Indian Political Thought-II 1

Module-1: Manu
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Structure:

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Unit-1.1: Social Laws
1.1.1 Objective of Manu Social Laws

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1.1.2 Origin of the Sacred Law
1.1.3 Features of Dharma

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1.1.4 Hierarchical System of Varna
1.1.5 Importance of Ashram Dharma in Regard to Social laws
1.1.6 Manusmriti and Women

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1.1.7 The institution of Family

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Unit-1.1: Social Laws

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Objectives:

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At the end of this unit, you will be able to understand:

●● Manusmriti and who is Manu

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●● Objective of Manu Social Laws
●● Origin of the Sacred Law

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●● Features of Dharma
●● Hierarchical System of Varna
●● Importance of Ashram Dharma in regard to Social Laws

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●● Manusmriti and Women
●● The Institution of Family

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Introduction
According to legends, Manu, the author of Manusmriti, is said to be the first

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teacher to expose the essence of humanity to mankind and was the initial legislator
to recommend norms of social life and practices, later integrated in various
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Dharmashastras and Samhitas, based on a moral interpretation of history.

Manusmriti is a crucial manuscript that was presumably compiled only during the
early centuries CE.1, particularly the passages on the caste system. It includes both
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practical and idealized visualizations of life or how life should be lived. It is mainly
concerned with dharma, which encompasses but also goes beyond the Western ideas
of religion, duty, law, right, justice, practice and principle. It provides us with a bird’s eye
view of the time’s prevalent religious and temporal practices.
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The understanding of Manusmriti or its English counterpart, the Laws of Manu, is

filled with vast difficulties because of the fitting shlokas that the entire text is composed
of. Currently, these writings collected are credited to Manu and comprise of 2685
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verses. It includes the complete gamut of human life, from social responsibilities
and duties of the countless varnas and individuals in different phases of life to Hindu
philosophy. The richness and varieties of the social, political, economic, religious,
ethical and aesthetic aspects of life are evident from a cursory glance of the text. It is a
perfect representation of the Hindu and Indic civilization of the time.
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The word dharma does not appear in the title Manusmriti. Additionally, smriti is
contrasted with shruti, which means ‘revelation’. Laws as well as teachings, treatises
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or text is connoted by the term shastra. Manu’s work was one the first of Sanskrit works
to be translated into number of European languages. Sir William Jones was the first to
translate the text into English, after which it was translated into a number of European
languages, including German, French, Portuguese, and Russian. The book has been
dubbed “India’s greatest achievement in the field of jurisprudence” by J. Duncan M.
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Derett.

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1.1.1 Objective of Manu Social Laws

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They are also known are Dharma Sastras or laws of righteous behavior. Manu is
thought of as a law giver in the Hindu tradition. Of the 18 Smirtis, Manu Smriti is one of

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them. Undeniably, it has been reasoned that in its existing form, Manu Smriti represents
laws that have been added or altered throughout the history.

Manusmriti, interpreted as “The Laws of Manu” or “The Institutions of Manu,” is the

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most significant and authoritative Hindu Law Book (Dharmashastra), which functioned
as a foundational text on Hindu law and jurisprudence in ancient India for minimum
of 1500 years. Until current times, it was the standard source for adjudicating civil

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and criminal cases by both the rulers who patronized Vedic faith and the public who
followed Hinduism. Hinduism has numerous law books. Of all of them, Manusmriti is
undoubtedly the most well-known and authoritative work.

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Manu, in Hindu custom, is thought to be the first son of Brahma and a progenitor
of human kind. Thus, it is tough to determine how old Manusmriti is. The laws of Manu
may have been known to the Vedic people for a long time before being codified into
their current form sometime during the post Vedic era. By 200 CE, the work that we now

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know as Manusmriti may have reached its final form through the effort of many.

Ancient Indians saw the world’s order and regularity as a manifestation of God’s

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will and will, as well as a direct triumph of spiritual forces over demonic forces. As a
result, many scholars and sages in ancient India formulated laws regulating individual
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behaviour as well as the order and regularity of Hindu society from the beginning. Their
works are now available to us in the form of 18 Dharmashastras, the most important
and widely used of which is the work of Manu (Manusmriti). The Hindu Law Books,
unlike the Vedas, are considered intellectual or scholarly works (smritis). They are
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refined and codified based on observation, experience, analysis, and the study of the
Vedas, with the best interests of the humanity and society in mind. As a result, they
are not completely free of humans flaws. They are still not immune to caste and ethnic
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prejudice. As a result, they are subject to critique from a modern viewpoint.

As the foundation for establishing an ordered society and a divinely based life,
Manusmriti projects an ideal society and ideal human behaviour. To encourage those
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ideals and implement divine will, it propositions numerous laws to meticulously govern
human life and behavior as applicable to each individual based on her or his social
class, duties and responsibilities. Their intent is to indoctrinate discipline, offer a basis
for the rulers to enforce lawful behavior, and make sure of the orderly progression of
the world through righteous conduct and adherence of obligatory duties by people who
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have selected for themselves the life of a householder, or that of a renunciant. The
authority to implement the laws is carefully spread among the rulers and the caretakers
of society who help him in decision making. Manusmriti understands the corrupting
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and misleading influence of power on the mind and advises the kings to employ their
judgment with great care to circumvent sinful karma and damaging consequences for
the world and themselves.

Manu’s proposed laws for regulating human activity and society embody the
circumstances, needs, and values of the times in which they were written. The majority
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of them do not fit into today’s value structure. They accept existing social and gender
inequality as natural conditions of human life and propose laws to govern individual

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 4 Indian Political Thought-II

actions without allowing for any changes in culture or people’s lives that could occur
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over time. As a result, many Manu laws are obsolete, outdated, and even primitive
today. The laws promote a paternalistic culture and family structure, vesting men with
the authority to govern them and assigning women a subordinate status and position.

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They also show a strong lack of faith in women’s sexual choices and dignity, implying
that they should always be accompanied by men and never be left alone in the
company of men outside their family. At the same time, they do not dismiss or minimise

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the position of women in the home or in the family, and they encourage men to treat
them with dignity and respect and not to put them through hardship.

Manusmriti was used by the British rulers of India to settle disputes among Hindus

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over inheritance, family disputes, marriage, and royal succession. Some Hindu scholars
believe the British used the Manusmriti to further their own interests or to maintain the
social divide among Hindus in order to consolidate their control. Manusmriti has also

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been accused of serving the interests of affluent classes for a long time, justifying the
oppression of women and lower castes by prescribing unjust laws for various castes
based on their social status.

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Manusmriti recognises and rationalizes the caste system as the foundation
of social order and regularity. It specifically distinguishes four groups of people
(Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas, and Sudras), as well as their positions in the

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conservation of dharma. Sudras are granted the fewest rights and the harshest
penalties, except for minor misdemeanours, while Brahmanas and Kshatriyas
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are given the most privileges and the most leniency in matters of punishment for
wrongdoing. Therefore, it is crucial to approach Manusmriti with an open mind in order
to comprehend its historical and religious significance in the evolution of Hinduism from
its origins to its present form.
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It is difficult to enforce Manu’s laws in today’s world since the situations are
significantly different from when they were formally codified. Our existing laws, for
example, prohibit gender inequality or the enforcement of discriminatory laws on
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women, as well as their right to choose their marriage partners, professions, and
lifestyles. Similarly, laws restricting people’s actions based on their caste or occupation
are oppressive and unenforceable by today’s standards. Despite its shortcomings
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and limitations, Manusmriti is historically important. Hinduism students also need to

research it in order to understand ancient India’s way of life and how people managed
their lives with their help.

Manu is also known as the human race’s mythological ancestor, the Indian version
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of Adam. The Laws of Manu were written by Brahmins, or priests, who belonged to a
specific social class or varna. The text seems to have been composed by priests for
their own use only. A priest was regarded as a “paradigmatic human being,” a total
and perfect representation of humanity, a kind of ideal. Our dynamic cosmic system
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is represented in the text, which is rooted in a metaphysical structure that covers the
entire universe. The text represents ancient India’s thoughts and ideas in the process.

Manu also spoke extensively about the essence of social life, specifically the
relationships between the four social classes or varnas, namely priests (Brahmins),
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rulers and warriors (Kshatriyas), commoners (Vaishyas), and servants (Shudras). Manu
enumerated and codified the current social patterns and ideas in the text. Later Indian
thought maintained this representation of the natural and social order.
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A culinary metaphor has been used to demonstrate the natural and social world
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in the Vedas. Nature in the Vedas was considered as a hierarchically ordered set of
mandatas (circles), and the social world, no different than the natural one, is one of the
rulers and the ruled, consumers and the consumed, exploiters and the exploited, the

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strong and the weak. The text states that ‘those that do not move are the food of those
that move’. Killing and eating were viewed as two sides of the same coin.

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The Matsyanyaya, a Hindu metaphor for the Law of Fishes, in which larger fish
consume smaller fish in an anarchic world, is a continuation of Vedic assumptions. Meat
was thought to be the best type of food. This has a deeper meaning because it implied
that the stronger automatically dominates and engulfs the timid, and that the stronger

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has a higher social status.

The priestly response to the crisis facing traditional Aryan culture is focused on
Manu’s text. It is, without a doubt, an important historical document that successfully

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synthesised and established a cultural paradigm. It endeavoured to spread its reach to
all individuals as well as circumstances — the king and the ritual priest, the untouchable
and the priest, the householder and the sanyasi, and women and men.

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1.1.2 Origin of the Sacred Law
The Laws of Manu (also known as the Manava Dharma Shastra) is considered one
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of the Vedas’ supporting arms. It is a simple text on which teachers base their teachings
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and is one of the standard books in the Hindu canon. This ‘revealed scripture’ consists
of 2684 verses split into twelve chapters stating the norms of domestic, social, and
religious life in India (circa 500 BC) under the influence of Brahmins, and it is essential
to the understanding of ancient Indian society.
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●● The Manusmriti starts with the notion of Nirguna Brahma, the unmanifest,
supreme cosmic reality; to be felt with the assistance of exercises in breath
regulation (Pranayama), prayer (Japa) and meditation on the essential
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syllable “Aum‟(Dhyana)
●● The cosmos arose into existence when God roused from the primeval sleep.
●● Nirguna Brahman manifests in the never-ending cosmic cycles, the rest of it
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stays unmanifest.
●● Manu believes, karma-yoga is the most significant yoga as it comprises both
Pravritti(regulation of desires) and Nivritti(total abolition of desires)
The work has a divine origin and a long history, according to the Brahmins. Manu,
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the legendary survivor of the Flood and father of the human race, the primitive teacher
of sacred rites and laws, now enjoys the dignity of an omniscient deity in heaven, is said
to be its author. The work’s first verses describe how Manu was approached reverently
by ten great sages in ancient times and asked to declare to them the sacred laws of the
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castes, and how he graciously acceded to their request by making the learned sage
Bhrigu, whom he had carefully taught the metrical institutes of the sacred law, deliver
this valuable instruction to them. As a result, the work appears to be Manu’s dictation by
Bhrigu, and as Manu learned it from the self-existent Brahma, its authorship appears to
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be divine.

The “Laws of Manu” are divided into twelve chapters and contain 2684 verses.

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The creation of the universe by a sequence of emanations from the self-existent

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god, the mythical roots of the book itself, and the great spiritual value to be achieved by
devout study of its contents are all explored in the first chapter.

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The manner of life and regulations of conduct for members of the three upper
castes who have been initiated into the Brahmin religion by the sin-removing ceremony
known as the investiture with the sacred cord are defined in Chapters two to six. The

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first is the period of studentship, which is described as a period of ascetic discipline
devoted to the study of the Vedas under the supervision of a Brahmin teacher. The
householder’s primary tasks are then rehearsed, including his selection of a wife,
marriage, maintenance of the holy hearth-fire, sacrifices to the gods, feasts for his

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departed relatives, and hospitality. The various restrictions that govern his daily
behaviour are also addressed in detail, especially in regards to his clothing, food,
conjugal relations, and ceremonial cleanness. Following that is a description of the kind

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of life required of those who chose to live as hermits and ascetics in their later years.

The seventh chapter lays out the divine integrity of kings as well as their various
roles and obligations, presenting a high ideal of the kingly office as a whole.

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The eighth chapter addresses the process of civil and criminal lawsuits, as well as
the necessary penalties for various categories of criminals.

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The following two chapters explain the practises and laws regulating divorce,
succession, property rights, and the legal professions for each caste.
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The eleventh chapter is specifically concerned with the different forms of penance
that those who wish to absolve themselves of the evil effects of their wrongdoings must
perform.
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The final chapter explains the karma doctrine, which entails rebirths on an
ascending or descending scale based on the merits or demerits of the current life. The
final verses focus on the pantheistic system of redemption, which leads to incorporation
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into the all-encompassing, impersonal god.

Thus, the “Laws of Manu” provide an intriguing idealised depiction of Indian

domestic, social, and religious life under ancient Brahmin influence. There are shadows
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in the image. The Brahmin caste’s prestige was greatly underestimated, while the Sudra
caste was so hated that it was forbidden from participating in the Brahmin religion under
penalty of death.

The Brahmin caste received the lightest punishments for crimes and
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misdemeanours, while the warrior, peasant, and serf castes received harsher
punishments. Both Brahmins and warriors were prohibited from engaging in most types
of business and practising medicine. Women’s minds were considered to be fickle,
sensual, and incapable of self-direction. As a result, it was decreed that women must
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be kept in total subjection until the end of their lives. They were not permitted to study
any Vedic texts, and their participation in religious rituals was restricted to a few minor
actions.

Penalties were applied to unintended legal transgressions, and there was a

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hopeless conflation of moral obligations with traditional practises and prohibitions,

which were mostly superstitious and ridiculous.

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1.1.3 Features of Dharma

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Dharma may be interpreted as a “principle of justice” or “duty,” as well as
a “principle of holiness” and “principle of unity.” In his instructions to Bhishma,

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Yudhishthira notes that whatever causes conflict is Adharma, and whatever ends
conflict and brings peace and harmony is Dharma. Dharma is something that aids
in the unification of all people and the development of pure divine love and universal

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brotherhood. If the Paramatman is to draw us unto himself, we must perform our duties
to him as well as to the earth, according to Dharma. These responsibilities are what is
referred to as dharma. It is dharma that serves us both when we are in our bodies and
when we are no longer in them. It is helpful to us both in this life and in the afterlife.

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There should be no question or uncertainty about which dharma we should obey. From
generation to generation, our great men have followed the dharma. They have inwardly
realised everlasting beatitude, and we know for certain that they lived carefree, in

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contrast to people in our generation who are perpetually dissatisfied and involved in
various agitations and demonstrations.

All we have to do now is practise the dharma that they did. If we tried to build

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a new dharma for ourselves, we could end up in trouble, and we’d be torn between
whether it would bring us good or bad. It is best for us to obey the dharma of
our forefathers, which was followed by great men in the past. It does not imply that

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‘Dharma’ is unchangeable; ‘Dharma’ has two aspects: ‘Sanatana Dharma’ and ‘Yuga
Dharma,’ the latter of which is true for an age. The Smiritis themselves are aware of
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this theory of social change, Manu says, “There is one set of dharma for men in the
kritayuga; a different set for each of tretayuga, dvapara and kaliyugas; the dharma
changes according to the change of yuga. The Hindu (i.e Sanatana Dharma) view
makes room for essential changes. There must be no violent break with social heredity,
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and yet the new stresses, conflicts and confusions will have to be faced and overcome;
while the truths of spirit are permanent the rules change from age to age”.

Dharma is a distinctive blend of firmness and flexibility, it guards eternal principles

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and accepts continued valid traditions; Shurtis stands for universal, eternal, and
essential principles and Smiritis also stands for a collection of values originating from
these principles and finding their expression in restricted, provisional and relative
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arenas of social life. Swami Vivekananda said, “We know that, in our books, a clear
distinction is made between two sets of truths. The one set is that which abides forever,
being built on the nature of man, the nature of soul, the soul’s relation to God and so
on. The other set comprises the minor laws, which guide the working of our everyday
life. They belong more properly to the puranas, to the Smiritis, and not the shruti custom
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of one age, of one yuga, have not been the customs of another, and as yuga comes
after yuga they will have to change”.

Religion is a man-made collection of beliefs, while Dharma is to obey the rules of

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nature. Religion can serve to separate people, while Dharma can bring them together.
Many wars have been sparked by the way religion is widely practised. Dharma was the
original name for Hindu dharma. Then it began to be termed sanaatan dharma, which
means “a religion which has been present since the inception of humanity and follows
the laws of nature”.
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There are 3 aspects/parts of the Dharma/religion.

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These are:
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●● Belief in God-God which is common to all humans, other beings and the entire
creation

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●● Rituals and ceremonies
●● Ethics and morals
The only difference between various people of faith’s practises is the rituals and ceremonies.

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Pillars of Hindu Dharma are:

●● Parmeshwar or belief in God

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●● Prarthana or prayer
●● Punarjanma or rebirth
●● Purusharth or law of action

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●● Praanidaya or compassion and kindness for all living beings
ManuSmriti defines Dharma and also goes in to the qualities of someone who
practices Dharma.

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●● Patience
●● Forgiveness
●● Restraint r
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●● Not steal
●● Cleanliness
●● Keep in mortify
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●● Wisdom
●● Knowledge
●● Truth
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●● Do not be angry (be angry)

Five Basic Rules of Dharma: These four are the positive proofs of virtue - The
Vedas, the Smriti, good demeanor, and self-complacency of one’s own conscience.
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●● To not use violence [mental or physical] against others

●● Honesty
●● Not to gain illegitimate wealth [by means such as theft, robbery, cheating,
bribery, making undue profit in trade or business, taking advantage of the
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needs of others, unreasonable professional charges, commercialization of

service-oriented professions, such as Lawyers, Doctors and Teachers etc. by
resorting to professional exploitation.
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●● Cleanliness in thought, word and deed [Trikarana, Shuddi]

●● Control of senses
The struggle between good and evil is a natural occurrence. And being successful
entails taking part in the cosmic phase in our quest to go Beyond.
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The doctrine of debt repayment to Gods, teachers, parents, and society as

a whole. It will take a human effort to repay this debt. The first step is to serve one’s
immediate superior, who is one’s master, as well as one’s mother and father.
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 Indian Political Thought-II 9

Rajdharma: Manusmriti goes into great detail regarding rajdharma, or statecraft.

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The idea of rajdharma has always been relevant, and it has sparked a lot of debate and
discussion in the Dharmashastras.

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Below are some of the main questions it sought to address:

●● Who should be a king?

●● How is he to be educated?

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●● What is the type of education to be imparted to a king?
●● How can a king be elected?

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●● What are his duties in his personal life?
●● What should be his duty in public life?
●● How is the preservation and integration of the social order to be achieved?

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Aside from these, the ancient Indic polity’s rajdharma includes a host of other
elements. Manu was the first to systematise the science of administration and
government.

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Manu was a staunch supporter of the ‘divine right theory’ of state formation, which
held that the state was God’s conception. Manusmriti promoted the theory of the king’s
divinity in order to support Pusyamitra’s Brahmin empire and counter the Buddhist
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theory of the state’s origin by contract. As the founder of the entire celestial order, God
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is responsible for the well-being of the people as well as the order’s harmonious activity.
With this in mind, he founded the system of kingship, with the king serving as His
earthly representative. Manusmriti also claims that the king is a divine construct.

Manu stresses the ruler’s intellectual and moral credentials since the king was
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the most important unit of the entire state administration. He is instructed to obey
the advice of Brahmins who are versed in the Vedas and can regulate their senses.
The Arthasastra, too, extols the virtues of a king’s self-control in order for him to have
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greater control over his subjects.

Manu’s king was a model citizen, well-educated, scholarly, effective, and morally
and intellectually upright. He was free of rage and greed by not being a slave to his
sexual urges and impulses. He was fair to all of his subjects.
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Manu also lists the qualities that a king must possess. The king had to be free of
corruption while staying true to the four foundations of satvik life: dharma, artha, kama,
and moksha. Since he is the state’s chief executive, he should have qualities like
sama, dama, danda, and bheda. He had to be humble, polite, courteous, strong, and
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determined as well.

Important characteristics of dharma: The following are some of the most

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important features of dharma:

(1) Social Principle: Dharma described the cosmic law functioning in material,
moral, and religious phenomena as the highest purusartha. Dharma was
specified in terms of certain responsibilities and obligations that were codified
in the social order’s great sastras.
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(2) Principle of Good: The concept of good, or ‘punya,’ is closely associated with
Dharma. The concept of ‘dharma’ is closely connected with the concept of

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‘good.’ In this universe, nothing is considered greater or higher than ‘dharma.’

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Dharma was known as the ‘sreya’ or positive in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad.
As a result, the word “adharma” means “opposite of good or bad”. It has been
prescribed that in order to achieve ‘moksha,’ or redemption, one must obey

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‘dharma’.
(3) Principle of law and order: According to the Dharma Sastras, dharma

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represents the concept of law and order. The law and philosophy of punishment
in ancient India is strictly based on the concept of dharma. The name
‘Dharmarajya’ was given to the country that followed law and order. The king,
according to Manusmriti, is the repository of all ‘dharma,’ and is responsible for

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upholding the rule of law and ensuring that all of his subjects follow the law of
dharma. As a result, the laws of ‘dharma’ contained not only legal but also social
justice.

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(4) Humanism: Humanism’s philosophy is one of the most essential features of
dharma. Dharma is a moral concept that is inherently human. Man must learn
a specific ‘dharma’ in a specific place and time, and it is the sole purpose of his
life to understand it. In fact, humanism has a dharma of its own. In individual,

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national, and international relations, humanism promotes unity in diversity.
Similarly, there are unique ‘dharmas’ as well as ‘sadharana’ or universal
‘dharmas’ of universal forms.
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(5) Practical Principles: The idea of dharma is not without practical implications.
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Despite the fact that the sastrakaras put a high emphasis on moral qualities,
their main purpose was to direct people to do the right thing in daily life. They
went into greater detail about the actions, rituals, and ceremonies that each
person was required to follow, taking into account his or her own place and role
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in society.
(6) Criteria of duty: The sense of obligation is another essential aspect of dharma.
Whatever is enjoined by Vedic injections is dharma, or obligation, as long as it
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is not meant to cause harm to others. Sacrifices made on the basis of concepts
that are incompatible with Vedic injunctions are not considered dharma. Dharma
can only be discovered by Vedic sacrifice, that is, only those Vedic sacrifices
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that have not been linked to any negative consequences. As a result, the term
“dharma” can be described as those concepts that are either enjoined by the
Vedas or guided toward beneficial ends.
(7) Integral approach: Dharma can be seen from a holistic viewpoint. Swadharma
is the pillar of society’s unity in diversity. An integral approach has always been
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a defining feature of Indian culture. The integral approach to philosophy has

been embraced by contemporary Indian thinkers. The Dharmasastras are also
unambiguous when it comes to multifaceted integral development. They think
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it’s fine. This is expressed in the Indian ideal of four purusarthas, which present
an integrated view of life and include terms like “Dharma,” “Artha,” “Kama,” and
“Moksha”.
(8) Principle of statecraft: The king was made responsible for preserving dharma
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in ancient Hindu polity. It was his obligation to ensure that all of his subjects
adhered to the rule of law. As a consequence, dharma is the guiding principle of
statecraft and the cornerstone of the state’s law and order.

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(9) Characteristic of Indian Culture: The definition of dharma and the word
Notes

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culture are inextricably linked. As a result, all facets of Indian culture correspond
to Hinduism’s principle of dharma. Religious orientation, faith, religious
tolerance, freedom of speech, integral approach, and unity in diversity are all

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characteristics of Indian community. Dharma shares many of these qualities
as well. Dharma is a faith and a cultural organisation. Spirituality aids in the
realisation of dharma and the comprehension of the Indian mind.

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(10) Combination of continuity and Dynamic diversity: Dharma has never been
a static principle of nature; rather, it is a dynamic principle. Dharma gives
peace, happiness’s means, and ultimate deliverance. “Hindus call their religion

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‘Sanatan dharma,’ which literally means “Eternal law,” said S.C. Crawford,
Dharma is super sensuous and as such it is created by the interaction of the
man with the internal organ.

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However, this literal interpretation does not imply that Hinduism’s ethical
values are eternal in the sense of being set, unchanging substances. From
the beginning, all of Hinduism’s fundamental presuppositions — “karman,”
“samsara,” and “dharma” — have originated from different streams of thinking.

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The elements still continue in the present day, not in-spite of change, but
because of it. As a result, the principle of eternal universal law does not imply
that Hindu values are static; rather, the Hindu ethic incorporates continuity and
complex diversity. r
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(11) Differential of Man: Dharma is what separates man from animals. It reflects the
moral law in human society as a regulative concept. The dharma is the source of
all social principles. K.N. Upadhyaya says in this regard, “The persistence and
intensity with which the inquiry into dharma has been pursued in India is mainly
ni

on account of the firm conviction of the Indian people that dharma constitutes
the differential of man. So the most vital to the man’s life is not mental, but his
moral and spiritual nature.”
U

1.1.4 Hierarchical System of Varna

People were categorised according to their Varna or castes in ancient India
ity

during the Vedic Period (c. 1500-1000 BCE). There was no social stratification based
on socioeconomic indicators. The term ‘Varna’ refers to a newborn’s hereditary
origins, as well as the colour, form, order, or class of people. Four main types are
defined: Brahmins (priests, gurus, etc.), Kshatriyas (warriors, rulers, administrators,
etc.), Vaishyas (agriculturalists, merchants, etc., also called Vysyas), and Shudras
m

(labourers). Each Varna has its own set of life principles to obey, and newborns must
adhere to the Varna’s fundamental customs, laws, actions, and beliefs.
)A

The Purusha Suktam verse of the ancient Sanskrit Rig Veda contains the first mention
of Varna. Purusha is the primordial being, made up of the four Varnas. Brahmins make up
the mouth, Kshatriyas make up the arms, Vaishyas make up the legs, and Shudras make
up the feet. Similarly, these four Varnas form a society, which is prepared to preserve
prosperity and order through their adherence to the Varna laws. Individual desires and
(c

personal inclinations are treated with equal solemnity by a newborn in a particular Varna,
in order to resolve the tension between personal preference and customary law. Given this
freedom, a deviant decision is often evaluated for its effect on others.

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Each Varna citizen’s rights are often paired with their individual obligations. The
Notes

e
Manu Smriti (an ancient legal text from the Vedic Period) and later Dharma Shastras
contain an elaborated Varna structure with observations and reasoning. In principle,
Varnas are not lineages that are considered pure and indisputable, but rather groups,

in
meaning that action takes precedence over birth in deciding a Varna.

Purpose of the VARNA System: During the Vedic era, which lasted from 1500

nl
to 1000 BCE, the caste system was implemented and accepted in ancient India.
People were divided into castes based on their Varna in order to decongest one’s
life’s obligations, maintain a caste’s purity, and create eternal order. This will settle
and prevent all types of disputes resulting from internal business disagreements and

O
encroachment on respective responsibilities.

Each Varna citizen is assigned unique tasks under this framework. When a
Brahmin acts like a Kshatriya or a Vaishya, he debases himself and becomes unfit

ty
to achieve salvation or moksha. Since he personifies renunciation, austerity, and
piousness, aspiring only for knowledge and cultivated intellect, a Brahmin (having
been one by action in addition to becoming one by birth) is considered the society’s

si
mouth and is the purest life type according to the Vedas. A Kshatriya, too, must remain
faithful to his Varna duty; if he does not, he risks being expelled. Vaishyas and Shudras
are in the same boat. Shudras are the cornerstone of an economy, a strong support

r
mechanism of a productive economic system, provided they remain confined to their life
duties and do not succumb to greed, unethical conduct, or excessive self-indulgence.
ve
The belief in the attainment of moksha by dutiful conduct is the underlying reason
for adhering to Varna duties.

The key concept is that such order in a society will lead to happiness, eternal
ni

peace, wilful obedience to the law, wilful deterrence from all types of wrongdoing,
responsible practise of liberty and rights, and preserving the fundamental societal
characteristic of “shared prosperity” above all others.
U

Since different Varnas lived together and there was a possibility of disunity among
them, practical and moral education for all Varnas and such an order seemed justified
in ancient Indian society. As a result, Brahmins were entrusted with the responsibility
ity

of teaching students from all Varnas to understand and practise order and mutual
peace, regardless of how difficult the situation was. In Brahmin ashrams, the primary
teachings were justice, morality, and righteous conduct (spiritual retreats, places to
seek knowledge). Practical education for all Varnas, which provided students with their
life purposes and knowledge of right conduct, which would later manifest into an orderly
m

society, was considered necessary, as was equipping pupils with a pure conscience to
lead a noble life.

The belief in the attainment of moksha by dutiful conduct is the underlying reason
)A

for adhering to Varna duties. Belief in Karma increases one’s belief in the Varna life
values. According to the Vedas, it is a human’s ideal duty to pursue liberation from
subsequent birth and death and to rid oneself of soul transmigration, which is possible if
one follows the duties and values of one’s respective Varna.
(c

Consistent encroachment on others’ life duties, according to the Vedas, leads to an

unstable society. The fourfold essence of society is made up of Brahmins, Kshatriyas,
Vaishyas, and Shudras, each with their own set of life obligations and ideal disposition.
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 Indian Political Thought-II 13

The men of the first three hierarchical castes are known as the twice-born; first, they are
Notes

e
born of their ancestors, and then, after the sacred thread initiation they wear over their
shoulders, they are born of their guru. The Varna system appears to be in its infancy
in the Vedas, but it is later developed and amended in the Upanishads and Dharma

in
Shastras.

Brahmins: Brahmins were revered as the embodiment of wisdom, endowed with

nl
the precepts and sermons that were to be administered to all Varnas of society. They
were revered not only for their Brahmin birth, but also for their renunciation of worldly
existence and cultivation of divine qualities, and were thought to be often engrossed in
Brahman contemplation, hence the name Brahmins.

O
The Brahmin community consisted of priests, gurus, rishis, teachers, and scholars.
They would still obey the Brahmacharya (celibacy) vow that had been intented for them.
Even married Brahmins were referred to as Brahmachari (celibate) since they engaged

ty
in sexual activity solely for the purpose of reproduction while remaining psychologically
removed from the act. Anyone from any Varna, however, could become a Brahmin after
acquiring extensive knowledge and cultivating one’s intellect.

si
Since they reflect the bond between divine wisdom and the four Varnas, Brahmins
were the first choice as tutors for the newborn. As a result, since ancestral wisdom is
preserved by guru-disciple practise, all people born in each Varna will remain rooted to
the needs of their lives. r
ve
In most cases, Brahmins were the personification of contentment and the dispellers
of ignorance, leading all seekers to the pinnacle of supreme knowledge; but, in extreme
cases, they lived as warriors, merchants, or agriculturists. Those with the names of
Brahma Rishi or Maha Rishi were asked to advise kings and the administration of their
ni

kingdoms. All Brahmin men were permitted to marry women from the first three Varnas,
while marrying a Shudra woman would deprive the Brahmin of his priestly rank by a
small margin. Nonetheless, if the Brahmin agrees, a Shudra woman will not be refused.
U

Contrary to common opinion, Brahmin women were more respected for their
chastity and treated with unequalled respect by their husbands. A Brahmin woman
must only marry another Brahmin, according to Manu Smriti, but she is free to choose
ity

the man. She can marry a Kshatriya or a Vaishya in exceptional circumstances, but
marrying a Shudra is prohibited. Inter-caste marriages are restricted to prevent
subsequent impurity in the progeny of the marriages. A man from one caste marrying
a woman from a higher caste is considered an ill-fated union that results in ignoble
offspring.
m

Kshatriyas: The warrior clan, kings, territorial authorities, administrators, and so

on were all Kshatriyas. Weaponry, warfare, penance, austerity, governance, moral
behaviour, justice, and ruling were all necessary skills for a Kshatriya. From an early
)A

age, all Kshatriyas would be sent to a Brahmin’s ashram until they were fully equipped
with the necessary knowledge. They will acquire administrative experience in addition
to the austerities of the Brahmins.

Their primary obligation was to protect their country, defend against attacks,
(c

administer justice, rule virtuously, and extend peace and happiness to all of their
people, and they would seek guidance from their Brahmin gurus on matters of territorial
sovereignty and ethical dilemmas. With mutual consent, they were permitted to marry a

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woman from any Varna. While marrying a Kshatriya or Brahmin woman was preferred,
Notes

e
Shudra women were not prohibited from marrying a Kshatriya.

Kshatriya women, like their male counterparts, were trained in masculine

in
disciplines, were well-versed in warfare, had the authority to perform duties in the king’s
absence, and were well-versed in kingdom affairs. Contrary to common opinion, a
Kshatriya woman was just as capable of defending a kingdom in times of trouble as

nl
she was of teaching her descendants how to fight. To ensure stability on the throne and
assert supremacy over territories, a Kshatriya king’s lineage was held pure.

Vaishyas: Agriculturalists, merchants, money lenders, and those engaged in

O
commerce make up the Vaishya Varna. Vaishyas are also twice-born and attend the
Brahmins’ ashram to learn the laws of virtuous living and to prevent deliberate or
unintentional wrongdoing. Cattle rearing was one of the Vaishyas’ most prestigious
occupations, as the quantity and standard of a kingdom’s cows, elephants, and

ty
horses, as well as their upkeep, influenced the citizens’ quality of life and prosperity.
Vaishyas will work closely with the kingdom’s administrators to negotiate, introduce, and
continuously develop living standards by creating profitable economic opportunities.

si
Since their daily activities expose them to artefacts of instant gratification, their proclivity
to disregard the law and despise the poor is assumed. As a result, the Kshatriya king
will be preoccupied with settling disputes resulting from Vaishya conflicts.

r
Vaishya women, like their husbands, supported them in business, cattle raising,
ve
and agriculture, and shared the burden of work. They had the same freedom to
choose a spouse from among the four Varnas, though choosing a Shudra was fiercely
resisted. Vaishya women were legally secured, and remarriage was unquestionably
usual, just as it was in the other three Varnas. In the event of her husband’s untimely
ni

death, a Vaishya woman had equal rights to ancestral lands, and she would be equally
responsible for the upbringing of her children with help from her husband.

Shudras: The last Varna represents the cornerstone of a stable economy, and
U

they are respected for their obedient performance of life’s responsibilities. Scholarly
perspectives on Shudras are the most diverse, owing to the fact that their actions tend
to be more limited. The Atharva Veda, on the other hand, helps Shudras to hear and
memorise the Vedas by heart, and the Mahabharata, too, encourages Shudras to join
ity

ashrams and study the Vedas. However, being officiating priests in kingly sacrifices
was limited to a large extent. Since Shudras are not twice-born, they are excluded
from wearing the sacred thread like the other Varnas. A Shudra man could only marry
another Shudra, but a Shudra woman could marry from any of the four Varnas.
m

Shudras will work in the ashrams of Brahmins, Kshatriyas in the palaces and
princely camps of Kshatriyas, and Vaishyas in the commercial activities of Vaishyas.
Despite the fact that they are the feet of the primordial being, educated people of higher
)A

Varnas will still consider them as an essential part of society, since an ordered society
would be easily jeopardised if the feet were weak. Shudras, on the other hand, obeyed
their masters’ orders because they knew they could achieve moksha by performing
their prescribed duties, which motivated them to stay loyal. Shudra women, too,
served as the queen’s attendants and close companions, and would accompany her
(c

to other kingdoms after their marriages. Many Shudras were also permitted to work
as farmers, merchants, and in Vaishya occupations. However, these detours from life
responsibilities will only occur in exceptional circumstances, such as when an individual
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detects worsening economic conditions. The Shudras’ selflessness earns them

Notes

e
unrivalled reverence and respect.

Migration within Varnas: It is as follows:

in
●● Brahmin can become Shudra and Shudra can become Brahmin. In the same
way, Kshtariyas and Vaishyas can also change their Varnas.
●● If a Shudra (uneducated) attends the educated ones, is well-mannered,

nl
lacking of ego and stays in respectful company of knowledgeable ones, he/
she is thought of as having a noble birth and stature.
●● A Shudra is on who has not been initiated with teaching of the Vedas.

O
●● A Brahmin obtains brilliance from company of noble persons and evading bad
company. In fact, if he indulges in bad company, he then becomes a Shudra.
●● A person who does not respectfully reply to a greeting is actually a Shudra

ty
(uneducated person), even if he is a Brahmin or otherwise

1.1.5 Importance of Ashram Dharma in Regard to Social Laws

si
An Ashrama is a hermitage or resting place for a seer or a monk in the middle
of a deep forest, where he will perform austerities, either alone or in the company of
fellow seers and his own disciples, to seek self-realization and to assist others in doing
r
so. Ashramas dotted the forests of ancient India, portraying the lives of people who
ve
retired from active life and practised extreme penances and austerities, including self-
mortification.

They belonged to a number of ascetic practises both within and outside the
vedic fold, and they acted as schools for young aspirants who were willing to give up
ni

everything in order to follow their education and spiritual ideals with single-minded
devotion. They also acted as temporary resting places for ascetics who had left
everything, including their homes, and wandered aimlessly through the woods.
U

By adhering to a code of conduct and a map of life, the ashrama dharma of vedic
idealism envisions resting places in the forest of human life for people to attain their
freedom from the cycle of births. Its main goal is to instil divine-centered living and
inspire people to follow vedic dharma as they seek the four main goals of human life,
ity

namely dharma (religion), artha (wealth), kama (pleasures), and moksha (salvation), in
the course of their earthly journey, without neglecting their obligatory responsibilities or
compromising their moral principles and human values.

In its present form, the ashrama dharma acknowledges four ashramas, or phases,
m

in the life of a human being. They are:

●● Brahmacarya
)A

●● Grhastha
●● Sanyāsa
●● Vānaprastha
From a religious standpoint, the ashramas provide an excellent opportunity for
(c

people of all ages and occupations to live in accordance with the highest ideals of
human life and strive for their salvation. Manu believed that a man could do nothing in
the world if he didn’t have desires, and that the only way to satisfy them was to practise

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dharma and fulfil one’s obligations. He proclaimed that whoever continued to carry out
Notes

e
his prescribed duties would not only achieve salvation, but also the fulfilment of all his
desires in this life (Manusmriti 2.5). Its main flaw is its rigid adherence to caste-based
roles, fascination with the priestly class’ dominance, and the exclusion of a significant

in
section of the population who are not born into the upper three castes.

In vedic culture, the idea of four ashramas as successive stages in an individual’s

nl
existence was a later invention. The vedic dharma originally called for ekashramam,
or one ashrama for the rest of one’s life, based on one’s most important aim or
desires. The life of a householder was thought to be the most fitting and auspicious
of the four. However, over time, the Dharmashastras (Hindu law books) came to

O
support the concept of four ashramas as successive stages in the lives of twice born
castes whereby one could live life according to one’s goals and ambitions while also
preserving family, caste, and society institutions. It was most likely an effort to maintain

ty
Vedic culture by discouraging people from leaving their homes and family obligations
and becoming ascetics at a young age.

Brahmacharya

si
Brahmacharya is the first stage of a person’s life on the Vedic dharma path. It
typically starts with his initiation (Upanayana) ceremony, which marks the beginning
of his new life as a twice born. Brahmacharya refers to Brahman-related activities. In
r
technical terms, a brahmacharin is anyone who is pursuing Brahman or following
ve
Brahma’s direction. In ancient India, however, it was used to refer to a student who was
receiving advanced knowledge and vocational training from a teacher about his caste-
based profession and who practised celibacy and self-restraint during his education in
order to preserve his energy and remain focused on his immediate goal of mastering
ni

his subjects. Following the example of Brahma, the creator god, who was credited with
the virtues of celibacy and chastity, the students exercised celibacy and self-restraint as
part of their mandatory learning. Secondly, they lived in the presence of a teacher who
was looked upon as Brahman in human form. They were referred to as brahmacharins,
U

or adherents of Brahma or Brahman, in both cases because they adopted the principles
of Brahma or Brahman.

A brahmacharin’s life followed a prescribed pattern in the law books and reflected
ity

the highest virtues one might cultivate at such a young age. Following the initiation
ceremony, the students remained with their teachers for many years, learning different
subjects under their teachers’ close supervision. They were kept completely apart from
their families during this time and were not able to communicate with them or visit their
homes. The instructor took on the role of a parent during the initiation ceremony and
m

stood in for them. He was both God and a father figure, with unquestionable authority
and final word. He had the students at his mercy. If he was pleased with their conduct
and actions, as well as their grasping abilities, he would give them information.
)A

Otherwise, they’d be stuck doing menial work in his house for years, not getting any of
his attention.

For the stage of Brahmacharya, Manusmriti recommended a maximum duration of

9 to 36 years or until a student mastered his studies. As part of their learning process,
(c

the students were required to live austere and disciplined lives for the duration of the
period, as what they received was considered a hidden information that entailed a
great deal of responsibility on their part in using it for the benefit of all. The following

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is a rundown of the brahmacharin’s code of conduct as prescribed by Hindu law

Notes

e
books. These laws were observed by students from all three upper castes, with a few
exceptions here and there.

in
●● A instructor is a manifestation of Brahman. As a consequence, a student
should always display full respect and obedience to his instructor. He should
never display disrespect or carelessness in the presence of his instructor.

nl
He should respect not only his teacher, but also his whole family, regardless
of whether they are male or female and whether they are younger or older
than him. In most cases, a student should choose a learned brahmana as his
instructor, but in times of distress, he may learn from a non-brahmana.

O
●● Every day, he should bathe and purify himself, as well as give water libations
to gods, sages, ancestors, and spirits, and add fuel to the holy fire. He should
read the holy scriptures and recite the verses until he understands them fully.

ty
●● A student is not permitted to prepare his own meals. It is his responsibility to
go out every day and beg for food only from people of merit, who know the
Vedas, are morally upright, are not connected to him by his mother or father,

si
and have not committed mortal sins.
●● He should be very strict with himself when it comes to self-control. Honey, poultry,
perfumes, garlands, spices, women, and acidic foods should all be avoided. He
r
should never anoint himself, put collyrium in his eyes, wear sandals, or carry an
ve
umbrella. In addition, he should refrain from singing, dancing, or playing musical
instruments. He should avoid the female members of the teacher’s household
and maintain as much distance from them as possible.
●● He can restrain his sensual desires, rage, and greed in order to cultivate
ni

virtues. Even if he is wise, he should show modesty and patience in his

speech rather than acting foolishly. He should refrain from harming living
beings and from engaging in vices such as gambling, idle disputes, backbiting,
stealing, gazing at and touching women, and injuring others.
U

●● He could never waste his manhood by sleeping alone. He who willingly

wasted his manhood, Manu proclaimed, had broken his promise.
Almost the entire stage of brahmacharya was spent in gurukulas. Its aim was to
ity

learn the Vedas and other scriptures, as well as to acquire knowledge of Brahman,
through the cultivation of virtues and the practise of mind and body restraint. The
emphasis on the code of conduct and the relationship between students and their
teachers differed by caste, but the same values influenced the curriculum. Celibacy was
m

an important part of a student’s life because it was the most difficult thing to do, and
success in that field required total self-control.

Furthermore, it was thought that sublimation of sexual energy was essential for
)A

a student’s mental faculties to improve, such as memory and comprehension, and to

qualify him for higher education. Students were allowed to abandon their teachers and
return to their homes after successfully completing their education by mastering either
all or at least one of the Vedas. The student’s return to his home was typically marked
by a ceremony in which he presented his master with a gift such as a field, gold, a
(c

cow, a horse, a parasol and shoes, a bench, grain, (even) vegetables, or whatever the
teacher thought was fitting.

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Grihastha or Garhasthya
Notes

e
The grihasta stage starts when a student returns home after successfully
completing his education and taking a ritual bath without violating any rules. The ritual

in
bath marks the start of his life as a snataka, a time in which he transforms from a
student to a responsible young adult ready to take on full household responsibilities.
The snataka brahmanas, who had just finished their schooling but had not yet married

nl
or been initiated into household duties, had a strong reputation in ancient times. They
were revered for their wisdom and purity, and they were allowed to freely travel from
one location to another, even between territories controlled by rival rulers. As a result,
spies and kings often pretended to be a snataka brahmana in order to collect classified

O
information or avoid detection.

The snataka period lasted until marriage, after which one assumed the obligations
of a householder and expended his energy on performing required duties. The life of a

ty
householder is considered as the highest of all the ashramas by Hindu law books since
it serves those in the other three ashramas. It is also important for the survival of vedic
dharma, varnasharma dharma, and caste-based occupations. A householder is required

si
to perform the following tasks.

●● With utmost sincerity, he should perform various regular, monthly, and annual
sacrifices as prescribed in the law books. Brahmayajna, devayajna, pitruyajna,
r
bhutayajna and manushyayajna are the daily sacrifices are five in number.
ve
Brahmayajna is sacrifice to Brahman. It consists of teaching and studying the
Vedas, recitation of the Vedas and contemplation and worship of Brahman,
also known as ahuta. Devayajna is sacrifice to gods. It entails offering burnt
oblations to gods, also known as huta. Pitruyajna is sacrifice to ancestors. It
consists of an offering called tarpana (food and water) to the departed souls,
ni

also known as prasita. Bhutayajna is a sacrifice to the animals. It involves

offering bali or sacrificial food to the animals and insects, also known as
prahuta. Manusyayajna is a sacrifice to the human beings. The generous
U

treatment of the guests and making an offering in the digestive fire of a

brahmana, also known as brahmya-huta.
●● In addition to the five sacrifices, he should make offerings of food daily to
ity

various gods and goddesses; ghosts and goblins, dogs, and to poor people
as said in the dharmashastras. He should offer alms to ascetics and students,
who are unable to cook food for themselves due to the commitments of their
religious duties. He should also make sacrificial offerings to fire at the start
and end of each day, as well as in the night. After making all the offerings and
m

honoring all the gods and ancestors he should eat whatever is left.
●● He should make monthly offerings to his ancestors, as well as also honoring
the invited guests by offering them food. In addition to that, he should also
)A

perform sacrifices at certain times throughout a year. The sacrifices are

needed as part of one’s religious obligation. Under no conditions should they
be performed to form friendships or boosts one’s social status.
●● In order to fulfil his mandatory duties as a householder, he should amass
(c

property by working in occupations that are prescribed for his caste, causing
as little eharm to others as possible. He should live a honest and virtuous
life. He should avoid prohibited occupations, restrain his senses and abstain

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himself from sensual pleasures. He should not gain wealth that would hinder
Notes

e
with the study of the Vedas. His dress, speech, and thoughts should be in
accordance with his age, his occupation, his wealth, his sacred learning, and
his race.

in
●● He should have his hair, nails, and beard trimmed, dress in white garments
and keep himself pure. He should always be occupied in studying the Veda
and comparable acts that are favorable to his welfare. He should have respect

nl
for the teacher who initiated him, or who explained the Veda, his father and
mother, or any Guru, cows, brahmanas and men carrying out austerities.
●● He should keep away from vices, atheism, questioning the Vedas, disrespect

O
of the gods, hatred, want of modesty, pride, anger, and severity. He should not
behave violently towards others, bully the virtuous or the righteous. He should
not eat food that is clearly forbidden in the law books or recite the Vedas in

ty
prohibited places.
●● While performing these duties, he should take care of his wife and keep her
happy and she in turn should back him in the discharge of his obligatory

si
duties, staying patient, self-controlled, and chaste, and never doing something
that might displease him, whether he was alive or dead.
Living in a culture that considers personal possession as a symbol of one’s

r
accomplishment and achievement, the life of a householder puts tremendous obligation
on people, forcing them to strive for their temporal and spiritual objectives without
ve
compromising their higher goals or succumbing to the temptations of materialistic life.
It’s like walking down a treacherous road, where the chances of stumbling are greater
and the effects of karmic sin are more serious. As a result, the Bhagavadgita correctly
advises people to fulfil their mandatory duties with a sense of sacrifice and as an
ni

offering to God, acknowledging Him as the Real Doer and not looking for the fruits of
their deeds.
U

Vanaprastha
Vanaprastha, also called Vaikhasana, is the life as a forest dweller. According to
Manu, when a householder sees his wrinkled face, white hair, and grandsons, it is time
for him to retire to a forest, to begin a life of detachment and gradual withdrawal from
ity

the distractions and attractions of the external world, either by entrusting his children to
his wife after making arrangements for their sustenance, or by accompanying her and
leaving behind all his belongings. Generally this is the phase of retirement.

His use of sacrificial fire, which he brings into the forest with him, and his
m

success of the five daily sacrifices set him apart from a sanyasin or renouncer. He is
recommended to observe austerities and remain celibate throughout this period.
A forest dweller’s life is difficult and demanding because it requires a person who is
)A

accustomed to a certain way of life and comforts to make significant changes in order
to adapt himself into a life of hardship and suffering. For a forest dweller, the following
laws apply. *

●● He may abide in an abode of a hermitage and should continue, as in the

(c

householder’s stage, to make the five daily sacrifices, using several kinds of
pure food fit for ascetics, or with herbs, roots, and fruit.

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●● He should dress in a skin or a frayed garment; wash in the evening or in the

Notes

e
morning; and always have his hair in braids. The hair on his body, his beard,
and his nails should remain uncut.

in
●● He should offer alms, based to his ability, and honor those who visit his
hermitage by offering them water, roots, and fruit.
●● He should remain alert while privately reciting the Vedas, persevere when

nl
there are hardships, ammicable towards all, stable in his mind, generous in
giving gifts without ever accepting them, and show compassion to all living
creatures.

O
●● He should consume vegetables that grow on dry land or in water, flowers,
roots, and fruits produced by trees and oils removed from forest-fruits.
He should avoid honey, flesh, and mushrooms growing on the ground or
elsewhere and particular fruit and vegetables. He should also avoid food

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grown by cultivation or grown in a village, however hungry he may be. He may
eat anything that is cooked or ripened by time. After collecting his food, he
may eat it either during day only or during the night only, but not more than

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once a day. After eating food, he should clean the vessel in which he collected
or prepared the food promptly. He may store food adequate enough for up to
six months.
●●
r
He also is expected to prepare himself physically and mentally through
various exercises and creating his austerities harsher and harsher day by day.
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He may either roll around on the ground, or stand throughout the day on tiptoe
or alternately stand and sit down. In summer he should expose himself to the
heat, through the rainy season stay under the open sky, and in winter dress in
wet clothes.
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●● Along with the austerities, he must study the various sacred texts comprised
in the Upanishads.
A forest dweller should progressively become a full ascetic as time passes, so that
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he can begin his fourth and final step as a sanyasin or renouncer.

Sanyasa
ity

The final ashrama is known as sanyasa or bhaikshya, in which one is

recommended to live as a mendicant or ascetic, giving up all, including the sacrificial
fire and the five daily sacrifices. Since a person is advised to progressively turn himself
from a forest dweller to a full fledged ascetic by raising his austerities and making them
harsher and harsher to the point where he becomes oblivious to the vicissitudes of
m

life, it is difficult to tell when exactly the vanaprastha ends and the sanyasa starts. The
use of fire, on the other hand, distinguishes the two stages. When a person enters the
sanyasa process, he or she is advised to perform a special ceremony and withdraw
)A

the sacrificial fire into himself so that he or she can become an embodiment of fire that
manifests as a radiant spiritual force (tapas).

A sanyasi is advised to become totally removed from all worldly practises and
possessions during this time and to become a wanderer, subsisting on alms, exercising
(c

self-control, and not harming any animal. He should only beg once a day, in a place
where no kitchen smoke is visible, and eat flimsy food just to stay alive. He is advised
to restrain his senses from the sense objects by eating little and standing and sitting
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 Indian Political Thought-II 21

alone. He should make himself fit for immortality by restraining his senses, destroying
Notes

e
love and hate, and refraining from harming the animals. He should think about death,
man’s transmigration, afterlife circumstances, future lives possibilities, and so on.
He must understand the subtle essence of the supreme Soul and its presence in all

in
beings, both the highest and lowest, through deep meditation. He should act in such a
way that he does no harm to other people, either deliberately or accidentally. According
to Manusmriti, “By not injuring any creatures, by detaching the senses from objects of

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enjoyment, by the rites prescribed in the Veda, and by rigorously practicing austerities,”
he has to overcome the dualities of life, such as pain and pleasure, love and hatred, joy
and sorrow and achieve liberty from the cycle of births and deaths.

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During this process, the Hindu law books suggest increasing austerities and
gradually reducing food intake, but they do not explicitly refer to the Jain ascetics’
practise of self-mortification. It’s important to note that neither living in the woods nor

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living as a renouncer or ascetic are needed. Instead of performing the obligatory duties
prescribed for each of these phases, a person could spend these two phases in the
house of his sons.

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1.1.6 Manusmriti and Women
The Manusmriti, also known as the Manav Dharam Shastra, is Hinduism’s first
r
metrical work on Brahminical Dharma. The Manusmriti is Brahma’s title, according to
Hindu mythology, and it is considered the most authoritative statement on Dharma. The
ve
Scripture is divided into 12 chapters and contains 2690 verses. The eponym ‘Manu’
is believed to have been used by the actual human author of this compilation, leading
Hindus to equate the text with the first human being and the first king in Indian history.
ni

The Manusmriti is regarded by Hindu apologists as the divine code of conduct, and
the role of women portrayed in the text has thus been interpreted as Hindu divine law.

●● Respect for Woman:

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 The intra-cosmic Gods favor the family where females are honoured or
held in respect.
 Marriage was thought of as equivalent to initiation (Upnayana) ceremony.
ity

●● Autonomy of Women
 Women be provided full charge of internal running of the household
 Thought that both husband and wife to keep each other happy and
satisfied.
m

 Wife as soul of her husband

 Women is not an object of pleasure or a wage earner.
)A

 Complementarity of Vedic period shifted to relative dependence.

●● Protection of Women
 Seeing the wife as physically weak and vulnerable, she must be protected
by father, husband and sons
(c

●● Marriage of Women
●● Property Rights of Women

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 22 Indian Political Thought-II

●● Strict Punishment for hurting Women

Notes

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●● Ladies First
The Duties of Women: These are:

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●● As a girl, a young women, or even an old one, nothing must be done
independently, even in her own house.
●● In childhood a female is subject to her father, in youth to her husband, when

nl
her husband is dead to her sons; a woman must never be independent.
●● She must not try to separate herself from her father, husband, or sons;
by leaving them she would make both her own and her husband’s families

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disgraceful.
●● Education no longer was important for women
●● Dropping of marriageable age of girls (pre-puberty marriages)

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●● Upanayana Samskara condensed to mere formality and then disappeared
altogether.
●● Female students disappeared in Dharmashastras.

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●● Women lost the rank of Dvija (twice born) and fell to the status of Shudras –
unfit for chanting Vedic prayers.
●●
r
Widow was to live a chaste life, not excluded from taking part in ceremonial
festivities
ve
●● Did not endorse practice of Sati
●● Levirate (Niyoga: unwilling widow was not forced) (Main Reason:
Unwillingness to share proprietary)
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●● Remarriage (Reference in Atharvavedaand suggested by Kautilya, however,

Widow had to surrender any claim on Proprietary including Stridhana; while
Manu opposed it)
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Marriage laws - Types of Marriage (Eight): These are:

1. The Brahma
2. The Divine
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3. The Seer’s
4. The Prajapatya
5. The Demonic
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6. The Gandharva
7. The Fiendish
)A

8. The Ghoulishii

Varna Marriage and Women

●● Wives of equal caste are recommended for the first marriage of twice-born
men; however, for those who wish to marry again, the following females,
(c

chosen in direct order of the castes, are the most accepted.

●● A Shudra woman can only be the wife of another Shudra, she and one of his

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 Indian Political Thought-II 23

own caste can be the wives of a Vaisya, those two and one of his own caste
Notes

e
can be the wives of a Kshatriya, and those three and one of his own caste can
be the wives of a Brahmin.

in
●● Even though they lived in the greatest misery, no ancient storey mentions a
Shudra woman as the first wife of a Brahmin or a Kshatriya.
●● Twice-born men who, in their stupidity, marry low-caste (Shudra) women

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quickly degrade their families and children to Shudra status.
●● A Brahmin who takes a Shudra wife to his bed will go to hell after death; if he
has a child by her, he will lose the status of a Brahmin.

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Widow Marriage: Manu is positively against the marriage of the Widows. He says,
“nowhere is a second husband declared for virtuous women”

●● In the method of marriage there is no statement about the remarriage of the

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widows
●● A female can be given only once.
●● Manu does not allow a widow to remarry on any condition.

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Division of inheritance and property: Inheritance and property was to be divided
as below:

●● Property allocation among brothers

●● Paternal estate
r
ve
●● Maternal estate
●● Proprietary Rights of the Daughter
Brotherless daughter-to be selected as Putrika; to get father’s inheritance; her male
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child to do funeral rites.

Daughters with Brothers had no part in patrimony

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Maintenance and well-being of unmarried daughter (1/4 share)

●● Proprietary Rights during Covertures

●● Widow’s Rights in her Husband’s Property
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 Immovable Property: only the right of upkeep

 Movable Property: Ornaments, jewellery, costly apparel etc. thought of as
Stridhana–under wife’s domain; to be used in case of misfortune (Kautilya)
Divided between sons and daughters
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●● Mother’s Rights.

Disqualification from Inheritance

)A

●● The impotent
●● Outcastes
●● Those born blind or deaf
●● The insane
(c

●● The mentally retarded

●● Mutes and Anyone lacking manly strength.

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 24 Indian Political Thought-II

1.1.7 The Institution of Family

Notes

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Family life is seen as a blessing in most religions, and marriage is respected for its
stability. As the second ashrama, having a family is seen as a responsibility by some

in
Hindus. The second ashrama is having a family, marrying, and having children, which
some Hindus regard as a responsibility. The third ashrama, according to many Hindus,
involves passing on wisdom to grandchildren and directing them by rites of passage.

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The Laws of Manu teaches:

“The father protects the woman in childhood, the husband protects her in youth, the
children protect her in old age, a woman should never be independent.” As per Manu,

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family is defined as:

●● As basis of Hindu social organization and fundamental to social existence

●● Assists students, old people, the forefathers and Gods

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●● No control of others; attempt to attain happiness of others
●● Wealth for completion of needs and performance of one’s duties towards
parents, teachers and society.

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The rules of family life were as follows:

●● Reciprocated marital fidelity for both husband and wife

●● r
Wife subjected to punishment for challenging husband
ve
●● Daughter took secondary position regarding mental and physical abilities
●● Women’s inseparability with man in religious activities with lower place to
women
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●● Upanayanaa mere formality, without Vedic mantras

●● Women could not carry out sacrifices independently
Hindu Marriage - Hindu marriage is one of the most well-known social structures
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in the civilised world. A Hindu marriage is a religious sacrament in which a man and
woman are joined in a lifelong partnership for the purposes of dharma, procreation, and
sexual pleasure on a physical, social, and spiritual basis. As a result, Hindu marriage is
a religious sacrament as well as a social contract.
ity

It leads to a man and woman having a more or less permanent relationship. Its
target isn’t just physical enjoyment, but spiritual growth as well. It is not only a personal
function, but also a social one. The completion of Dharma, procreation, and sexual
pleasure are its values. It demonstrates a holistic approach to this social organisation.
m

Aims of the Hindu Marriage –

Fulfilment of Dharma or religious duties: According to the Hindu scriptures,
)A

marriage is the foundation of all religious actions. As stated by K.M. Kapadia “marriage
being thus primarily for the fulfilment of duties, the basic aim of marriage was Dharma.”
In the Mahabharata, a “wife is very source of the Purusharthas, not only of Dharma,
Artha and Kama but even of Moksha. Those that have wives can fulfil their due
obligations in this world; those that have wives can be happy, and those that have wives
(c

can lead a full life.”

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 Indian Political Thought-II 25

Procreation: In a Hindu family, the child is given a prominent position. The

Notes

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husband accepts the wife’s palm in order to have a high-breed progeny, according to
Rigveda. Marriage, according to Manu, is mainly for the purpose of procreation.

in
Sexual Pleasure: Marriage, according to Manu, is an asocial institution for
the control of proper sex relations. Sexual pleasure is compared to the realisation of
spiritual happiness in Hindu scriptures. According to Vatsyayan, the primary goal of

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marriage is sexual pleasure. A maiden who has reached the age of marriage should
marry herself rather than relying on the help of her elders.

Forms of Hindu Marriage - The Hindu scriptures acknowledge the subsequent

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eight forms of marriage:

Brahma marriage: The child, dressed and ornamented, is given in marriage to a

learned and gentle bridegroom in this type of marriage. In today’s Hindu society, this is

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the most common form of marriage.

Prajapatya marriage: In this type of marriage the daughter is presented to the

bride-groom by blessing them with the gratification of marital bliss and the completion of

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dharma.

Aarsh marriage: In this type of marriage, a rishi will accept a girl in marriage after
giving her parents a cow or bull and some clothing. These articles did not reflect the
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bride’s price, but rather the rishi’s determination to live a domestic life. The word aarsh
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is derived from the word rishi, according to P.K.Acharya.

Daiva Marriage: In this type of marriage, the girl was dressed up and offered to the
individual who performed the yajna’s Purohit role.
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Asura marriage: The bride-groom receives the bride in exchange for some money
or articles given to the bride’s family members in this type of marriage. In the case of
Pandu and Madri’s marriage, this form of marriage was conducted.
U

Gandharva marriage: This type of marriage is the product of the bride and
groom’s shared affection and devotion. The marriage of King Dushyanata and
Shakuntala is an example of this form of union. The ceremonies in this type of marriage
will take place after the bride and groom have had a sexual relationship. According to
ity

the Taittariya Samhita, this form of marriage was so termed because it was so common
among the Gandharvas.

Rakshas marriage: This form of marriage was popular during a period when
women were seen as the prize of war. The bride-groom physically removes the bride
m

from her home after murdering and wounding her relatives in this form of marriage.

Paisach marriage: This kind of partnership has been classified as the most
degenerate. In this case, a man engages in sexual intercourse with a woman who is
)A

asleep, intoxicated, or unconscious. Following the execution of a marriage ceremony,

which took place after the man and woman had a physical relationship, such actions
were legalised.

Check your Understanding

(c

1. The _______________________ are divided into twelve chapters and contain 2684
verses.

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 26 Indian Political Thought-II

2. The five pillars of Hindu Dharma are parmeshwar, prarthana, punarjanma, purusharth,
Notes

e
and praanidaya. True/False
3. ___________________were revered as the embodiment of wisdom, endowed with

in
the precepts and sermons that were to be administered to all Varnas of society.
4. The final ashrama is known as ________________or bhaikshya, in which one is
recommended to live as a mendicant or ascetic, giving up all, including the sacrificial

nl
fire and the five daily sacrifices
5. Their primary obligation was to protect their country, defend against attacks,
administer justice, rule virtuously, and extend peace and happiness to all of their

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people, and they would seek guidance from their Brahmin gurus on matters of
territorial sovereignty and ethical dilemmas.
a) Shudras

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b) Kshatriyas
c) Brahmins

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d) Vaishyas

Summary

r
“Manu” also known as Manava-dharma-shastra (“The Dharma Text of Manu”),
traditionally the utmost authoritative of the texts of the Hindu code (Dharma-shastra) in
ve
India.

Manu-smriti is the widespread name of the work, which is formally acknowledged

as Manava-dharma-shastra. It is attributed to the legendary primary man and lawgiver,
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Manu. The established text dates back from circa 100 ce.

The Laws of Manu, which deal with social, moral, and legal issues, has gradually
gained a foothold in Hinduism. The Manu-smriti lays out Hindus’ dharma—the collection
U

of responsibilities that each of them bears as a member of one of the four social
classes (varnas) and a participant in one of the four stages of life (ashramas). It covers
cosmogony, dharma definition, sacraments (samskaras), initiation (upanayana), and the
study of the Vedas (Hinduism’s sacred texts); marriage, hospitality, funeral rites, dietary
ity

prohibitions, pollution, and purification methods; women’s and wives’ conduct; and
kings’ rule.

Activity
m

1. Create a ppt on the different varnas going into detail of all the aspects (social
standing, occupation, marriage, etc.). Also elaborate on why the varna’s were
created and are so important in society.
)A

Questions and Exercises

1. List the five basic rules of Dharma.
2. What are the four ashrama in the life cycle of a human being? Explain each
stage.
(c

3. What are the aims of a Hindu marriage?

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 Indian Political Thought-II 27

Glossary
Notes

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1. Connoted – imply or suggest (an idea or feeling) in addition to the literal or
primary meaning.

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2. Gamut – the complete range or scope of something.
3. Jurisprudence – the theory or philosophy of law.

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References
1. http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/manu.htm

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2. https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/india/manu-full.asp
3. http://kalindi.du.ac.in/uploads/polsc/MANU%20on%20Legal%20
Jurisprudence%20&%20Social%20LAws.pdf

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4. https://medium.com/@deshmukhpatel/2-a89104fbfc3c
5. https://www.oreilly.com/library/view/indian-political-thought/9788131758519/
xhtml/chapter002.xhtml

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Answers: Check Your Understanding
1. “Laws of Manu”
2. True r
ve
3. Brahmins
4. Sanyasa
5. (b)
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U
ity
m
)A
(c

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 28 Indian Political Thought-II

Module-II: Ziyauddin Barani And Abul Fazal

Notes

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Structure:

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Unit-2.1: Indian Polity: Ziyauddin Barani
2.1.1 Characteristic Features of Ziyauddin Barani Philosophy

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2.1.2 Role of Barani
2.1.3 The Concept of Ideal Polity: Barani

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2.1.4 Laws in Ideal State
2.1.5 Army in Ideal State
2.1.6 Bureaucracy in Ideal State

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2.1.7 Ideology of Justice in Barani Ideal State
Unit-2.2: Governance/Administration: Abul Fazl

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2.2.1 Abul Fazl: A Political Thinker
2.2.2 The Concept of Governance in Ain-i-Akbari
2.2.3 Governance and Sovereignty
r
2.2.4 Concept of Royalty
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2.2.5 Philosophy of Justice
2.2.6 Abul Fazl’s View on Administration
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ity
m
)A
(c

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 Indian Political Thought-II 29

Unit-2.1: Indian Polity: Ziyauddin Barani

Notes

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Objectives:

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At the end of this unit, you will be able to understand:

●● Characteristic Features of Ziyauddin Barani Philosophy

nl
●● Role of Barani
●● The Concept of Ideal Polity: Barani

O
●● Laws in Ideal State
●● Army in Ideal State
●● Bureaucracy in Ideal State

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●● Ideology of Justice in Barani Ideal State

Introduction

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Zia Barani (1283-1359) was the most influential political thinker during the Delhi
Sultanate, particularly during the reigns of Alauddin Khilji, Muhammad Bin Tughlaq, and
Firoz Tughlaq.
r
He is generally regarded as one of Medieval India’s most influential historians and
ve
political theorists. He urged rulers, nobility, and other administrative levels to obey the
Shariat in their personal and political lives, which he considered beneficial, but he also
stressed the formulation of Zawabit (state laws) in the political realm and allowed for
flexibility in not following the Shariat in their personal lives.
ni

His writings are an important resource for learning about the Sultanate of Delhi
over the course of nearly a century. His significance lies not only in writing about
the nature of kingship, its rationale, duties, and obligations, but also in writing about
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the nature of kingship, its rationale, duties, and obligations. In Islamic culture, he
symbolized the principle of political expediency.

His Fatawa-i-Jahandari is a classic work on statecraft that can be compared to

ity

Kautilya’s Arthashastra and Machiavelli’s Prince. It was written as nasihat (advice)

for Muslim kings. In comparison to more mainstream thinkers such as Abul Fazl, he,
however has been labelled a nationalist, a fundamentalist, and a racist.

The monarchy and the nobility had yet to find political equilibrium, as they were in
m

a state of flux in terms of class structure and recognition by the Islamic and non-Islamic
nobility, as well as other parts of the ruling class. Barani thought it was important to
expand the Islamic base for political duty to the monarchy since the Islamic following
)A

was only confined to a small segment of the population.

2.1.1 Characteristic Features of Ziyauddin Barani Philosophy

South Asian scholar Zia-ud-Din Barani (1285-1360) is well-known for his writings
(c

on the Sultans of Delhi’s history and politics. His Tarikh-i-Feroze Shahi is a dependable
source of history from Ghiasuddin Balban’s later years to Feroze Shah Tughluq’s early
years, to whom the book is dedicated.

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 30 Indian Political Thought-II

Barani addresses Muslim political problems, including the introduction of Islamic

Notes

e
laws in the newly formed Muslim State in India, in addition to historical accounts of the
time. However, this is primarily a history book, not a political treatise like his Fatawa-i-
Jahandari, in which he advised Sultans and Kings, through Sultan Mahmud of Ghazna,

in
his ideal ruler, on how to create an effective form of government by enforcing the
Islamic Shari’ah.

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Barani’s political philosophy, like that of all other mediaeval authors, is based on
the king’s personality, who is instructed in different ways to enact his philosophy. The
king is extremely important to him. The king’s control over the state’s affairs is ensured
by a variety of methods. According to Barani, the king should critically follow Islamic

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Shariah in all facets of life.

Barani’s twenty-four thorough advices distinguish him as a leading South Asian

philosopher. Prior to Barani, the most important goal was to enact Islamic Shariah. In

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this regard, he has presented a variety of questions, some of which can be criticized and
others which can be praised. Islamic Shariah has no dogmatic importance for him. It must
achieve an ideal, which he describes as the victory of good principles over evil powers.

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According to his understanding of Islamic political ideology, no culture can be free
of evil powers. God deliberately developed evil characters to compete with the good. He
wishes for the king to develop a system of government, army, intelligence, and judicial
r
justice in which people of high honesty and character serve as platforms for good forces
ve
against evil forces. For him, the struggle between right and wrong will last until the Day
of Judgment.

Shari’ah must be tailored to each society’s unique circumstances while remaining

true to Islam’s fundamental principles. For example, Sultan Mahmud, his ideal ruler,
ni

and his successors could not afford to live a simple life in the world they lived in. They
couldn’t afford to live in a modest home like the rest of the population. People will lose
respect for them if they do this, and no one will recognize their authority as a result.
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As a result, Barani advised the king to live a pompous life and to act as a specific
personality. This is important because the honor and integrity of Islam are inextricably
linked to the honor and integrity of this person.
ity

The king is forbidden by Barani from adopting evils and vices. His character
should be formed in general in accordance with Islamic values. He must be trustworthy,
honest, and foresighted. A individual of bad character is unsuitable for the position
of ruler in Barani’s eyes. A king is advised to behave in the conduct of his duties with
certain strategies and policies suggested by Barani, in addition to possessing a good
m

character.

The king is advised to embrace Islamic Shari’ah from the bottom of his heart, as
well as to work with his officials, advisors, and commanders to establish strategies
)A

for peace and war. Also his officers’ and ministers’ rules and regulations should be
established after consulting with relevant men of expertise and experience.

Accepting Barani kingship should be directed toward behaving within the limits
of Islamic Shari’ah for the people’s economic prosperity. To provide the most basic
(c

necessities of life at the lowest possible cost, special care must be taken. Barani, like
a rational philosopher, laid down rules that would serve as a foundation for a king to
develop different institutions such as the judiciary and army.
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 Indian Political Thought-II 31

On Ideal Sultan: Barani differentiated between the Sultan’s personal life and his
Notes

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political position. However, in both aspects, he envisioned an ideal person in himself-
noble born, preferably coming to the family of the monarch, having inborn sense of
justice, smart enough to recognize the deception and conspiracies of the wicked,

in
recognizing the importance of his time and sharing it judiciously between his personal
needs and political obligation and following the path of the Shariat, which laid out that
he was an representative of god on earth to do the ‘welfare’ of the people.

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On following Shariat: In terms of Shariat observance, Barani conceded that
the Sultan could choose to be lax in the personal domain, but he opposed laxity in
the political sphere because it could lead to disease in the administration. He advised

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the Sultan to achieve the goals of Islam and to be endowed with the qualities of fear,
honor, pride, high status, dominance, and supremacy. The ability to respond to any
idea or desire at the right time was to be a necessary component of his political life.

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Nonetheless, he must avoid five negative traits: deceit, changeability, deception,
wrathfulness, and injustice.

On regalities associated with kinship: Since people were affected by the

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monarch’s character and behavior, it was important for him to uphold all of the
regalities that come with becoming a ruler. These royal duties required the services
of counsellors, army officers, and intelligence officers. Their collection, grading, and

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other duties were clearly the Sultan’s responsibility, and they necessitated meticulous
attention. The administration will operate in harmony because of their advice and
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reporting, whether on strategy or on conspiracies, corruption, people’s conditions,
and so on. It was the king’s duty to protect the old political families, to prevent their
usurpation of influence, and to ensure that they were not left in poverty.
ni

On justice: The Sultan’s sovereignty and the Sultanate’s protection, on the other
hand, could not have been ensured without providing justice to the subjects. ‘The real
reason for kings’ superiority, strength, and honor,’ Barani had observed, ‘is the need to
enforce justice.’ As a result, the first act had to be the appointment and grading of judges,
U

with the king himself at the top, and the roles delineated for them being “security of
money, property, women and children of the poor, obedient, helpless, young, submissive,
and friendless”. Additionally, it was to ‘prevent the strong from having recourse to
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oppression in their dealings with people’ without which ‘there would be a complete
community of women and property’, leading to anarchy in the ruling class.

‘However, the king should know the appropriate occasions for both forgiveness and
punishment’ when administering justice. Punishment for those who were defiant, cruel,
m

or mischievous had to be balanced with grace and forgiveness for those who admitted
their faults and repented.

However, one element of justice was conspicuously absent from all of these
)A

discussions: the delivery of justice was to be based on the subjects’ religious traditions,
despite the fact that Barani never discussed different types of justice for Hindus and
Muslims.

On nobility: The aristocracy was the monarchy’s second foundation. The nobles
were the chosen individuals to whom the Sultan granted the iqta, meaning “right to levy
(c

the revenue in particular territories.” It was the most basic unit of landed property, and
its owners made up the majority of landowners.

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The iqtas were often passed from one person to the next, making them non-
Notes

e
heritable. The revenue resources derived from the appropriation of peasant surpluses
were divided among the ruling classes, with the iqtadars constituting the majority. They
were also members of the royal consultative council, which gave policy advice to the king.

in
On administrative policies: Since the Sultanate’s primary role was revenue
collection, for which the entire apparatus of administration existed and which could not

nl
have been done by the king alone, a group of people was established to collect revenue
and advise or formulate administrative policies. As a result, the Sultan’s selection of
such people was important, and Barani defined some guidelines and advised the king
to exercise caution.

O
The criteria were two fold:

●● First and foremost, those chosen should be nobles born with personal and

ty
political allegiance to the Sultan
●● Second, they must be capable of sound political judgement and provide
advice to the monarch when considering the prospects and inconsistencies of
the policies to be implemented.

si
While the first was clear, he set nine criteria for the second to determine the
counsellors’ political efficiency. Fear of God, historical understanding, a lack of greed,

r
and realistic knowledge of state relations must all be present in the advisers. In
addition, he outlined eleven parameters for determining a strategy that the monarchy
ve
wanted to follow in order to devise the correct one.

Barani recommended that the advisors be given an additional seven conditions

until they were chosen. The protection of their lives and tenure, as well as the climate
ni

for free expression of opinion, were among these requirements. Finally, he proposed
that aristocracy be graded according to their birth and merit.

2.1.2 Role of Barani

U

During the reigns of Muhammad bin Tughlaq and Firuz Shah, Ziauddin Barani
(1285–1358 CE) was a Muslim political thinker of the Delhi Sultanate in present-
day North India. He served the Delhi Sultans as a courtier, historian, emissary, and
ity

counsellor in the fourteenth century. He came from a family of court officials who held
high positions in the Delhi sultans’ expanding imperial realm.

Historians in the courts of Muslim rulers in mediaeval India were inspired by

Arabic and Persian historiography. Ziauddin Barani is a prominent figure among them.
m

According to him, the historian’s role should not be limited to documenting the ruler’s
valor and welfare policies; he should also write about the ruler’s flaws and bad policies.
Barani goes on to suggest that a historian should understand the effect of wise,
)A

learned, and saintly teachings on people’s cultural lives. Barani thus broadened the
spectrum of historiography.

He is best known for writing the Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi (also known as Tarikh-i-Firuz
Shahi), a work on mediaeval India that spans the time from Ghiyas ud din Balban’s
(c

reign to Firoz Shah Tughluq’s first six years in power, and the Fatwa-i-Jahandari, which
promoted a hierarchy among Muslim communities in the Indian subcontinent.

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 Indian Political Thought-II 33

Some of his notable works were as follows:

Notes

e
Fatwa-i-Jahandari: The Fatwa-i-Jahandari is a work that lays out the political
values that a Muslim ruler should follow in order to gain religious merit and the gratitude

in
of his people. It is a classical work on statecraft that can be compared to Kautilya’s
Arthashastra and Machiavelli’s Prince. It is written as nasihat (advice) for Muslim kings.
Barani’s Fatwa-i-Jahandari is a good example of his religious extremism. He argues

nl
that a Muslim king and a Hindu ruler are the same if the Muslim king is content with
collecting jizya (poll tax) and khiraj (tribute) from the Hindus. Instead, he advises a
Muslim king to focus all of his strength on holy wars and fully eradicate “false creeds.”
Only by slaughtering the Brahmins, he claims, could a Muslim king establish Islam’s

O
dominance in India. A Muslim king “should make a firm resolve to overpower, capture,
enslave and degrade the infidels” according to him.

Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi: The Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi, or Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi (Firuz

ty
Shah’s History), was a 1357 interpretation of the Delhi Sultanate’s history up to the time
of Firuz Shah Tughlaq. This culminated in a hazy account of Ala-ud-Din Khalji’s wars in
Chittor, Ranthambhor, and Malwa, as well as Malik Kafur’s Deccan campaigns. Nizam-

si
ud-Din Ahmad, Badaoni, Ferishta, and Haji-ud-Dabir, later mediaeval historians, relied
on the Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi for their accounts of history during the time covered in this
work.

r
Zawabit: Barani divided the law into two categories: Shariat and Zawabit. The Zawabit
ve
were state laws devised by the king in conjunction with the aristocracy in response to
changing conditions, in order to meet new needs that the Shariat could not meet.

He stated that the Zawabit must be written in the spirit of the Shariat and
mentioned four conditions as criteria for its creation. They are-
ni

●● The Zawabit should not go against the Shariat.

●● It must raise the loyalty and hope between the nobles and common people for
U

the Sultan
●● Its sources and inspiration should be the Shariat and pious Caliphs
●● If, for some reason, it had to go against the Shariat out of exigencies, it must
follow charities and compensation in lieu of that negation
ity

2.1.3 The Concept of Ideal Polity: Barani

We can formulate our ideas about the prevalent pattern of political thinking in
mediaeval India by reading Fatwa-i-ahandari and Ain-i-Akbari, which deal with the
m

complexities of governance. Khwaja Ziauddin Barani penned the Fatwa-i-Jhandari.

On the basis of his earlier narrative, Tarikh-i-Firozeshahi, Barani recapitulates and
elaborates the Sultanate’s political philosophy in this book.
)A

Bearing in mind that Barani lived during a time when Islam was just getting started
in India. His theories on kingship during the Middle Ages are extremely influential.
All powers and duties of the state are attributed to the king, who serves as God’s
representative on earth. Barani believes that whatever method the king uses to carry
(c

out his duties is acceptable as long as it is in the service of faith. The following passage
contains Barani’s advice to the king about how to carry out his duties as the head of the
state.

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 34 Indian Political Thought-II

According to Al Barani, “It is the duty of the Sultans before they have made up
Notes

e
their minds about an enterprise or policy and published it among the people, to reflect
carefully on the likelihood of its success and failure as well as its effects on their
position, on the religion and the state, and on the army”. In Barani’s perspective, the

in
king should dedicate himself to the governance of his kingdom in a way that allows him
to grow closer to God.

nl
The ideal of a good state should be the wellbeing of religion and the state. Wise
men should be guiding a king. To run the administration, bureaucracy is needed,
and Barani is a proponent of blue blood aristocracy. He discusses the importance of
hierarchy in government, as well as the bureaucracy’s structure, classification, nature,

O
and relationship with the Sultan and the citizens of the state. He is adamantly opposed
to the advancement of low-born citizens. He composes that ‘The noble born men in
the king’s court will bring him honor, but if 11e favors low born men, they will disgrace

ty
him in both the worlds’. He claims that kingship is built on two pillars: administration
and conquest, and that both pillars depend on the army. He also highlights the king’s
concerns about domestic stability and international affairs.

si
According to Barani, dispensing justice is an important feature of a sovereign,
along with upholding the Shariat. A king’s primary concern should be the
implementation and observance of the statute. Barani cites four legal authorities:

a) The Koran r
ve
b) The Hadish (traditions of prophet)
c) The Ijma (opinions and rulings of the majority of Muslim theologians
d) Qiyas (speculative method of deduction)
ni

He added Zawabit, or state law, as an important source of law in state

administration. Barani called for Zawabit, or non-religious state laws, in light of society’s
shifting complexion and the increasing complexities of administration, in addition to
U

the agreed principles of conventional Islamic law. The Shariat’s directives cannot
be contradicted by state legislation, and the Shariat’s primary goal is to control the
activities of various government agencies and to cultivate loyalty.
ity

Barani also discusses the recognition of individual rights, such as those of a wife,
children, old servants, slaves, and so on, and he views this as the foundation of the
state. Punishment was regarded as a necessary tool for maintaining state discipline.
Barani refers to a variety of punishment scenarios, especially the king’s decision to
impose the death penalty. The true significance of Fatwa-i-Jahandari lies in the fact
m

that it demonstrates how the original Islamic theory of kingship evolved over time in the
Indian sense. Barani’s political ideas reflect his extensive knowledge of the workings of
the Delhi Sultanate and the prevailing social order.
)A

2.1.4 Laws in Ideal State

Laws- Barani categorized laws into two kinds -

●● The Shariat
(c

●● The Zawabit
While the shariat referred to the Prophet’s and the holy Caliphs’ teachings and

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practices, the Zawabit were state laws enacted by the king in conjunction with the
Notes

e
aristocracy to address new needs that the shariat could not address. It was ideal for
the king, aristocracy, and administrative staff to obey the Shariat in both their personal
lives and their public policies.

in
State rules, on the other hand, were to be drafted in the event that the Shariat
could not be followed or applied. However, he cautioned that when drafting legislation,

nl
legislators must take into account past trends as well as current socio-political
conditions. He claimed that the Zawabit must be written in the spirit of the Shariat and
listed three conditions as guidelines for its creation:

O
●● Firstly, the Zawabit should not negate the Shariat
●● Secondly, it must raise the loyalty and hope among the nobles and common
people for the Sultan

ty
●● Finally, its source and inscription should be the Shariat and the pious Caliphs
Finally, if the Shariat were to be disregarded due to a lack of money, it would have
to rely on charity and compensation in its place. As a result, what he imagined in the

si
Zawabit was an ideal law that could satisfy the state’s needs without offending any
segment of the aristocracy or the masses in general.

The application of the Shariat as state policy has occupied the minds of
r
administrators and theoreticians since the Ghorians conquered northern India and
ve
founded the Sultanate, as the new rulers were of a different faith (Islam) than their
predecessors. Islam had existed in India as a personal belief of the people since the
beginning of the eighth century, when Muslim merchants and others started to settle in
the coastal regions, but it had little political significance at the time.
ni

The revenue settlement of the new rulers with the conquered aristocracies for the
collection of the kharaj (tribute) in the initial years, the ensuing evolution of the new
iqta system and its allocation to different individuals for collection, the centralization of
U

power with the Sultan, development of trade and commerce, production of cash-crops,
collection of revenue in cash, etc., formed a piquant state in which the appliance of the
Shariat became challenging. As a result, the new ruling class needed to come up with a
new scheme, which they called the Zawabit.
ity

Other factors that contributed to the need for new policies included the shifting
structure of the ruling class, the revolt of their various parts for power or the status
quo, and so on. In this tumultuous political environment, Barani calls for charities,
reimbursement, and protection for those who have lost influence, wealth, or political
m

clout.

Since the iqta was transferable before Firuz Tughlaq’s time, political families’
fortunes changed frequently. In such a state of flux, the Shariat was the only stronghold
)A

that could keep them united against the rais, ranas, rawats, and those who followed a
different religion. Despite their defeat, they had the ability to create problems for the
Sultanate if a situation arose that required them to do so. The peasant revolt in the
Doab in 1330 AD, led by certain rais, must have been on Barani’s mind. As a result,
his main concern was to find laws that served the needs of the state and the ruling
(c

aristocracy without offending the masses or any section of the defeated nobles.

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2.1.5 Army in Ideal State

Notes

e
Army- Following the Mauryas, the Sultanate was India’s largest and most powerful
kingdom. Obviously, the government had a range of duties, ranging from tax collection

in
to upholding law and order, and from public works to dispensing “justice”. The army,
which was based on the Turkish-Mongol model, was the most prominent of the three
main pillars of the government. Infantry, cavalry, war elephants, and auxiliary forces

nl
were divided into four groups. Soldiers without horses, soldiers with a single horse, and
soldiers with two horses were the three wings of the cavalry. The monarch even held
personal soldiers, known as qalb, for his protection and absolute dependability in the
event of nobility revolt.

O
The army, which was organized on the decimal system and based on the Turkish-
Mongol model, was the most important of the three main pillars of the government.

It was separated into four parts, viz.

ty
●● Infantry (foot soldiers or payaks)
●● Cavalry (horsemen)

si
●● War-elephants
●● Auxiliary, viz., boats, engineers, transporters, scouts, spies, etc.
The cavalry was further split into three wings, viz.
r
ve
●● Mumattab - a soldier without horse
●● Sawar - a soldier with a single horse
●● Do-Aspah - a soldier with two horses
Apart from performing its basic functions of defense and state extension, the army
ni

has increased in importance for a number of reasons. It served as a facilitator in the

spread of Islam because the Sultanate’s ruling class arrived as invaders and refugees,
and it needed a broad support base.
U

Since the Sultanate’s power essentially rested on the army, whose primary duties
were to ensure the state’s stability and expansion, Barani advised the king to pay
greater attention to the army’s effectiveness, preventing corruption and conspiracies
within it, and so on. The monarch even held personal soldiers, known as qalb, for his
ity

protection and absolute dependability in the event of nobility revolt.

Apart from performing the aforementioned duties, the army grew in importance
for another reason. It encouraged the spread of Islam because the Sultanate’s ruling
class arrived as invaders and refugees, and it needed a broad support base. They were
m

forced to leave their homeland after being defeated. They were conquerors on the one
hand, but political losers on the other.
)A

They negotiated with the local bourgeoisie because they were psychologically
trapped, but the feeling of conquering made them despised by the locals. This
sentiment was shared by at least a portion of the intelligentsia and aristocracy.
Simultaneously, insecurity stalked them like a nightmare. As a result, the question of
their continued life, if they lost political influence in India as well, was at the forefront
(c

of their minds. Thus, in their opinion, the only option was to consolidate and multiply,
which could be accomplished either by converting the local bourgeoisie to Islam or by
annihilating them.

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 Indian Political Thought-II 37

The army, the supreme bastion of physical strength and practitioner of such tasks,
Notes

e
houses Barani, who reflects such understanding. However, as a realist, he could see
the bulk of the aristocracy and intelligentsia holding opposing viewpoints. The local
elite had been corrupted and co-opted into the Sultanate’s system, including the army

in
and bureaucracy, and it was against them that Barani voiced himself both directly and
indirectly.

nl
2.1.6 Bureaucracy in Ideal State
The Sultanate’s bureaucracy was another important component whose basic

O
function was to calculate the land and repair and collect taxes; without it, the ruling
class would have been obsolete, and the army would not have been able to support
itself. It had three stages of operation:

●● Centre

ty
●● Province
●● Village

si
The rank and file, khan, malik, amir, sipahsalar which included Turks, Tartars,
Rajputs, and others, were paid in cash or assigned the revenues of different villages
based on their grades.

r
At the top of the revenue department was the Diwan-I Wazarat, which was led by
ve
a wazir and supported by a naib, Musharif-i-Mamalik, Mustawfi-i-Mamalik, and dabirs.
Muqtis or walis led the administration at the provincial level, which corresponded to it.
The Diwan, the central wazir’s equivalent, was below him. The revenue was received
based on a calculation prepared for each loyalty based on their revenue-paying
ni

capability, and the staff’s salary was paid from this revenue according to their position.

The walis gained considerable independence in the collection, spending, audit, and
accounting of their revenue during the Sultanate’s early and later years. They had to
U

route the balance sheet to the king’s treasury via the Diwan/provincial wazir during the
middle process (Khaljis and early Tughlaqs).

The Muqaddam (the village headman), Chaudhari, and others were in charge
ity

of revenue collection and fixation at the local (sarkar, pargana, village) level, with the
patwari serving as the village accountant and record keeper. The revenue was collected
based on an estimate prepared for each locality based on their revenue-paying ability,
and the staff’s salary was paid from this revenue according to their position.
m

Almost everywhere in the Sultanate, the tax was half of the peasants’ produce,
which was levied separately on their land holdings. The tax was set and collected on
each unit of land, regardless of what the current year’s harvest provided. It was paid
in cash as well as in kind. Alauddin Khalji chose to receive it in kind, which he later
)A

converted into cash at market rates, putting the cultivators at a disadvantage.

‘Besides the land revenue, other burdens were also imposed upon the peasants; in
particular, the tax on cattle or grazing tax.’ As a result, the overall tax burden was high,
particularly for the lower strata (balahar, the village menial), to whom the upper strata
(c

(khot, the large village landholder) passed on their own burden.

When Barani discusses dispensing justice to subjects or advises kings to defend

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 38 Indian Political Thought-II

weak against strong, his passage on forsaking extreme exactions, checking corruption,
Notes

e
recognizing people’s rights, and so on, it takes on new significance. How far was
he listened to may well be predicted from the fact that the three-tier structure of the
revenue administration, which was highly centralized in spite of its considerable spread

in
in terms of territorial extent, played the same stellar role, along with the army, during the
Sultanate period without much modifications either in -

nl
●● The percentage of revenue collection per cultivator
●● In checking the tax burden being passed on to the weaker elements by their
superiors

O
Because of the ruling nobility’s structural limitations in pre-capitalist society, the
advice may not have been followed. At best, the only option was to offer temporary
relief to the raiyats, either as a result of civil unrest or natural disasters. All of these
were means of dispensing justice to Barani, and it is to them that we now turn our

ty
attention.

2.1.7 Ideology of Justice in Barani Ideal State

si
Justice- Justice was an important part of Barani’s government, which included
everything from remission of land taxes to supplying goods to buyers at cost, as well as
dispensing civil and criminal proceedings and providing monetary aid to the poor from
r
the state treasury. Justice was divided into two organizational levels: one that operated
ve
in rural areas and another that operated in urban administrative centers. However,
there was one common aspect in both cases: there was no discriminatory justice, but
rather unequal justice based on the merits of the cases and the religious beliefs of the
individuals.
ni

For example, he suggested that the Diwan-i-Riyasat, the market’s controller

general, the Shahana-i-Mandi, the grain market’s superintendent, and other officials
could track market irregularities such as weight and measure tests, intentional price
U

hikes, and hoarding, among other items.

The reasons behind this recommendation were two-fold -

●● Firstly, a raise in the prices of goods would affect the army, especially the
ity

subaltern rank, directly

●● Secondly, it could lead to dissatisfaction among the general population.
Therefore, in order to prevent it, the need for such justice was important.
Since commodity prices affected everyone, a rise in prices without a corresponding
m

increase in people’s income, especially in the lower strata of society and among army
personnel who were paid in cash, could have sparked discontent, and caused problems
for the government. Since sales exactions were already large, there was no way to
)A

improve them anymore.

As a result, a rise in army personnel’s pay has been ruled out. Furthermore, at
the present rate of tax payment to the Treasury, the peasantry, who could not cope
with rising rates, had little room to save. As a result, price rises will affect a significant
(c

portion of the population, both civilian and military, posing a danger to the Sultanate’s
stability from within and without in the form of widespread rebellion or military mutiny,
desertion, and so on. As a result, a rise in prices may have cascading and far-reaching

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consequences for the Sultanate. As a result, the need for such justice was critical in
Notes

e
order to avoid it.

Remission of taxes - Remission of taxes was another factor relevant to justice

in
and, as a result, to the state’s stability. Barani proposed that, at the very least during
calamities, the king should remit and reduce taxes and extend monetary assistance
from the treasury until it was practicable and necessary. Crop failure, with resultant

nl
price rises, combined with revenue collection in the same proportion as during usual
harvest seasons, may have induced frustration among the populace.

Aware of the strong surplus allocation from the peasantry, frequent adjustments

O
in the iqta-holders, and the double burden of tax payment on the lower strata, he
proposed foregoing extreme revenue exaction in favor of defending the interests of
both plebians and iqta-losers, preventing corruption, and other measures he saw as
part of dispensing justice. All of these proposed steps, however, did not come from any

ty
philanthropic reasoning; rather, they were the words of a realist concerned with the
state’s welfare.

Courts for dispensing justice - Courts were divided into civil and criminal

si
categories and worked at both the federal and provincial levels to administer justice.
The king was to select the judges, with himself at the very top of the judicial hierarchy.
The Chief Judges, Provincial Judge, Central Judicial Officers, Judicial Officers at
r
Provincial Level, Municipal Officers and Moral Censors and so on in the respective
ve
order were all under him.

The king when working with the religious cases was aided by -

●● Quazi-ul-Quzat (Chief Judge)

ni

●● Sadr-us-Sadur or Sadr-ul-Mulk (Provincial Judge)

●● Amir-i-Dad-Bek-i-Hazrat (Central Judicial Officers)
●● Qazj
U

●● Amir-i-Dad (Judicial officers at provincial level)

●● Muhtasibs (municipal officers and moral censors)
The mufti and the Sadr-us-Sadur supported the King in religious matters, while
ity

Qazi-ul-Quzat assisted him in secular matters.

Since the Sultanate was predominantly metropolitan, the administration of justice

was clearly restricted to the major administrative centers. The panchayats continued to
administer justice based on status, caste, land, and other factors. They were free of the
m

Sultanate’s formal organizational encumbrances and the rules that came with it.

Justice, therefore, had two operational levels:

)A

●● One, operating in rural areas

●● Another, operating in the urban-administrative areas
There was one common aspect in both cases: there was no discriminatory justice,
but rather unequal justice based on the merits of the cases and the individuals’ religious
(c

beliefs.

Despite Barani’s insistence on adhering to the Shariat whenever possible, the

administration’s ability to enforce it was hindered by the shifting composition of its
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 40 Indian Political Thought-II

rulers and military-bureaucratic, quasi-judicial staff, as well as the increased inclusion of

Notes

e
Hindus and Indianized Turks.

The second factor that rendered the Shariat ineffective was the Sultanate’s

in
economic foundation, which necessitated revenue collection and led to compromises
with the local aristocracy. The third factor was the large number of Hindus living in
rural areas, surrounded by a limited number of Muslims living in restricted urban-

nl
administrative centers, who could not be antagonized at the risk of jeopardizing the
state’s stability.

As a result, we see the Sultanate ruling class adopting a liberal stance toward

O
Hindus, which Barani criticized while simultaneously emphasizing the formulation of the
Zawabit. As a result, Barani’s theory of justice arose primarily from the standpoint of
state protection.

ty
●● First, by using religion he tried to unite the Muslim population and various
factions of the ruling class and tried to link the two
●● Second, through the Zawabit he attempted to resolve the grievances of the
Zimmis, and other social issues which stayed unsolved by the Shariat

si
●● Finally, he used ‘justice’ as an tool to grow the basis of political responsibility
of the subjects towards the state

r
His hatred and contempt for nondescripts nullified his political use of religion to
link the underprivileged with the rulers, which was a contradictory aspect of his theory.
ve
However, when examining the plight of poor Muslims, caution must be exercised.

Economically, they may have been poor and weak in comparison to the rulers,
but psychologically, they may have believed that they were superior to Hindus of
ni

comparable stature because they shared the same faith as the Islamic rulers and
shared a common ancestral homeland. As a result, they may have had a sense of being
conquerors and rulers, with a tendency to look down on Hindus with contempt, similar
U

to how an economically poor Brahmin looks down on individuals of the lower castes of
corresponding economic stature, believing himself superior to them.

Barani may have attempted to exploit poor Muslims’ feelings for the benefit of the ruling
class and the state. As a realist and opportunist, he tried everything he could to achieve
ity

the Sultanate’s political goals and expand its social base. Despite the fact that he never
represented his class’s dominant ideology in terms of religion (co-opting and compromising
with Hindus) or identified himself with the changing composition of the rulers (plebianisation
of nobility), his Fatawa became famous. That is the source of his enigma.
m

Check your Understanding

1. ......................................written as nasihat (advices) for the Muslim kings, is a classic
)A

work on statecraft which can be compare with Kautilya’s .............................and

Machiavelli’s Prince.
2. Barani’s political philosophy revolves around the personality of the ...............who is
advised in various ways to implant his philosophy.
(c

3. ...............................................is a work on medieval India, which covers the

period from the reign of Ghiyas ud din Balban to the first six years of reign of
...............................
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 Indian Political Thought-II 41

4. Fatwa-i-Jahandari which promoted a hierarchy among ........................communities

Notes

e
in the Indian subcontinent.
5. Shariat meant the teachings and practices of the ..........................and of the pious

in
Caliphs.
6. The ..................were the state laws formulated by the monarch in consultation with
the nobility to cater to the new requirements which the shariat was unable to fulfill.

nl
Summary

During the reigns of Alauddin Khalji, Muhammad bin Tughlaq, and Firoz Tughlaq,

O
Zia Barani1 (1283–1359) was the most important political thinker of the Delhi Sultanate.
In Islamic history, he symbolized the concept of political expediency. His Fatawa-i-
Jahandari (AD 1357), a classic work on statecraft that can be compared to Kautilya’s
Arthashastra and Machiavelli’s Prince, is written as nasihat (advice) for Muslim kings.

ty
Barani’s eminence stems from his theory of history and its constant application
in various aspects of society during his time, resulting in his theory of statecraft,
which distinguished him as a singular and enigmatic figure. In fact, it wouldn’t be an

si
exaggeration to say that he marshalled all of his past knowledge and experiences, as
well as current events, to serve the Sultanate’s interests.

His theory was notable for his belief in the nobility’s hereditary status, his support
r
for monarchy and nobility’s political expediency, and his contempt for the oppressed.
ve
While the last element was a corollary of the first, the second element was
designed to help the Sultanate and, by extension, the ruling class, consolidate and
expand.
ni

The Fatawa-i-Jahandari and Tarikh-i-Feroz Shahi by Barani are regarded as the

greatest works of the Middle Ages. The complete theory of Barani had a significant
interest. His Fatawa or Tarikh may appear to be a jumble of inconsistencies on
U

the surface, but beneath it lies the consistency of his interests—the protection,
consolidation, and expansion of the Sultanate. In his outlook, he was essentially a
conservative aristocrat who desired stability but was overshadowed by the changing
circumstances of his time and marginalized by the class he wished to represent.
ity

Activity
1. Discuss the formation of court system as defined by Barani for dispensing
justice.
m

2. Discuss the role of Army in the ideal state.

Questions and Exercises

)A

1. What is the Ideology of Justice in Barani Ideal State?

2. Define the laws in ideal state.
3. What is the concept of ideal polity as described by Barani?
4. What are the Characteristic Features of Ziyauddin Barani Philosophy?
(c

5. What does the book “Fatwa-i-Jahandari” written by Barani contain?

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 42 Indian Political Thought-II

Glossary
Notes

e
1. Clout – pull, strong influence, especially political power
2. Exigencies – the case or situation that demands prompt action or remedy;

in
emergency
3. Piquant – agreeably stimulating, interesting; of an interestingly provocative or
lively character

nl
References
1. https://www.academia.edu/37809718/Ziauddin_Baranis_Ideal_Sultan_and_

O
Ideal_Polity
2. https://medium.com/@deshmukhpatel/3-bc4a41d2e761

ty
Answers: Check Your Understanding
1. Fatawa-i-Jahandari, Arthashastra
2. King

si
3. Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi, Firoz Shah Tughluq.
4. Muslim
5. Prophet r
ve
6. Zawabit
ni
U
ity
m
)A
(c

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 Indian Political Thought-II 43

Unit-2.2: Governance/Administration: Abul Fazl

Notes

e
Objectives:

in
At the end of this unit, you will be able to understand:

●● Abul Fazl: A Political Thinker

nl
●● The Concept of Governance in Ain-i-Akbari
●● Governance and Sovereignty

O
●● Concept of Royalty
●● Philosophy of Justice
●● Abul Fazl’s View on Administration

ty
Introduction
Sheikh Abul Fazl (1551–1602) is one of the most famous historians of mediaeval

si
India. This is due to the prominence of intellectual elements in his writings, his
unwavering appeal to reason in the face of religious and cultural traditions, a broader
view of history, and a new methodology that he sought to apply to his task. His historical
r
interpretation was inextricably bound up with the political, social, economic, and
religious realities of the time.
ve
India was divided into many smaller kingdoms at the start of the Mughal period,
which frequently resulted in political instability. This culminated in the victory of
the Mongol ruler Babar over the last ruler of the Delhi Sultanate, Ibrahim Lodi. After
ni

conquering much of India, the Mughals created an integrated and vast Mughal Empire
with many new characteristics. It had a hierarchical administrative structure, strict
monetary policies, a centralized governing system, and novel military organization
methods, as well as the emergence of new cultural and religious ideas.
U

These new structures gave birth to a new integrated culture that combined
Hindu and Muslim ideas, an idea that found clear expression in the Bhakti and Sufi
movements’ traditions. The main message was that no religion is better than another,
ity

that God can be found without blind faith in superstitions, that all humans are equal, and
that all religions share a fundamental unity and equality.

Abdul Qadir Badauni’s contemporary Abul Fazl was a courtier, historian, and friend
of Akbar, the greatest of all Mughal rulers. In the last years of the sixteenth century,
m

he completed the Akbar Nama and Ain-i-Akbari, a massive and definitive work. It, like
several other aspects of the construction of an alternative world view, marks a decisive
and schematic departure from the dominant historiographic format of the time.
)A

The Akbar Nama begins with Allah’s praise, then moves on to Adam and Akbar’s
lineage through fifty-three generations of his ancestors. It attempts to construct an
alternative teleology of universal history in which Akbar is the heir not of Muhammad
and the caliphs, but of Adam himself, the first human being, and thus the ruler of all
humanity, by dislocating the historiographic axis from the groove of Islam. As a result,
(c

the text promotes the idea of a strong sovereign and a centralized government.

Together, the Akbar Nama and the Ain-i-Akbari form a single book. The Akbar

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 44 Indian Political Thought-II

Nama’s first section tells the story of Akbar’s ancestors, including his father Humayun.
Notes

e
The second part, in chronological order, gives the most comprehensive account of
Akbar’s reign up to the 46th year. The project began in 1595 and was completed in
1602 after five revisions. The third instalment of the book is Ain-i-Akbari.

in
It is a one-of-a-kind compilation of a great empire’s administration and control
system over the various departments of government. It faithfully and minutely records,

nl
to the tiniest detail, a wide range of facts illustrating its extent, resources, condition,
population, industry, and wealth as the abundant material provided by official sources
could provide. It also includes a description of the Hindus’ religious and philosophical
systems, as well as their social customs and practices, as described in ancient

O
Hindu texts.

As a result, Abul Fazl broadened the scope and range of history in a way that no
other mediaeval historian had done before him, and his work is widely regarded as the

ty
most comprehensive account of Mughal administration and state structure.

2.2.1 Abul Fazl: A Political Thinker

si
The writer of the Akbarnama, the official history of Akbar’s rule in three books, (the
third book is known as the Ain-i-Akbari) and a Persian translation of the Bible, Abu’l-
Fazl ibn Mubarak, also recognized as Abul Fazl, Abu’l Fadl and Abu’l-Fadl ‘Allami (14
r
January 1551 – 22 August 1602), was the grand vizier of the Mughal emperor Akbar.
ve
In politics, Abul Fazl was concerned about social stability. He presented a theory of
sovereignty based on the social contract in his Ain-i-Akbari.

The concept of royalty is presented in his divine theory of ‘Padshahat.’ ‘Padshahat’

ni

meant ‘an established owner,’ according to him, with ‘Pad’ standing for stability and
‘shah’ standing for owner. As a result, Padshah is the established owner who cannot be
dethroned. Padshah has been sent by God, according to Abul Fazl, who acts as God’s
U

agent for the welfare of his subjects and maintains peace and harmony in his empire.

Abul Fazl believed that sovereignty was inherent in the natural world. The king
founded his supremacy by wielding absolute control over government, administration,
agriculture, education, and other matters. It was impossible to challenge the king, and
ity

no one could share his influence, according to Abul Fazl.

According to Abul Fazl, sovereignty was not limited to a single religion. Since the
king is considered a divine agent, he cannot discriminate between the different religions
that exist in society, and if the king discriminates on the basis of race, religion, or class,
m

he is not considered a just king.[23]

Sovereignty had nothing to do with religion. Abul Fazl promoted the good values of
)A

various religions and brought them together for the sake of maintaining peace. People
were relieved because he freed them from their enslaving feelings. He also defended
Akbar’s views by portraying him as a rational ruler.

Abul Fazl’s Ain-i-Akbari is a valuable text on statecraft that explains the prevailing
theme of political ideas during Mughal rule in India. Abul Fazl was one of India’s most
(c

influential thinkers in the sixteenth century. He had aided in the formulation of many
of Akbar’s political ideas as a great scholar with extensive knowledge in various fields
of learning in both the Muslim and Hindu traditions. The notion of royal power having
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 Indian Political Thought-II 45

a spiritual nature inspired Abul Fazl. He distinguished between a real king and a self-
Notes

e
serving monarch.

A true king should be more concerned with the well-being of his subjects than with

in
himself and his power. An ideal sovereign, according to him, is like a father who rules
for the common good and is directed by God’s law. Despite his belief in ‘the divine light
of royalty,’ Abul Fazl saw no role for intermediaries in transmitting the divine order.

nl
Abul Fazl says, “Royalty is a light emanating from God, and a ray from the sun...”.
This light is known in modern language as farri izidi (divine light), and it was known in
ancient times as kiyan khwcrrah (the sublime halo). It is granted directly by God to kings

O
without the need for any intermediary.’ Like the Brahmins in Hinduism, the Ulemas and
Mujtahids served as the king’s authority and translator of customary laws.

His political views were based on the assumption that the king should be led by

ty
universal good values and that he should go beyond the holy law to fulfil his royal
duties. In terms of policy, this was a major change from previous political thought. The
spirit of modern political philosophy expressed in Ain-i-Akbari was reflected in Akbar’s
reforms, such as the abolition of jizya obtained from non-Muslims and a ban on cow

si
slaughter. Abul Fazl called for a strong centralized monarchical government and the
division of labor among various departments for better governance. The Mughal
sovereign ruled over the empire with the aid of a highly centralized bureaucracy. Abul
r
Fazl structured society into a four-tiered structure, with rulers and warriors at the top.
ve
People who were educated were put in the second group, artisans and merchants
in the third, and labors in the fourth. He discussed the value of each category for
the welfare of the state, despite the fact that this was not founded on an egalitarian
ideology. As a result of the study of Ain-i-Akbari, the image of political power that
ni

emerges is of a centralized monarchy, with the state’s guiding concept being the well-
being of its citizens.
U

2.2.2 The Concept of Governance in Ain-i-Akbari

Sheikh Abul Fazl (1551–1602) is one of the most famous historians of mediaeval
India. This is due to the importance of intellectual elements in his writings, his
unwavering appeal to reason in the face of religious and cultural values, a wider view
ity

of history, and a new approach that he tried to apply to his mission. His historical
understanding was inextricably bound up with the political, social, economic, and
religious realities of the time. 1

India was divided into several smaller kingdoms at the start of the Mughal era,
m

which often resulted in political instability. The victory of the Mongol ruler Babar over
Ibrahim Lodi, the last ruler of the Delhi Sultanate, brought an end to the era. After
conquering most of India, the Mughals created an organized and vast Mughal Empire
)A

with many new characteristics. It had a hierarchical administrative structure, rigid

monetary policies, a centralized governmental framework, and innovative military
organization techniques, as well as the advent of new cultural and religious ideas.
These new systems gave birth to a new integrated culture that fused Hindu and Muslim
concepts, an idea that found direct expression in the Bhakti and Sufi movements’
(c

traditions. The main point was that no religion is better than another, that God can
be identified without blind faith in superstitions, that all people are equal, and that all
religions share a fundamental unity and equality.
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 46 Indian Political Thought-II

Islam’s political theories come from a number of areas. A portion of it can be traced
Notes

e
back to pre-Islamic origins, while the majority was founded on Prophet Muhammad’s
teachings. The doctrine of equality was fostered by the idea of one God and the
universality of the Quran’s laws, which forms the cornerstone of Islamic brotherhood.

in
However, in terms of politics, the Islamic philosophy was that ‘some are born to rule and
others to follow,’ which was similar to the Greek belief in superior and inferior.

nl
However, there were three fundamental concepts that influenced all subsequent
political thinking:

(a) The divine law, the Shariat was built on the Quran and the Prophet’s tradition

O
(b) The historical traditions of the early years of Islam
(c) The agreement and solidarity of the Islamic community
Abul Fazl completed his huge and conclusive work, the Akbar Nama and Ain-i-that,

ty
as well as several other aspects of the development of an alternative world view, marks
a decisive and schematic departure from the prevailing historiographic format of the
period. The text advocates the notion of a strong ruler and a centralized government.

si
The Ain-i-Akbari is the book’s third section. It is a one-of-a-kind collection of a
great empire’s administration and control structure over the different departments of
government. It faithfully and minutely documents, to the smallest detail, a wide range
r
of facts explaining its degree, capital, condition, population, industry, and wealth as
ve
accurately as the abundant material supplied from official sources could allow.

Abul Fazl’s approach to dealing with this concept of politics was unique. Ain-
i-Akbari develops a sovereignty theory based on the social contract. He sketched an
image of society before explaining how sovereignty came to be.
ni

Toleration and Sulh-I-Kul-Doctrines of Peace: God’s agent could not

discriminate between the different religions represented in society. The need for a
U

doctrine to explain the tolerant religious policy had become urgent. Sovereignty was
not confined to a single religion. It had taken on a life of its own. They claimed that all
religions were essentially the same, with only the paths differing. This rational thinking
was brought over to Islam and Shariat by Abul Fazl. Though Barani was doing so, he
ity

couldn’t find any argument for their sovereignty over others.

He claimed that the theory of monarchical supremacy was more applicable in a multi-
religious country like India. Since the emperor was above all religions, authority was not
to be associated with any one faith. He advocated the good principles of various religions,
m

bringing together people of various faiths to preserve harmony in the world. By adopting
an acceptable religious status, he was able to maintain certain qualities. He brought
relief to himself and his people by freeing them from the shackles of their thoughts. After
)A

assessing Abul Fazl, we can conclude that a sovereign must possess the standard of
tolerance for established beliefs and should not reject his people’s traditional ways, which
were essential and complementary. Abul Fazl defended Akbar’s views by presenting him
as a rationalist in his approach to social change. Fazl said that he did so because he
wanted to build a ‘Hindustan’ that could confidently stand out in the world.
(c

Division of Society: The idea of sovereignty and state was introduced by Abul
Fazl in the sense of societal needs. He classified humans into four categories based on
this:
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 Indian Political Thought-II 47

●● The warriors, artificers, and merchants

Notes

e
●● The learned (religious class viz., Brahmans, Ulamaa)
●● The husband men

in
●● Labourers
The studied class was ranked third by him. On the basis of the social realities of his
day, he degraded this class. On the basis of Greek culture, he also divided people into

nl
three groups based on their characteristics:

●● Noble

O
●● Base
●● Intermediate
Nobles possessed pure intelligence, sagacity, managerial ability or eloquence
composition, and personal bravery for military service. Various occupations were

ty
included in the basic and intermediate sections. These were the characteristics of
people who were self-centered and focused on themselves rather than others.

Abul Fazl’s views on human beings, especially the lower classes known as the

si
base or the ignorable, expressed many of the prejudices held by the upper classes
today. It was inferred that those from noble families and the upper castes should not
aspire to a share of state power, and that the duty of administering the state should be
r
reserved for those from noble families and the upper castes.
ve
The presence of evil parts in society justified royal despotism, since only a king
with the requisite qualities could govern these groups. Second, a king endowed with
Farr-i-Izidi was expected to preserve social harmony by preventing sectarian conflict
from arising. It was also his responsibility to bring each of these (sections) in its proper
ni

position, and to cause the world to flourish by combining (their) personal capacity with
due regard for others. As a consequence, preserving one’s proper station in life meant
stability and even integrity.
U

The sovereignty’s divinity defied all limitations on the sovereign’s strength and
authority. Abul Fazl divides one of his many classifications of human beings in various
contexts into three groups:
ity

●● The noblest souls are those whose utter, unquestioning, and undemanding
allegiance to the king, Akbar, is a virtue in and of itself.
●● Those who have made traffic out of their service are placed below them, as
are those whose show of loyalty is on par with tangible gain.
m

●● The worst are the ones that never show any sign of loyalty.
In mediaeval court literature, the most damning language of violence is rebellion,
rebelliousness, and their synonyms; defeating rebels becomes a cleansing process. Rebels,
)A

according to Abul Fazl, were not only those who defied imperial authority; even those who
refused to submit to Mughal occupying forces, such as Rana Sangram Singh and Mahmud in
Bihar, were rebels; they defied the divine destiny manifested in history’s teleology.

2.2.3 Governance and Sovereignty

(c

The king was the final authority in government, administration, agriculture,

education, and other fields during the Delhi Sultanate, but he had no say in religious
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 48 Indian Political Thought-II

matters18. When Akbar became king, he made himself the final authority in religious
Notes

e
disputes vis-à-vis the Imam-e-Adil because he followed God’s order and could not be
incorrect. As a result, everyone must obey his order. It is clear that Akbar was Abul
Fazl’s ideal ruler, which is why he regarded him as a “complete man who could never

in
be wrong.”

Sovereignty in Badshahat: The king founded his rule by considering himself a

nl
divine agent and exercising absolute power in accordance with the rule of controller,
guide, and state. Badshah was regarded by Abul Fazl as the father of his people, and
it was the people’s responsibility to obey him and follow his orders. However, if the
Badshah discriminated against people based on their ethnicity, faith, or social status,

O
he could not be considered a good ruler. He believed that the king had been granted
miraculous abilities, that no one could challenge him, and that no one could share his
influence.

ty
The state was divided into several tiers, as seen in Kautilya’s Arthashashtra,
and each level had many officers of different kinds. They were all in charge of the
state’s administration and directly answerable to the monarch, so they were all

si
operating for the public’s good. The Ain-i-Akbari contains the same definition. Subas,
Sarkars, and Mahalls were the three divisions of Akbar’s empire. He named a chain
of officers at different levels, all of whom were supervised by central ministers. Since

r
the officers’ religion did not interfere with their administrative work under this scheme,
his successors adopted it. Since Akbar desired a sovereign law, he prioritized it. His
ve
government became more organized and centralized as a result of his efforts. Under
the king, there were small landlords known as Zamindars or Jagirdars.

The king’s powers were often used to restrain other chieftains (landlords). There
ni

was also a Bhumia class that received land from the Jagirdars. The Bhumia owned the
land and were not required to pay duty on it. His ground, on the other hand, was always
inferior to that of the Jagirdari. There was also a Khalsa land that was under the king’s
direct control. The bulk of this land will be in the vicinity of the capital. Even during the
U

Sultanate, this arrangement flourished, and the Mughals did not threaten it because the
landlords (chieftains) held the lands with those who were allied with the king of Delhi.

The Mughal state had a large patrimonial structure that was centralized. They
ity

bestowed different kinds of ranks and hierarchies in this system, which was modelled
after Persia’s Mansabdari system (In Persian Mansab means rank). Zat and sawar
were the two sections of these ranks. Each Mansabdar had certain privileges (zat) and
was in charge of a horse force (Sawar). His power was granted to him by the king.
m

Sixty-six ranks are included in the Ain-i-Akbari. At the time, the system bestowed
gifts on those who deserved them. The ruler issued direct reports from all of the
Mansabdars. They also earned cash wages and raised taxes on behalf of the king.
)A

2.2.4 Concept of Royalty

Divine Theory of Padshahat (Badshahat) and the Concept of Royalty:
According to Abul Fazl, the term Padshahat (Badshahat) meant “established owner,”
with Pad denoting stability and Shah denoting possession. As a consequence, Padshah
(c

denotes a dominant, existing owner who cannot be deposed. In the Mughal Empire,
the Badshah held a higher rank. He had final say on all social, economic, political, and
judicial matters.
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 Indian Political Thought-II 49

Badshahat’s political philosophy was influenced by Mongol, Turkish, Iranian,

Notes

e
Islamic, and Indian political traditions.

‘Badshahat is the light derived from God which has been sent by God himself,’

in
says Abul Fazl. Badshah, who acts as a god’s handler, earns God’s favor. A Badshah
saw himself as a father, with his subjects as his children. As a result, it was his
responsibility to make every effort for his people’s welfare and to look after all aspects

nl
of their lives, whether economic, social, political, religious, or otherwise. To keep peace
and prosperity in his kingdom, he should always treat his people fairly.

According to Abul Fazl, the term Padshahat (Badshahat) meant “existing owner,”

O
with Pad denoting stability and Shah denoting possession. As a consequence, Padshah
denotes a dominant, existing owner who cannot be deposed. In the Mughal Empire, the
Badshah held a higher rank. He was the final arbiter of all social, economic, political,
and judicial matters..

ty
According to Abul Fazl’s writings, Akbar was involved in establishing the Badshah’s
authority over all other elements of the state. Akbar acquired a great deal of power to
interpret law in 1579, thanks to a decree known as mazhar. However, he was unhappy

si
with his current level of influence. This sparked debate, particularly when he was
compared to great Muslim jurists such as Imam Abu Hanifa, Hambal, and others. After a
while, Akbar lost interest in the position of Islamic ruler. He desired a broader definition
r
of faith. He was looking for a new excuse for religious beliefs, which Abul Fazl gave.
ve
He learned the modern sense of sovereignty as a divine light from Abul Fazl. Later on,
Akbar pretended to be a divine agent working on his behalf. Supremacy, according to
Abul Fazl, was a divine light (farr-i-izadi) in nature, and with this argument, he appears
to reject the conventional reference to the king as God’s shadow as insufficient.
ni

Badshahat’s political philosophy was influenced by Mongol, Turkish, Iranian,

Islamic, and Indian political traditions. ‘Badshahat is the light derived from God which
has been sent by God himself,’ says Abul Fazl. Badshah, who acts as a god’s handler,
U

earns God’s favor.

A Badshah saw himself as a father, with his subjects as his children. As a result,
it was his responsibility to make every effort for his people’s welfare and to look after
ity

all aspects of their lives, whether economic, social, political, religious, or otherwise. To
keep peace and prosperity in his kingdom, he should always treat his people fairly.

According to Abul Fazl’s writings, Akbar was involved in establishing the Badshah’s
authority over all other elements of the state. Akbar acquired a great deal of power to
m

interpret law in 1579, thanks to a decree known as mazhar. However, he was unhappy
with his current level of influence. This sparked debate since he was compared to great
Muslim jurists such as Imam Abu Hanifa, Hambal, and others.
)A

After a while, Akbar lost interest in the position of Islamic ruler. He desired a
broader definition of faith. He was looking for a new excuse for religious beliefs, which
Abul Fazl gave. The new sense of sovereignty as a divine light was revealed to him
by Abul Fazl. Later on, Akbar pretended to be a divine agent working on his behalf.
Supremacy, according to Abul Fazl, was a divine light (farr-i-izadi) in nature, and with
(c

this argument, he appears to reject the conventional reference to the king as God’s
shadow as insufficient (zill-I Ilahi).

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 50 Indian Political Thought-II

2.2.5 Philosophy of Justice

Notes

e
Justice: It was also the king’s obligation to provide justice to his people, to always
punish wrongdoers and to ensure that justice was done to the innocent. He believes

in
that a king should be kind and harmonious when administering justice, and that he
should regard his subjects as his children and himself as their father. He should note
that he was sent to earth by God to bring peace and justice to all. He serves as a

nl
conduit for their well-being. He should preserve his ignorance at all times and ensure
that no one is injured as a result of his actions. His decisions should be clear, and he
should strive to create a civilized society throughout his reign. He should look after
people’s basic needs. At the point of judgement, the king should strive to put himself in

O
the shoes of the criminal. He should weigh all aspects of the circumstances in which the
crime occurred before making his decision. If the king wanted to improve the goodness
of his kingdom, he should always reward good people and punish bad people in order

ty
to motivate them to do good.

The basic principle of Abul Fazl was that the ruler should not be dependent
on any religious figure. He should have a high moral degree and be aware of moral

si
and spiritual qualities. In terms of Iranian practices, he attempted to explain this idea
of state and sovereignty. In a poly religious state, he insists, the principle of fairness
for all should be free of any prejudice, regardless of birth. He called for the elimination

r
of Juzyah. He persuaded us that Akbar’s conquests were not motivated by moral or
religious differences, but rather by the need for justice in Indian politics, which he called
ve
Dar-ul-Sulh.

2.2.6 Abul Fazl’s View on Administration

ni

Humayun was unable to revise the previous administration due to a lack of time.
Based on his experience of the Delhi Sultanate, Akbar revised it and gave it a government
and administration structure. At the district and sub-district levels, he made no
improvements to the administration. His land revenue system was almost similar to ours.
U

A solid and well-planned administrative structure, as we all know, is a critical link

in good governance. It is also important for the state’s welfare and stability that people
are not afraid of an enemy attack. All of this would not have been possible in Akbar’s
ity

empire without the involvement of knowledgeable and loyal officers and armies, as the
state could only fight the enemy with their assistance. In fact, the Mughal polity did not
continue the Delhi Sultanate in its entirety. The officials’ titles were modified by him. He
made a major contribution by -
m

●● The formation of a provincial administration, modeled on the central system of

government
●● Making of comprehensive rules and regulations for better management
)A

Among all the staff, Abul Fazl ranked advocates first in his administrative views.
Advocates, he believes, should possess qualities that enable them to solve the king’s
private and social problems.

The state was divided into several tiers, as seen in Kautilya’s Arthashashtra, and
(c

each level had many officers of different kinds. They were all in charge of the state’s
administration and directly answerable to the emperor, so they were all working for the
greater good.
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 Indian Political Thought-II 51

We can find a similar model in the Ain-i-Akbari where -

Notes

e
●● Akbar split his empire into Subas, Sarkars and Mahalls
●● He selected a chain of officers at different levels who were regulated by

in
ministers at the center
●● In this arrangement, the religion of the officers could not meddle in their
administrative work, so this system was also pursued by his successors

nl
●● Akbar wanted a supreme rule so he gave significance to it
●● He structured and unified his administration. There were small landlords under
the king who were known as Zamindars or Jagirdars. The king frequently

O
utilized their forces to rein in other chieftains (landlords).
●● There was also a group called Bhumia which gained some land from the
Jagirdars. The Bhumia were the proprietors of the land and didn’t have to pay

ty
duty for it. But his land was always secondary to that of the Jagirdari land.
●● There also was a Khalsa land which was in the immediate control of the
king. This land would be largely in the area of the capital. This system had

si
prospered even during the Sultanate and the Mughals did not disrupt it as the
landlords (chieftains) kept the lands with those who were affiliated with the
king of Delhi.

r
The Mughal state had a large patrimonial structure that was centralized. They
bestowed different kinds of ranks and hierarchies in this system, which was modelled
ve
after Persia’s Mansabdari system (In Persian Mansab means rank). Zat and sawar
were the two sections of these ranks. Each Mansabdar had certain privileges (zat) and
was in charge of a horse force (Sawar). The ruler bestowed upon him the gift of power.
ni

Sixty-six ranks are listed in Ain-i-Akbari. At the time, the system bestowed gifts on
those who deserved them. The ruler received direct reports from all of the Mansabdars.
They often raised money on the king’s behalf and were paid in cash.
U

Abul Fazl offered three classifications for the Mansabdars:

●● First, those who had 500 and above Mansabs

●● Second, those who had 400 to 200 Mansabs
ity

●● Third, those who had 150 to 10 Mansabs

This structure resulted in the creation of a society with different grades between the
citizens and the king, as well as a hierarchical system. To summarize, Indian society in
mediaeval times had a complex structure of rank and status based on military strength.
m

Military might became a status symbol, and the entire structure was built around it.
The Mughals adopted this pattern for maintaining harmony in their empire and did not
attempt to alter it.
)A

Abul Fazl was a firm believer in hierarchy, but he was more concerned with the
kingdom’s need for talent. He was unconcerned about a talented person’s social
history. For this reason, he said that Akbar was moved by the spirit of the era, because
he recognized the importance of talent and honored people of different classes with
appointments in the army ranks, elevating them from the rank of common soldier to the
(c

dignity of grandee.

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 52 Indian Political Thought-II

The Mughals did not mess with India’s caste system or attempt to alter the
Notes

e
country’s fundamental framework. They also did not interfere with the Jagirdari system’s
distribution of justice or economic management.

in
Abul Fazl desired a peaceful coexistence between Hindus and Muslims. Hindus, on
the other hand, he claims, have covered themselves in their own cocoon. He wrote this
based on the fact that Hindu cases were uncommon in the courts. Panchayats or caste

nl
courts were used to resolve the disputes.

The Mughals did not mess with society’s current structure. Since the panchayat
and caste courts existed, the Zamindars were respected as father figures. The family

O
owned the property, which was passed down from father to son. As a result, the theory
that the land belongs to the king was logical. The peasant families, the Zamindar, and
the king owned all of the land. This shared ownership –

●● Prepared a base for the development of canals, common grazing grounds

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●● It also aided in developing trade and business in village and society

Check your Understanding

si
1. ..........................contains an account of Akbar’s ancestors, including that of his father
Humayun.
2.
r
According to Abul Fazl, ............................has been sent by God, who works as
an agent of God for the .........................of his subjects and maintains peace and
ve
harmony in his empire.
3. At the core of his political ideas was the belief that the king should be guided by the
principles of ...............................and to fulfill his royal duty, he could go beyond the
holy law.
ni

4. ...................................is a unique compilation of the system of administration and

control over the various departments of government in a great empire.
U

5. Abul Fazl gave the concept of sovereignty and state in the context of the..................
................
6. According to Abul Fazl, the term Padshahat (Badshahat) meant ‘an established
ity

owner’ where Pad stands for ........................and shah stands for......................

7. Theory of ............................was a combination of Mongol, Turkish, Iranian, Islamic,
and Indian political traditions.

Summary
m

Islam’s political theories come from a variety of places. A portion of it can be traced
back to pre-Islamic origins, while the majority was founded on Prophet Muhammad’s
teachings. The doctrine of equality, which is the foundation of Islamic brotherhood, was
)A

fostered by the principle of one God and the universality of the Quran’s laws. However,
in terms of politics, the Islamic philosophy was that ‘some are born to rule and others
to follow,’ which was similar to the Greek belief in superior and inferior. However, there
were three fundamental concepts that guided all subsequent political thinking:
(c

(a) The divine law, the Shariat based on the Quran and the Prophet’s tradition
(b) The historical traditions of the early years of Islam

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 Indian Political Thought-II 53

(c) The consensus and solidarity of the Islamic community

Notes

e
Abul Fazl, on the other hand, was Akbar’s trusted courtier, and he deeply loved
and respected him. His strong belief in religious freedom stemmed from his early years

in
when he and his family were subjected to the most heinous forms of persecution at
the hands of the orthodox Ulama. This became the foundation of a long friendship
with Akbar. Few could deny that Akbar possessed the best and noblest mental and

nl
emotional qualities. Akbar possessed the attributes of a king, philosopher, and hero,
according to Abul Fazl. His official stance, as well as his personal religious and political
beliefs, demanded that he protect, justify, and extol Akbar and his actions.

O
Activity
1. Discuss Abul Fazl’s View on Administration.
2. Discuss the Philosophy of Justice as defined by Abul Fazl.

ty
Questions and Exercises
1. What is the Divine Theory of Padshahat (Badshahat) and the Concept of

si
Royalty?
2. Define practices followed for Governance and Sovereignty during Delhi
sultanate.
3.
r
What are the Toleration and Sulh-I-Kul-Doctrines of Peace?
ve
4. What is the Concept of Governance in Ain-i-Akbari?
5. Define the role of Abul Fazl as a Political Thinker.
ni

Glossary
1. Arbiter – a person empowered to decide matters at issue; judge; umpire
2. Grandee – a man of high social position or eminence
U

3. Vis-à-vis – compared with; in relation towards

References
ity

1. https://www.oreilly.com/library/view/indian-political-thought/9788131758519/
xhtml/chapter004.xhtml
2. https://medium.com/@deshmukhpatel/4-96e5949b8df
m

Answers: Check Your Understanding

1. Akbar Nama
)A

2. Padshah, welfare
3. Universal good
4. Ain-i-Akbari
5. Needs of society
(c

6. Stability, owner
7. Badshahat

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Module-III: Jawaharlal Nehru

Notes

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Structure:

in
Unit-3.1: Developmentalism
3.1.1 Core Structure of Development: Nehruvian View

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3.1.2 Detailed Analysis of Nehruvian Developmental Model
3.1.3 Relationship of State and Development

O
3.1.4 Futuristic Vision of Developmentalism
3.1.5 Relevance of Developmentalism: Nehru’s Ideology
Unit-3.2: Secularism

ty
3.2.1 Secularist View: Jawaharlal Nehru
3.2.2 Dogmatism and Secularist Philosophy

si
3.2.3 Secularism and Nation Building
3.2.4 Pertinency of Nehruvian Secularism
3.2.5 Critical Analysis of Nehru’s Secularist Ideology
r
ve
ni
U
ity
m
)A
(c

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Unit-3.1: Developmentalism
Notes

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Learning Objectives:

in
●● Core Structure of Development: Nehruvian View
●● Detailed Analysis of Nehruvian Developmental Model

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●● Relationship of State and Development
●● Futuristic Vision of Developmentalism

O
●● Relevance of Developmentalism: Nehru’s Ideology

Introduction

ty
Jawaharlal Nehru (November 14, 1889 – May 27, 1964) was an Indian
independence activist and, later, the country’s first Prime Minister, as well as a key
figure in Indian politics both before and after independence. He rose to prominence as
an important figure in the Indian independence movement, serving as Prime Minister of

si
India from 1947 until his death in 1964.

Following the arrest of renowned theosophist Annie Besant in 1917, Nehru became

r
a member of the All India Home Rule League, a party committed to achieving self-
government within the British Empire. In April 1919, British forces opened fire on tens
ve
of thousands of unarmed civilians protesting newly enacted legislation allowing the
detention of alleged political enemies without trial. Nehru was well-versed in the unique
features of nationalism. He was well aware of nationalism’s merits and contribution to
the development of modern society. He was well-versed in the history of nationalism
ni

and its effect on the development of modern society. He was well aware of how
nationalism had remained a guiding force in the fight for independence. He believes
that nationalism instilled a sense of neutrality and vitality in people all over the world.
U

He was also aware of nationalism’s limitations, but he opposed fanatical and

religious nationalism. “Civilization suffered as a result of narrow nationalism,” he said,
adding that he hoped a free India would accept international cooperation efforts. He
considered nationalism to be a curse if it was narrow and self-serving. Aggressive
ity

nationalism, he claims, is harmful and instills fear in others’ minds. He was against
nationalism’s narrowness, exclusivity, and selfishness because it stunted mental
development. He believed that Indian nationalism should be founded on universal
values, peace, liberalism, and rationalism.
m

Jawahar Lal Nehru recognised that economic regeneration was a pre-requisite of a

progressive modern life long before independence. And it could only be accomplished
by meticulous preparation. His views were dominated by socio-economic restoration.
)A

He was highly fascinated by the Soviet Union’s economic growth, which drew the
attention of the world’s planning imagination.

3.1.1 Core Structure of Development: Nehruvian View

(c

Jawahar Lal Nehru recognized that economic regeneration was a pre-requisite of a

progressive modern life long before independence. And it could only be accomplished
by meticulous preparation. His views were dominated by socio-economic restoration.
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He was highly fascinated by the Soviet Union’s economic growth, which drew the
Notes

e
attention of the world’s planning imagination. The INC agreed to form a National
Planning Committee in 1938, with Nehru as its chairman. Nehru’s declaration of intent
as chairmen became a major factor in India’s economic planning litrature.

in
In a democratic structure, planning is an essential component of a socialist
economy. As a result, he embraced planning as a way of achieving social justice and

nl
suggested the mixed economy model, in which he acknowledges the public and private
sectors’ involvement in growth activities. The Government of India’s industrial policies of
1948 and 1956 provided for such co-exit.

O
In a mixed economy, main sectors of the economy must be fully under state
control, while private sectors operating in other spheres must be subjected to state
control and must act in accordance with the national plan’s objectives. According
to Jawahar Lal Nehru, India must develop a framework that allows her to source her

ty
own needs, with the mixed economy being the best option. He declared that jointly,
economic reform must be in the direction of the democratic plan. In India, in addition to
big industry, cooperatively managed village and small industries will be needed. As a

si
result, such a democratic collectivist structure would necessitate cautious and ongoing
preparation.

THE WAY ONE interprets the Nehruvian economic strategy (or the Nehru-
r
Mahalanobis strategy, as economist Sukhamoy Chakravarty dubbed it) is inevitably
ve
influenced by one’s philosophical framework, which need not even be the same as that
of the strategy’s framers. In other words, it is entirely possible to view the substance of
the Nehru-Mahalanobis strategy in a very different light than Nehru or Mahalanobis did.

In what follows, I will argue that the Nehru-Mahalanobis strategy, as interpreted

ni

on the basis of this alternative framework, constitutes the centre of any genuine anti-
imperialist and pro-people development strategy in an age of globalisation, and that
the strategy, as interpreted on the basis of this alternative framework, constitutes, until
U

now, the core of any genuine anti-imperialist and pro-people development strategy in an
economy such as India’s.

Several renowned economists, including Maurice Dobb of the United Kingdom and
ity

Leif Johansen of Norway, have pointed out that the Nehru-Mahalanobis strategy is a
special case of a “Turnpike strategy.” And pursuing such a policy based on the premise
of a closed economy is ipso facto pursuing economic self-reliance under which the
economy is not reliant on global trade prospects.
m

P.C. Mahalanobis had defended the Second Five Year Plan strategy exactly along
these lines, using a mathematical model eerily similar to one developed in 1928 by
Soviet economist G.A. Feldman; and, of course, Nehru had agreed with him on the
basic strategy. I’ll use a conceptual framework offered by statistician-economist Ashok
)A

Rudra to look at the Nehru-Mahalanobis strategy from a different perspective. He had

divided the Indian economy at the time into three diverse sectors: agriculture and agro-
based industries, mining and mineral-based industries, and universal intermediaries
(such as electricity), and discovered something remarkable: the second group used
very little current input from the first.
(c

Of course, the first group offered food, clothes, and other essentials to all,
including those in the second group, but this was for personal use rather than as a
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current material input in output. As a result, the expansion of mining and mineral-based
Notes

e
industries put very little pressure on agriculture for non-food or non-clothing purposes.
It could expand without jeopardising food security, for example, by diverting land from
food production to the production of industrial raw materials needed for expansion.

in
The first party dominated India’s production structure and export structure at the
time of independence, with “manufacturing” exports mainly consisting of jute and cotton

nl
textiles. In such a scenario, emphazising export growth as a means of increasing
the economy’s growth rate would have inevitably meant pushing out more agro-
based goods, jeopardising the country’s food security by diverting land away from the
production of foodgrains.

O
Both post-colonial growth activities had to take place in the context of non-
alignment and democracy. No one had attempted to combine rapid industrial growth
with democracy before, so Nehru was in uncharted territory. Unlike Bolshevism,

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Nehruvian Socialism prohibited the forcible acquisition and collectivization of resources,
ensuring that the requisite surplus for industrialization could not be obtained on the
backs of India’s working class and peasantry. Unlike the United States or the United

si
Kingdom, India could not push surplus labour out of the workforce through slavery or
the collection of tribune from colonies. Because of its commitment to non-alignment,
India was unable to consider international assistance, foreign money, or other forms

r
of foreign involvement that would elevate India to the status of a junior partner of the
industrialised world. Nehru realised that political freedom would be meaningless unless
ve
it was accompanied by economic independence. However, India had become entirely
reliant on the developed world for capital goods, technology, and investments due to the
essence of British colonialism. Over 90% of India’s capital, equipment, and even basic
tools had to be imported from outside the country in 1950. This type of neo-colonialism
ni

compelled Nehru to compromise on his non-alignment stance, but it also pushed him to
pursue an industrialization strategy based on heavy industry and capital goods.

Since India lacked a proper private sector with the requisite start-up capital for
U

industrialization, and because foreign investment would jeopardise the country’s

independence, the state became the heart of Indian industry. However, this did not
imply that the government began to impose its will on the private sector or seize its
ity

assets. Because of Nehru’s dedication to democracy, the private sector was largely left
to its own devices, with the exception of the railways, airlines, and left-behind British
companies, as well as the Imperial Bank (later renamed the State Bank of India).
Where the government excelled was in forging new paths to development and taking
chances that the private sector could not manage. The Nehruvian Socialist economy
m

relied heavily on planning, and the successive 5-year plans saw India’s GDP rise from a
meagre 0.72 percent in 1947 to over 4 percent annually in the following years.

During Nehru’s three 5-year plans (1951–1965), India’s industrial sector grew at
)A

a rate of 7.1% per year, with the number of consumer goods factories increasing by
70%, intermediate goods production quadrupling, and capital goods output tenfold.
India went from importing 90% of its manufactured products in 1950 to halving it in 1960
and then importing 9% of its goods in 1974. This form of economic autonomy separated
India from the industrialized world and bolstered its non-alignment status. Apart from
(c

severing relations with importers, India ensured that its exports were not reliant on a
few developed nations. Instead, India made a conscious effort to diversify its trade and

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ensure that no one region or bloc was left out or favored. In 1947, the United States
Notes

e
and the United Kingdom accounted for 45 percent of India’s overall trade. By 1977, the
percentage had dropped to just 20%, thanks to increased trade with the socialist bloc
and other non-aligned countries.

in
Agriculture, like the manufacturing sector, was severely lacking in India after
independence. Due to British neglect, Indian agriculture stagnated and declined,

nl
resulting in a series of famines and widespread malnutrition. Between 1947 and 1953,
India experienced severe food shortages, requiring the importation of 14 million tonnes
of food. India would never be fully independent if it is reliant on others for basic survival,
just as it is with capital goods. As a result, Nehru set himself the aim of revolutionizing

O
agriculture. However, as with the industrial sector, Nehru’s adherence to democracy
meant that he couldn’t force land reform or collectivization on the peasants.

Despite Nehru’s softer approach, the 150-year-old zamindari regime was all

ty
but gone by 1957, sparing India the victims of similar forced reforms in Stalin’s
Russia and Mao’s China. Farmers had been liberated from the grip of landlords and
moneylenders thanks to cooperative and institutional subsidies. Nehru realised that

si
an agricultural revolution could not occur without technological advancement, such
as the use of electricity, tractors, pumps, and chemical fertilisers. Between 1951 and
1965, agriculture grew by 3% per year thanks to a combination of public investment and

r
cooperative land reforms. Even the Green Revolution, which would give India a food
surplus for the first time in decades if it hadn’t been for Nehru’s foresight, would not
ve
have been possible in the 1970s. Finally, there was the knowledge industry. The British
had purposefully left India as an intellectually barren wasteland, denying its people any
ability to cultivate science or artistic thinking, and Nehru was well aware of the country’s
backwardness in 1947. Nehru had been committed to free, public, and compulsory
ni

basic education for all since the Karachi Congress of 1931. Primary schools were
founded across India, with funding given to ensure that they were adequately staffed.
U

Democracy and Development

The majority of newly independent countries put economic growth ahead of
democratisation. Many third-world leaders saw democracy as a privilege reserved
for the wealthy and established, much as the West did before becoming genuinely
ity

democratic. Many people in Africa and Asia now look to China, with its dictatorial state
capitalism, as the model to follow. Supranational organizations such as the European
Union and the International Monetary Fund are often often in favour of bypassing
the political process in favour of technocratic solutions. Political democracy, on the
m

other hand, was a necessary condition for people’s empowerment and an essential
component of economic growth for Nehru.

Because of Nehru’s commitment to democracy and human rights, India was spared
)A

large-scale famine deaths as a result of progressive reforms. With the Panchayati

Raj initiative, Nehru aimed to economically empower villages and common people by
improving agricultural methods and providing better connectivity, education, and health
care. His aim was to “unleash powers from below” among our people by “creat[ing]
conditions conducive to spontaneous growth from below.” Nehru aimed to incorporate it
(c

with the villages’ elected, locally self-governing bodies.

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He formed local cooperatives in banking, marketing, and other services,

Notes

e
emphasizing the importance of collaboration between these organizations and the
Panchayati Raj. By holding democracy and development close to India’s poorest
people, an inflationary growth direction was avoided, which often hurts the poor the

in
most. In India, the trend rate of inflation has not exceeded two digits for decades.

3.1.2 Detailed Analysis of Nehruvian Developmental Model

nl
Jawaharlal Nehru was a proponent of economic modernization. He concluded
that the most successful way to defeat mass poverty was by rapid industrialization.

O
This was in sharp contrast to Gandhi’s mediaeval economic vision, which focused on
household development. His vision of an India that could stand on its own in the world
after centuries of international dominance included economic modernization. The tasks
Nehru outlined on the eve of India’s independence should be invoked for questioning

ty
how much these reforms depart from the Nehruvian model after nearly three decades
of economic reforms. On the eve of India’s independence, Nehru outlined the main
goals of ending hunger, ignorance, disease, and deprivation of opportunity. These goals
were important to Nehru not only for their economic value, but also for their own sake.

si
However, at the height of India’s liberalisation process, the welfare state was seen as
a roadblock to the country’s globalisation. The Nehruvian logic of looking at economic
development as important for human welfare was increasingly discarded as higher
r
economic growth became the ultimate goal. As a result, economic reforms marked a
ve
departure from the Nehruvian model of economic growth. The role of the state in
economic regulation is now widely acknowledged on a global scale. This necessitates
a reconsideration of Nehru’s economic development model. The Nehruvian mixed
economy model was planned to maximise output capacities, which were woefully
ni

inadequate. Both public and private sector industries were expected to help the country
overcome the shortage that existed at the time of independence. Nehru’s overarching
goal was to eradicate poverty and inequity. These goals were essential to him not only
U

for their utility, but also for their own sake.

The basic challenge for a poor country like India, according to development
economists of the time, was to increase its stock of productive resources while also
absorbing modern technology. This was similar to the beliefs of many other nationalist
ity

leaders in the decades leading up to independence. Ragnar Nurkse, an Estonian

development economist, had based his 1953 book, Problems of Capital Formation
in Underdeveloped Countries, on capital accumulation. A.K. Dasgupta, a renowned
scholar who taught Amartya Sen, also argued that capital accumulation was the primary
m

obstacle, relying on classical rather than Keynesian economics for inspiration.

Second, the rate of capital accumulation was determined by the domestic savings
rate. W. Arthur Lewis, a West Indian Nobel laureate, had put the problem succinctly
)A

in terms of how a poor country would increase its voluntary savings rate from 5% to
20% of national income. In short, the growth strategy’s key emphasis was on increasing
savings in order to generate capital for asset formation. The influential Harrod-Domar
model of the time attempted to describe economic growth in terms of the savings rate
and capital productivity. It’s curious that in Nehru’s efforts to lift India out of poverty,
(c

you’ll have a hard time finding subsidies or entitlements.

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Third, the government was supposed to lead the way in terms of industrialization.
Notes

e
This was an important part of the development consensus at the time. Unfortunately,
the early success of the Soviet experiment had enchanted many intellectuals.
However, there was also a deeper historical understanding. In his theory of economic

in
backwardness, Russian economist Alexander Gerschenkron argued that countries
that had not yet industrialised did not have to wait for the right conditions to appear.
Gerschenkron had done extensive research on Europe’s growth history. For those who

nl
were late to the game, he said, structural innovation was the way forward: Germany
had used investment banks to drive its initial industrialisation, while Russia had used
the state (he was referring to imperial Russia before the communists took over).

O
In the absence of deep financial markets, the Nehruvian proposals had a common
rationale of using the state as an entrepreneur and providing finance to private industry
through special development banks. This is the well-known quest for mastery of the

ty
economy’s commanding heights. A more technically accurate theory is that Nehru
needed the government to regulate the output of capital and intermediate products so
that the Indian economy has enough strategic depth to survive potential attacks on its
political independence. It’s a theme that’s still resonating in some parts of India’s policy

si
establishment, which are concerned about Chinese equipment suppliers’ increasing
position in the power and telecom sectors. However, in the late 1960s, a food shortage
forced India to compromise on its foreign policy in exchange for wheat shipments.
r
Fourth, there was widespread scepticism of international trade. Some scholars
ve
claim this was the reaction of a nation that had been colonised by a trading firm,
while others suggest it was a more realistic response to underdeveloped countries’
deteriorating terms of trade following the end of the Korean War due to falling
commodity prices. Much of this export pessimism was based on the work of two
ni

economists: Raul Prebisch of Argentina and Hans Singer of the United Kingdom. The
Nehruvian plans lacked an export policy, as a young economist named Manmohan
Singh pointed out in 1963. The main emphasis was on import substitution: making
U

things at home instead of buying them elsewhere. This meant that India not only lost
out on the benefits of a rising global economy, but it also meant that it remained reliant
on foreign assistance to meet its basic needs. The decision to enter a cocoon was
probably Nehru’s greatest economic blunder.
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Nehru’s economic growth policy was not without its detractors. In the memorandum
of the panel of economists advising on the second proposal, the unsung prophet B.R.
Shenoy—a pupil of libertarian economist F.A. Hayek—wrote a popular dissent letter.
Shenoy made two key points: relying on deficit financing would lead to inflation, and
m

the government’s increasing position could eventually weaken democracy. Shenoy also
foresaw the balance of payments crisis that struck India in 1957 to a large extent.

Was Nehru’s economic strategy effective? It was during the early years. In the five
)A

decades before India became an independent nation, the Indian economy had largely
remained stagnant. Between fiscal years 1952 and 1965, the economy developed at an
average rate of 4.09 percent. Later came the growth crisis.

It was India’s first economic renaissance in nearly a century. Since the late Mughal
(c

period, when deindustrialisation began, industrial production grew much faster than
the overall economy, marking the first move toward industry playing a larger role in the
Indian economy. The government has managed to keep things under control. Fiscal
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deficits were kept to a minimum. Looking at the Second Five-Year Plan’s funding
Notes

e
trend, it’s clear that Nehru’s economists expected that at least some of the ambitious
investment programme would be funded by revenue surpluses and income from the
railways.

in
By the time he died, the Nehruvian economic model had run out of steam. India
was left with an outdated industrial structure, excessive government economic

nl
regulation, an inability to compete in the global market, and an insufficient supply of
consumer goods.

O
3.1.3 Relationship of State and Development
Nehru’s conceptualization of the idea of statehood was a fusion of East and
West. “I have been a queer blend of East and West, out of place everywhere, at home
nowhere,” he said. Perhaps my thoughts and outlook on life are more Western than

ty
Eastern, but India clings to me in countless ways, as she does to all of her children.”
Nehru’s eclecticism aided him in deliberately choosing qualities that were consistent
with the ideals of both cultures.

si
The aim of this section is to show how Nehru’s political writings contain a plethora
of derivative as well as indigenous characteristics and ideologies that culminated in
India’s state definition during the independence period. Imagining a concrete notion of
r
a state, along with its attractive features, was unlikely during late colonial rule in India,
ve
as it would be like counting chickens before they were hatched. The Nehruvian plan, on
the other hand, was very different.

He questioned internal contradictions in India relevant to British rule, as well as

external or foreign disruptions in global politics, and contrasted these with revolutionary
ni

trends and processes in the West that he considered plausible for borrowing and
adapting to the Indian context, laying the groundwork for the conceptualization of an
Indian state.
U

The state that Nehru envisioned can best be defined as “a classless society with
equal economic justice and opportunity for all, a society organized on a planned basis
for the raising or mankind to higher material and cultural levels, to a cultivation of
ity

spiritual values of cooperation, unselfishness, the spirit of service, the desire to do right,
goodwill and love- ultimately a world order.”

The unity and incorporation of the constituent states or principalities, which

ultimately leads to the establishment of a standard territory and boundary, is an
m

unavoidable component of this political body, i.e. the state. Mahatma Gandhi defended
the idea of non-interference in the internal administration of princely states in the early
twentieth century.
)A

In comparison, Nehru’s study recognised and clarified how these states

represented sluggish development, low literacy, conservatism, autocracy, the prohibition
of newspapers and public meetings, and excessive spending. As a result, he suggested
reorganising and unifying these princely states in order to establish a holistic view of
the state. He said, “A democratic state will not function as a fifth column. It is clear
(c

that these 550 odd states cannot function separately as political and economic units.
They cannot remain as feudal enclaves in a democratic India. A few large ones may
become democratic units in a federation, the others must be completely absorbed. No
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minor reform can resolve this problem. The states system will have to go and it will
Notes

e
go when British imperialism goes”. Nehru’s nationalist ideology included a call for unity
among the state’s units, and the methods for achieving this vision of a centralised or
quasifederal state included negotiation, diplomacy, and, if necessary, coercion.

in
He claimed that power, brutality, and intimidation were important for the state’s
functioning apparatus because they avoided external invasion, armed insurrection, and

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internal conflicts and riots, but that they should not be used in the evil spirit of hate and
cruelty. In addition, the state will be required to adopt oppressive laws and regulations
in order to preserve peace, harmony, and unity within its territorial jurisdiction. India,
according to him was similar to an ‘ancient palimpsest on which layer upon layer of

O
thought and reverie has been inscribed and yet no succeeding layer has completely
hidden or erased what has been written previously’. He saw it as a ‘Indianization’ phase
in which various ethnic and cultural groups that migrated to India adapted to the latter’s

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culture. This culture demonstrated its incredible and admirable ability to adapt, embrace,
and accept differences while maintaining its true identity. The idea of how various cultures
and groups that had migrated to India had gradually been woven into a shared identity
of becoming an Indian ran parallel to this. Using this analogy, Nehru predicted that

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even though India was split into India and Pakistan as a result of world events, it would
eventually reunite and aid in resuming the country’s holistic view once more.

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In his book The Discovery of India, Nehru believed that India’s social structure was
another explanation for its national unity, which would aid in the formation of a powerful,
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united state. In India, this social system made it easier to preserve a democratic way of
life. The autonomous village society, the caste system, or Varnashramdharma, and the
joint family were the three components of this social composition. The caste system,
according to Nehru, did not encourage slavery, preserved equality and independence
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within each caste, and led to specialisation and ability development.

His belief in the caste system stemmed from the fact that it was capable of fostering
social harmony, collaboration, and peace, as shown by the lines in which he quotes Sir
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George Birdwood- “So long as the Hindus hold to the caste system, India will be India, but
from the day they break from it, there will be no more India. As a result, the state cannot
be analysed independently of culture. As depicted above, this symbiotic relationship
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between the state and civil society was also present in Nehru’s vision, but its structure
can always be challenged. While describing a territory, Nehru subtly highlights three
essential constants that are synonymous with the values of unity and territorial integrity.
The upholding of a constitution is the most important. The hoisting of the national flag and
the declaration of January 26th as Independence Day is the second function. Finally, the
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use of a national language or lingua franca is a third element.

Nehru’s conception of the state would be incomplete if he didn’t have the principle
of democracy. His democracy is in opposition to Gandhi’s concept of a philosophical
)A

democracy that has “nothing to do with numbers, majority, or representation in the

ordinary sense.” It is built on the ideals of service and sacrifice, and it employs moral
pressure.’

In contrast to this perspective, D.E. Smith describes the liberal democratic essence
(c

of Nehru’s Indian state as consisting of four pillars, which are:

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1. Individual Freedom: Individual creative production and the realisation of

Notes

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human values require freedom. In 1933, Nehru wrote that democracy was for
him “a means to an end of good life.”

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2. Representative Government: Democracy is made up of elected citizens’
representatives who assist the state in gaining political authority and legitimacy
within its territorial jurisdiction. He included the practise of voting, adult suffrage,

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political parties, opposition party contestation, and the role of political leadership
that does not compromise on truth and takes a consensus approach in this.
3. Economic and Social Equality: According to Nehru, a political economy

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based on capitalist institutions was incompatible with democracy because it
contributed to the elite or intelligentsia concentrating and accumulating power; it
penetrated the caste system; and it thwarted the notion of a healthy relationship
between equality and freedom. As a result, he advocated for the introduction

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of a socialist democracy to address these inconsistencies and achieve balance
through a welfare state, a caste-free society, and a welfare state.
4. Self Discipline: Democracy is basically a “scheme of ideals and moral principles

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in life” that promotes self-discipline in both individuals and communities. The
principles of tolerance (not compromise) and the use of peaceful negotiating
methods such as dialogue, negotiation, conciliation, mediation, and persuasion
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are hallmarks of this social self-discipline, and the origins of these practises can
be found in the Indian tradition of ‘Dharma,’ or obedience to one’s duties.
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Finally, the presence of the concept of a state in Nehru’s works can be explained
by the fact that Nehru alluded to India’s future foreign affairs and international relations.
He said that declaring independence did not imply isolation. Thus, a deep study of the
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characteristics, qualities, philosophies, and values that Nehru takes cognizance of in

his political works (primarily his Autbiography and The Discovery of India) can be used
to derive the concept of a state in Nehru (Indian Independence Act, 1947). The vision
of the state as an entity made up of a jumble of structures and basic values arose from
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these various and disparate ideas. The nature of this state was defined by: ‘liberal
democracy, constitutionalism, civil liberties and reciprocal duties, secularism, socialism,
planned industrialization, development and planning, peaceful coexistence and national
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unity in a multicultural - multi-lingual state.

3.1.4 Futuristic Vision of Developmentalism

This collection offers a fresh perspective on Jawaharlal Nehru’s responses to
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various nation-building problems from April to June 1958. Aditya and Mridula Mukherjee
have judiciously selected and thematically organised the writings and speeches
of India’s first Prime Minister into 11 parts, re-creating his thoughts on a “daring and
)A

modern India.”

Nehru called for state-sponsored industrialization, increased “wealth-

producing capacity,” and civilian use of atomic energy. However, he realised that for
industrialization to succeed, a stable agrarian economy and a small-scale industrial
base were needed. His ideas on city planning were strikingly modern, ranging from
(c

roads and parks to education, recreation, housing, and industry. He was bothered
by slums and imagined a symbiotic relationship between the city and the village. He

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criticised society’s acquisitive impulses while endorsing the position of the state in
Notes

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restraining them. Every village should have a panchayat, a cooperative society, and a
school, he proposed.

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●● Governor’s role
Corruption, administrative delays, and collusive relations between unscrupulous
officials and the people are among the ills to which governance is vulnerable, according

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to Nehru. Civil service neutrality was a myth for him, though he urged bureaucrats to
think objectively and detachedly. He wished for state governors to act in accordance
with the Constitution and not to regard themselves as a “superior class.”

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Nehru decided to rid the administration of feudal relics like chaprasis and “peons.”
A government official “wants a chauffeur, the chauffeur wants an assistant chauffeur,
and that fellow wants a cleaner,” he found funny. The solution to the refugee crisis, in
his opinion, lay in recovery and resettlement rather than handing out handouts. He

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didn’t like the term “dalit” because he thought it “stigmatised” the individual, and he was
all for affirmative action.

If “democratic socialism” was at the heart of Nehruvian political economy, he

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envisioned a welfare state founded on people’s approval, devoid of dogma and
violence, and firmly rooted in ethical principles.

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His views on planning, urban growth, decentralisation, welfare, public health, family
planning, secularism, and equal opportunity all contribute to his vision of a “egalitarian India.”
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●● On communism
“The moment you put a language in opposition to another language, you do injury
to it,” Nehru warned, praising India’s linguistic and cultural diversity. He valued some
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constructive criticism from the opposition, believing that “reality often emerges” from
disagreements. He was concerned that people who were quick to make demands
frequently neglected their responsibilities and obligations. Nehru’s anti-communist
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stance never wavered, and the correspondence between him and the first Communist
Chief Minister, Namboodiripad, is a treasure trove of academic knowledge.

Nehru was a strong supporter of government funding for high-quality education. He

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was troubled by the dichotomy of a few “first-rate universities” and a slew of “institutions
without ‘any schooling.’”

He advocated for academic freedom and international academic cooperation.

Simultaneously, he was enraged that many of the foreign experts were “second-rate
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material,” despite being paid more than their far-more capable Indian counterparts. If
possible, he suggested more effective deployment of Indians trained abroad through
special recruitment channels. Nehru pressed the Indian Council of Agricultural
Research (ICAR) to help indigenous scientists such as Boshi Sen, who is credited
)A

with developing hybrid maize and an irradiated wheat mutant. He oversaw Gandhiji’s
collected works publication and expressed interest in Visva Bharati. He had a lot of
confidence in the youth’s ability to turn India into a “quality nation.”

The Graham Report on Kashmir, which suggested third-party interference,

(c

surprised Nehru, who was a strong believer in the concept of non-alignment. He

made a case for resolving contentious issues between India and Pakistan, especially

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those related to mutually beneficial development projects, in a spirit of cooperation,

Notes

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emphazising that the country’s defence depended more on morale than on arms.

Nehru’s speeches in Parliament provide a brilliant study and assessment

in
of current events around the world, ranging from the Tamil issue in Sri Lanka to
international interference in Indonesia, anti-colonial struggles in Vietnam and Algeria,
de-Stalinization, and Nepal. He applauded the Soviet Union’s decision to stop testing

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nuclear weapons, but he denounced Moscow’s interference in Hungary. He was
adamant that India could not intervene in international disputes unless the disputants
consented. Nehru was not pleased when Yugoslav President Tito sent a goodwill letter
to the Communist Part of India.

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●● Strengthening Congress
Despite his Prime Ministerial responsibilities, Nehru was conscious of the need
to reinforce the Congress’s “anchor.” He reminded his party colleagues, in a strong

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rejection of factionalism, that “if the spirit in which the Congress was founded and
nourished is absent, the Congress will cease to be the sort of national party it is now.”
He encouraged them to “stand firm by our basic principles” and not be alarmed by

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occasional electoral setbacks.

Three Important Legacies:

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Nehru’s post-1946 career is responsible for much of his fame. He made at least
three pivotal decisions that helped India become the republic it is today.
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First and foremost, he worked to get his vision of India enshrined in the
Constitution. He drafted and introduced a resolution in the Constituent Assembly
that outlined the organization’s goals, which included declaring India an independent
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republic with total authority derived from the citizens. “Social, economic, and political
justice, equality of rank and opportunity, and freedom of expression, faith, and
association” were to be guaranteed to all. Minorities, backward regions, and tribal areas
were to be protected. Much of this was not a foregone conclusion. Just about 30 million
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Indians were eligible to vote in the 1937 provincial elections due to land ownership
restrictions. In the 1951 elections in independent India, there were 173 million
registered voters. “Nehru was without a doubt the chief architect of our democracy,”
historian Ramachandra Guha writes in Patriots and Partisans. He advocated universal
ity

suffrage and the multi-party structure more than any other nationalist.”

“At the heart of Nehru’s vision of India was the conviction that it was a composite
country, born of a civilisation that had drawn from and assimilated the many religious
and cultural traditions present on the subcontinent over centuries,” writes Brown. Nehru
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also operated in an era when India was emerging as a political compact, with units
such as princely states and other groups open to different political futures. Guaranteed
fundamental rights for all, secularism, and a state policy that resolved social inequality
)A

and divisions could keep the Indian Union together. Nehru immediately recognised
the value of a constitutional democracy for a diverse population. B.R. Ambedkar,
Vallabhbhai Patel, Maulana Azad, and C. Rajagopalachari were among India’s other
gifted leaders, and together they crafted a political platform for Indians to coexist and
develop a common national imagination while maintaining specific identities.
(c

Second, Nehru’s effect on world politics is well-known. He rose to prominence as

a leading opponent of colonialism and imperialism, as well as a proponent of Asian

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unification, Afro-Asian solidarity, and world peace. As Guha points out, he foresaw the
Notes

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need for Non-Alignment policy in order to avoid power blocs and profit from contacts
with both sides. It also enabled India to establish itself as a global mediator and a
developing-country leader. As Brown puts it, Nehru’s foreign policy “built for his country

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a distinctive, independent international identity.”

Third, Nehru was concerned with domestic social change, seeing state planning

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as both a catalyst of development and a tool for reducing inequality. This socialist form
of government with a mixed economy component has been criticised in recent years
for stifling innovation and development, but such policies were not without support –
Indian industrialists, for example, wanted protection from competition. In either case,

O
leaders should be measured according to the norms of their day. As Brown points out,
Nehru had a limited number of governing models to choose from at the time; he was
fascinated by the pace with which the Soviet Union was industrialising and decided to
emulate it in India without the accompanying brutality.

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It’s important to remember where India started: its literacy rate was 14% at
independence, and poverty levels were high; state involvement was required in many
sectors, and produced substantial results in several cases, such as India’s nuclear and

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space programmes.

3.1.5 Relevance of Developmentalism: Nehru’s Ideology

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According to Bhalchandra Mungekar, an economist and member of the Rajya
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Sabha, the Nehruvian model of growth — focused on the four pillars of Parliamentary
democracy, secularism, economic planning for the establishment of a welfare estate,
and non-alignment policy — is still important today, even after reforms and economic
liberalization, and the country’s first Prime Minister deserves some reverence. He was
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giving the presidential address at the Indian Economic Association’s (IEA) 95th annual
meeting, which began here on Thursday at Gitam University. He said that Nehru laid
the foundations for the nation’s economic development, despite the fact that 4% growth
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was mocked at the time as a Hindu rate of growth, and that he should be credited with
steering the country in the right direction.

Mungekar claims that the Nehruvian model can be applied today with minor
changes, and that “his strategy of non-alignment is still valid, even though the Cold War
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is over.” The NAM nations, which are mainly African and Asian, must band together to
combat rich countries’ greed for natural resources.”

He said that Nehruvian socialism should not be regarded as a dirty term, as has
become fashionable in economic circles. He believes that inclusive growth should be
m

the aim. “In fact, there is no such thing as a trickle-down effect. It’s a debunked term.
The neoclassical distribution theory is completely useless.
)A

He said, “The development process should not create or exacerbate economic

inequality.”

He said the country’s agrarian crisis was also a cause for concern, with hundreds
of farmers committing suicide, and that the government should reform its policies and
increase public investment in agriculture.
(c

Otherwise, he warned, things would get worse.

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 Indian Political Thought-II 67

Earlier, Union Minister of State for Commerce and Industry D. Purandeswari,

Notes

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who kicked off the three-day conference, said it was a foregone conclusion that India
would rise from its current status as an emerging economy to become an economic
superpower; the only question was when. “It depends on how effectively we use the

in
generational dividend by equipping our young workers with the necessary skills and
values,” she said.

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The IEA’s President, Sukhadeo Thorat, spoke about the conference’s subject,
structural shifts in employment trends following economic liberalization.

Nehru’s Legacy:

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Unfortunately, Nehru’s successors did not do a good job of carrying on his
legacy. His numerous cooperatives and local institutions will gradually become more
bureaucratized, falling prey to corruption and rent-seeking. Bottom-up growth, like

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Panchayati Raj, faded over time, and a new form of corporate feudalism arose in its
place. After Nehru’s death, the standard of public education, as well as many other
pro-poor programmes he had established, would deteriorate dramatically. Though
Indira Gandhi, Nehru’s own daughter, would be the final nail in the coffin of Nehruvian

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creation. She betrayed everything her father had stood for when she proclaimed a state
of emergency in 1975, ushering in a two-year cycle of tyranny, terror, and confusion.
Indira Gandhi’s policies during those two years will forever discredit Nehruvian
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Socialism and set in motion the Congress Party’s steady decline as a hegemonic force
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in Indian politics, culminating in its humiliating electoral defeat by the BJP in 2014.

Despite the fact that Nehru’s successors are just a pale imitation of the original,
his legacy lives on. India’s successful Mars mission in 2014 was a result of scientific
progress that began with Nehru’s declaration of independence. His investment in
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nuclear technology allowed India to become one of the few countries in the world to
possess a nuclear arsenal in 1988. The IITS are now regarded as one of India’s most
prestigious educational institutions.
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After avoiding the neocolonial pit that many newly independent countries fall into,
India is quickly becoming one of the world’s ruling super powers, rivalled only by China
and the United States. And, with the exception of the 1975–77 Emergency, it is still
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the world’s largest democracy. It is still one of the few developing countries that has
remained democratic without interruption or international involvement.

With Hindutva on the rise in India thanks to the BJP’s success, and Rahul Gandhi
continuing to be a joke of a politician, it’s become fashionable to mock Nehruvianism,
m

referring to Nehru’s premiership as “waste of time.” While it is true that by the 1980s,
Nehruvian Socialism was in desperate need of renewal — if not replacement — it would be
dishonest to ignore the role it played in laying the foundations for the BJP’s current success.
)A

Nehru had learned from Gandhi’s experience that there could be no democratic
democracy without economic democracy, just as there could have been no political
freedom without economic and intellectual independence.
(c

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Check your Understanding

Notes

e
1. In April__________, British forces opened fire on tens of thousands of unarmed
civilians protesting newly enacted legislation allowing the detention of alleged

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political enemies without trial.
2. Nehru’s post-_______ career is responsible for much of his fame. He made at least
three pivotal decisions that helped India become the republic it is today.

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3. According to Nehru, a political economy based on capitalist institutions was
incompatible with democracy because it contributed to the elite or intelligentsia
concentrating and accumulating power. State true or false.

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4. According to___________, an economist and member of the Rajya Sabha, the
Nehruvian model of growth — focused on the four pillars of Parliamentary democracy,
secularism, economic planning for the establishment of a welfare estate, and non-

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alignment policy — is still important today.

Summary

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Economic development is prized because it aids in the eradication of poverty, the
enhancement of human capacity, and the attainment of a better life. It is a necessary
tool for achieving the noble goal of improving human life. The inalienable eminence of
basic skills and quality of life is the basis for assessing the performance of economic
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and social policies in the Nehruvian paradigm. Jawahar Lal Nehru recognized that
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economic regeneration was a pre-requisite of a progressive modern life long before
independence. And it could only be accomplished by meticulous preparation. His views
were dominated by socio-economic restoration. The state that Nehru envisioned can
best be defined as “a classless society with equal economic justice and opportunity for
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all, a society organized on a planned basis for the raising or mankind to higher material
and cultural levels, to a cultivation of spiritual values of cooperation, unselfishness, the
spirit of service, the desire to do right, goodwill and love- ultimately a world order.”
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Activity
1. Create a ppt on the views of Nehru on Planning. Also elaborate on how it was
essential for independent India?
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Questions and Exercises

1. Briefly explain the core structure of development given by Nehru.
2. Give a detailed analysis of Nehruvian developmental model.
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3. What is the relationship of state with development? Answer in reference of

Nehru’s ideology.
)A

4. What was the futuristic vision of developmentalism?

5. What is the relevance of Developmentalism of Nehru in contemporary times?

Glossary
(c

1. Development: the process of developing or being developed.

2. Restoration: an act of restoring or the condition of being restored: such as. a :
a bringing back to a former position or condition : reinstatement the restoration
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 Indian Political Thought-II 69

of peace. b : restitution. c : a restoring to an unimpaired or improved condition

Notes

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the restoration of a painting.

References

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6. https://www.oreilly.com/library/view/indian-political-thought/9788131758519/
xhtml/chapter002.xhtml

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7. Ahulwalia. B.K., 1978, Nehru India’s Man of Destiny, New Delhi, New Man
Group Pub.
8. Jawaharlal Nehru’s Speeches . Vol. Ill (March 1953-August 1957). Delhi, l^W.

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9. Andrews, C. F. India and Britain - A. Moral Challenge . London, 193
10. Char, K. T. Narasimbe. Profile of Jawaharlal Nehru. London,

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Answers: Check Your Understanding
1. 1919
2. 1946

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3. True
4. Bhalchandra Mungekar
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ve
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ity
m
)A
(c

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Unit-3.2: Secularism
Notes

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Learning Objectives:

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●● Secularist View: Jawaharlal Nehru
●● Dogmatism and Secularist Philosophy

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●● Secularism and Nation Building
●● Pertinency of Nehruvian Secularism

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●● Critical Analysis of Nehru’s Secularist Ideology

Introduction

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In order to keep the state, politics, and education separate from religion, Nehru
described secularism in the dual sense of keeping the state, politics, and education
separate from religion, making religion a private matter for the person. He devised this
strategy to serve as a crusader against communalism, the most dominant contemporary

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Indian ideology after nationalism, and there was no one who could match Jawahar Lal
in this regard.

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Nehru wished for every Indian to be scientific and logical, avoiding religious
dogmatism. Gandhi Ji’s mediaeval temper to seek truth by testing and trial was a
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source of criticism for him. Secularism, according to Nehru, has several dimensions,
which are discussed below. Religious freedom, state neutrality in religious affairs,
secularism in social life, and a mental approach are all aspects of his secularism
philosophy.
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Secularism encourages us to live in a civilized manner. It obligates people to

respect the opinions of others. Democracy includes secularism, which ensures that
people have equal rights. It safeguards democracy by reducing the number of people
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who can vote. The majority has authority. Minorities’ equal rights are protected by
secularism.
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3.2.1 Secularist View: Jawaharlal Nehru

“Religious freedom often means granting of equivalent status to all religious in
India Jawaharlal Nehru remarked: “We are building a free secular state where every
religion and belief has full freedom and equal honor whose. Every citizen has equal
m

liberty and equal opportunity. Neutrality of State in religious matters means secular
state which means state not tied to any particular religion. As for secularism in social
life, he regarded secularism as the indispensable feature of modern democratic society.
He worked for the establishment as a state which “Protects all religions but does not
)A

favor one at the expense of other and does not itself adopt any religion as the state
religion.“ Moreover his secularism was a practical necessity in India. It was the panacea
of problems of religious diversities and mutual bickering and animosities which were the
consequences of such diversities. Secularism is a continuous process. It is unending.
(c

It must be a part of our national psyche. We not only have to live up to the ideals of
secularism proclaimed in our constitution but make them a part of thinking and living:
thus build up a really integrated nation, secularism does not mean absence of religion.

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But it means cherishing the noble ideals of religions like love, sympathy, compassion
Notes

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humanity etc. Nehru was a committed secularist. Secularism was both a system and a
way of life for him- Chester bowel had said that one of the greatest achievements of Mr.
Nehru was the creation of a state in which the forty five million Muslims who choose not

in
to go to Pakistan may live peacefully and worship as they please.”

Secularist View:

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Nehru’s ideas about secularism were formed during his youth, when he was raised
in a secular environment. Ferdinand T. Brooks, a theosophist, was his resident teacher;
his encounters with Annie Besant and Munshi Mubarak Ali, a Munshi of his father’s, as

O
well as living with Jews in Harrow, had a profound effect on him and, at first, eliminated
several religious dogmas from his mind. His life was shaped by his exposure to rich
English philosophical ideas, but Buddhism had a greater impact on him, dispelling
any feelings of prejudice. The origins of Buddhism can be traced back to a reaction to

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Hinduism’s restrictive existence. It taught Nehru a great deal.

Nehru was well-versed in the country’s culture. He was primarily a historian who

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believed that India was a plural society rather than a nation with a single religious
affiliation. When new social movements arose in ancient times, Buddhism and Jainism
responded to Hinduism. For him, the introduction of Christianity and Islam in the country
was as important as the arrival of Zoroastrianism. He found that people of various
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religions had similar memories that were not contradictory. When Hindus and Muslims
ve
fought together in the 1857 war for independence, it was a result of this. Nehru had
identified this central aspect of Indian culture’s shared memory and tried to build a
secularist edifice around it.

When he entered politics, he used his historical experience to deduce that the
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communal forces had widespread support from the political authorities. On this basis,
he rejected British rule, claiming that communalism arose as a result of a number of
causes, one of which was British rule. This viewpoint evolved significantly over time.
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He came to the conclusion that a functioning government system would support and
promote religious diversity. Since India is a multi-religious nation, the government
cannot be biassed in favour of any one religion. Religion, as a result, had little role
in politics. In this regard, he resembles Machiavelli, who called for the separation of
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politics and religion.

In this, Nehru differed from Gandhi, who made spiritualization of politics a major
goal of his political career. Though they both respected all religions, Nehru and Gandhi
were true secularists who disagreed on how religion should be applied in politics. In his
m

thought process, which had defined secularism as the reality of the ages with empirical
teleology, communalism and majoritarianism had no position. During the national
revolution, he was well aware of the pitfalls of majoritarianism. Hindu reactionary
)A

organizations and movements, especially those that arose in the 1910s and 1920s,
posed a threat to national unity. He preferred to embrace nationalism by recognizing
the fundamental bond that all religions share. He promoted nationalism by putting
citizens of all major faiths together on the subject of national unity. During the Khilafat
movement, Gandhi had taken a step in that direction, and Nehru strengthened it in the
(c

following decade by associating himself with nationalist Muslim leaders.

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As a result, his anti-communal stance was driven by the broader goal of improving
Notes

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the national movement. This pre-independence approach culminated in the post-
independence period, when Nehru nourished secularism with the explicit goal of
ensuring respect for religious diversity while focusing on national growth by bringing all

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sections together.

Nehru was a rationalist who understood that human interests trumped religious

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dogmas. His disagreements with a number of people over religious squabbles indicated
that he was adamantly opposed to any kind of ritualism, religious superstitions, or
unscientific metaphysical approaches to life. His secular credentials were founded on
his logical humanistic attitude toward life, which he considered to be more significant

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than life after death. His emphasis was on the betterment of life in this era, not the era
about which we are ignorant. This belief was most likely influenced by his interest in
Buddhism, which rejects the existence of God. Humanism is true religion, and helping

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the poor is the highest form of worship; Nehru expressed and practised this to the
fullest extent possible.

His focus on the growth of scientific temperament was a significant contribution

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to India because it was the beginning of the war against religious obscurantism and
superstition, which pervaded the entire world. As a result, Nehru can be seen as
carrying on the legacy of Raja Rammohan Roy, the great social reformer; both played a

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crucial role in the dismantling of social orthodoxies.
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The emphasis on empirical study of the mundane order strengthened his
secularism. This order will not be able to last for a long time unless it is built on
those foundations. Nehru discovered that the only solution to communal powers was
secularism as a result of his dissection of communalism. The pragmatic foundation
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was a scientific way of life. No other political structure could be developed when
secularism was to be practised than a functioning democracy. As a result, democracy
and secularism are twins. Nehru’s donation of the twin siblings to the country is another
notable contribution. This is what distinguishes him as a unique figure in human history.
U

Secularism is connected to the other philosophical foundations of human

civilisation as well. The fundamental ideals of freedom and liberty are these. He
understood that no secular order would last unless citizens of all faiths experience the
ity

highest levels of freedom and liberty. In the Constituent Assembly, he expressed this
sentiment in his Objectives Resolution.

In the creation of the human spirit and country, Nehru used secularism. He never
solicited votes based on his religious views. He expressed the humanistic ideals that
m

religious freedom entails. His secular theories are rooted in the great Indian tradition; as a
result, they are not anti-religious, but rather grounded in humanism and universal ethics.

His ideas on secularism are especially relevant in contemporary India, where new
)A

clouds of doubts, apprehensions, and uncertainties are gathering over the nation’s
social horizon.

3.2.2 Dogmatism and Secularist Philosophy

(c

“Nehru identified secularism as a possible source of dogma and this is what he

said at a meeting of the Congress Parliamentary towards the end of his life: ‘Secularism

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 Indian Political Thought-II 73

is not a happy word. It does not mean we are anti-religious, it just means India is not
Notes

e
formally entitled to any religion as a nation’”

Nehru’s concept of secularism has mainly four aspects:

in
1. To begin with, Nehru has always believed in a multi-religious India, and that all
those who live here, regardless of religion, have equal rights and responsibilities.
The most important aspects of secularism in India were the equal treatment

nl
of all faiths. All communities, he believed, should be guaranteed the right to
perform religious ceremonies. He stated that no religion should be deprived
of its rightful rights, and that community membership should not be based on

O
religious affiliation. It fully comprehends the right to religious liberty, which he
interprets as equal respect for all faiths and equal opportunities for those who
practise any faith.

ty
2. Second, according to Nehru, secularism means that the government should
maintain a policy of neutrality in religious matters. Nehru was convinced
that a free India’s government must be secular, in the sense that it will not
be associated with any religious faith directly. Any talk of Hindu or Muslim raj

si
was always met with vehement opposition by Nehru. He believed in people’s
raj, and the state was obliged to follow a policy of coexistence when it came
to different faiths. If the government attempted to restrict religious freedom, it
r
would not only be wrong, but it would also inevitably cause friction and trouble.
ve
3. Furthermore, Nehru’s secular state or secular philosophy implied a particular
mentality among different communities. Particularly in India, where there are
many different religious groups, it is critical that they develop an attitude that
can bring about unity and a sense of brotherhood among them. From a religious
ni

standpoint, he felt it was the dominant community’s responsibility not to use its
power in any way that would jeopardize our secular ideal. He stressed that any
narrow and aggressive attitude on the part of the majority instills fear in minority
U

communities. Because of Nehru’s firm belief in secularism, it was much better

to displease a few people and lose an election than to fail in his ideals.
4. Fourth, Nehru advocated for secularisation in all aspects of society. Nehru
ity

recognised the extent to which religions have infiltrated social issues such as
marriage, inheritance, and civil and criminal law. He believed they established
a complete social structure and attempted to maintain it by granting religious
sanction and authority. As a result, the existence of multiple sets of laws
governing various religious communities was incompatible with the ideal of a
m

secular society. Nehru attempted to create a uniform civil code for the entire
Indian population, regardless of religion or caste, by introducing a slew of social
legislation. Secularism, in his vision, was a political structure in which individuals
)A

were not subject to religious sanctions that imposed social inequalities.

Nehru agreed with Ambedkar, the father of our Indian constitution, who stated that
in the face of rampant communalism, democracy would be unreal and meaningless,
and that only a secular state based on equality and justice could fit into Indian society.
Nehru’s philosophy of a religiously neutral state is enshrined in India’s constitution,
(c

which has three main features:

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 74 Indian Political Thought-II

●● To begin with, our secularism is liberal in the sense that Nehru wanted to fight
Notes

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communalism through social welfare and politics while preserving religious
neutrality and ensuring religious equality and liberty to all Indian minorities.

in
●● Second, Indian secularism is qualified in the sense that religious freedom
granted to all religions is subject to all considerations of public order, morality,
and citizen welfare as a whole, and the state authority may impose restrictions
on any of the freedoms or rights guaranteed under article 25 of the Indian

nl
constitution. It is up to the courts to decide if any such limitation is in violation
of the constitution’s spirit.
●● Third, Nehru’s idea of secularism is dynamic and enlightened, allowing

O
religion to contribute to social welfare. Nonetheless, in the common interest
of the country as a whole, the government of the day may alter or define
the personal law of any community, as it did in the case of the Sikhs and

ty
Buddhists.
As a result, Nehru considered secularism to be the most important feature of
modern democratic society. The narrow mediaeval notion of theocratic state could not
be applied to modern India. In India, Nehru’s idea of a secular state was a practical

si
necessity as a solution to the issue of religious diversity, which posed a threat to the
country’s unity, harmony, and social stability.

r
3.2.3 Secularism and Nation Building
ve
The secular vision of former Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru was not irreligious.
Rather, it was inspired by Hindu scriptures, and he held Buddha, Jesus, and
Muhammad in high regard, seeing them as historical revolutionaries. He was simply
opposed to dogma and priesthood because he believed too strongly in individual liberty
ni

for the human mind to be enslaved by the constraints of organised religion.

The secular state is defined as a state that guarantees individual and corporate
U

religious freedom, deals with individuals as citizens regardless of their religion, and is
not constitutionally linked to any particular religion, nor does it attempt to encourage
or interfere with it. A secular state is one in which people are not discriminated against
in any way because of their religious beliefs. Secularism is an ideology that can be
ity

viewed as a way of life. It must, nonetheless, be seen primarily in the concrete process
of nation-building.

This concept’s underlying assumption is that religion and state functions are
fundamentally distinct areas of human activity. A secular state’s role is not to encourage,
m

regulate, direct, or otherwise intervene in religion. In a secular state, all religions

are subordinate to and separate from the state in one limited respect, as voluntary
associations of individual citizens. Religions and associations are subject to state laws
)A

and are responsible for carrying out civil duties properly. Religions are treated similarly
to other voluntary associations based on common social, cultural, or economic interests
by the state in this regard. While granting basic fundamental rights, a secular state
requires its citizens not to discriminate against others on the basis of religion, sex,
caste, or other factors. It also guarantees freedom of conscience, as well as the free
(c

profession, practice, and propagation of religion, as long as it does not interfere with
public order, morality, or health.

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 Indian Political Thought-II 75

In the interest of public peace and morals, a secular state may also reserve the
Notes

e
right to make provisions for the advancement of any socially backward community or
to enact any law restricting religious practices. As a result, a secular state exists to
protect the welfare of its people and to provide them with equal opportunities for self-

in
development. It is unaware of any worlds other than this one. As a result, we can
presume that a secular state has the following characteristics: no established state
religion, tolerance for all faiths, discouragement of intolerance, equality of rights,

nl
people’s welfare, no religious education by the government, condemnation of religious
dogma, and no religion exempted from the secular state’s laws.

In a country like India, where there are many faiths and religions, true nationalism

O
can only be built on the foundation of secularism. In a secular state like India denotes
a country that respects all religions equally and provides equal opportunities to those
who practise them, opportunities, and that as a state, it does not allow itself to be tied

ty
to any one religion or belief system and religiosity. The word secular meant much more
to Nehru than its dictionary definition, particularly in the context of the country’s social
conditions. As a result, a caste-ridden society is not widely regarded as secular, and
Nehru wished to create a political structure in which individuals were not bound by

si
caste. In the country, there were any social inequalities imposed by religious diversity.
Secularism was primarily a pragmatic strategy for preserving social stability as well as
harmony.
r
Nehru’s concept of secularism was shaped by the Indian situation and was
ve
inextricably linked to the concept of a good society. Nehru was concerned about
secularism because he believed that organised religion and even religious attitudes
were anti-democratic. Religions create a reactionary force that opposes progress and
change. Nehru’s understanding of religion is based on certain basic human values, and
ni

he sees science as a quest for truth rather than a means of controlling nature. As a
result, Nehru was opposed to dogmatism and intolerance, which were associated with
the exclusion of other viewpoints and ideas.
U

The Western model of secularism, which separates state and church, does
not fit the Indian reality. In India, secularism is almost impossible to discuss without
mentioning communalism, in which the two major religious communities, Hindus
ity

and Muslims, fought each other primarily for political and economic power. As a
result, Nehru’s secular spirit encouraged him to work hard to create a secular society
based on justice and equality. Secularism was not only a political doctrine, but also a
revolutionary social doctrine in India, embracing all faiths and communities. Secular
philosophy encompassed not only irreligion and material well-being, but also spiritual
m

elements. “Secular philosophy itself must have come from some background, some
objective other than merely material wellbeing,” Nehru writes. It must basically have
moral values as well as certain behavioural standards.”
)A

3.2.4 Pertinency of Nehruvian Secularism (Relevance in

Contemporary Times)
Nehru’s concept of secularism, dharamnirpekshata, did not imply that religion
(c

should be discouraged. It referred to a state in which people have religious and

conscience freedom, as well as freedom for those who are not religious. Nehru himself
admitted that a good term for “secular” is difficult to come by. Some people believe it

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 76 Indian Political Thought-II

means something anti-religious. Obviously, this is incorrect. What this means is that it
Notes

e
is a state that respects all religions equally and provides equal opportunities for them,
and that it does not allow itself to be identified with a single faith or religion, which
then becomes the State religion. Nehru’s secularism was defined as religious freedom

in
or irreligion, the absence of a state religion, and equal respect for all religions. The
state’s secular character is defined by various articles of our constitution. Although
there is a provision for reservation of seats for Schedule Castes and Schedule Tribes,

nl
the Constitution guarantees individual and religious denomination freedom of religion,
equality of citizenship, equality of opportunity in public services, no discrimination
in educational institutions, no communal electorate, no special taxes for religious

O
promotion, and no religious instructions in the state educational institutions. Gandhi
attempted to bring people of different religions together using the sarva dharma
sambhava principle. In a religiously divided plural society, it was also a means of
forming mass movement. Gandhi was also aware of the importance of religion in

ty
people’s lives and believed in treating all religions equally.

In the Constituent Assembly debates, the differences in opinion between Gandhi

si
and Nehru on Secularism were evident.

In his 1963 work “India as a Secular State,” Donald E Smith offers a detailed and
logical analysis of Indian secularism. As a result, India has some but not all of the
r
characteristics of a secular state. According to Smith, the heritage of Hinduism, which
ve
has characteristics that are conducive to secularism, the presence of various minority
groups, and the legacy of the national movement led by Gandhi and Nehru provide
prospects for strengthening the secular state. To understand secularism, according to
Neera Chandhoke, it is necessary to place it within the larger conceptual context of
ni

which it is a part, and to unravel its meaning in relation to the meanings of equality,
freedom, and democracy. The Indian version of secularism is based on the sarva
dharma sambhava principle, which demands equal respect for all religions.
U

Nehru was convinced that religion could not be removed from the political and
public spheres in India. The constitutional values of democracy and fundamental rights
are linked to Indian secularism. Thus, secularism is important for India because (a) it
allows people of various religions to coexist in civility while respecting all faiths, (b) it is
ity

a component of democracy that ensures equal rights, and (c) it protects democracy by
restricting the majority’s power and (d) It safeguards minorities’ equal rights as citizens.
Nehru’s secular ideal is significant for India because it governs the state’s relationship
with different religious groups based on the principle of equality, which states that the
m

state shall not discriminate against any religion.

As a result, secularism is the only viable alternative to communalism’s destructive

nature.
)A

Nehru’s doctrine of dharmanirapekshata means that the state’s policies will not
be affected by religious considerations. Nehru, on the other hand, understood that
policymaking could not be divorced from the domain of religion, and that religion could
not be excluded from the political and public sphere.
(c

The violence that erupted after the country’s partition demonstrated that religion
had become ingrained in political life. Secularism, according to Nehru, does not imply a
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 Indian Political Thought-II 77

state in which religion is discouraged; rather, it entails freedom for all religions, including
Notes

e
freedom for those who have no religion. For Nehru, the term secular did not imply that
he was anti-religious.

in
3.2.5 Critical Analysis of Nehru’s Secularist Ideology
Nehru’s role in conceptualising and institutionalising secularism has received a lot

nl
of attention in the current debate. Supporters of Nehru’s secular legacy applaud him for
embracing this policy and promoting communal harmony. Nehru is blamed by critics for
the issues associated with secularism.

O
Criticism of Nehru’s Ideology:
1. No Love for Indian Culture: Nehru has long been regarded by the Indian
political right as being too sophisticated and European for a nation that had

ty
fought hard for independence from the British. “Nehru was primarily responsible
for perpetuating colonial rule in the form of European political culture and social
philosophy after India’s independence. He admitted that he only knew India

si
through the lens of Europe,” says RSS ideologue Rakesh Sinha.
2. Flawed Idea of Socialism or Secularism: The second charge levelled against
Nehru is that his “secularism of western import” and “socialism of Russian
r
import,” as Muralidhar Rao puts it, were “not in tune with the realities of India.”
ve
Nehru’s economic plan was based on strong government control, a model
that had not yet been fully abandoned. According to Rai of the IGNCA, Nehru
“viewed India from the Marxist perspective and introduced the Soviet model of
development.”
ni

3. The Family Legacy: Yet, if it weren’t for the Congress’s dynasty rule, it appears
that some, if not all, of the anti-Nehru sentiment would have vanished. “There
is Nehru the individual, and then there is Nehru the legacy,” Dasgupta agrees.
U

The focus of much of the criticism is on how the Nehruvian legacy has been
carried out, rather than on Nehru himself.”
Pundit Jawaharlal Nehru was one of the few political leaders of our time who
was almost idolised by his supporters while being reviled by some of his political
ity

opponents in India and some commentators overseas. Regardless of one’s feelings

about his various policies, one must applaud him for his significant contribution to the
development of modern India. Against insurmountable odds, he guided the fates of free
India for seventeen years.
m

Check your Understanding

1. _________ role in conceptualising and institutionalising secularism has received a
)A

lot of attention in the current debate.

2. The ___________ model of secularism, which separates state and church, does
not fit the Indian reality. In India, secularism is almost impossible to discuss without
mentioning communalism, in which the two major religious communities, Hindus and
Muslims, fought each other primarily for political and economic power.
(c

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 78 Indian Political Thought-II

3. Nehru advocated for secularisation in all aspects of society. Nehru recognised the
Notes

e
extent to which religions have infiltrated social issues such as marriage, inheritance,
and civil and criminal law. State true or false.

in
4. Nehru was a __________ who understood that human interests trumped religious
dogmas.

Summary

nl
“To Nehru, secularism meant granting of equal status to all religious in India.
Secularism demands tolerance and close and active interaction among various

O
communities in India. But when Nehruvian model of secularism had been put to
practice, there were threats to this concept arising out of communal violence in present
Indian context and hence Nehru’s secularism has been criticized by several scholars.
Irrespective of such criticism Nehru defined secularism as a means to strengthen

ty
national unity and to construct better and brighter India.”

Secularism is essential in a society like India, where religious diversity is prevalent.

The relationship between the state and various religious groups is regulated by

si
secularism. All communities are treated equally in a secular state, and the state is
not affiliated with any religion. No one shall be discriminated against because of their
religious affiliation. The notion of secularism stems from the democratic principle. Only

r
when it refers to democratic equality does secularism become significant. No society
can be considered secular unless it adheres to democratic principles of liberty and
ve
equality. Secularism, on the other hand, is intended to govern inter-group relations.
Individual members of the group may be treated unfairly, as in the case of women’s
rights within religious communities.
ni

Activity
1. Discuss Nehru’s views on Secularism.
U

2. Form a report on “Dogmatism and Secularist Philosophy” by Nehru.

Questions and Exercises

1. Discuss the secularist view of the great leader Nehru.
ity

2. How did Nehru link the concept of secularism to nation-building?

3. Critically analyze Nehru’s secularist ideology.
4. What is the relevance of Nehruvian secularism in contemporary times?
m

Glossary
1. Vis-à-vis: compared with; in relation towards
)A

2. Secularism: the principle of separation of the state from religious institutions.

References
1. https://www.oreilly.com/library/view/indian-political-thought/9788131758519/
xhtml/chapter002.xhtml
(c

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 Indian Political Thought-II 79

2. Bhargava Rajeev ed. 1998, Secularism and its critics, New Delhi, Oxford
Notes

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University Press Publications
3. Hasan Mushirul ed. 2004, Will Secular India Survive, New Delhi, Imprint One

in
Publication
4. Srinivasan T.N. ed., 2007. The Future of Secularism, New Delhi, Oxford
University Press Publication

nl
5. Luthera. V.P., 1964, The Concept of Secular State and India, London, Oxford
University Press.

O
Answers: Check Your Understanding
1. Nehru’s
2. Western

ty
3. True
4. Rationalist

r si
ve
ni
U
ity
m
)A
(c

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 80 Indian Political Thought-II

Module-IV: Swami Dayanand Saraswati

Notes

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Structure:

in
Unit-4.1: Vedic Aryan Nationalism
4.1.1 Dayanand Contribution to Indian Nationalist Movement

nl
4.1.2 Dayanand and Core Ideology of Arya Samaj
4.1.3 Arya Samaj and Nation Building

O
4.1.4 Aryan Nationalism: A Viewpoint
4.1.5 Theory of Indigeneous Aryans
4.1.6 Western Perspective on Aryan Nationalism

ty
4.1.7 Criticism of Vedic Aryan Nationalism

r si
ve
ni
U
ity
m
)A
(c

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 Indian Political Thought-II 81

Unit-4.1: Vedic Aryan Nationalism

Notes

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Learning Objectives:

in
●● Dayanand Contribution to Indian Nationalist Movement
●● Dayanand and Core Ideology of Arya Samaj

nl
●● Arya Samaj and Nation Building
●● Aryan Nationalism: A Viewpoint

O
●● Theory of Indigeneous Aryans
●● Western Perspective on Aryan Nationalism
●● Criticism of Vedic Aryan Nationalism

ty
Introduction
Dayananda Saraswati was an Indian philosopher, social activist, and the founder

si
of the Arya Samaj, a Vedic dharma reform movement. In 1876, he was the first to call
for Swaraj as “India for Indians,” a call that Lokmanya Tilak later adopted. He worked to
revive Vedic ideologies by denouncing idolatry and ritualistic worship.
r
S. Radhakrishnan, India’s philosopher and President, later referred to him as one
ve
of the “makers of Modern India,” as did Sri Aurobindo.

From childhood, he was a sanyasi (ascetic) and a scholar. He believed in the

Vedas’ infallible authority. Dayananda was a proponent of the karma and reincarnation
doctrines. He emphasized brahmacharya’s Vedic ideals, such as celibacy and devotion
ni

to God.

Dayananda’s contributions included promoting equal rights for women, such as the
U

right to education and the reading of Indian scriptures, as well as his Sanskrit and Hindi
commentary on the Vedas from Vedic Sanskrit.

4.1.1 Dayanand Contribution to Indian Nationalist Movement

ity

Swami Dayanand’s life has been a source of great inspiration and encouragement
to a large number of our countrymen in various domains of their activities, and it
is natural that people in all parts of the country want to learn more about his life and
ideals. Swamiji is also well-known solely as a religious and social reformer. His
m

contribution as a pioneer of Indian nationalism and a great political theorist has earned
very little recognition.

In ancient India, nationalism meant sharing a common soul-life, a common history,

)A

a common social organization, and a common political leadership. It is incorrect to

assume that eastern nationalism is an effort to achieve cultural, social, and political
homogeneity in order to combat the west. Nationalism is defined by solidarity on all
levels: socioeconomic, religious, cultural, and political. We may find signs of nationalism
in this context in the Vedas. The popular hymn from the Atharva Veda, “The earth is the
(c

mother, I am her son,” is thought to be an early expression of the idea of the country as
the mother-land.

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In Ancient India, Asoka, Ghandragupta Maurya, Gupta kings, and Harsh are
Notes

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rightfully known as the founders of nationalism. For them, Arya Varta was the most
important person in the world. Though I have reservations about the Maratha and
Rajput rulers’ nationalism, they were motivated by a local and segmental knowledge of

in
their own power and its extension. They never thought in terms of ‘India first and India
foremost,’ which is at the heart of nationalism’s psychology. They never considered
healing or eliminating the social, religious, or political evils that were responsible for

nl
foreigners’ political subjugation of their motherland. Global invaders proceeded to
conquer India one after the other. So much so that when the British came to rule, Indian
nationalism was at its lowest point. However, we must remember Shrimad Bhagwat

O
Gita’s eternal proverb, “Whenever faith (dharma) is on the decline and evils or vices
multiply in the holy land of India, God incarnates himself and comes to the rescue of
the men so that righteousness and truth may prevail.” ‘Whether one agrees with this
viewpoint or not, India’s history demonstrates that at every crucial juncture in our

ty
history, God has always sent us a great man to shift the current of thought, whether
social, religious, or political.’ And other nations are guilty of this.

With all of Hindu society’s ancient heritage and inspiring legacy crumbling, Swami

si
Dayanand’s arrival was unquestionably a breath of fresh air. He dedicated his life,
career, and death to the betterment of his country and the world... Swami Dayanand
is widely regarded as the modern-day father of Indian nationalism. It was a period of
r
great political upheaval in India at the time. The Marathas’ dominance had finally been
ve
broken, and the East India Company had come to be regarded as India’s overlord by
almost all of the country’s states. India is a country in Asia. The Mughal Emperor in
Delhi was practically powerless, and Nepal’s tiny state had been humiliated beyond
repair by a defeat in 1814-15. Foreigners controlled India, who had come with the
ni

primary goal of trading with the East. India had completely passed into English hands
by the time Swami Dayanand left Swami Virjanand, the great precepter, in 1862. The
British forces had crushed the great war of independence of 1857, and the Company’s
reign had come to an end, with the crown taking full control. The 1858 Proclamation
U

of Queen Victoria marked the pinnacle of Indian degeneration. Indian nationalism had
been dealt a death blow, in a sense. It needed a strong and brave hand to bring it back
to life. Swami Dayanand was the messenger.
ity

On a social level, the entire fabric of Hindu society was disintegrating.

The people had been greatly demoralised by foreign rule. In reality, Hindu
society as a whole was in a state of disarray. Hundreds of castes and sub-castes had
sprouted in place of the four varnas. Women’s plight was pitiful. They were also denied
m

educational opportunities. It was not uncommon for children to marry. Beggars and
children could be seen all around. Dr. B. M. Sharma describes social life as follows: In
short, illiteracy, caste, early marriage, diversion from the vedic system and consequent
)A

neglect of duty, an ever-increasing number of widows, criminal neglect of orphans, and

an ever-increasing number of so-called Sadhus had all disturbed Hindu society to an
unsettling degree.

The spread of Christianity had undermined Hindu belief, and Orthodox Hindus
were unwilling to return coverts. The sky had been obscured by dark clouds of
(c

ignorance, petty-mindedness, poverty, and foreign interference. The room was

completely dark. However, the Hindu community’s heart remained strong. It was not

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 Indian Political Thought-II 83

dead, but it was sleeping. It needed a firm hand to wake it up. There was still time to
Notes

e
reform the content. The presence of a fearless, honest, stubborn, and stout reformer
was required. Dayanandwas able to fill the void.

in
Swami Dayanand aspired to live for the political, social, and religious liberation
of his country. He studied the situation for a few years, five years after he had
left Virjanand. He correctly recognized the causes of India’s slavery, and once he

nl
knew what they were, he set out to eliminate them first, paving the way for India’s
independence. “The causes of foreign rule in India are mutual feuds, disparities in
faith, a lack of purity in life, a lack of education, child marriage, marriages in which
the contracting parties have little say in the selection of their life partners, carnal

O
pleasure, untruthfulness and other evil habits, the neglect of Vedic research, and other
malpractices,” he claims. Only when brothers compete between themselves does an
outsider take on the role of judge. The despicable low Duryodhana, the destroyer of his

ty
race and the enemy of his nation, is still treading the wicked path of the Aryas, who are
enduring untold misery.

Swami Dayanand was convinced that social evils and irreligiousness were at the

si
root of India’s political enslavement, and that the country would never be fit for self-
government or swaraj unless these evils were removed. As a result, he embarked on
a crusade against social evils, paving the way for political freedom. He recognised

r
that the people’s illiteracy and ignorance were at the heart of India’s downfall. As
a result, he pleaded for the establishment of pathshalas. He was a supporter of the
ve
state’s mandated compulsory education for all children, including girls. In his Satyarth
Prakash, he outlined a detailed educational plan that included the study of the science
of government, which he divided into two categories: civil and military.
ni

Swami Dayanand was well aware that the cause of Indian nationalism necessitated
the creation of a popular national language. As a result, he was the first among Indian
publicists to campaign for Hindi, or Aryabhash, as India’s national language. He
dropped Gujerati in favour of Aryabhasha, his mother tongue. Dayanandbelieved that
U

religious harmony was critical for achieving political independence, which was often
undermined by the intervention of a third power, the British, who could retain their
power through a divide-and-rule approach. Dayanandleft Deccan at the end of 1876 for
ity

Delhi, where he would attend the great Darbar in January 1877. He convened a Unity
Conference of India’s greatest men there, with the aim of uniting all heterogeneous
elements of Hindus and Muslims.

in the country of India Punjab’s Munshl Kanahya Lai Alakhdhari, for example and
m

Munshl Kanahya Lai Alakhdhari of Punjab, Babu Navin Ghander Roy, Keshav Ghander
Sen, Munshi Indramuni, Sir Sayyad Ahmad Khan and Babu Harish Chandra were there.

Swami Dayanand urged them to put aside their differences and work together
)A

for the country’s salvation. Despite the failure of the meeting, Swami emphasized the
importance of unity for the motherland’s independence.

Dayanand was a fervent supporter of Swadeshi, which later became a cornerstone

of our national liberation movement. He was well aware of Indians’ economic
dependency, and he promoted and preached the use of Indian-made goods through his
(c

example, writings, and lectures. He urged Indians to move abroad, learn new trades,
and expand their own.

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 84 Indian Political Thought-II

“He writes in his Satyarth Prakash: “The ancient Indians used to go abroad to all
Notes

e
parts of the world for the purposes of trade, travel, or on political business. ... Those
who do not hesitate to go abroad, and thereby associate with peoples of various foreign
countries, study their customs, manners, increase their trade, and augment their

in
political power, become fearless and bold, and attain great power and prosperity by
studiously imbibing their good qualities, and adopting the good customs and manners
of the foreigners, and rejecting their faults and evil habits and bad manners. . There can

nl
be no harm or sin in learning trade, arts and other good qualities from the foreigners....
Can a country make any progress unless its people trade with or extend their rule over
other countries?””

O
Dayanand slammed the priestly class’s conservative views and blamed them for
India’s decline. He preached against idol worship and emphasised God’s unity. He was
an outspoken opponent of the caste system and a strong supporter of Shuddhi, or the

ty
return of those who had converted to other religions. He advocated for women’s rights.
Untouchability was something he preached about. In other words, he emphasized
character development. He was a true believer in the facts. Character is what makes a
country great.

si
4.1.2 Dayanand and Core Ideology of Arya Samaj

r
The Arya Samaj, founded by Dayananda Saraswati, opposed a variety of religious
and community activities, including idol worship, animal sacrifice, pilgrimages, priest
ve
craft, temple offerings, castes, child marriages, meat eating, and discrimination against
women. Both of these practices, he said, ran counter to common sense and the Vedic
wisdom.
ni

Swami Dayanand established the Arya Samaj in Bombay on April 7, 1875, with ten
principles that are solely based on God, spirit, and nature.

Indians’ religious views have shifted dramatically as a result of the organization. He

U

enshrined the principle that “all deeds should be done with the primary goal of helping
humanity,” rather than adopting dogmatic practices of revering idols and icons, by
founding this group.
ity

Swami Dayanand was born on February 12, 1824, in Tankara, Gujarat, in

western India. Swami Dayanand returned to the Vedas, believing them to be the most
authoritative source of wisdom and truth spoken in the “Words of God,” at a time
when Hinduism was split into different schools of philosophy and theology. Swami
Dayanand wrote and published a number of religious texts, the most important of
m

which are Satyartha Prakash, Rig-Vedaadi, Bhasya-Bhoomika, and Sanskar Vidhi,

in order to re-energize Vedic knowledge and reawaken our understanding of the four
Vedas - Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda, and Atharva Veda. “Back to the Vedas,”
)A

Swami Dayanand’s key message, was the backbone of all his thoughts and deeds. In
reality, he spent his entire life preaching against many Hindu practises and rituals that
he considered to be useless and oppressive. This included 19th-century rituals like idol
worship and polytheism, as well as social stigmas like casteism and untouchability, child
marriage, and forced widowhood. He also targeted the blind faith and obscurantism of
(c

other religions in his magnum opus Satyarth Prakash.

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Swami Dayanand demonstrated to the people how returning to their faith’s roots,
Notes

e
the Vedas, would help them better their lives as well as the religious, political, and
economic conditions of India at the time. Although he had millions of supporters, he
also had many critics and enemies. According to legend, orthodox Hindus poisoned him

in
many times, with one attempt being fatal, and he died in 1883. The Arya Samaj, one of
the largest and most progressive organisations, was what he left behind.

nl
On April 7, 1875, Swami Dayanand initiated the Hindu reform organisation Arya
Samaj in Mumbai, as well as the Arya Samaj’s 10 principles, which are distinct from
Hinduism but focused on the Vedas. These principles sought to advance the person
and community by improving the human race’s physical, moral, and social well-being.

O
His goal was not to found a new religion, but to restore the ancient Vedic teachings. He
desired true human development through the acceptance of the Supreme truth and the
rejection of lies through critical thought, as he said in Satyarth Prakash.

ty
Swami Dayanand established the Arya Samaj in India in the nineteenth century.
It is now a worldwide organisation that teaches the real Vedic faith, which is the
cornerstone of Hinduism. The Arya Samaj is best described as a socio-cultural

si
organisation that arose from a Hindu reform movement. Its mission is to “mould the
lives of its members and all others according to the message of the Vedas with regard
to the circumstances of time and place,” and it is a “non-denominational authentic Vedic

r
spiritual organisation committed to removing superstition, orthodoxy, and social evils
from society.”
ve
The Arya Samaj is also involved in volunteer work, especially in the field of
education, and has established a number of schools and colleges across India based
on its universal values. Many countries around the world, including Australia, Bali,
ni

Canada, Fiji, Guyana, Indonesia, Mauritius, Myanmar, Kenya, Singapore, South Africa,
Surinam, Thailand, Trinidad & Tobago, the United Kingdom, and the United States,
have an Arya Samaj culture.
U

The Sarvadeshik Arya Pratinidhi Sabha, or World Council of Arya Samaj, currently
manages the Arya Samaj’s activities from its office at 3/5 Asaf Ali Road in New
Delhi. Swami Agnivesh was elected President in 2004 and has led the organization’s
progressive movements and activities since then.
ity

10 Core Beliefs of Arya Samaj

1 The primeval cause of all genuine knowledge and all that is known by means of
knowledge is God.
2 God is truth-consciousness: formless, omnipotent, unborn, infinite,
m

unchangeable, incomparable, omnipresent, internal, undecaying, immortal,

eternal, holy, and creator of the universe. God alone deserves worship.
3 The Vedas are repositories of all of true knowledge. It is the paramount duty of
)A

all Aryas to study and teach and to propound the Veda.

4 One should be ever ready to imbibe truth and forsake untruth.
5 All acts should be done in accordance with Dharma, i.e. after deliberating upon
what is truth and untruth.
(c

6 The prime object of Arya Samaj is to do well to the whole world, i.e. to achieve
physical, spiritual and social prosperity for all.

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 86 Indian Political Thought-II

7 Our conduct towards all should be guided by love, by injunctions of Dharma and
Notes

e
according to their respective positions.
8 One should dispel ignorance and tpmote knowledge.

in
9 One should not be content with one’s own prosperity only, but should consider
the prosperity of all as his own prosperity.
10 All human beings should abide by the rules concerning social or everyone’s

nl
benefit, while everyone should be free to follow any rule beneficial for him/her.

4.1.3 Arya Samaj and Nation Building

O
By propagating the Vedas, the Arya Samaj is doing an excellent job of preserving
ancient Indian culture and knowledge. Every Indian should be familiar with the Vedas.
Kabina Minister Dr. Harak Singh Rawat said these things at the end of the Ved Prachar
Mahotsav.

ty
The Arya Samaj stressed the emancipation of Hindu society based on the
aforementioned values. Only the Vedas, according to Dayananda, are repositories
of true wisdom, and the Vedas’ religion is the only religion. The Vedas include the

si
concepts of economics, politics, social sciences, and humanities. His rallying cry, “Go
Back to the Vedas,” raised people’s awareness. Other scriptures and ‘Puranas’ were
refused by him. He was a staunch opponent of idol worship, ritualism, animal sacrifice,
r
polytheism, the belief of heaven and hell, and fatalism.
ve
Hinduism was simplified by the Arya Samaj, who made Hindus aware of their
glorious heritage and the superior importance of Vedic knowledge. Hindus need not seek
advice from Christianity, Islam, or Western culture. The Arya Samaj, by emphasising
Hinduism’s dominance, could counteract Islamic and Christian propaganda against it.
ni

Dayananda began the “Shuddhi Movement” as a means of converting people of other

faiths to Hinduism, as well as re-converting those who had previously converted from
Hinduism to other religions. Low-caste Hindus were discouraged from converting to
U

Christianity or Islam as a result of this campaign. The Shuddhi Movement opposed

Christian missionaries who attempted to convert Hindus who were uneducated, weak,
and depressed. In pre-independence India, the Arya Samaj was instrumental in bringing
about socio-religious changes. Despite his reputation as a conservative and sectarian
ity

activist who asserted Hinduism’s dominance over all other religions, Dayananda was a
key figure in the development of modern India.

Social Reforms:
m

The Arya Samaj provided vital services to Hindu society by opposing various social
evils. He was against the caste system and the Brahmins’ social dominance. He also
questioned the Brahmins’ monopoly on Vedic reading and advocated for the right of
all, regardless of caste, creed, or color, to study the Vedas. Dayananda was also an
)A

outspoken opponent of the tradition of untouchability. He campaigned against women’s

inequity and sought to improve women’s education. He was a staunch opponent of
child marriages, polygamy, “Purdah,” and the religion of “Sati,” among other things. He
demonstrated that women and men should have equal rights by citing Vedic teachings.
Members of the Arya Samaj engaged in inter-caste marriages and interlining. Despite
(c

the fact that the Arya Samaj did not consciously engage in politics, it contributed
indirectly to the promotion of national consciousness. Dayananda was the first to argue

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for the use of “Swadeshi” to replace imported products. He aided the creation of an all-
Notes

e
India national spirit by recognizing Hindi as the national language.

He also coined the word “Swaraj” to describe a state founded on Vedic principles

in
before any Indian national leader. As a result, the Arya Samaj became a fervent promoter
of Hinduism and an organ of militant Hinduism. As a result of this militancy, the growth of
extremism within the fold of the All India National Congress was inevitable.

nl
Major contributions by Arya Samaj in Social field to build a strong nation:
1. Untouchability: Swamiji was profoundly disturbed by Orthodox Brahmins’

O
attitudes toward the Hindu depressed class known as Dalits, Outcastes, or
Untouchables. They were not permitted to visit Hindu temples, houses, or
participate in Brahman rituals. It was forbidden for them to draw water from the
village wells. Their children were not eligible to attend school with other children

ty
in the village. Swamji was the first to declare equal rights for lower castes,
including the right to education, the right to recite Vedic mantras, the right to
eat, the right to marry, and the right to draw water from public wells. Swami

si
Shraddhanand (formerly known as Lala Munshi Ram) dedicated his entire life
to helping the poor. During the independence movement, Mahatma Gandhi
and the Congress Party championed this cause. Thanks to Swamji, the Indian
Constitution was amended in 1950 to grant Dalits and Harijans equal civil,
r
religious, and cultural rights. Swami Agnivesh has been waging a tenacious
ve
fight against untouchability for the past 30 years.
2. Caste System: Varna or Jati or Jat, which means a community of people with
a particular social rank in Sanskrit, is the Sanskrit word for caste. It can also
be translated as “colour.” Some scholars claim that the Aryans (who have a
ni

white complexion) tried to distinguish themselves from the Dravidians (who

have a dark complexion) and used colour to do so. Varna is used in Vedas to
indicate class or category rather than gender, according to Dr. Karve. The Varna
U

system demonstrates how a system can last for millions of years. With the
advancement of civilization, it became necessary to identify citizens not only in
terms of their various qualities, but also in terms of their various rights in order
to preserve law and order and effectively rule. As a result, each social class
ity

had a distinct role to play in society as well as a distinct function. As a result,

the four castes arose out of necessity. The learned were generally associated
with the Varna of Brahmins. Kshatriyas belong to the Kshatriya Varna, which is
synonymous with rulers and warriors. The Vaishya Varna is linked to commercial
m

livelihood. Sudra Varna is synonymous with Minimal Labor. Both of them were
interconnected and worked in tandem. There are thousands of Vedic mantras
in which we pray to GOD to allow us to live, eat, and enjoy life together, to
pray and progress together, to battle evil together, and to work for global peace
)A

together. The Vedas also teach us that in the eyes of GOD, all people are equal,
regardless of race or region. A master race, a superior race, or a Nordic race
may not exist. The Arya Samaj has been propagating and enforcing this in order
to eliminate the birth-based caste system. As a priest, I am pleased to report
(c

that our children are pressuring their parents to abandon the Orthodox Caste
System. In the last ten years, I’ve done over 150 inter-caste marriages and over
250 inter-racial marriages.

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3. Status of Women: Women were highly respected and held equal rank with
Notes

e
men during the Vedic period. They were active participants in every aspect of
their lives. Women began to lose their place in society during the post-Vedic
period. In terms of Vedic rites, Manu, the Hindu race’s progenitor, did not treat

in
women equally to men. Women were not allowed to study the Vedas or use
mantras in performing sacraments other than marriage. He noted that since
women are tender, they should be covered by their fathers when they are

nl
young, by their husbands when they are older, and by their sons when they
are older. After her marriage, she lost her name. Maharishi Swami Dayanand
was profoundly disturbed by Indian women’s plight. He was the first to roar

O
like a lion on public platforms in support of female education, citing examples
of exemplary Rishis such as Gargi and Maitriya. Swamji founded Patashalas
(schools) in Farrukabad, Kashi, Kasganj, and Challsan around 1870. In Meerut,
he also established a Kanya Patashala (girls’ school). Following Swamji’s

ty
death, the Arya samaj movement continued to create several girl schools under
the leadership of teachers such as Swami Shraddhanand, Lala Dev Raj, and
others. With the success of Kanya Pathshalas, the Samaj founded the Kanya

si
Mahavidhyalay on June 14, 1896. (Institute of higher education for women).
Unmarried, married, and widowed women were among the students at this
institution. Since then, the Arya Samaj has founded more than 500 institutions

r
across India. Girl schools, girl colleges, Gurukuls, orphanages, industrial
schools, and widow shelter houses are among the institutions.
ve
Swamji and the Arya samaj owe it to Indian women to restore their rights so that
they can run for President, Prime Minister, and compete on an equal footing with men in
every region.
ni

Overall, the Arya Samaj reforms are important and have had a significant influence
on contemporary Hindu society. With its purified Hinduism, the Arya Samaj has
developed into a major acculturative movement.
U

4.1.4 Aryan Nationalism: A Viewpoint

There are only a few societies in the world where the word “genetic analysis” can
ity

evoke a shiver of excitement. We in India must consider ourselves fortunate to live in

one. Originally, Indian nationalism was characterised by geography, as defined by the
Gandhian Congress. Anyone born within the British Indian Empire’s boundaries was
an Indian. Outside of the Congress party, the founder of Hindutva, Vinayak Damodar
Savarkar, based his nationalism on blood. A real Indian would be anyone who practised
m

Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism, or Jainism. Any religion brought in from the outside,
most notably Islam and Christianity, was considered a weaker form of Indian. It didn’t
matter whether the Muslim or Christian was born in India; not belonging to the right
)A

party was enough to disqualify him from full citizenship rights in the Savarkarite system.

Hindutva is often viewed as an upper-caste-oriented conservative ideology that

often finds resonance with white nationalist ideologies in the West, both in the world of
Western observers of Hindutva and in the left-dominated academic debate on Hindutva
in India. In reality, this is based on the presumption that Hindutva is a copy of the one-
(c

race/one-blood nation states that arose in Europe at the dawn of the modern age.

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Hindutva arose from the Indian upper caste’s desire to emulate the European race-
Notes

e
based nation-building model.

Indian nationalism is sometimes misunderstood as a “upper caste-Aryan race”

in
construct. The subtle point to note is that it is not claimed that the Aryan upper castes
developed Indian nationalism, but rather that the upper castes constructed Indian
nationalism and its more virulent type, Hindutva, by believing themselves to be

nl
Aryans—racially connected to their European rulers.

4.1.5 Theory of Indigeneous Aryans

O
Indigenous Aryanism, also known as the Indigenous Aryans theory (IAT) or the
Out of India theory (OIT), is the hypothesis that the Aryans are native to the Indian
subcontinent and that Indo-European languages radiated out from a common ancestor
in India to their current locations. It is a “religio-nationalistic” view of Indian history that

ty
is promoted as an alternative to the existing migration paradigm, which places the Indo-
European languages’ origins in the Pontic steppe.

Indigenists suggest an earlier date for the Vedic period than is traditionally

si
accepted, arguing that the Indus Valley Civilization was a Vedic civilization, based on
conventional Indian views based on the Puranic chronology. “The Indian civilization
must be regarded as an unbroken tradition that dates back to the earliest time of the
r
Sindhu-Sarasvati tradition (7000 or 8000 BCE),” according to this viewpoint.
ve
The IAT is primarily supported by a subset of Indian scholars of Hindu philosophy,
Indian history, and Indian archaeology, and it plays a significant role in Hindutva politics.
In mainstream scholarship, it has little significance, let alone help.
ni

Historial Backgound
The Indo-Aryan migration theory, which claims that they arrived in northwestern
India about 1500 BCE, is the most widely accepted theory about the Indo-Aryans’
U

origins. The Puranic chronology, which is based on the Mahabaratha, Ramayana,

and Puranas’ accounts of ancient Indian history, envisions a much older Vedic culture
chronology.
ity

According to this theory, the Vedas were obtained thousands of years ago, and
the reign of Manu Vaivasvate, the current kalpa’s Manu and the progenitor of humanity,
began around 7350 BCE. The Kurukshetra War, depicted in the Bhagavad Gita as a
backdrop to historical events that occurred around 1000 BCE in Aryavarta’s heartland,
m

is dated to around 3100 BCE in this chronology.

Indigenists, who represent traditional Indian views on history and religion, argue
that the Aryans are indigenous to India, a claim that defies conventional wisdom. The
)A

indigenous status has risen to the forefront of public discourse in the 1980s and 1990s.

1. Indian Homeland and Aryan Invasion Theory

The language of the Rigveda was the most ancient Indo-European language
known to scholars in 19th century Indo-European studies, indeed the only Indo-
(c

European records that could reasonably claim to date back to the Bronze Age. The
primacy of Sanskrit led some scholars, such as Friedrich Schlegel, to conclude that

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 90 Indian Political Thought-II

the proto-Indo-European (Anatolian, Mycenaean Greek) homeland was in India, with

Notes

e
other dialects expanding westward through historical migration. Vedic Sanskrit lost its
unique identity as the most ancient Indo-European language known with the discovery
of Bronze-Age attestations of Indo-European in the twentieth century.

in
Max Müller proposed the idea of two Aryan races, one western and one eastern,
that migrated from the Caucasus to Europe and India, respectively, in the 1850s. Müller

nl
divided the two classes, giving the western branch more importance and value. Despite
this, the “eastern branch of the Aryan race was more dominant than the indigenous
eastern natives, who were easily conquered.” Racist ethnologists had adopted his
theories by the 1880s. For example, colonial administrator Herbert Hope Risley (1851

O
– 1911), a proponent of race science, used the ratio of nose width to height to divide
Indians into Aryan and Dravidian races, as well as seven castes.

The discovery of the Indus Valley Civilisation, which collapsed around the time of

ty
the Indo-Aryan migration and suggested a devastating invasion, fuelled the idea of an
Aryan “invasion.” This theory was established by archaeologist Mortimer Wheeler in
the mid-20th century, who interpreted the existence of many unburied corpses in the
top levels of Mohenjo-daro as victims of conquests. He famously said that the Vedic

si
god “Indra stands accused” of the Indus Civilisation’s demise. Scholars have since
suggested that Wheeler misinterpreted his evidence and that the skeletons should be
explained as hasty interments rather than unburied massacre victims.

2. r
Indo-Aryan Migration Theory: this theory has two sections.
ve
a. Migrations: Since the 1980s, the Aryan Invasion hypothesis has been replaced
by more advanced models known as the Indo-Aryan migration theory in
mainstream scholarship. The theory’s main foundation is historical linguistics,
which examines the evolution and changes of languages and establishes
ni

relationships between the various Indo-European languages, including the time

frame of their production. It also includes information on shared words, as well
as the Indo-European origins of certain words and the basic vocabulary that
can be attributed to specific regions. The linguistic observations and data are
U

combined with archaeological evidence and anthropological claims, resulting in

a well-accepted model.
b. Cultural Continuity and Adaptation: Small communities, likely of ethnically
ity

and genetically heterogeneous composition, may have migrated into northern

India, introducing their language and social structure into the new territory.
Larger communities then followed suit, adopting the new language and culture.
“Small-scale semi-annual transhumance movements between the Indus plains
and the Afghan and Baluchi highlands continue to this day,” Witzel writes.
m

4.1.6 Western Perspective on Aryan Nationalism

The “Out of India theory,” also known as the “Indian Urheimat theory,” proposes
)A

that the Indo-European language family originated in Northern India and spread
throughout the Indo-European region through migrations. It means that the Harappan
civilisation’s inhabitants were Indo-Aryans linguistically.

a. Theoretical Overview:
(c

Elst’s model is also a “theoretical exercise,” according to Edwin Bryant:

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 Indian Political Thought-II 91

[...] a strictly theoretical linguistic exercise [...] as an experiment to see whether

Notes

e
India can be ruled out as a potential homeland. If it can’t, it raises more doubts about
the prospect of establishing a homeland somewhere on linguistic grounds.

in
The Indo-Aryan Debate, according to Bryant: Elsewhere, maybe more in a devil’s
advocate mood, tinkers with the facts to show how it can be reconfigured, claiming that
no linguistic evidence has yet been created to remove India as a homeland that cannot

nl
be reconfigured to encourage it as such.

b. The Emerging Alternative: “The Emerging Alternative to the Aryan Invasion

Theory,” as outlined by Koenraad Elst, is as follows:

O
Proto-Indo-Europeans lived in the Punjab region of northern India during the 6th
millennium BCE. They spread into Bactria as the Kambojas as a result of population
growth. The Paradas migrated northwards, settling in the Caspian coast and most of
Central Asia, while the Cinas settled in the Tarim Basin in northwest China, establishing

ty
the Tocharian tribe of I-E speakers. By 2000 BCE, these groups were Proto-Anatolian
and had settled in the region. These people brought the oldest form of the Proto-Indo-
European (PIE) language with them and transformed it into a distinct dialect when

si
communicating with people from the Anatolian and Balkan regions. They discovered
the uses of the horse when inhabiting Central Asia, which they later returned to
the Urheimat. Later in their history, they occupied western Europe, spreading Indo-
European languages throughout the region. r
ve
India’s civilization began to evolve into the urban Indus Valley Civilization during
the fourth millennium BCE. The PIE languages developed into Proto-Indo-Iranian during
this period. The Indo-Iranians started to split at some point during this period due to
internal rivalry and conflict, with the Iranians spreading westwards into Mesopotamia
ni

and Persia, probably the Pahlavas. They have made inroads into Central Asia. India
was left with the Proto-Indo-Aryans at the end of this migration. The Sarasvati River
began to dry up at the end of the Mature Harappan period, and the remaining Indo-
U

Aryans split into separate classes.

By about 1500 BCE, some had travelled west and founded themselves as rulers of
the Hurrian Mitanni kingdom. Others migrated east and settled in the Gangetic basin,
while others migrated south and interacted with the Dravidians.
ity

4.1.7 Criticism of Vedic Aryan Nationalism

In mainstream scholarship, the Indigenous Aryans theory has little validity, let alone
m

help. According to Michael Witzel, the “indigenous Aryans” stance is a “apologetic,

essentially religious undertaking” rather than traditional scholarship:

“The “revisionist project” certainly is not guided by the principles of critical theory
)A

but takes, time and again, recourse to pre-enlightenment beliefs in the authority
of traditional religious texts such as the Purāṇas. In the end, it belongs, as has
been pointed out earlier, to a different ‘discourse’ than that of historical and critical
scholarship. In other words, it continues the writing of religious literature, under a
contemporary, outwardly ‘scientific’ guise ... The revisionist and autochthonous project,
(c

then, should not be regarded as scholarly in the usual post-enlightenment sense of

the word, but as an apologetic, ultimately religious undertaking aiming at proving the

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“truth” of traditional texts and beliefs. Worse, it is, in many cases, not even scholastic
Notes

e
scholarship at all but a political undertaking aiming at “rewriting” history out of national
pride or for the purpose of “nation building”.”

in
In her study of The Indo-Aryan Controversy, Sudeshna Guha points out that the
book has serious methodological flaws, such as not asking what exactly constitutes
historical facts. This makes “equal and appropriate representation of differences of

nl
opinion” problematic, since it ignores “the degree to which unscholarly opportunism has
inspired the rebirth of this genre of’scholaship”:

“Bryant’s call for accepting “the valid problems that are pointed out on both sides”

O
(p. 500), holds intellectual value only if distinctions are strictly maintained between
research that promotes scholarship, and that which does not. Bryant and Patton
gloss over the relevance of such distinctions for sustaining the academic nature of the
Indo-Aryan debate, although the importance of distinguishing the scholarly from the

ty
unscholarly is rather well enunciated through the essays of Michael Witzel and Lars
Martin Fosse.”

According to Bryant, most OIT advocates are linguistic dilettantes who either utterly

si
disregard the linguistic evidence, dismiss it as highly speculative and inconclusive,
or attempt to address it with hopelessly insufficient qualifications; this attitude and
negligence greatly reduces the value of most OIT publications. In the indigenist
r
literature, Fosse points out critical theoretical and methodological flaws. He observes
ve
that Sethna, Bhagwan Singh, Navaratna, and Talageri often quote English literature,
which is not thoroughly explored, while ignoring German and French Indology. It leaves
their works underinformed to varying degrees, resulting in criticism that is “largely
ignored by Western scholars because it is regarded as incompetent.”
ni

The indigenist position, according to Erdosy, is part of a “lunatic fringe” opposing

the mainstream migrationist model.
U

Check your Understanding

1. According to__________, the “indigenous Aryans” stance is a “apologetic, essentially
religious undertaking” rather than traditional scholarship.
ity

2. PIE stands for __________.

3. By propagating the Vedas, the _________ is doing an excellent job of preserving
ancient Indian culture and knowledge. Every Indian should be familiar with the
Vedas.
m

4. Since the 1980s, the Aryan Invasion hypothesis has been replaced by more advanced
models known as the Indo-Aryan migration theory in mainstream scholarship. State
true or false.
)A

5. __________ proposed the idea of two Aryan races, one western and one eastern
that migrated from the Caucasus to Europe and India, respectively, in the 1850s.

Summary
(c

The Arya Samaj is very active today, not only in India but also around the world.
The Samaj has branches in the United States, Canada, Trinidad and Tobago, Mexico,

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 Indian Political Thought-II 93

the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, South Africa, Malawi,
Notes

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Mauritius, Pakistan, Burma, Thailand, Singapore, Hong Kong, and Australia. Despite
the fact that Maharishi Dayanand and the Arya Samaj were never directly involved
in the Indian Independence War, his life and teachings had a significant impact on a

in
number of important figures, including Lala Lajpat Rai, Vinayak Damodar Savarkar,
Madam Cama, Ram Prasad Bismil, Mahadev Govind Ranade, Madan Lal Dhingra, and
Subhash Chandra Bose. Shaheed Bhagat Singh received his education at the D.A.V.

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School in Delhi. Maharishi Dayanand was a widely respected figure, and American
Spiritualist Andrew Jackson Davis dubbed him “Son of God,” acknowledging that
he had a profound influence on his spiritual beliefs and praising him for restoring the

O
nation’s status.

Despite the fact that Swami Dayanand was not actively interested in politics, his
teachings resonated strongly with India’s struggle for independence. A large number of
freedom fighters, including Ram Prasad Bismil, Subhas Chandra Bose, Bhagat Singh,

ty
and Lala Lajpat Rai, were influenced and inspired by them. The Dayanand Anglo Vedic
School in Lahore educated Bhagat Singh.

si
Activity
1. Do a research on Arya Samaj. How it it helping in nation-building? Is it good or
bad for the society? What are its basic principles?
r
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Questions and Exercises
1. Discuss Swami Dayanand’s contribution to the Indian National Movement.
2. What was the core ideology of Arya Samaj? Who founded it? Give its principles.
3. How is Arya samaj helping in nation-building process?
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4. Give a brief account of the Aryan Nationalism.

5. What was the theory of indegeneous Aryans?
U

6. Give the western perspective on Aryan nationalism.

7. Give the criticism of Vedic Aryan Nationalism.

Glossary
ity

1. Nation-building: the creation or development of a nation, especially one that

has recently become independent.
2. Arya Samaj: is a monotheistic Indian Hindu reform movement that promotes
m

values and practices based on the belief in the infallible authority of the Vedas.

References
)A

1. Dayananda Saraswati, Founder of Arya Samaj, by Arjan Singh Bawa. Published

by Ess Ess Publications, 1979 (1st edition:1901).
2. Indian Political Tradition, by D.K Mohanty. Published by Anmol Publications
PVT. LTD. ISBN 81-261-2033-9. Chapter 4: Dayananda Saraswati
(c

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 94 Indian Political Thought-II

3. Glorious Thoughts of Swami Dayananda. ed. New Book Society of India, 1966
Notes

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4. Autobiography of Swami Dayanand Saraswati (1976)

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Answers: Check Your Understanding
1. Michael Witzel
2. Proto-Indo-European

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3. Arya Samaj
4. True

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5. Max Müller

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r si
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ni
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ity
m
)A
(c

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 Indian Political Thought-II 95

Module-V: Ruler and Justice In Barani’s Philosophy

Notes

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Structure:

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Unit-5.1: Role of Sovereign
5.1.1 Characteristics of the Ideal Sultan

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5.1.2 Political Role of the Ruler
5.1.3 Importance of Shariat for Ruler

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Unit-5.2: Theory of Kingship
5.2.1 Features of king Clan
5.2.2 Relationship of Sovereign with Political Families

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5.2.3 Condition of Rebellion: An Aspect of Power
Unit-5.3: Justice as a Welfare Concept

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5.3.1 The Basic Concept of Justice
5.3.2 Justice and Ruler at Apex
5.3.3 Justice and Religion
5.3.4 Declining Relevance of Shariat
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)A
(c

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 96 Indian Political Thought-II

Unit-5.1: Role of Sovereign

Notes

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Learning Objectives:

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●● Characteristics of the Ideal Sultan
●● Political Role of the Ruler

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●● Personal Realm of the Sultan
●● Importance of Shariat for Ruler

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Introduction
During the reigns of Muhammad bin Tughlaq and Firuz Shah, Ziauddin Barani
(1285–1358 CE) was a Muslim political thinker of the Delhi Sultanate in present-day

ty
North India. In Islamic culture, he symbolised the concept of political expediency. His
Fatawa-i-Jahandari (AD 1357), a classic work on statecraft that can be compared to
Kautilya’s Arthashastra and Machiavelli’s Prince, is written as nasihat (advice) for

si
Muslim kings.

Barani addresses Muslim political problems, including the introduction of Islamic laws
in the newly formed Muslim State in India, in addition to historical accounts of the time.
r
Barani’s political philosophy, like that of all other mediaeval authors, is focused on
ve
the king’s personality, who is instructed in different ways to implement his philosophy.
The king is extremely important to him. The king’s control over the state’s affairs is
ensured by a variety of methods. According to Barani, the king should critically follow
Islamic Shariah in all aspects of life. Barani’s twenty-four thorough advices distinguish
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him as a leading South Asian philosopher.

5.1.1 Characteristics of the Ideal Sultan

U

Barani differentiated between the Sultan’s personal life and his political position
(Advice II). However, he saw him as an ideal individual in both aspects-noble born,
ideally of the monarch’s blood, with an inherent sense of justice, wise enough to
ity

grasp the wicked’s deceit and conspiracies (Advice XXIV), knowing the worth of his
time and dividing it judiciously between his personal needs and political requirements
(Advice X). And he was following the Shariat’s course, which said that he was a god’s
agent on earth, doing the people’s “welfare.” To compensate for the presence of
monarchy, which was contrary to Islamic values, the Sultan was supposed to represent
m

supplication, helplessness, poverty, and modesty (Advice XXIV). In terms of adhering

to the Shariat, Barani conceded that the Sultan could choose to be lax in the personal
domain, but he opposed laxity in the political sphere because it could lead to disease
)A

in the government, as the ideal polity and the Sultan’s political avatar were intertwined.
However, as the Fatawa progresses, what seems to be Barani’s focus on following the
Shariat in the political sphere becomes more flexible.

In the section on the Zawabit, he proposed the development of new laws in cases
(c

where the Shariat was no longer able to serve the state’s purpose due to changing
circumstances. Though he cautioned the formulators to be motivated by the Shariat’s
purpose, it was all rhetoric. It was similar to his claims that monarchy was the only

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 Indian Political Thought-II 97

way to achieve Islamic values in the given circumstances, despite the fact that he
Notes

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understood Islam was opposed to monarchy. In reality, he advised the Sultan to achieve
the goals of Islam and to have the characteristics of fear, dignity, pride, high status,
dominance, and supremacy. Anyone who gained power over him forfeited his position

in
of dominance (Advice XX). His political life will be defined by his willingness to respond
to any idea or wish at the appropriate time. Nonetheless, he must avoid five negative
characteristics: deceit, changeability, deception, wrathfulness, and injustice (Advice

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XXIII). To command confidence, fear, and reputation among his friends and enemies,
he needed to distinguish between determination in government enterprises and tyranny/
despotism (Advice IV). Other necessary characteristics to influence people to lend their

O
ears or be warned were high resolve, lofty values, equal administration, uniqueness
from other monarchs, duty over people, and so on (Advice XV).

Since people were affected by the monarch’s character and deeds, he needed

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to uphold all the regalties that come with kingship. These royal duties required
counsellors, as well as army and intelligence officers. Their collection, grading, and
other duties were clearly the Sultan’s responsibility and needed meticulous attention.
The administration will operate in harmony because of their advice and reporting,

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whether on strategy or on conspiracies, corruption, people’s conditions, and so on. It
was the king’s duty to protect the old political families, to prevent them from usurping
control, and to ensure that they were not left in poverty (Advice XXII). The combination
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of poverty and loss of influence provided a fertile ground for revolt. Barani’s personal
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knowledge of such matters, as well as the fact that he had been a victim of such events,
may have compelled him to write such advice.

The Sultan’s sovereignty and the Sultanate’s protection, on the other hand, could
not have been ensured without providing justice to the subjects.
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‘The real reason for the kings’ superiority, strength, and honour,’ Barani had
observed, ‘is the need to enforce justice’ (Advice V). As a result, the first act had to
be the appointment and grading of judges, with the king himself at the top, and the
U

roles delineated for them being ‘protection of wealth, land, women and children of the
poor, obedient, helpless, young, submissive, and friendless’ (Advice V). Furthermore, it
was to “prevent the powerful from using coercion in their relations with people” (Advice
ity

V), since otherwise, “there would be a full society of women and property” (Advice V),
leading to chaos in the ruling class.

‘However, the king should know... the necessary times for both forgiveness and
retribution when administering justice’ (Advice XII). Penalties for those who were
m

defiant, cruel, or mischievous had to be balanced with grace and forgiveness for those
who admitted their faults and repented (Advice XIII). Similarly, items like respecting
people’s rights, refraining from minute investigations and fault-finding and not imposing
impositions beyond the subjects’ ability to bear were to be important aspects of
)A

justice. However, one element of justice was conspicuously absent from all of these
discussions: the delivery of justice was to be based on the subjects’ religious traditions,
even though Barani never discussed different kinds of justice for Hindus and Muslims.

However, it could be argued that when Barani favored Shariat-based justice,

(c

religion-based justice was already implicit in it. Furthermore, his declaration of all-
out war on zimmis revealed his true intentions. However, as previously mentioned,
the increasing redundancy of the Shariat in changing circumstances, as well as the

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 98 Indian Political Thought-II

subsequent importance of Zawabit, as emphasized by Barani himself (Advice XIV),

Notes

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expressly nullified any Islamic religious justice as Sultanate policy. Furthermore, Barani
acknowledges the presence of customary justice during the Sultanate period by stating
that Sultans in India acted moderately against the zimmis (Advice XI.3). The term zimmi

in
refers to people who practise polymorphous religions such as Hinduism.

The key thing to note here is that Barani’s view of justice was heavily skewed

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in favour of the wealthy and powerful. His animosity against the ganwaran and the
poor, as well as his prejudice in favour of the noble-born, speak volumes about the
foundations of his justice. In reality, the Fatawa’s very paradigm was focused on the
consolidation and expansion of the Sultanate’s elite, and justice, like any other feature

O
of feudal society used as an instrument for the perpetuation of monarchy, was meant
to be a facade for maintaining the Sultanate’s serenity. Despite the fact that caste
and religion influenced decisions at the panchayat and group levels, the state did not

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generally follow a policy of religious discrimination.

The Fatawa, on the other hand, was not devoid of any useful suggestions for
statecraft theory.

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The distinction made between the king’s personal and political spheres, as well
as between nobility and other members of the ruling class, were noteworthy features;
second, the adoption of the principle of political duty, both individual and collective,
r
towards the monarch and his administration in the form of allegiance. Finally, the focus
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on Zawabit led to the formulation of incipient secular state policies expressed in the
sense of justice, revenue collection, trade and commerce, and so on.

All of these elements were not new to Indian political society, as they can also be
found in the Arthashastra tradition of political philosophy, but Barani’s focus on them
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at a time when rulers of a different faith had gained political power is particularly
significant. His focus on public policy rather than personal life in pre-civil society, for
example, is worthy of a thinker.
U

5.1.2 Political Role of the Ruler

Barani has enumerated the attributes of advisors, ministers, officials, nobles, and
ity

commanders that a king should hold in mind, referring to Bahram Gor (Iranian King):

●● 1) “They should be very sincere; 2) highly talented; 3) expert mathematician;

4) best observer of situation; 5) widely experienced; 6) should possess ripe
judgment; 7) very sober and mild in behavior; 8) of good temperament and
m

wit; 9) of quick and good intelligence; 10) farsighted; 11) cooperative; 12) a
person of careful spending; 13) forbearing; 14) broad-minded; 15) well-wisher
of the state and Islam; 16) God-fearing; 17) highly responsible; 18) exemplary
in performance; 19) well-behaved; 20) of simple nature; 21) high birth; 22)
)A

a man of determination and high ideals; 23) balanced in conversation; 24)

trustworthy; 25) courageous; 26) honest and honorable; 27) kind-hearted; 28)
peace-loving; 29) forgiver of minor faults; 30) should act like aged person; 31)
possess high scholarship and position; 32) statesman; 33) friendly with the
(c

people; 34) truthful; 35) fully dedicated; 36) handsome; 37) polite; 38) most
suitable amongst the people; 39) most careful amongst the people; 40) highly
pious; 41) very strict in implementing state regulations; 42) highly judicious in

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 Indian Political Thought-II 99

temperament; 43) highly knowledgeable; 44) should dislike worldly pleasures;

Notes

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45) good conversationist and speaker; 46) sophisticated; 47) best observer
of people’s psychology; 48) should be interested to get maximum information
on any matter; 49) loyal to the king; 50) maintain his individuality; 51) good

in
handwriting; 52) should not freely mix-up with the people; 53) should fully
understand his own personality; and 54) frank.”
●● In Advice 15, Barani explains that the king should understand that the state

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administration can be built on solid foundations by enacting good policies,
laws, and regulations. These should be framed in order to promote the
aforementioned values and to consistently differentiate between right and

O
wrong in the light of Islamic Shariah. The aim of establishing these rulers
and policies should be to benefit both the present and future generations. If
this ideal is not realized, and the people and the king are not benefited, then
the law and policy cannot be considered successful. After enacting laws that

ty
are appropriate for the circumstances mentioned above, the king and his
administrators should strictly enforce them. All of these laws and regulations
should be drafted with the input of Ulama, Islamic scholars, and intellectuals.

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These laws should be crafted with the local situation in mind. In India, the
Kings and Sultans are expected to obey Sultan Mahmud’s policies, laws, and
regulations. Your state’s future will be secured if you follow these regulations.
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This is due to the fact that Mahmud spent nearly two years drafting such
regulations in collaboration with Ahmad Hasan, Ali Abu Sehl, Asfar Aini, and
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other Darbar intellectuals. During Mahmud’s 36 years in power, he upheld
these rules and policies.
There are many indications of the king’s high ideal values and determination:
ni

1) He should not cultivate affection and permanent belonging to worldly matters

despite being a king. Knowing that he will die and move on to the life after
death, he should aspire to love for the life after death because it is eternal. If
U

this is not feasible, he should make every effort to acquire the best means of life
and the highest quality of life.
2) He should be grateful to God and show favor to others on a regular basis.
ity

3) He should have a burning desire to promote goodness and justice in the empire
at all times. People do not expect him to be rewarded for his actions.
4) He should not accept something as a gift or in any other way from anyone. He
should offer to those who are deserving.
m

5) In matters of state, he should despise laziness and carelessness. He should

devote himself to the advancement of state and national values.
6) He should feed all the poor and vulnerable people, as well as animals and birds.
)A

7) His good deeds can serve as the foundation for all state laws.
8) Even if he achieves the pinnacle of his strength, he should not be satisfied. He
should continue to work hard.
(c

9) The people’s economic needs should be met. Nobody should be dissatisfied.

10) All inmates, sufferers, the poor, and the weak should believe that the king is
responsible for resolving their grievances.
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 100 Indian Political Thought-II

11) After achieving the principles, the king should strive to implement policies that
Notes

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would be deemed difficult to achieve under normal circumstances, and he
should never be satisfied with achieving any ideal.

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5.1.3 Importance of Shariat for Ruler
In terms of Shariat observance, Barani conceded that the Sultan could choose to

nl
be lax in the personal domain, but he opposed laxity in the political sphere because
it could lead to disease in the administration. He advised the Sultan to achieve the
goals of Islam and to be endowed with the qualities of fear, honor, pride, high status,
dominance, and supremacy. The ability to respond to any idea or desire at the right time

O
was to be a necessary component of his political life. Nonetheless, he must avoid five
negative traits: deceit, changeability, deception, wrathfulness, and injustice.

Barani divided the law into two categories: Shariat and Zawabit. The Zawabit

ty
were state laws devised by the king in conjunction with the aristocracy in response to
changing conditions, in order to meet new needs that the Shariat couldn’t meet.

He stated that the Zawabit must be written in the spirit of the Shariat and

si
mentioned four conditions as criteria for its creation. They’re:

●● “The Zawabit should not negate the Shariat.

●● r
It must increase the loyalty and hope among the nobles and common people
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towards the Sultan
●● Its sources and inspiration should be the Shariat and pious Caliphs
●● If at all it had to negate the Shariat out of exigencies, it must follow charities
and compensation in lieu of that negation”
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It was ideal for the king, aristocracy, and administrative staff to obey the Shariat
in both their personal lives and their public policies. In the event that the Shariat could
not be followed or applied, state laws were to be drafted. However, he cautioned that
U

lawmakers would consider past trends as well as current socio-political dynamics

when enacting legislation. He claimed that the Zawabit must be written in the spirit
of the Shariat and listed three guidelines for its development. First, the Zawabit must
not contradict the Shariat; second, it must increase nobles’ and common people’s
ity

allegiance and hope for the Sultan; and third, the Shariat and the pious Caliphs should
be its source and inscription.

The application of the Shariat as state policy has occupied the minds of
administrators and theoreticians since the Ghorians invaded northern India and founded
m

the Sultanate, as the new rulers were of a different faith (Islam) than their predecessors.
Islam had existed in India as a personal belief of the people since the beginning of
the eighth century, when Muslim merchants and others started to settle in the coastal
)A

regions, but it had little political significance at the time. The revenue settlements of the
new rulers with the vanquished aristocracies for the collection of the kharaj in the early
years, the subsequent evolution of the new iqta system and its assignment to various
individuals for collection, the centralization of power in the Sultan’s hands, the growth of
trade and commerce, the collection of revenue in currency, and so on, all contributed to
(c

a tense situation in which the aristocracies were unable to collect the kharaj.

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 Indian Political Thought-II 101

As a result, the new ruling class needed to come up with a new agenda, which they
Notes

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called the Zawabit. Other factors that contributed to the need for new policies included
the shifting structure of the ruling class, the revolt of their various parts for power or the
status quo, and so on. In this tumultuous political environment, Barani calls for charities,

in
reimbursement, and protection for those who have lost influence, wealth, or political
clout. Since the iqta was transferable before Firuz Tughlaq’s time, political families’
fortunes changed frequently.

nl
In such a state of flux, the Shariat was the only stronghold that could keep them
united against the rais, ranas, rawats, and those who practised a different religion.
Despite their defeat, they had the ability to cause problems for the Sultanate if a

O
situation arose that enabled them to do so. The peasant revolt in the Doab in 1330 AD,
led by certain rais, must have been on Barani’s mind. As a result, his main concern
was to find laws that served the needs of the state and the ruling aristocracy without

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offending the masses or any section of the defeated nobles.

Check your Understanding

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1. Barani differentiated between the Sultan’s personal life and his political position in
__________.
2. To compensate for the presence of monarchy, which was contrary to Islamic values,
r
the Sultan was supposed to represent supplication, helplessness, poverty, and
modesty in _______________.
ve
3. The application of the _________as state policy has occupied the minds of
administrators and theoreticians since the Ghorians invaded northern India and
founded the Sultanate, as the new rulers were of a different faith (Islam) than their
ni

predecessors.
4. In Advice 30, Barani explains that the king should understand that the state
administration can be built on solid foundations by enacting good policies, laws, and
U

regulations. State true or false.

Summary
Barani’s eminence stems from his theory of history and its constant application in
ity

various facets of society throughout his period, culminating in his theory of statecraft,
which distinguished him as a singular and mysterious figure. In reality, it wouldn’t be an
exaggeration to suggest that he marshalled all of his past information and experiences,
as well as current affairs, to serve the Sultanate’s interests.
m

His theory was notable for his confidence in the nobility’s hereditary position,
his support for monarchy and nobility’s political expediency, and his disdain for the
oppressed. While the last element was a corollary of the first, the second element was
)A

designed to help the Sultanate and, by extension, the ruling class, consolidate and
expand.

Activity
1. Make a power point presentation on theory of Philosopher in Barani’s ideal
(c

state.

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 102 Indian Political Thought-II

Questions and Exercises

Notes

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1. Discuss the Characteristics of the Ideal Sultan in Barani’s state.
2. What is the role of the ruler?

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3. What is the importance of shariat for the ruler and the state?

Glossary

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1. Sovereign: a supreme ruler, especially a monarch.
2. Shariat: Sharia, also known as “Shariah” or “Shari’a,” is an Islamic religious

O
law that governs not only religious rituals but also aspects of day-to-day life in
Islam. It means “the way”.

References

ty
1. A. L. Basham (1958). Wm. Theodore de Bary (ed.). Sources of Indian Tradition.
Introduction to Oriental Civilizations. 1. Columbia University Press.
2. Partap C. Aggarwal (1978). Caste and Social Stratification Among Muslims in

si
India. Manohar.
3. Roy;singh, himanshu;M.P. (2020). Indian Political Thought. Pearson. p. 86.
ISBN 978-93-325-8733-5.
4.
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P. Hardy, Historians of Medieval India, (London: 1960), pp.20-39; and S.M.
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Ikram, History of Muslim Civilization in India and Pakistan, (Lahore: n.d.),
pp.123-124.

Answers: Check Your Understanding

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1. Advice II
2. Advice XXIV
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3. Shariat
4. False
ity
m
)A
(c

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 Indian Political Thought-II 103

Unit-5.2: Theory of Kingship

Notes

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Learning Objectives:

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●● Features of King Clan
●● Relationship of Sovereign with Political Families

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●● Condition of Rebellion: An Aspect of Power

Introduction

O
Zia Barani is generally regarded as one of Medieval India’s most influential
historians and political theorists. He urged rulers, nobility, and other administrative
levels to obey the Shariat in their personal and political lives, which he considered

ty
beneficial, but he also stressed the formulation of Zawabit (state laws) in the political
realm and allowed for flexibility in not following the Shariat in their personal lives.

His Fatawa-i-Jahandari is a classic work on statecraft that can be compared to

si
Kautilya’s Arthashastra and Machiavelli’s Prince. It was written as nasihat (advice)
for Muslim kings. In comparison to more mainstream thinkers such as Abul Fazl, he,
however has been labelled a nationalist, a fundamentalist, and a racist.
r
In this unit we will study about the features of a clan or state according to Barani.
ve
Also we shall discuss about the bureaucracy, which is the relationship of the sovereign
with the other political families. Lastly we will have an insight on the conditions of
rebellion and how it is an aspect of power.
ni

5.2.1 Features of King Clan

Barani’s political philosophy, like that of all other mediaeval authors, is based on
the king’s personality, who is instructed in different ways to enact his philosophy. The
U

king is extremely important to him. The king’s control over the state’s affairs is ensured
by a variety of methods. According to Barani, the king should critically follow Islamic
Shariah in all facets of life.
ity

We can formulate our ideas about the prevalent pattern of political thinking in
mediaeval India by reading Fatwa-i-ahandari and Ain-i-Akbari, which deal with the
complexities of governance. Khwaja Ziauddin Barani penned the Fatwa-i-Jhandari.
On the basis of his earlier narrative, Tarikh-i-Firozeshahi, Barani recapitulates and
elaborates the Sultanate’s political philosophy in this book.
m

Bearing in mind that Barani lived during a time when Islam was just getting started in
India. His theories on kingship during the Middle Ages are extremely influential. All powers
)A

and duties of the state are attributed to the king, who serves as God’s representative
on earth. Barani believes that whatever method the king uses to carry out his duties is
acceptable as long as it is in the service of faith. The following passage contains Barani’s
advice to the king about how to carry out his duties as the head of the state.

According to Al Barani, “It is the duty of the Sultans before they have made up
(c

their minds about an enterprise or policy and published it among the people, to reflect
carefully on the likelihood of its success and failure as well as its effects on their

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 104 Indian Political Thought-II

position, on the religion and the state, and on the army”. In Barani’s perspective, the
Notes

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king should dedicate himself to the governance of his kingdom in a way that allows him
to grow closer to God.

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The ideal of a good state should be the wellbeing of religion and the state. Wise
men should be guiding a king. To run the administration, bureaucracy is needed,
and Barani is a proponent of blue blood aristocracy. He discusses the importance of

nl
hierarchy in government, as well as the bureaucracy’s structure, classification, nature,
and relationship with the Sultan and the citizens of the state. He is adamantly opposed
to the advancement of low-born citizens. He composes that ‘The noble born men in
the king’s court will bring him honor, but if he favors low born men, they will disgrace

O
him in both the worlds’. He claims that kingship is built on two pillars: administration
and conquest, and that both pillars depend on the army. He also highlights the king’s
concerns about domestic stability and international affairs.

ty
His ideal state consisted of an ideal ruler, ideal judicial system, ideal law, ideal
army or military, ideal bureaucracy and ideal nobility.

Barani discusses this in a brief aspect which you will study in different sections of

si
this module.

5.2.2 Relationship of Sovereign with Political Families

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The Sultanate’s bureaucracy was another essential aspect, whose primary role
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was to calculate the land and repair and collect taxes; without it, the ruling class would
have been obsolete, and the army would not have been able to support itself. It had
three levels of operation: middle, province, and village. The revenue department’s
apex was the Diwan-I Wazarat, which was led by a wazirand and supported by a
ni

naib, Musharif-i-Mamalik, Mustawfi-i-Mamalik, and dabirs. Muqtis or walis led the

administration at the provincial level, which corresponded to it. The Diwan, the central
wazir’s equivalent, was below him.
U

When Barani discusses dispensing justice to subjects or advises kings to defend

weak against strong, his passage on forsaking extreme exactions, checking corruption,
recognizing people’s rights, and so on, it takes on new significance. How far was
ity

he listened to may well be predicted from the fact that the three-tier structure of the
revenue administration, which was highly centralized in spite of its considerable spread
in terms of territorial extent, played the same stellar role, along with the army, during the
Sultanate period without much modifications either in -
m

a. The percentage of revenue collection per cultivator

b. In checking the tax burden being passed on to the weaker elements by their
superiors
)A

Because of the ruling nobility’s structural limitations in pre-capitalist society, the

advice may not have been followed. At best, the only option was to offer temporary
relief to the raiyats, either as a result of civil unrest or natural disasters. All of these
were means of dispensing justice to Barani, and it is to them that we now turn our
attention.
(c

Barani differentiated between the Sultan’s personal life and his political position.
However, in both aspects, he envisioned an ideal person in himself-noble born,
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 Indian Political Thought-II 105

preferably coming to the family of the monarch, having inborn sense of justice, smart
Notes

e
enough to recognize the deception and conspiracies of the wicked, recognizing the
importance of his time and sharing it judiciously between his personal needs and
political obligation and following the path of the Shariat, which laid out that he was an

in
representative of god on earth to do the ‘welfare’ of the people.

Ruler often maintained great relationship with the political families as it was always

nl
fruitful during the war time. King was suggested to keep in contact with these families
and aid them if required as they had a very strong hold on the people and the nobility.

During the time of crisis they could even help the ruler financially and politically.

O
Kind should be vigilant in maintaining relationship with the politically strong families in
the state.

5.2.3 Condition of Rebellion: An Aspect of Power

ty
The Sultanate was India’s largest and most powerful state after the Mauryas.
Clearly, the government had a variety of responsibilities, ranging from tax collection
to upholding law and order, and from public works to dispensing “justice.” The army,

si
which was based on the Turkish-Mongol model, was the most prominent of the three
main pillars of the government. Infantry, cavalry, war elephants, and auxiliary forces
were divided into four groups. Soldiers without a horse, soldiers with a single horse,
r
and soldiers with two horses were the three wings of the cavalry. The king even held
ve
personal troops known as qalb for his protection and absolute dependability in the
event of nobility revolt. Apart from performing its basic functions of defence and state
extension, the army has grown in significance for other purposes. It served as a catalyst
for the spread of Islam, as the Sultanate’s ruling class arrived as invaders and refugees,
ni

and it needed a massive support base.

The monarch even held personal soldiers, known as qalb, for his protection
and absolute dependability in the event of nobility revolt. Apart from performing
U

the aforementioned functions, the army grew in importance for another purpose. It
facilitated the spread of Islam because the Sultanate’s ruling class arrived as invaders
and refugees, and it needed a broad support base. They were forced to leave their
homeland after being defeated. They were conquerors on the one hand, but political
ity

losers on the other. They negotiated with the local bourgeoisie because they were
psychologically trapped, but the feeling of conquering made them despised by the
locals. This sentiment was shared by at least a portion of the intelligentsia and
aristocracy. Simultaneously, insecurity stalked them like a nightmare. As a result, the
m

question of their continued life, if they lost political influence in India as well, was at
the forefront of their minds. Thus, in their opinion, the only option was to consolidate
and multiply, which could be accomplished either by converting the local bourgeoisie to
Islam or by annihilating them. The army, the supreme bastion of physical strength and
)A

practitioner of such tasks, houses Barani, who represents such understanding.

However, as a realist, he could see the bulk of the aristocracy and intelligentsia
holding opposing viewpoints. The local elite had been corrupted and co-opted into the
Sultanate’s system, including the army and bureaucracy, and it was against them that
(c

Barani voiced himself both directly and indirectly. Regardless of various views, the army
commanded reverence from all quarters because it was the ultimate bastion of state
power, and without it, the Sultanate’s very foundation would have been unstable.
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 106 Indian Political Thought-II

Check your Understanding

Notes

e
1. The revenue department’s apex was the______________, which was led by a
wazirand and supported by a naib.

in
2. According to_____________, “It is the duty of the Sultans before they have made
up their minds about an enterprise or policy and published it among the people, to
reflect carefully on the likelihood of its success and failure as well as its effects on

nl
their position, on the religion and the state, and on the army”.
3. According to Barani, the king should critically follow Islamic _____ in all facets of life.

O
4. Barani differentiated between the Sultan’s personal life and his political position.
State true or false.

Summary

ty
Barani addresses Muslim political problems, including the introduction of Islamic
laws in the newly formed Muslim State in India, in addition to historical accounts of the
time. However, this is primarily a history book, not a political treatise like his Fatawa-i-

si
Jahandari, in which he advised Sultans and Kings, through Sultan Mahmud of Ghazna,
his ideal ruler, on how to create an effective form of government by enforcing the
Islamic Shari’ah.

r
Barani’s political philosophy, like that of all other mediaeval authors, is based on
ve
the king’s personality, who is instructed in different ways to enact his philosophy. The
king is extremely important to him. The king’s control over the state’s affairs is ensured
by a variety of methods. According to Barani, the king should critically follow Islamic
Shariah in all facets of life.
ni

Accepting Barani kingship should be directed toward behaving within the limits
of Islamic Shari’ah for the people’s economic prosperity. To provide the most basic
necessities of life at the lowest possible cost, special care must be taken. Barani, like
U

a rational philosopher, laid down rules that would serve as a foundation for a king to
develop different institutions such as the judiciary and army.

Activity
ity

1. Formulate a list of qualities that Barani wanted in his ideal ruler in order to attain
an ideal state.
2. Make a presentation on the characteristics of ideal state of Barani.
m

Questions and Exercises

1. Discuss the features of the king clan.
2. What was the relationship between the bureaucracy and the ruler?
)A

3. What was the role of army in Barani’s ideal state?

Glossary
1. Clan: A clan is a group of people united by actual or perceived kinship and
(c

descent.
2. Zawabit: state laws.

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 Indian Political Thought-II 107

References
Notes

e
1. Banarsi Prasad Saksena (1992). “The Khaljis: Alauddin Khalji”. In Mohammad
Habib and Khaliq Ahmad Nizami (ed.). A Comprehensive History of India: The

in
Delhi Sultanat (A.D. 1206-1526). 5 (Second ed.). The Indian History Congress
/ People’s Publishing House.
2. Barani, Fatawa-yi-Jahandari, folios 247b-248a

nl
3. Muzaffar Alam, The Languages of Political Islam in India: c. 1200-1800, The
University of Chicago Press, 2004

O
Answers: Check Your Understanding
1. Diwan-I Wazarat
2. Al Barani

ty
3. Shariah
4. True

r si
ve
ni
U
ity
m
)A
(c

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 108 Indian Political Thought-II

Unit-5.3: Justice as a Welfare Concept

Notes

e
Objectives:

in
At the end of this unit, you will be able to understand:

●● The Basic Concept of Justice

nl
●● Justice and Ruler at Apex
●● Justice and Religion

O
●● Declining Relevance of Shariat

Introduction
Justice was an important part of Barani’s government, which included anything

ty
from remission of land taxes to supplying goods to buyers at cost, as well as dispensing
civil and criminal proceedings and providing monetary assistance to the poor from the
state treasury.

si
Justice was divided into two organizational levels: one that operated in rural areas
and another that operated in urban administrative centers. However, there was one

r
common aspect in both cases: there was no discriminatory justice, but rather unequal
justice based on the merits of the cases and the religious beliefs of the individuals.
ve
5.3.1 The Basic Concept of Justice
The Sultan’s sovereignty and the Sultanate’s protection, could not have been
ni

ensured without providing justice to the subjects. ‘The real reason for kings’ superiority,
strength, and honor,’ Barani had observed, ‘is the need to enforce justice.’ As a result,
the first act had to be the appointment and grading of judges, with the king himself at
the top, and the roles delineated for them being “security of money, property, women
U

and children of the poor, obedient, helpless, young, submissive, and friendless”.
Additionally, it was to ‘prevent the strong from having recourse to oppression in their
dealings with people’ without which ‘there would be a complete community of women
ity

and property’, leading to anarchy in the ruling class.

‘However, the king should know the appropriate occasions for both forgiveness and
punishment’ when administering justice. Punishment for those who were defiant, cruel,
or mischievous had to be balanced with grace and forgiveness for those who admitted
m

their faults and repented.

However, one element of justice was conspicuously absent from all of these
discussions: the delivery of justice was to be based on the subjects’ religious traditions,
)A

despite the fact that Barani never discussed different types of justice for Hindus and
Muslims. As he states in Advice 5, the king must keep in mind that justice is a crucial
component of Din-i-Islam. There can be no definition of Din without justice. Justice is
the only way to achieve a sense of equality in human culture. Din and justice are like
twins in that they are inextricably related. All offenders are brought to justice, and order
(c

and peace in society are restored. The ideals of Islam will not gain traction in society
until this ideal of justice is realised.

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 Indian Political Thought-II 109

Justice was an important part of Barani’s government, which included anything

Notes

e
from remission of land taxes to supplying goods to buyers at cost, as well as dispensing
civil and criminal proceedings and providing monetary assistance to the poor from
the state treasury. For example, he suggested that the Diwan-i-Riyasat, the market’s

in
controller general, the Shahana-i-Mandi, the grain market’s superintendent, and other
officials could monitor market irregularities such as weight and measure checks,
deliberate price hikes, hoarding, and so on.

nl
5.3.2 Justice and Ruler at Apex

O
It becomes necessary for the king to ensure justice at times because peaceful
people will not be able to commit themselves to the service of Almighty Allah unless
offenders are severely punished.

One moment of justice, according to the Holy Prophet (PBUH), is greater than

ty
seventy years of saintly prayers to God. This is because the king’s justice fosters a
friendly environment in society. All of the prayers to God offered by different people in
the king’s realm are tallied in the king’s name. Aristotle is known to have said that a

si
judicious ruler must be able to distinguish between right and wrong. If he is unable to
do so, he will most likely pursue only material pleasures and become a slave to his
own personal desires and wishes. This understanding is important for maintaining
r
justice, because without justice, there can be no order or discipline in society. Many of
a successful ruler’s other measures would fail if he is unable to carry out justice in his
ve
realm. As a result, the king should take extra caution in appointing competent judges,
qazis, and governors in the province. He should also treat these state officers with
respect.
ni

He cited Hazrat Umar and Caliph Mamun-urRashid as examples of how they

treated good officers who assisted them in establishing justice in the empire. Those
rulers favoured them by establishing their rank and status based on their abilities and
U

performance.

As Barani points out in Advice 13, a king who is unable to develop natural respect
for justice in himself would be unable to distinguish between justice and cruelty. His
passion for justice should be cultivated in the manner of the Prophets and Angels, who
ity

are born with this trait. The Prophets’ desire for justice and righteousness is so intense
that they continue to pray in their graves even after death.

Barani cites a number of indicators of natural justice:

m

1) He dislikes brutality by nature and enjoys assisting the oppressed and poor
against cruel people;
2) He should not take such actions with the intention of exacting vengeance on the
)A

criminals;
3) When enforcing justice (Adl), he should never be hasty, vengeful, or
compromising;
4) He should always be cautious and afraid of inflicting any harm on the oppressed;
(c

5) In doing so, his sense of justice should take precedence over his qualities of
kindness;

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 110 Indian Political Thought-II

6) In doing so, he should ignore any criticism, negative comments, or praises from
Notes

e
his well-wishers;
7) He should not think for personal or national loss when dispensing justice;

in
8) He should be very stern and determined when dispensing justice. He should
devote his entire time to establishing justice in his kingdom in all aspects of life.
In this regard, he should not accept any excuse or justification from any of his

nl
officials for failing to administer justice;
9) He should thoroughly investigate the cases. If his ego is involved, he should put
others’ desires ahead of his own. His spirit of justice would shine like the sun in

O
this way;
10) He should be able to obtain the rights of the weaker ones from the strong. He
should not be pleased until the strong-one is forced to adhere to his orders;

ty
11) It should not be the case that the king has a deep desire for justice but is unable
to carry it out;
12) He appears to be stern and cruel when dispensing justice, but he should be

si
very kind to the people in his heart. This is the rarest of all the qualities;
13) All of his anger and strictness should be directed toward God. He could not act
in this manner for his own gain;
r
14) He should honour justice-minded citizens, as well as his administrators and
ve
judges;
15) He should despise treachery and falsehood in the administration of justice, and
ensure that a clear distinction between right and wrong is established;
ni

16) Anyone involved in a lawsuit should cultivate a willingness to see that all of the
case’s proceedings, including the judgement, take place in his presence;
17) People should naturally value the king’s sense of justice. Despite the fact that
U

certain people are treated unfairly, the majority of people should hold the king in
high regard and respect, and they should not despise him.
18) He should think about removing cruelty from his state at all times;
ity

19) He should not behave if he is unsure. However, malicious people, evildoers,

and treacherous people should not be given the benefit of the doubt.
While combining the two opposing qualities of simplicity and kingship is difficult, the
Holy Prophet and the Pious Caliphs did so.
m

As a result, the king should make a concerted effort to create justice in the two
ways described above. If he is unable to live a simple life like the Holy Prophet and the
Pious Caliphs, he should confess his sins to God Almighty and never fail to uphold first
)A

equality, which is of paramount importance to his spirit of justice. The King must also
keep in mind that his throne is only temporary.

He will die and move on to a new life at some point in the future. In the afterlife,
he will be kept accountable to God. He will be properly honoured if he has behaved in
(c

accordance with Shariah rules. Otherwise, he will be punished for the rest of his life. As
a result, in exercising his authority, he should act in accordance with the spirit of Islam,
so that truth can triumph.
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 Indian Political Thought-II 111

5.3.3 Justice and Religion

Notes

e
In the history of Islamic thought, the idea of “justice” served as a critical basis for
moral and political discourse. The debate among Muslim scholars is based on two

in
key sources: first, the Koran, which serves as Islam’s primary source of revelation,
as well as the Prophet Muhammad’s Sunna tradition; and second, ancient antiquity’s
philosophical tradition. These sources have interacted in various ways, demonstrating

nl
how Islam, like Christianity, evolved within the same Greek intellectual context. The
belief of Greek thinkers that justice is the foundation of a fair society and one of the
cardinal virtues of the human soul was not limited to Islamic philosophers.

O
5.3.4 Declining Relevance of Shariat
In the aftermath of uprisings in several Arab countries, including Libya, Tunisia,
and Egypt, which toppled longtime autocrats and helped Islamist political parties gain

ty
prominence, the issue of sharia law versus secular law received renewed attention in
2011. A Pew poll conducted in 39 countries in 2013 found broad support for Islam in
politics as well as harsh penalties for crimes such as robbery, adultery, and non-Islamic

si
conversion. At the same time, Muslims in just five nations, including Pakistan and
Afghanistan, favoured a strong leader to democracy.

The question of whether democracy and Islam should coexist is a contentious one.
r
Some conservative Muslims contend that democracy is a solely Western ideology that
ve
has been forced on Muslim nations. Others believe that Islam necessitates democracy
and that democracy has its roots in the Quran, which encourages “mutual consultation”
among the people (42:38 Quran). Rather than opposing democracy, many Muslims see
sharia as a way to “be free of government corruption” and believe it can coexist with
ni

democracy and inclusion.

According to some Muslim scholars, the only way to follow sharia is to have a
secular government. According to sharia expert Abdullahi Ahmed An-Na’im, “enforcing
U

a [sharia] by the state’s coercive power negates its religious essence, since Muslims
will be following the state’s rule rather than openly fulfilling their religious duties as
Muslims.”
ity

“There will be in the future an increasing need for non-Islamic countries all over
the world to negotiate with Islamic countries on a multitude of matters ranging from
questions of war and peace to mercantile contracts.” (Weeramantry)

One of the most fascinating aspects of Islamic Law is the question of Islam’s
m

continued importance in the modern world. Islamic family law, Islamic law of
succession, and Islamic law of contract are all profoundly rooted in the constitutions
and laws of Muslim majority countries today. International treaties and conventions, in
reality, can be seen as upholding the traditions and laws of Islamic countries all over
)A

the world. After all, early Islamic jurists like Al Shaybani recognized the importance of
maintaining relationships across religious lines by recognizing the principle of Dar Ul
Harb, or Islamic International Law.

We see issues relating to, among other things, conduct of war, peacetime ties
(c

between Muslims and non-muslim countries, international treaty laws, territorial control,
diplomatic relations, and neutrality rules, according to Al- Shaybani, the father of Islamic
International Law.
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 112 Indian Political Thought-II

One of the most influential and distinguishing characteristics of Islam is its

Notes

e
acceptance of foreign relationships, or more precisely, a definition of ‘siyar,’ which
refers to the relationship between the Muslim realm (dar ul Islam) and the non-Muslim
realm (dar ul harb). However, the importance and implementation of Islamic law in the

in
modern world is frequently a source of intense discussion, both in terms of domestic
and international law.

nl
Islam has always played an important role in the cultural, political, and legal affairs
of many Muslim states and societies, both before and after the UN was established.
Various Muslim majority countries have successfully adopted constitutional provisions
that recognise Islamic law into their legal structures, such as Articles 1-46 of the Saudi

O
Arabian constitution, Articles 4-12 of the Iranian constitution, Article 2 of the Egyptian
constitution, and Article 227 of the Pakistani constitution.

Although modern international law is widely regarded as a secular legal framework

ty
with roots in the creation of western culture and political organisation, it is widely
accepted that its origins can be traced back to antiquity and can be found in the history
and norms of various religions and civilizations around the world.

si
As a result, in terms of the Muslim world, Islamic law and the concepts of siyar can
be extremely useful. Muslim states’ successful involvement in international forums, the
League of Nations, and the United Nations and its agencies shows that the dar al Islam
r
has come to terms with peaceful coexistence with the dar al harb.
ve
“Historical sources indicate that despite the contemporary custom of waging wars,
the Prophet developed a policy of maintaining peace alliances with non-Muslim Arab
tribes, with Christain and Jewish communities around Madinah and with leaders of
other foreign nations up to the time of his death. Involving Islamic law in addressing
ni

international terrorism and management of the global environment is an indication of

how it may assist in addressing, on a long term basis, wider issues of international
concern.” (Baderin)
U

“The report states that sharia law as a concept, considered in general terms, is
one many Muslims are not willing to reject. ‘However, in their day-to-day lives, this
is not an issue that drives many Muslims in the UK,’ it adds. ‘The practical problems
ity

that surround sharia ensure that many show little interest in those Sharia-compliant
measures that do exist.’”

Check your Understanding

1. There will be in the future an increasing need for non-Islamic countries all over the
m

world to negotiate with Islamic countries on a multitude of matters ranging from

questions of war and peace to mercantile contracts.” This is said by ________.
)A

2. One moment of justice, according to the __________ (PBUH), is greater than

seventy years of saintly prayers to God.
3. Justice was an important part of Barani’s government, which included anything from
remission of land taxes to supplying goods to buyers at cost, as well as dispensing
civil and criminal proceedings and providing monetary assistance to the poor from
(c

the state treasury. State true or false.

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 Indian Political Thought-II 113

4. According to sharia expert___________, “enforcing a [sharia] by the state’s coercive

Notes

e
power negates its religious essence, since Muslims will be following the state’s rule
rather than openly fulfilling their religious duties as Muslims.”

in
Summary

The Fatawa-i-Jahandari and Tarikh-i-Feroz Shahi by Barani are regarded as the

greatest works of the Middle Ages. The whole of Barani’s theory piqued my curiosity.

nl
His Fatawa or Tarikh may appear to be a jumble of inconsistencies on the surface, but
beneath it lies the continuity of his goals: the defence, unification, and expansion of the
Sultanate. Barani’s whole theory piqued my curiosity. His Fatawa or Tarikh may appear

O
to be a jumble of contradictions on the surface, but beneath it lies the continuity of his
interest — the security, unification, and expansion of the Sultanate, regardless of the
methods used to achieve these goals. In his outlook, he was essentially a conservative
aristocrat who sought stability but was overshadowed by the changing conditions of his

ty
time and marginalised by the class he wished to serve.

Activity

si
1. Discuss the role of shariat in Barani’s ideal state. Is it still relevant today?

Questions and Exercises

1. r
Discuss the basic concept of justice in Barani’s ideal state.
ve
2. What was the role of ruler in providing justice? Answer in reference of ‘Justice
and Ruler at Apex’.
3. How was religion and justice connected?
ni

4. What is shariat? What was its role in Barani’s ideal state? How was it important
for the ruler? How was it related to the concept of justice?
5. Discuss the declining relevance of shariat.
U

Glossary
1. Sultanate: a state or country governed by a sultan.
ity

2. Holy Prophet: a person regarded as an inspired teacher or proclaimer of the

will of God.

References
1. Haroon Khan Sherwani, Studies in the History of Early Muslim Political Thought
m

and Administration, Lahore, 1942, Tusi’s ideas are explained in his Siyasat
Namhah and Dasturul Wuzara.
)A

2. Mahajan, V.D. (1991, reprint 2007). History of Medieval India, Part I, New Delhi:
S. Chand, ISBN 81-219-0364-5
3. Roy, Himanshu (2020). Indian Political Thought Themes and Thinker. Pearson.
p. 81. ISBN 978-93-325-8733-5.
4. Social Stratification Among Muslims in India Archived 18 July 2011 at the
(c

Wayback Machine by Zarina Bhatty

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 114 Indian Political Thought-II

Answers: Check Your Understanding

Notes

e
1. Weeramantry
2. Holy Prophet

in
3. True
4. Abdullahi Ahmed An-Na’im

nl
O
ty
r si
ve
ni
U
ity
m
)A
(c

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