule A molecule that acts as a dipole; it has one or more polar covalent bonds, with the charge
being distributed asymmetrically

Mobile phase The solvent that moves over the stationary phase in chromatography

Stationary phase The components of a mixture undergo adsorption to this phase

3 For parts a, b, c, it would be useful to set your answers out in a table.

Band a Distance from origin b Rf c Compound

(mm)

Light green 20 0.33 Chlorophyll b

Dark green 27 0.45 Chlorophyll a

Orange 40 0.67 Xanthophyll

Yellow 50 0.83 ß-Carotene

Solvent front 60 – –

d The chromatogram would be likely to be different because separation of components depends on their solubility in
the mobile phase (as well as strength of adsorption to the stationary phase). The polarity of the solvent used in TLC
and paper chromatography will affect the Rf of the sample components. A polar solvent will dissolve polar samples
readily; a non-polar solvent will dissolve nonpolar samples readily.
4 1 Dissolve a sample of pure phenacetin in a volume of chloroform. This is the standard solution.
2 Dissolve a tablet of the analgesic in chloroform. This is the sample solution.
3 Place a small spot of the sample solution near the bottom of a thin-layer plate.
Place a spot of the standard solution next to it, at the same distance from the bottom of the plate.
4 When the spots are dry, place the plate in a container with a small volume of solvent, such as chloroform. The
lower edge of the plate, but not the spots, should be immersed.
5 Allow the solvent to rise until it almost reaches the top of the plate and then remove the plate from the container.
6 Let the plate dry and examine it under ultraviolet light. If a spot from the sample appears at the same distance
from the origin as the spot from the standard solution, the tablet is likely to contain phenacetin.

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

Section 19.3 High-performance liquid chromatography

Worked example: Try yourself 19.3.1
CONCENTRATION OF A PESTICIDE

Procymidone is a pesticide that is used to prevent disease in oranges. Tests have been performed using HPLC to
determine the concentration of this pesticide in a sample of orange juice.
The chromatograms of a series of standards with accurately known concentrations of procymidone were obtained
under the same conditions as the sample.
The results from the chromatograms of the sample and the standards are shown in the following table.
Determine the concentration of procymidone in the sample of orange juice.
Peak area Concentration (mg kg–1)
Standard 1 10 0.5
Standard 2 20 1.0
Standard 3 30 1.5
Standard 4 40 2.0
Standard 5 50 2.5
Sample 15 ?

Thinking Working

Construct a calibration graph by plotting peak Peak area

area versus concentration.
60

50

40

30

20

10

0
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Concentration (mg per kg)

Calibration graph for concentration of procymidone in orange

juice sample.
Mark where the peak area of the sample lies on Calibration graph for procymidone in orange juice
the calibration curve by tracing a horizontal line Peak area
to the curve and then a vertical line down to the
x-axis. 60

50

40

30

20

10
sample

0
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Concentration (mg per kg)

Calibration graph for procymidone sample.

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

Determine the concentration of the sample by The concentration of procymidone in the orange juice sample is
reading the concentration value for the unknown 0.75 mg kg–1.
solution from the x-axis.

19.3 Key questions

1 A
2 A
3 During column chromatography, the components of the sample adsorb onto the stationary phase and desorb into the
liquid mobile phase. A component that adsorbs most strongly to the stationary phase and is least soluble in the mobile
phase would be expected to take the longest time to pass through the column.
4 B, A, C
5 a Calibration graph for ethanol sample
Peak area

0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
% ethanol

b Using the above calibration graph, the concentration of ethanol that corresponds with a peak area of 5.6 is 0.7%.
To obtain this value, find the value of the peak area of the wine sample (5.6) on the vertical axis. Draw a horizontal
line from this location until it intersects the calibration graph. From this point draw a line vertically to the horizontal
axis. Determine the percentage concentration of ethanol in the wine sample (0.7%).
Peak area

6
5.6
5

0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.7 0.8 1
% ethanol

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

CHAPTER 19 REVIEW
19.1 ORGANIC CONTAMINANTS IN WATER

1 A. Organometallic compounds.
Organometallic compounds contain metal ions bonded to the carbon atom of an organic compound. As it is the
presence of the metal that is largely responsible for their action as a contaminant, they are not usually described as
organic contaminants.
2 B. Non-polar contaminants will deposit in the fatty regions of the steak
3 H, D, G, B, E, A, C, F
4
DDT kills mosquitoes. True

DDT degrades quickly in the environment. False

DDT is toxic to humans. True

It is illegal to use DDT in Australia. True

DDT is an ionic compound. False

DDT is now banned in most Western countries. Its toxicity is high and it remains active in the environment for a long
time.
5 Whale, large fish, small fish, zooplankton, aquatic plants
The whale is likely to have the highest level of contaminants due to bioaccumulation. The levels will decrease with the
size of the fish. The aquatic plants are likely to have the lowest levels of contaminants.
6 B. DDT – Dioxins and many other POPs contain chlorine.
7 To kill fungi growing on a tree, the tree can be sprayed with a fungicide. The chemical remains active even after the
fungi have been killed. The term used to describe the time taken for 50% of the fungicide to degrade is known as the
half-life of the chemical. Some of the chemical may wash into streams and lakes. It will adhere to sediment or plants if
it is insoluble in water. When animals swallow the chemical, it tends to accumulate in fat.
8 Beneficial: produces energy; reduces landfill volume
Adverse: produces dioxins; produces carbon dioxide
Incinerators are used to remove unwanted household and industrial waste; however, the process produces carbon
dioxide (a greenhouse gas) and dioxins. The dioxins are toxic and can accumulate in the fatty tissue of animals,
where they take a long time to break down to less harmful molecules.

19.2 PRINCIPLES OF CHROMATOGRAPHY

9 In a paper chromatography experiment, the paper acts as the stationary phase. A small spot of a solution is placed
at one end of the paper, called the origin. The solution that is the sample, contains a number of different coloured
compounds, the components.
The paper is suspended so that the end with the spot is above the surface of the solvent. The solvent or mobile phase
moves up the stationary phase. Different coloured spots are observed at various places on the paper, due to the
separation of different components.
10 a Water was absorbed by the towel as the wet swimmer dried himself.
A thin layer of grease adsorbed onto the cup when it was washed in the dirty water.
b Absorb: Atoms or molecules are taken into the material. Adsorb: Atoms or molecules accumulate and bond weakly
to the surface of a solid or liquid.
11 The Rf value is the ratio of the distance a component has moved from the origin to the distance from the origin to the
solvent front.
8
Rf(blue) = = 0.8
10
6
Rf(purple) = = 0.6
10
2
Rf(yellow) = = 0.2
10

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

12 Rf = distance dye has moved/distance solvent front has moved.

7.5
Blue dye Rf = = 0.83
9.0
5.2
Red dye Rf = = 0.58
9.0

13 a If the solvent were above the level of the origin, the compounds under test would dissolve and disperse throughout
the solvent.

b Components in a mixture undergoing chromatography cannot move faster than the solvent that is carrying them
over the stationary phase. Rf values must therefore be less than one.
c 3
d B: blue; C: green. They can be identified on the basis of their colour and Rf values.
e blue
f 0.63; 0.13
14 a 3.2 cm
b 15 cm
c
Solvent front

Orange

Blue

Red

Yellow
Origin

15 a Taurine, glycine and an unknown. Two of the three spots produced by the medicine match those produced by
taurine and glycine. The third spot does not match any of the amino acid standards and represents an unknown
substance.
b There are several ways of visualising the spots:
• Viewing the chromatogram under UV light
• Spraying the finished chromatogram with a compound that causes the amino acids to fluoresce
• Spraying the finished chromatogram with sulfuric acid that causes a brown spot for organic compounds.
distance from origin by component 0.6
c Rf = = = 0.12
distance moved from origin by solvent 5
d Leucine. The component in a mixture bonded least strongly to the stationary phase will move the greatest distance
from the origin.

19.3 HIGH-PERFORMANCE LIQUID CHROMATOGRAPHY

16 The component most strongly adsorbed to the stationary phase is band A.

As band B begins to emerge from the column, it appears to separate into 2 bands. These two components would be
more readily separated if you increased the column length.
HPLC differs from column chromatography because the particles in the stationary phase are smaller and high
pressure is applied to the mobile phase.
17 A. HPLC does not directly produce measures on concentration. Standard solutions are used to find the relationship
between peak area and concentration.
18 A. All forms of chromatography are based on the adsorption of the component particles to the stationary phase and
desorption back into the mobile phase.

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

19 B Obtain chromatograms of the stream water and of standard solutions of the herbicide.
D Use Rt values to identify the herbicide peak on the chromatogram of stream water.
A Measure the herbicide peak areas.
C Construct a calibration graph and mark the herbicide peak area on it.
E Determine the herbicide concentration in the stream water sample.
20 a Chemists can determine the number of components and the absorption of components, from which concentration
can be determined.
b 4
c Solid samples are dissolved in a suitable solvent. The liquid sample is injected into the top of an HPLC column.
The stationary and mobile phases are chosen to achieve a good separation of the components in the sample. The
sample components alternately adsorb onto the stationary phase and then desorb into the solvent as they are
swept forward. The time taken to exit the column increases if the component strongly absorbs onto the stationary
phase and has a low solubility in the mobile phase.

CONNECTING THE MAIN IDEAS

21 B. The results obtained from HPLC would provide identification and accurate concentrations of the dioxins present.
22 a 1 mL: mass of dioxin = 3.0 × 10–8 × 0.001 = 3.0 × 10–11 mg
b 600 mL water bottle: mass of dioxin = 3.0 × 10–8 × 0.600 = 1.8 × 10–8 mg
c 750 ML reservoir: mass of dioxin = 3.0 × 10–8 × 750 000 000 = 22.5 mg
23
Technique Problem

Paper or thin-layer chromatography B Difficult or impossible to obtain quantitative data

D Samples must be able to be dissolved in solvent

High performance chromatography (HPLC) A Requires large amounts of solvents to operate

C Expensive equipment needed
D Samples must be able to be dissolved in solvent

24 Most components of crude oil are insoluble in water and have a lower density than water. Therefore they form a slick
on top of the water that spreads from the source.
Booms are used to contain the slick wand to protect the coastline. Some of the more volatile components will
evaporate. Other components can be ‘skimmed’ from the water surface.
Dispersants are used on larger spills to try and break up the slick. Oil reaching the coast often has to be collected
manually using shovels and buckets.
Damage is done to marine and coastal environments and to animals that are in contact with the oil.
25 a
Standard Peak height (cm)

Standard 0 ppm parathion 0.2

Standard 10 ppm parathion 1.5

Standard 20 ppm parathion 3.1

Standard 30 ppm parathion 4.4

Suspected contaminated water 2.0

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

b Peak height (cm)

Line of best fit
5

1
13 ppm

0
10 20 30
Concentration of parathion (ppm)

c Concentration of parathion in water sample = 13 ppm

d 13 ppm ≡ 13 μg/mL ≡ 13 mg/L
No, this is over 1000 times the allowable concentration.
e LD50 of 8 mg/kg ≡ 8 mg/1000 g × 150 g = 1.2 mg. A mouse of 150 g has a 50% chance of being killed by a
1.2 mg dose of parathion.
1.2
Volume of water that contains 1.2 mg parathion = L = 0.092 L = 92 mL
13

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

Chapter 20 Volumetric analysis

Section 20.1 Sources of acids and bases in water

20.1 Key questions

1 Calcium carbonate raises the pH of river water.
2 Nitrogen oxides produced by the reaction of nitrogen and oxygen from the air in internal combustion engines
contribute to the formation of acid rain. Acid rain is more acidic than pure water (pH of 7); therefore, nitrogen oxides
lower the pH.
3 4FeS2(s) + O2(g) +15H2O(l) → Fe(OH)3(s) + 8H2SO4(aq)
4 CaCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) → CaSO4(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

Section 20.2 Standard solutions

Worked example: Try yourself 20.2.1
CALCULATING THE CONCENTRATION OF A STANDARD SOLUTION PREPARED FROM A PRIMARY STANDARD

Calculate the concentration of a standard solution prepared from 117.0 g of NaCl dissolved in a 500.0 mL volumetric
flask.

Thinking Working

Use the chemical formula to determine the molar The molar mass (M) of NaCl is
mass (M) of the compound. 23.0 + 35.5 = 58.5 g mol–1

Use the mass (m) and molar mass (M) of the compound 117.0
m n=
58.5
and the formula n = to determine the amount, in mol.
M = 2.00 mol

Use the amount, in mol, to determine the concentration n

n c=
V
of the solution using the formula c =
V 2.00
=
0.5000
= 4.00 M

20.2 Key questions

1 Weigh the solid primary standard on an electronic balance.
Transfer the solid into the volumetric flask using a clean, dry funnel.
Rinse any remaining solid particles into the flask using deionised water.
Half fill the flask with deionised water and swirl vigorously to dissolve the solid.
Fill the flask with deionised water to just below the calibration mark.
Add deionised water drop by drop up to the calibration line on the flask until the bottom of the meniscus touches
the line.
Stopper and shake the solution to ensure an even concentration throughout.
m 2.042
2 n= = = 0.01000 mol
M 204.2
n 0.01000
c= = = 0.2000 M
V 0.050000

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

n n
3 c= = 0.500 =
V 0.250

n = 0.500 × 0.2500 = 0.125 mol

m = n × M = 0.125 × 105.99 = 13.25 g = 13.3 g

Section 20.3 Calculations involving acids and bases

Worked example: Try yourself 20.3.1
A SOLUTION VOLUME–VOLUME CALCULATION

What volume of 0.500 M hydrochloric acid (HCl) reacts completely with 25.0 mL of 0.100 M calcium hydroxide
(Ca(OH)2) solution? The salt formed in this acid–base reaction is calcium chloride.

Thinking Working

Write a balanced full equation for the reaction. Ca(OH)2(aq) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l)

Calculate the amount, in mol, of the substance with The volume and concentration of calcium hydroxide
known volume and concentration. solution are given, so you use n = cV (remember that
volume must be expressed in litres).
n(Ca(OH)2) = cV
= 0.100 × 0.0250
= 0.00250 mol

Use the mole ratio from the equation to calculate the The balanced equation shows that 2 mol of hydrochloric
amount, in mol, of the required substances. acid reacts with 1 mol of calcium hydroxide.
n(HCl) 2
=
n(Ca(OH)2) 1
2
n(HCl) = × n(Ca(OH)2)
1
2
= × 0.00250
1
= 0.00500 mol

Calculate the volume or concentration required. The volume of HCl is found by using n = cV.
n
V(HCl) =
c
0.00500
=
0.500
= 0.0100 L = 10.0 mL

Worked example: Try yourself 20.3.2

SOLUTION STOICHIOMETRY: A LIMITING REACTANT PROBLEM

30.0 mL of a 0.100M H2SO4 solution is mixed with 40.0 mL of a 0.200M KOH solution. The equation for the reaction
that occurs is:
H2SO4(aq) + 2KOH(aq) → K2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)

(a) Which reactant is the limiting reactant?

Thinking Working

Calculate the number of moles of each of the reactants n(H2SO4) = 0.100 × 0.0300
using n = cV. = 0.00300 mol
n(KOH) = 0.200 × 0.0400
= 0.00800 mol

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

Use the coefficients of the equation to find the limiting The equation shows that 1 mole of H2SO4 reacts with
reactant. 2 mole of KOH.
So H2SO4 is the limiting reactant (it will be completely
consumed).

(b) What will be the mass of K2SO4 produced by this reaction?

Thinking Working

Find the mole ratio of the unknown substance to the From the equation coefficients,
limiting reactant from the equation coefficients: n(K2SO4) coefficient of K2SO4 1
= =
coefficient of unknown n(H2SO4) coefficient of H2SO4 1
coefficient of limiting reactant

Calculate the number of moles of the unknown substance 1

n(K2SO4) = n(H2SO4) ×
using the limiting reactant: 1
1
n(unknown) = n(limiting reactant) × mole ratio = 0.00300 ×
1
= 0.00300 mol

Calculate the mass of the unknown substance using: Molar mass of K2SO4 = 174.3 g mol–1
m(unknown) = n(unknown) × molar mass m(K2SO4) = 0.00300 × 174.3
= 0.523 g

20.3 Key questions

1 a H2SO4(aq) +2KOH(aq) → K2SO4(aq) + 2H2O(l)
b n(KOH) = cV = 0.300 × 0.0100 = 0.00300 mol
n(H2SO4) 1 1
= n(H2SO4) = 0.00300 × = 0.00150
n(KOH) 2 2
0.00150
V(H2SO4) = = 0.0150 L = 15.0 mL
0.100

2 a 2HNO3(aq) + Ca(OH)2(aq) → Ca(NO3)2(aq) + 2H2O(l)

b n(Ca(OH)2) = cV = 0.100 × 0.010 = 0.00100 mol
n(HNO3) = 2 × 0.00100 mol = 0.00200 mol
n 0.00200
c(HNO3) = = = 0.133 M
V 0.0150

3 a n(H2SO4) = cV = 0.200 × 0.0100 = 0.00200 mol

b n(Na2CO3) = cV = 0.100 × 0.0160 = 0.00160 mol
c According to the reaction, n(H2SO4) = n(Na2CO3), therefore Na2CO3 is the limiting reactant and H2SO4 is in excess.
d n(H2SO4) reacts = n(Na2CO3) = 0.00160 = 0.00040 mol
n(H2SO4) excess = n(H2SO4) total – n(H2SO4) reacts
= 0.00200 – 0.00160 = 0.00040mol in excess
4 a HNO3(aq) + KOH(aq) → KNO3(aq) + H2O(l)
b n(KOH) = cV = 0.09927 × 0.02000 = 0.001985 mol
c n(HNO3) = n(KOH) = 0.001985 mol
n 0.001985
d c(HNO3) = = = 0.1087 M
V 0.01826

Section 20.4 Volumetric analysis

20.4 Key questions

1 A. The concentration of NaOH doubled. Consequently, the volume of NaOH solution required to react will be halved.
A strong acid is reacting with a strong base so the pH will be 7.

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

2
Indicator Colour after adding indicator

Alizarin yellow Yellow

Bromothymol blue Yellow

Methyl red Orange

Methyl orange Yellow

Phenolphthalein Colourless

3 Trials 2, 3 and 5 provide concordant titres.

25.46 + 25.38 + 25.42
Average titre = = 25.42 mL
3

Section 20.5 Calculations in volumetric analysis

Worked example: Try yourself 20.5.1
SIMPLE TITRATION

The concentration of a solution of barium hydroxide (Ba(OH)2) was determined by titration with a standard solution
of hydrochloric acid.
A 10.00 mL aliquot of Ba(OH)2 solution was titrated with a 0.125 M solution of HCl. Titres of 17.23 mL, 17.28 mL and
17.21 mL of HCl were required to reach the end point. What is the concentration of the barium hydroxide solution?

Thinking Working

Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction. An acid is reacting with a metal hydroxide, or base, so the
products will be a salt and water.
2HCl(aq) + Ba(OH)2(aq) → BaCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l)

Determine the volume of the average titre. 17.21 + 17.23 + 17.28

Average titre =
3
= 17.24 mL

Calculate the amount, in mol, of the standard solution n(HCl) = c × V

that was required to reach the end point. = 0.125 × 0.01724
= 0.002155 mol

Use the mole ratio in the equation to calculate the n(Ba(OH)2) 1

mole ratio = =
amount, in mol, of the unknown substance that would n(HCl) 2
have reacted with the given amount, in mol, of the n(Ba(OH)2) =
1
× n(HCl)
standard solution. 2
1
= × 0.002155
2
= 0.001078 mol

Determine the concentration of the unknown substance. n

c(Ba(OH)2) =
V
0.001078
=
0.01000
= 0.108 M

Express your answer to the appropriate number of The final result is rounded off to three significant figures
significant figures. corresponding to the smallest number of significant
figures in the original data. Four significant figures are
used in the earlier steps of the calculation to avoid
rounding off errors.
Concentration of the Ba(OH)2 = 0.108 M

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

Worked example: Try yourself 20.5.2

TITRATION THAT INVOLVES DILUTION

A commercial concrete cleaner contains hydrochloric acid. A 10.00 mL volume of cleaner was diluted to 250.0 mL in
a volumetric flask.
A 20.00 mL aliquot of 0.2406 M sodium carbonate solution was placed in a conical flask. Methyl orange indicator was
added and the solution was titrated with the diluted cleaner. The methyl orange indicator changed permanently from
yellow to pink when 18.68 mL of the cleaner was added.
Calculate the concentration of hydrochloric acid in the concrete cleaner.

Thinking Working

Write a balanced chemical equation. A dilute acid is reacting with a metal carbonate so the
products will be a salt, water and carbon dioxide gas.
2HCl(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) → 2NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

Using the concentration of the standard solution, n(Na2CO3) = cV

calculate the amount, in mol, of the known substance = 0.2406 × 0.02000
that reacted in the titration. Remember that volume
= 0.004812 mol
must be expressed in litres.

Use the mole ratio in the equation to calculate the n(HCI) 2

=
amount, in mol, of the diluted unknown solution that n(Na2CO3) 1
reacted in the titration. n(HCl) =
2
× n(Na2CO3)
1
2
= × 0.004812
1
= 0.009624 mol

Calculate the concentration of diluted unknown solution V(diluted HCl) = 0.01868 L

reacting in the titration. n
c(HCl) =
V
0.009624
=
0.01868
= 0.5152 M

Multiply by the dilution factor to determine the 250.0

Dilution factor = = 25.00
concentration of undiluted concrete cleaner. 10.00
So undiluted c(HCl) = diluted c(HCl) × 25.00
= 0.5152 × 25.00
= 12.88 M

20.5 Key questions

1 n(KOH) = cV = 1.34 × 0.02298 = 0.03079 mol
n(H2SO4) 1 1
= , therefore n(KOH) × = n(H2SO4) = 0.01540 mol
n(KOH) 2 2
n 0.01540
= = 0.770 M
V 0.02000

2 a CH3COOH(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCH3COO(aq) + H2O(l)

b n(NaOH) = cV = 0.995 × 0.02156 = 0.02145 mol
c n(NaOH) = n(CH3COOH) = 0.02145 mol
n 0.02145
d c(CH3COOH) = = = 0.858 M
V 0.02500

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

3 n(K2CO3) = cV = 0.4480 × 0.02000 = 0.008960 mol

n(HCl) 2 2
= , therefore n(HCl) = n(K2CO3) × = 0.01792 mol
n(K2CO3) 1 1
n 0.01792
c(HCl) = = = 0.9032 M of diluted sample
V 0.01984
250.0
Dilution factor = = 10
25.00

Concentration of undiluted = 0.9032 × 10 = 9.032 M

CHAPTER 20 REVIEW
20.1 SOURCES OF ACIDS AND BASES IN WATER

1 B. Iron pyrite. Acid mine drainage is caused by the oxidation of sulfur, found in some minerals and coal, to sulfuric
acid, which leaches toxic metal ions from soil and rocks.
2 The oxidation of iron pyrites produces a solution containing sulfuric acid and iron(III) hydroxide. The acid leaches
heavy metals from the soils and rocks. As a consequence, the water discharged from the mine contains iron(III)
hydroxide, sulfuric acid and heavy metal ions.
3 Acid rain is rainfall made acidic when pollutant gases generated by smelters, the internal combustion engine and
the burning of fossil fuels dissolve in rain. These gases contain SO2, NO and NO2 and dissolve in rain to form sulfuric,
nitrous and nitric acids respectively.
4 D. Both reactions occur in river water. Carbon dioxide is absorbed from the atmosphere and is also produced by
decaying plants. A small amount of calcium carbonate reacts with water when a river flows through limestone.
Because the pH > 7, there must be an excess of OH– ions, so the second equation is occurring to a greater extent.

20.2 STANDARD SOLUTIONS

5 C. The colour of a compound is not usually considered when selecting a primary standard. Primary standards must
be soluble because they react with the substance being analysed in solution. A high level of purity minimises errors
in calculating the results of the analyses. A high molar mass minimises the percentage error in calculations.
m 25.21
6 n= = = 0.20008 mol
M 126.0
n 0.20008
c= = = 0.8003 M
V 0.2500
n n
7 c = , 0.400 = , n = 0.400 × 0.500 = 0.200 mol
V 0.500
m
n= , m = n × M, m = 0.200 × 106.0 = 21.2 g
M

20.3 CALCULATIONS INVOLVING ACIDS AND BASES

8 HNO3(aq) + KOH(aq) → KNO3(aq) + H2O(l)

n(HNO3) = cV = 0.100 × 0.0300 = 0.00300 mol
n(HNO3) = n(KOH), therefore n(KOH) = 0.00300 mol
n 0.00300
V(KOH) = = = 0.0150 L = 15.0 mL
c 0.200

9 a n(HCl) = cV = 1.00 × 0.0200 = 0.0200 mol

b n(K2CO3) = cV = 1.00 × 0.0160 = 0.0160 mol
c 2HCl(aq) + K2CO3(aq) → 2KCl(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
n(K2CO3 reacts) = n(HCl) ÷ 2 = 0.0200 ÷ 2 = 0.0100 mol, n(K2CO3) = 0.0160 mol
Therefore K2CO3 is in excess, so HCl is the limiting reactant.
d n(K2CO3) – n(K2CO3 reacts) total = 0.0160 – 0.0100 = 0.0060 mol in excess

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

10 HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

n(HCl) = cV = 0.200 × 0.02000 = 0.00400 mol
n(HCl) = n(NaOH), so n(NaOH) = 0.00400 mol
n 0.00400
V(NaOH) = = = 0.0400 L = 40 mL
c 0.100

11 a n(LiOH) = cV = 2.00 × 0.0150 = 0.0300 mol

n(HNO3) = cV = 0.400 × 0.0250 = 0.0100 mol
According to the reaction equation, n(LiOH) = n(HNO3), therefore HNO3 is the limiting reactant.
b n(HNO3) = n(LiNO3) = 0.0100 mol
M(LiNO3) = 68.9 g mol–1
m
n= , therefore m = n × M = 0.0100 × 68.98 = 0.690 g
M

20.4 VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS

12 a A burette delivers a precise variable volume of solution.

b A pipette delivers a precise known volume of solution.
c A standard flask is used to prepare a solution of known concentration.
13 The equivalence point is the point in the reaction at which equivalent amounts of acid and base have been mixed
according to the ratio given in the chemical equation. The end point is the point in the titration at which the indicator
changes colour.
14 Near the equivalence point, a very small addition of either the acid or the base in the burette can cause a large
change in pH. A sharp end point is one where the indicator changes colour (due to a large change in pH) with just
one additional drop of the solution being added from the burette. Selecting the indicator based on the expected
equivalence point enables for a sharp end point to be seen.

20.5 CALCULATIONS IN VOLUMETRIC ANALYSIS

15 a H2SO4(aq) + K2CO3(aq) → K2SO4(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) + K2SO4(aq)

m 1.227 g
b c(K2CO3) = =
MV 138.0 g mol–1 × 0.2500 L
= 0.03557 M
c From the equation, 1 mol of H2SO4 reacts with 1 mol of K2CO3 in the titration.
n(H2SO4) 1
=
n(K2CO3) 1
n(K2CO3) = cV = 0.03556 M × 0.02000 L = 0.0007113 mol
n(H2SO4) = 0.03557 M × 0.02000 L = 0.0007113 mol
0.0007113 M
∴ c(H2SO4) = = 0.0315 M
0.02256 L

16 a 2HCl(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) → 2NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

m 1.358 g
b c(Na2CO3) = =
MV 106.0 g mol–1 × 0.2500 L
= 0.05125 M
c From the equation, 2 mol of HCl reacts with 1 mol of Na2CO3 in the titration.
n(HCl) 2
=
n(Na2CO3) 1
n(Na2CO3) = cV = 0.05125 M × 0.02000 L = 0.001025 mol
n(HCl) = 2 × 0.05125 M × 0.02000 L = 0.002050 mol
n 0.002050
∴ c(HCl) = = = 0.1013 M
V 0.02024
d Sulfuric acid is a diprotic acid so only half as much acid would be required to neutralise an equivalent amount of
sodium carbonate. Since the two acids have the same concentration, half the volume of sulfuric acid is required.

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

17 2HNO3(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) → 2NaNO3(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

m 1.104 g
a c(Na2CO3) = =
MV 106.0 g mol–1 × 0.2500 L
= 0.04166 M
b From the equation, 2 mol of HNO3 reacts with 1 mol of Na2CO3 in the titration.
n(HNO3) 2
=
n(Na2CO3) 1
n(Na2CO3) = cV = 0.04166 M × 0.02000 L = 0.0008332 mol
n(HNO3) = 2n(Na2CO3) = 2 × 0.0008332 = 0.001 666 mol
n 0.001666 mol
c(HNO3) = = = 0.007100 M
V 0.02347 L

CONNECTING THE MAIN IDEAS

18 a Sodium carbonate or potassium carbonate could be used as they are both good primary standards. They are also
both bases, so they will neutralise the hydrochloric acid.
b To prepare a standard solution:
1. Weigh the pure solid on an electronic balance.
2. Transfer the solid into the volumetric flask using a clean, dry funnel.
3. Rinse any remaining solid particles into the flask using deionised water.
4. Half fill the flask with deionised water and swirl vigorously to dissolve the solid.
5. A
 dd deionised water up to the calibration line on the neck of the flask. The bottom of the meniscus of the
solution should be on the mark when viewing at eye level.
6. Stopper and shake the solution to ensure an even concentration throughout.
c Rinse the burette with the acid solution, rinse the pipette with the base and rinse the conical flask with the
deionised water.
d Reaction equation: K2CO3(aq) + 2HCl(aq) → 2KCl(aq) + CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
n(K2CO3) = cV = 0.5000 × 0.02500 = 0.01250 mol
n(HCl) 2 2
= , therefore n(HCl) = 0.01250 × = 0.02500 mol
n(K2CO3) 1 1
n 0.02500
c(HCl) = = = 1.356 M
V 0.01844
250.00
Dilution factor = = 10
25.00
Concentration of undiluted = 1.356 × 10 = 13.56 M
e The concentration calculated shouldn’t be different if using a different base in the titration. The volume of base
titrated and the concentration of the base may be different and therefore the mole ratio in the equation might
be different, but the concentration of HCl in the concrete cleaner would be the same. If there were errors evident
in either titration then there would be slight inaccuracies in the results and potentially a different concentration
calculated.

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

Chapter 21 Practical investigation

Section 21.1 Designing and planning investigations

21.1 Key questions

1 a Electrical conductivity
b Concentration of lead
c Electrical conductivity
d pH
2 A hypothesis is a suggested outcome, based on evidence and prior knowledge, to answer the research question.
A hypothesis often takes the form of a proposed relationship between two variables.
3 a The pH of the water
b The mussel shells dissolving
c The difference in mass of the mussel shells before and after the experiment
d The temperature of the water, the mass of mussel shells, the length of time the mussel shells are left in the water

Section 21.2 Conducting investigations and recording and

presenting data

21.2 Key questions

1 17.34 mL, 17.38 mL, 17.44 mL
2 B. Using a control with distilled water would help to correctly calibrate the instrument. This would make subsequent
measurements more reliable.
3 a Systematic error
b Mistake
c Random error
4 C. Using a calibrated pH meter at a particular temperature
5 The mean is most affected by an outlier. The median value is the middle data value (when values are ordered). The
mode is the value that occurs most frequently. Consequently, these will not be affected by an outlier.

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

Section 21.3 Discussing investigations and drawing evidence-

based conclusions

21.3 Key questions

1 y

2 The trend in this graph is inversely non-linear. As the temperature of the water increases, the solubility of oxygen
decreases markedly. The graph suggests that to increase the solubility of oxygen gas in water, the temperature of
the water should decrease.
3 a Reliability
b Validity
c Accuracy
d Precision
4 The conclusion stated is not directly related to the hypothesis—the conclusion should have referred to the
temperature of the water and its electrical conductivity.

CHAPTER 21 REVIEW
21.1 DESIGNING AND PLANNING INVESTIGATIONS

1 A Concentration of lead – dependent variable

B Analytical technique, temperature of water sample, type of sampling container – controlled variable
C Source and location of water – independent variable
2 Independent variable = source of the water, dependent variable = phosphate concentration, controlled variables =
temperature, time of testing, method of testing
3 Accuracy refers to the ability of the method to obtain the correct measurement close to a true or accepted value.
Validity refers to whether an experiment or investigation is in fact testing the set hypothesis and aims
4 a It can dissolve or eat away at substances including tissues such as your skin or lungs.
b It Is toxic (poisonous) if inhaled.
c it is a highly combustible liquid that could catch on fire.

21.2 CONDUCTING INVESTIGATIONS AND RECORDING AND PRESENTING DATA

5 a Mistake
b Random error
c Systematic error
6 a Bar graph
b Line graph
c Scatter graph (with line of best fit)
d Pie chart

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 Heinemann Chemistry 1 ​5e

7 a Calibration curve: absorbance of phosphate solutions at 450 nm

0.25

0.2
Absorbance

0.15

0.1

0.05

0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
Phosphate concentration mg L–1

b Data point 4 is outlier.

c An outlier is a point in the data that does not fit the trend.
8 Temperature because dissolved oxygen varies with temperature
9 Add a title, label the x- and y-axes, add units to the x-axis variable, and exclude the obvious outliers when drawing the
line of best fit.

21.3 DISCUSSING INVESTIGATIONS AND DRAWING EVIDENCE-BASED CONCLUSIONS

10 Evaluate the method; identify issues that could affect validity, accuracy, precision and reliability of data; state
systematic sources of error and uncertainty; and recommend improvements to the investigation if it is to be repeated
11 A trend is a pattern or relationship that can be seen between the dependent and independent variables. It may
be linear, in which the variables change in direct proportion to each other to produce a straight trend line. The
relationship may be in proportion but non-linear, giving a curved trend line. The relationship may also be inverse,
in which one variable decreases in response to the other variable increasing. This could be linear or non-linear.
12 The purpose of referencing and acknowledgments is to avoid plagiarism and ensure creators and sources are properly
credited for their work.

CONNECTING THE MAIN IDEAS

13 a Aim: To determine the effect of increasing water temperature on the electrical conductivity of water.
b Independent variable – water temperature; dependent variable – electrical conductivity of water; controlled
variables – pH, water source, sampling container
c The data collected would be conductivity using a probe and, therefore, it would be quantitative.
d 10 mL measuring cylinder ±0.1 mL, pH probe ±0.02 alcohol-filled glass thermometer ±0.1°C, electrical
conductivity probe ±2
e Raw data is data collected in the field and recorded as measurements are taken. Processed data tabulates this
into a form in which the reader can clearly see the temperature of the water and the conductivity at each separate
temperature value. This can also then be processed and graphed with the independent variable on the x-axis
(temperature) and dependent variable on the y-axis (conductivity). If the hypothesis is correct, the graph for this
experiment would look like that below:
Conductivity (mS m–1)

Temperature (°C)

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