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5. Hydraulic turbines

5.1 General
Hydraulic turbine is a machine which converts pressure of kinetic energy of water in to mechanical energy. The
mechanical energy thus produced is utilized to run an electric generator which produces electric power. The water
flowing through the turbines imparts its energy to the runner of the turbine and makes it to rotate. The shaft of
the runner is directly coupled with the generator shaft, thus providing the necessary mechanical energy to the
generator.

5.1.1 Classification of Turbines

In order to distinguish different turbines, hydraulic salient features (pressure, head, flow direction and magnitude,
speed and power) will be used.

I. Classification based on Pressure:

1. Pressure less or Impulse Turbines: The water flowing through the penstocks has always some pressure
head, besides kinetic head. At the inlet to the turbine runner, this pressure head can be completely
converted in to kinetic head in the form of a jet of water issuing from one or more nozzles and hitting the
wheel vanes. In such a case, the free jet will be atmospheric pressure, before as well as after striking the
vanes. Example: Pelton and Tugo-impulse turbines.
2. Pressure or Reaction Turbines: a turbine can also be made to rotate under the action of water flowing
pressure through the runner. In such turbines the penstocks, the inlet passage to the runner, passage
between runner vanes, all form a continuous passage for flow under a pressure which continuously
decreases from inlet to outlet. The turbine runner directly converts both kinetic energy as well as pressure
energy in to mechanical energy. Example: Francis, Kaplan, Propeller and Deriaz turbines.

Figure-1: Impulse turbine (Pelton wheel)

Lecture notes, Hydropower Engineering, Wree 5171, 2011; by Chalachew A.

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Figure-2: Reaction turbines

Table-1: Comparison between Impulse and Reaction turbine

No
. Impulse Turbine Reaction Turbine
The total head of water available is first Only part of the head available is converted into
1 converted into velocity head by using a nozzle. velocity head and no separate nozzle is used.
The pressure of the water remains constant
and is equal to atmospheric pressure as water The pressure and the velocity both vary as the water
2 passes through the wheel. passes through the wheel.
The wheel should not run full so that the air
3 has free access between the vanes. The wheels always run full.
Water may be admitted over a part of Water must be admitted over the whole
4 circumference. circumference of the wheel.
5 It must be placed above the tail race. It will be kept entirely submerged in to water.

II. Classification based on Head:

1. Low head (2 -15m): e.g. propeller, Kaplan, tubular
2. Medium head (16-70m): e.g. Kaplan
3. High head (71-500m): e.g. Francis turbine
4. Very high head (>500m): e.g. pelton turbine
III. Classification based on Discharge:
1. Low discharge, e.g. pelton (high head)
2. Intermediate discharge, e.g. Francis
3. High discharge, e.g. Kaplan
IV. Classification based on Speed:
As generator and turbine are directly coupled, the rated speed of the turbine is the same as synchronous speed of
generator and is given by the following equation:
N=60∗f / P

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Where: N- speed [rpm], f- Frequency of the generator of power [50 Hz], p- Number of poles of the generator.
Since 'f’ and 'p' are constant, 'N' has to be constant.

V. Classification based on the specific speed (Ns): the specific speed on a turbine is defined as the speed of
geometrically similar turbine which would develop 1KW when operating under a head of 1m.
N √P
N s=
H 5/ 4 where P, power [KW]; H head [m]
Turbine type Specific Speed (rpm)
Slow Medium Fast
Pelton 4-15 16-30 31-70
Francis 60-150 151-250 251-400
Kaplan 300-400 401-700 701-1000

VI. Classification based on Turbine layout (arrangement)

The turbine generator layout can be horizontal shaft layout, vertical shaft layout or inclined shaft layout.
Horizontal shaft layout: the turbine and generator are on the same elevation and connected by horizontal shaft
i.e. the generator is set adjacent to the turbine.
Vertical lay out: the generator is placed above the turbine and both are connected by vertical shaft.
Inclined layout arrangement: this arrangement is possible for small turbines.

Figure-3: Turbine layout

Vertical shaft arrangement is better than horizontal arrangement because:
a. More compact and needs less floor area for power house;
b. Design of hydraulic passage is more simple;
c. In reaction turbine, it can be placed near to the tail water without disturbing the power house.
Horizontal arrangement conveniently used for special circumstances, such as:
a. When two runners are mounted on the same shaft to feed a common generator. This is known as a
double over hung arrangement;
b. It involves deep excavation; and
c. In tubular turbine and in tidal power plant.

5.1.2 Hydraulics of Turbines

a. Hydraulic efficiency (ηh): the hydraulic efficiency of the turbine is the ratio of the power developed by
the runner to the net power supplied by the water at the entrance to the turbine. It is given by:

ηh = power developed by the runner

Net power supplied at the turbine entrance

Or ηh = power developed by the runner

ΥQH

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b. Mechanical efficiency (ηm): the mechanical efficiency of the turbine is the ratio of the power available
at the turbine shaft to the power developed by the runner. These two powers differ by the amount of
the mechanical losses viz, bearing friction. That is:
ηm = power available at the turbine shaft
Power developed by the runner

Or ηh = P
Power developed by the runner

c. Volumetric efficiency (ηv): the volumetric efficiency is the ratio of the quantity of the water actually
striking the runner and the quantity of water supplied to the turbine. These two quantities differ by the
amount of water that slips directly to the tail race without striking the runner. That is:
Q
η v=
( Q+ ΔQ )

Where: Q-the quantity of water actually striking the runner, ΔQ- is the quantity of water that is discharged

directly to the tail race without striking the runner and H- is the net head available at the entrance to the

turbine.
d. Overall efficiency (ηo): the overall efficiency of the turbine is the ratio of the power available at the
turbine shaft to the power supplied by the water at the entrance to the turbine. That is:
ηo = power available at the turbine shaft
Net power supplied at the turbine entrance

ηo= ηh * ηm * ηv

5.1.3 Pelton Turbines

It is the only impulse type turbine now in common and named after Laster A. Pelton (American Engineer) who
contribute much for its development.

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 BDU, IoT, School of civil and Water Resources Engineering

Figure-3: Single jet pelton turbine

The runner consists of a circular disc with a number of buckets evenly spaced round its periphery. The buckets
have a shape of double semi-ellipsoidal cups. Each bucket is divided in to two symmetrical parts by a sharp-edged
ridge known as splitter. One or more nozzles are mounted so that each directs a jet along a tangent to the circle
through the centers of the buckets called the pitch circle.
In order to control the quantity of water striking the runner, the nozzle fitted at the end of the penstock is
provided with a spear or needle having a streamlined head which is fixed to the end of rod. A casing made of cast
iron or a fabricated steel plate is usually provided. It has no hydraulic function to perform, but is provided only to
prevent splashing of water to lead water to the tail race and also to act as safeguard against accidents.

Runner with buckets: Runner is a circular disk mounted on a shaft on the periphery of which a number of buckets
are fixed equally spaced as shown in Fig. The buckets are made of cast-iron cast-steel, bronze or stainless steel
depending upon the head at the inlet of the turbine. The water jet strikes the bucket on the splitter of
the bucket and gets deflected through α 160-170 degree.

Breaking jet: Even after the amount of water striking the buckets is completely stopped, the runner goes on
rotating for a very long time due to inertia. To stop the runner in a short time, a small nozzle is provided which

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directs the jet of water on the back of bucket with which the rotation of the runner is reversed. This jet is called as
breaking jet.

Figure: Velocity triangles for the jet striking the bucket

From the impulse-momentum theorem, the force with which the jet strikes the bucket along the direction of vane
is given by:
F x = Rate of change of momentum of the jet along the direction of vane motion
F x = (Mass of water / second) x change in velocity along the x direction

F x =ρ∗a∗v 1 [ V w1 −(−V w 2 ) ]= ρ∗a∗v 1 [ V w 1 +V w 2 ]

Work done per second by the jet on the vane is given by the product of Force exerted on the vane and
the distance moved by the vane in one second:
W . D./ S=F X∗u=ρ∗a∗v 1 [ V w 1 +V w2 ]∗u

Input to the jet per second = Kinetic energy of the jet per second
=1 /2∗ρ∗a∗v 31
Efficiency of the jet = (output/second)/ (Input/second) = (work done/second)/ (input /second)
3
[
η=( ρ av 1 [ V w1 + V w 2 ]∗u)/ ( 0. 5∗ρ aV 1 )=
2 u( V w 1 +V w2 )
2
V1 ]
From inlet velocity triangle, Vw1 = V1
Assuming no shock and ignoring frictional losses through the vane, we have Vr1- Vr2 = (V1-U1)
In case of pelton wheel, the inlet and outlet are located at the same radial distance from the centre of the runner
and hence, U1 = U2 = U
From outlet velocity triangle, we have Vw2 = Vr2 * cos ɸ - U2 = (V1-U)*cosɸ - U2

Hence: x
F =ρ∗a∗v [ V +(V −u)cos φ−u ]=ρ∗a∗v [ (V −u )(1+cos φ) ]
1 1 1 1 1
Substituting these values in the above equation for efficiency, we have:

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The above equation gives the efficiency of the jet striking the vane in case of Pelton wheel.
To obtain the maximum efficiency for a given jet velocity and vane angle, from maxima-minima, we have

i.e. When the bucket speed is maintained at half the velocity of the jet, the efficiency of a Pelton wheel will
be maximum. Substituting we get,

From the above it can be seen that more the value of cosɸ, more will be the efficiency. Form maximum efficiency,
the value of cosɸ should be 1 and the value of ɸ should be 0 degree. This condition makes the jet to completely
deviate by 180 degree and this, forces the jet striking the bucket to strike the successive bucket on the back of it
acting like a breaking jet. Hence to avoid this situation, at least a small angle of ɸ =5 degree should be provided.

5.1.3.1 Working Proportions of the Pelton Turbine

1. Jet (Spouting) Velocity ⇒V = √ 2gH where: H - is the net head. The actual velocity of the jet is slightly
less, due to friction loss in the nozzle. Thus:
V =k √ 2 gH
v
Where, Kv is the coefficient of velocity for the nozzle with its value ranging from 0.97 to 0.99.
2. Velocity of the turbine (U): The velocity of turbine at pitch circle is equal to 0.5V →U=0.5*0.98*V=0.49V
However, in actual practice the maximum efficiency occurs when the value of U is about 0.46V. Thus,
V =0.98 √ 2gH , but U =0.46V=0.46∗0.98 √2 gH=0.45 √ 2gH . The speed ratio (
⇒ φ=u / √2 gH ). In practice φ ranges from 0.43 to 0.48.

[ 4Q
] ( )
1/2
d= Q
d=0 .542
π∗K v ( √ 2 gH ) √H
3. Minimum jet diameter (d) : , taking Kv=0.98, we obtain

4. Mean diameter or the pitch diameter (D): If the turbine rotates N rpm, then
U= ( π DN 60 ) . Thus:
60U 60 (φ √ 2 gH )
D= =
πN πN
Table-2: suggests appropriate values of φ, which gives highest efficient turbine. The head, Ns- specific speed with
varying range efficiencies of turbine are considered.

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In general:
 Pelton turbines used for high heads and low discharge;
 Francis turbines used for medium to high head plants
 Propeller used for low head plants (high discharge)

5. Jet Ratio (m): The ratio of the Pitch diameter (D) to the jet diameter (d) and is given by [m=D/d]. For
maximum efficiency, the jet ratio should be from 11 to 14.
6. Number of buckets (Z): the number of buckets is usually more than 15. Empirical formulas have been
developed for the determining of the number of buckets. One of the formula widely used has been given
by TAYGUN according to which, the number of buckets is approximated by:

Z= ( 2Dd +15)=( 0 .5 m+15)

5.1.3.2 Designing of pelton turbine
A pelton turbine is required to be designed to develop a known power (P), when running at a known speed (N)
rpm under a head of H. Thus the values of ηo, Kv, φ and m are assumed. Thus, the various steps involved in the
design are as follows:
i. Determine the required discharge for the relation, P= ηo *Υ*Q*H

ii. Calculate the velocity (V) of the jet:

V =k √ 2 gH
v
iii. Calculate the total area of the jet required: A=Q/V
60U 60 (φ √ 2 gH )
D= =
iv. Calculate the pitch circle diameter (D): πN πN
v. Calculate the required diameter (d) of the jet from the relation (m=D/d) and also calculate the
corresponding area of the jet.
vi. Obtain the number of jets required by dividing the total area of jets obtained in step (iii) by the area of the
each jet obtained in step (v).
vii. The fractional number obtained in step (vi) may be rounded up to the approximate integral number and
the corresponding diameter of each jet to be actually provided may be calculated.
viii. Calculate the number of buckets to be provided from the relevant equation.

5.1.4 Reaction Turbines

The working principle distinguishing features of reaction turbines are that only part of the total head of water is
converted into velocity head before it reaches the runner, and that the water completely fills all the passage in the
runner. The two reaction types of turbines which are predominantly used these days are Francis and Kaplan
turbines

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5.1.4.1 Francis Turbines

It is named in honour of James B. Francis (1815-1892) an American Engineer, who was the first to develop an
inward radial flow type reaction turbine in 1849. The water from the penstock enters a scroll casing (spiral casing)
which completely surrounds the runner. The purpose of the casing is to provide an even distribution of water
around the circumference of the turbine runner, maintaining an approximately constant velocity for the water so
distributed. In order to keep the velocity of the water constant throughout its path around the runner, the cross-
sectional area of the casing is gradually decreased. The casing is made of cast steel, plate steel, concrete or
concrete and steel depending upon the pressure to which it is subjected. Out of these, a plate steel scroll casing is
commonly provided for turbines operating under 30m or higher heads.

The main purpose of the various components shown on the figure is to lead the water to the runner with a
minimum head loss of energy. The runner of the Francis turbine consist of a series of curved vanes (16 to 24 in
number) evenly arranged around the circumference in the annular space between the two plates.

The water after passing through the runner flows to the tail race through a draft tube. A draft tube is a pipe or
passage of gradually increasing cross-sectional area which connects the runner exists to the tail race. It may be
made of cast or plate steel or concrete. It must be airtight and under all conditions of operation its lower end must
be submerged below the level of water in the tail race.

Figure-4: Francis Turbine

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 BDU, IoT, School of civil and Water Resources Engineering

Figure-5: relative size of Francis turbine

5.1.4.2 Working Proportions of Francis Turbine

i. The ratio of the width (B) of the turbine to the diameter (D) of the runner is represented by n, that is :
[n=B/D], where the value of n ranges from 0.10 to 0.45
ii. The ratio of the velocity of flow (Vf) at the inlet tip of the vane to the spouting velocity (√ 2 gH ) is known
Vf
ψ= ⇒ V f =ψ √ 2 gH
as flow ratio (Ψ) that is: √ 2 gH , where the value of Ψ ranges from 0.15 to 0.30.

iii. In this case also the sped ratio (φ) is defined as : φ=U / ( √2 gH ) where the value of φ ranges from 0.60
to 0.90

5.1.4.3 Design of Francis Turbine Runner

A Francis turbine runner is required to be designed to develop a known power (p) when running at a known speed
(N) of rpm under a known head of H. The probable values of ηo, n and Ψ are assumed. The design of the runner
which involves the determination of the size is carried out as follows:
a. Determine the required discharge Q from the relation: P=ηo * (ΥQH)
b. If ‘Z’ is the number of vanes in the runner, ‘t’ is the thickness of the vane at inlet and ‘B’ is the width of
the wheel at inlet, then the area of flow section at the turbine inlet A=( πD−Zt )∗B=k∗π∗B∗D
, where ‘K’ is the factor which allows for the thickness of the vanes. Then:
Q
Q=Kπ BDV f =Kπ nD 2 V f ⇒V f =
Kπ nD 2 since B=n*D. Thus assuming a suitable value of k, the

diameter (D) and the width (B) of the runner can be determined.
c. The tangential velocity of the runner at inlet may be determined from the equationU =( π DN /60 ) .
d. The runner diameter D1 at the outlet end varies from 1/3* D to 2/3 *D and usually it is taken equal to
½*D. Thus the tangential velocity of the runner at outlet may be determined from the expression
U 1 =( πD1 N / 60 )
.
e. The number of runner vanes should be either one more or one less than the number of guide vanes, in
order to avoid setting up of periodic impulse.

5.1.5 Turbine size

The present trend is towards using bigger turbines. One basic factor for this trend is that hydraulic efficiency
improves with size. Studies conducted by USBR shows that the overall cost of Francis turbine is minimum between
300,000 to 600,000Hp. The turbine size and number of turbines should be chosen judiciously so as to give the
optimum working condition as well as economy. A single big turbine would cause failure in meeting the

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requirement of power in case of damages. On the other hand too smaller size and number of units would also be
uneconomical.
Example-1: A double jet Pelton wheel operates under a 40m head and develops 735KW brake power when
running at 450 rpm. Make calculations for the flow rate and the diameter of the nozzle jet. Assume ηo =0.85 and
coefficient of velocity, Kv=0.98.
Solution:
P=ηγ QH =735∗10 3=9810∗40∗0. 85∗Q ⇒Q=2 . 204 m3 /s
Velocity of the jet,
V =K v √ 2 gH=0 .98 √ 2∗9. 81∗40=27 . 45 m/s
The total discharge through the wheel must be equal to the discharge through the jet. Thus,
Q=n∗π∗d 2∗ν / 4 ⇔2 .204=2∗π∗27 . 45∗d 2 /4 ⇒ d=22 .6 cm
Example-2: suggest a suitable type of turbine to operate under a head of 300m with a flow Q=6.25m 3/s. Use
runner speed N=200rpm, η=85%.
3
Solution: P=ηγ QH=0.85∗9.81∗6.25∗300=15.634∗10 KW
N∗√ P 200∗√ 15 . 43∗10 3
N s= = =20
H 5/4 300 5/4
Since H=300m>270m and Ns=20, then we choose impulse turbine. Let choose φ = 0.45 (for impulse type it is b/n
60(φ √ 2 gH ) 60( 0. 45 √ 2∗9 .81∗300)
D= = =3 .298 m≃3. 30 m
0.43 and 0.48 from table-2 of this handout). πN π∗200

Example-3: It is desired to generate 1000KW of power and survey reveals that 450m of static head and a
minimum flow of 0.3m3/s is available. Comment whether the task can be accomplished by installing a pelton
wheel that turns 1000 rpm and has an efficiency of 80%. Further design the pelton wheel by assuming suitable
data for coefficient of velocity, speed ratio and velocity coefficient for the jet.
Solution: Power available from the turbine shaft,
P=ηγ QH=0 .85∗9810∗0 . 3∗450=1060∗103 w=1060 kw
Velocity of jet,
V =K v|2gH =0.98|2∗9.81∗450=92.08m/s (assuming Kv=0.98)
Tangential (peripheral) velocity of the wheel, (assuming Ku=0.46)
U =K u|2gH =0.46|2∗9.81∗450=43.20m/s
Design of pelton wheel is the means of find the diameter of wheel (D), diameter of jet (d), width and depth of
buckets and number of buckets on the wheel.
U =π DN /60 ⇒ D=60U /πN =60∗43 . 2/1000∗π =0 .826 m
Water flow rate through the turbine, (assuming Cd=0.94)
π
Q=C d √ 2 gH∗ d 2 ⇒ d=
4
Size of buckets:
4Q
√
Cd π √2 gH
=
√
4∗0 .3
0 . 94∗π √2∗9 . 81∗450
=6 .58 cm

Width of bucket = 3 to 4 times jet diameter = 3.5*6.58 =23.03 cm

Depth of bucket = 0.8 to 1.2 times jet diameter =1*6.58=6.58 cm
Radial length of bucket =2 to 3 times jet diameter =2.5*6.58 =16.45 cm

Number of buckets on the wheel is calculated by the empirical relation suggested by TYGUN:
Z=0.5m+15 =0.5D/d+15 = 0.5*(0.826/0.0658) +15 = 21.27
Hence, provide 22 buckets

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 BDU, IoT, School of civil and Water Resources Engineering

5.1.6 Turbine Scroll Case

Scroll case is used to conduit water from the intake or penstock to the runner in reaction type turbine (in case of
impulse wheel a casing is used only to prevent splashing of water and leading to the tail race). A spiral shaped
scroll case of the correct geometry ensures the even distribution of water around the periphery of the runner with
minimum possible eddy formations.

Full spiral case: it entirely enclosing the turbine with a nose angle “Φ” 3600 and ensures the most perfect flow
condition. These cases are provided for medium and high head installations were discharge requirement is
smaller.
Partial Spiral case: for low head plants the entrance area should be larger so as to allow large flows. This is
achieved by choosing nose angles that are less than 3200.

Figure-6: Recommended dimensions of scroll case

The approximate dimensions of a Francis turbine layout with steel scroll case and a propeller turbine layout with
concrete scroll, is as shown on the figure.

Figure-7: Typical cross-section of spiral case

In general, for high head plants, circular scroll case x-section is normally adopted; while for low head plants,
rectangular x-section with rounded corners are recommended. The design of the shape of spiral case is governed
by the following requirements:
i. a spiral case of constant height
ii. an evenly distributed flow in to the turbine and
iii. no friction loss

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5.1.7 Draft Tube

The draft tube is a conduit for discharging water from the runner to the tail race and has two purposes:
a. To recover as much as possible the velocity energy leaving the runner thus increasing the dynamic draft
head.
b. To utilize the vertical distance between the turbine exit and the tail water level called static draft head.
There are two types of draft tube:
i. Elbow type draft tube; and
ii. Vertical draft tube.

Figure-8: Draft tube types (a) Elbow-type; (b) vertical-type

The most common draft tube is the elbow type, which minimize the depth of the substructure. Compared to the
vertical draft tube it has desirable effect for directing flow to the tail water. Elbow type draft tube has three parts:
a. Vertical (entrance) part and circular in shape and gradually expanding.
b. Bend part (to minimize the losses due to change of direction), it has gradual transition from
circular to rectangular section.
c. An almost horizontal part in rectangular section, gradually expanding to direct water into the tail
race with minimum loss.

Considering the layout Figure-8 (b), for example, the energy equation between 1 and 3, where 1 is located at the
inlet and 3 at the exit of the draft tube gives:
P1 V 21 P a V 22
Y s+ + = + +H L
ρg 2 g ρg 2 g , where Pa is atmospheric pressure and HL is the friction and eddy losses in the
draft tube
P1
ρg
=
Pa
ρg
−Y s − ( V 21
2g
−
V 22
2g
−H L ) . Denoting
Hd=( V 21
2g
−
V 22
2g
−H L ) the head regained

( )
2
V 1 V 22
H d =ηd∗ −
2g
2 g , where ηd is the efficiency of the draft tube having high value as 85%
P1 P v
>
In order to avoid cavitation at the exit from the runner, the condition ρg ρg , where PV is the saturated vapor
pressure, must be satisfied with a sufficient safety factor, since the flow over parts of the runner will be at lower
pressures.
The suggested dimensions of the draft tube used for high specific speed turbines are shown below on the figure.

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 BDU, IoT, School of civil and Water Resources Engineering

Figure-9: Recommended dimensions of an elbow-type draft tube (Mosonyi, 1988)

5.1.8 Cavitation in Turbines

It is a physical phenomenon witnessed in fluid flow, whenever the prevailing pressures are near the vapor
pressure i.e. vacuum condition. As the pressure falls towards vapor pressure, the water starts vaporizing and at
the same time, normally dissolved gases also start getting liberated due to ambient low pressures. Thus in the
flowing water, minute microscopic bubbles are formed containing vapors and gases. These bubbles are called
cavities in the flow. Cavitation results in vibration and reduces efficiency and all are certainly undesirable. It may
be avoided by suitable designing, installing and operating so that the pressure head at the runner exit should not
fall below the vapor pressure.
In reaction turbines the cavitation may occur at the runner exit or the inlet to the draft tube where the pressure is
considerably reduced. Due to cavitation the metal of the runner vanes and the draft tube is gradually eaten away
in these zones, which results in lowering the efficiency of the turbine. As such the turbine components should be
so designed that as far as possible cavitation is eliminated. In order to determine whether cavitation will occur in
any portion of the turbine, Thoma has developed a dimensionless parameter called Thoma’s Cavitation factor,
which is expressed as: ( a V s)
σ = H −H − y / H
Where: ys = static draft head (the most critical factor in the installation of reaction turbine)
Hv = Vapor pressure;
Ha = atmospheric pressure;
H=Head on turbine.
Ha- Hv = Hb, is the barometric pressure head (at sea level and 20 °C, Hb=10.1 m)

It has been found that Ϭ depends on Ns of the turbine and for the turbine of particular Ns the factor Ϭ can be
reduced up to a certain value up to which its efficiency ηo remains constant. A further decrease in the value of Ϭ
results in the sharp fall in ηo. The value of Ϭ at this turning point is called critical cavitation factor, Ϭc. The value
of Ϭc for different turbines may be determined by the following empirical equations:

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( )
3
Ns
σ crit =0 .28+ 0. 0024∗
100 ----------------------------for Propeller runners with an increase of 10% for Kaplan
turbines (Mosonyi, 1987)

( )
2
Ns
σ crit =0 .0432∗
100 ------------------------------------------for Francis turbine
Typical values of σc for reaction turbines, versus their specific speeds (Ns), are shown in table below.

Specific Speed (Ns) 75 150 225 300 375 600 750 900
σc 0.025 0.10 0.23 0.40 0.64 0.80 1.50 3.50

The maximum permissible turbine setting, Y s.max (elevation above tail water to the center line of the propeller
runners or to the bottom of the Francis runners) can be written as:
Ys.max = Hb - σc*H, (Thoma's formula)

Where Ϭc is the minimum (critical) value of Ϭ at which cavitation occurs (usually determined by experiments). If Ys
is negative the runner must be set below the tail water. According Thoma, a turbine will be reasonably free from
cavitation, if this cavitation parameter exceeds a certain value σcrit for a given reaction turbine. Thus for cavitation
free running:
σ ≥σ crit

5.1.8.1 Position of center line of runner for vertical axis turbines

The preliminary calculations of the elevation of the distributor above the tail water [Yt, figure-8 (a)] suggests the
following empirical relationships (based on knowledge of the existing plants (Doland, 1957));
Y t =Y s +0 . 025 D∗N 0.
s
34
--------------------------For Francis runners
Y t =Y s +0 . 41∗D -----------------------------------For propeller runners
Where, D is the nominal diameter of the runner.

Example-1: Estimate the maximum height of straight conical draft tube of 13240KW Francis turbine running at 150
rpm, under a net head of 27m. The turbine is installed at a station where the effective atmospheric pressure is
10.6m of water. The draft tube must sink at least 0.77m below the tail race.
N √ P 150 √ 13240
N s= = =280 . 43
Specific speed of the turbine: H 5/4 27 5/4
Solution:
The critical cavitation factor, Ϭc for Francis turbine is given by:

( )
2 2

( )
Ns
σ c=0 . 0432∗ =0 .0432∗ 280. 43 =0 . 3397 m
100 100
σ c=( H a −H V − y s ) / H
But where: Ha-Hv = 10.6 m, H=27 m
Thus by substitution, we get: ( s)
0 . 3397= 10. 6− y /27
, solving ys = 1.45 m
Hence, the maximum length of the draft tube =1.45+0.77= 2.22m
Example-2: The quantity of water available for a hydroelectric station is 275 m3/s under a head of 18 m. Assuming
the speed of the turbines to be 150 rpm and their efficiency 82%, determine the least number of the machines, all
of the same size that will be needed if:

i. Francis turbines whose Ns must not exceed 395

ii. Kaplan turbines whose Ns must not exceed 690.

Solution: Total power to be developed by the turbines in KW:

p=η0∗γ∗Q∗H
p=0. 82∗9 .81∗275∗18=39819 KW

Lecture notes, Hydropower Engineering, Wree 5171, 2011; by Chalachew A.

 BDU, IoT, School of civil and Water Resources Engineering

N √P
N s=
The specific speed is given by: H 5/ 4
i. For Francis turbines considering the limiting value of Ns as 395, we have:
N √P
⇒395= 5/ √
150 P
N s= 5/ 4
⇒ P=9532 KW
H 18 4
Number of turbines needed: 39819/9532 ≈ 5
ii. For Kaplan turbines considering the limiting value of Ns as 690, we have:
N √P
⇒690= 5/ √
150 P
N s= 5/ 4
⇒ P=29087 KW
H 18 4
Number of turbines needed: 39819/29087 ≈ 2
Home work: Estimate the maximum height of the conical draft tube for a Kaplan turbine developing 14710KW
under a net head of 20m and running at 145rpm. The turbine is installed at a station where the effective
atmospheric pressure is 10.4m of water. The draft tube must sink at least 1m below the tail race level.

Lecture notes, Hydropower Engineering, Wree 5171, 2011; by Chalachew A.

 BDU, IoT, School of civil and Water Resources Engineering

6. Power House

6.1 General
Power houses are buildings provided to protect the power generating equipment that has to be installed in a
hydroelectric power plant from adverse weather conditions and to provide space for conducting day-to-day
activities of the generating plant.

6.1.1 Location of power house

e. Power house located close to the head works (Local installation); and
f. Power house located away from the head work (Remote installation)

6.1.2 Classification of Power Stations

Power stations can be classified as:
i. Surface power stations; and
ii. Underground power stations

6.1.3 Surface power station

They have less space restrictions than underground power houses. It requires sound rock for foundation otherwise
mat or pile foundation should be adopted.

A surface hydropower station structure can conveniently consist of three main divisions:
a. Closed (indoor) type;
b. Semi-out door type; and
c. Outdoor type.
Vertical setting type have all the three divisions, while for horizontal shaft arrangement, the intermediate
structure is absent as the turbine and generator are housed in adjacent halls at the same floor.

Figure 6-1: Divisions of powerhouse

Lecture notes, Hydropower Engineering, Wree 5171, 2011; by Chalachew A.

 BDU, IoT, School of civil and Water Resources Engineering

The sub-structure:-It is situated below the turbine level. In case of reaction turbines, it consists of draft tubes
where as in Pelton turbines, it consists of the tail race channel. It also transmits the load of the structure above it
to the foundation strata and is usually consists massive concrete.

The intermediate structure: - extends from the top of sub-structure to the top of generator foundation in vertical
layout. It accommodates the end pieces of the penstock, valves, scroll case and runner in reaction turbines and the
distributors, nozzles, and runner in Pelton turbines.

The super-structure:- accommodates the generator in vertical and horizontal shaft layout, oil pressure governing
system, control cubical, and the over head erection cranes. In the horizontal layout, it accommodates the turbine
also.
1. Closed power House: - In this type, all the machines are inside the power house building. Operation and
maintenance is also done inside the power house roof.

2. Semi-outdoor power house: - As PH cost is very high; every effort has to be made to reduce the
dimension by making the PH more compact. The length and width cannot reduce as they are determined
by the number and size of units. The height can be reduced by locating the main crane above the PH roof
which can be located at much lower elevation. This gives a compact layout known as semi-open type
power house.

The disadvantage is that assembly and repairs of machines have to be carried out in open, when adverse
weather conditions are likely to hamper these operations. The layout is economical only if the number of
units installed is large.

3. Outdoor power house: - It is a further simplification of semi-out door type layout. The power house
completely eliminated and the generators are surrounded by cylindrical metal shells to protect against
atmospheric influences. Their size is just enough for a personnel to move round the generator for
inspection. No maintenance can be carried out inside.

The following are the main advantages of semi-outdoor and outdoor type arrangement:
 The super structure is eliminated and thus there is saving in the cost.
 Only one crane serves the whole plant, hence there is saving in the handling equipments.

6.1.4 Under Ground Power Station

The PH is located below the natural ground level with the pressure tunnel, penstock, main power house cover and
tail race tunnel. Such PH can be provided only if stable geological strata are available at the PH site. Nowadays,
underground PH is more popular as its cost is low as compared to surface PH.
There are a number of advantages for underground pH:-
i. The conduit alignment can be kept as nearly straight depending on the geological strata. In case of surface
PH, the alignment depend the topography of the area and much longer paths have to be chosen to avoid
crossing deep valleys when costly supporting structures have to be provided.
ii. The head loss due to friction is reduced as this alignment has shorter penstock.
iii. Construction can be done during adverse weather condition and hence it can be completed earlier. This
reduces initial investment and return starts earlier. But for surface PH, construction is affected by adverse
weather condition (heavy rain, snow).
iv. No diversion structure is needed as surface PH like coffer dams.
v. It is free from the hazard of landslides, avalanches and other natural phenomenon.
vi. Downstream natural beauty is untouched (since it passes through underground).

6.1.5 Power House Dimensions

The super structure of the power house has three bays:
a. Machine hall or the unit bay
b. Erection or the loading bay and

Lecture notes, Hydropower Engineering, Wree 5171, 2011; by Chalachew A.

 BDU, IoT, School of civil and Water Resources Engineering

c. Control bay
1) Machine hall
Length: - it depends up on the number of units, distance between the units and size of the machines. For a
vertical alignment unit, the center-to-center distance b/n the units are controlled by the total width of the
scroll casing layout. Standard layout indicates that it requires a total approximate distance of 4.5D to 5D
with turbine outlet diameter D, and the minimum clearance of about 2 to 3 cm should be added. The
center-to-center distance between the units, as a first approximate is given by (5D+2.5m). For higher
Specific speeds, this requirement is reduced to (4D+2.5m).

Width: - it is determined by the size of and the clearance space from the walls needed as a gangway. Since
the gangway requirements are of the order of 2.5m, as a first approximation, the width of the machine
hall can be assumed to be at least equal to the center-to-center distance of the unit spacing.
Height: - This can be divided in to two categories: the depth of substructure and the height of
superstructure.

Height of superstructure: - It is decided by the elevation of the highest point of the machine and the
clearance and head room requirement of the overhead traveling crane. It may also be fixed by the head
room requirement (taken to be about 2 to 2.5m) of crane operation.

Depth of substructure: - In the case of Pelton turbines, the runner has to be above the highest tail water
level anticipated and the runner axis above the level by a distance equal to radius of the runner plus the
minimum clearance. In Francis and Kaplan turbines, the turbine setting is determined by cavitation
considerations and it should be such that at the lowest tail water level.

2) Erection or the loading bay: - It is the space where the heavy vehicles can be loaded and
unloaded. So the size of it should be sufficient to receive the large parts, like the rotor and the
runner.
3) Control bay: - It houses the main control and other equipment. It sends instruction to the
operation bay from where the operation control is achieved.

Lecture notes, Hydropower Engineering, Wree 5171, 2011; by Chalachew A.