Heat and Thermodynamics

Heat and Temperature:

Heat: Heat is the form of energy transferred between two (or more) systems or a system and its
surroundings by virtue of temperature difference. It is denoted by Q. The S.I. unit of heat energy is
joule (J).
Temperature: Temperature is a relative measure, or indication of hotness or coldness. A hot utensil
is said to have a high temperature. And ice cube to have a low temperature. An object that has a higher
temperature than another object is said to be hotter. Temperature is denoted by T. The S.I. unit of
temperature is kelvin (K).
Principle of measurement of temperature
A measure of temperature is obtained using a thermometer. Many physical properties of materials change
sufficiently with temperature to be used as the basis for constructing thermometers. For example, a
common thermometer is the liquid-in-glass type. Mercury and alcohol are the liquids used in most liquid-
in-glass thermometers.
There are four basic types of temperature measuring devices, each of which uses a different principle:
1) Mechanical (liquid-in-glass thermometers): Most materials expand with a rise in temperature.
Mechanical thermometers can be constructed which use liquids, solids, or even gases.
2) Thermo junctive (thermocouples): A voltage is produce in a couple of metal due to the rise in
temperature. To calibrate the voltage we can measure the temperature of the junction of the metal.
3) Thermo resistive (RTDs and thermistors): When temperature is changed in a metal the resistance of
the metal changes. Now temperature can measure by measuring the resistance.
4) Radiative (infrared and optical pyrometers): A brightness comparison between two objects whose one
in remote is made to measure the temperature
Platinum resistance thermometer:A platinum resistance thermometer (PRT) is a device which
determines the temperature by measuring the electrical resistance of a piece of pure platinum wire.
The piece of platinum wire is referred to as a temperature sensor.
Gas Thermometer
Thermometers are working examples of the zeroth law of thermodynamics The significance of constant
volume gas thermometers is that they are used to calibrate other thermometers.
Difference between heat and temperature
Heat Temperature
Heat is energy that is transferred from one body to Temperature is a measure of hotness or coldness
another as the result of a difference in expressed in terms of any of several arbitrary
temperature. scales like Celsius and Fahrenheit.
Its unit is Joules. Its unit is Kelvin, Celsius or Fahrenheit

Its symbol is Q. Its symbol is T.

Heat is a measure of how many atoms there are in Temperature is related to how fast the atoms
a substance multiplied by how much energy each within a substance are moving. The ‘temperature’
atom possesses. of an object is like the water level – it determines
the direction in which ‘heat’ will flow.

Heat has the ability to do work. Temperature can only be used to measure the
degree of heat.

Thermal Equilibrium: The condition under which two substances in physical contact with each other
exchange no heat energy. Two substances in thermal equilibrium are said to be at the same temperature.
Or, a state of a system in which all parts are at the same temperature.

Thermodynamics
Thermodynamics is the branch of physics that deals with the relationships between heat and other
forms of energy. In particular, it describes how thermal energy is converted to and from other
forms of energy and how it affects matter.
Thermal energy is the energy a substance or system has due to its temperature, i.e., the energy of moving
or vibrating molecules. Thermodynamics involves measuring this energy, which can be "exceedingly
complicated,"
Thermodynamic System:
A thermodynamic system is a body of matter and/or radiation, confined in space by walls, with defined
permeabilities, which separate it from its surroundings. A wall of a thermodynamic system may be purely
notional, when it is described as being 'permeable' to all matter, all radiation, and all forces.
Types of thermodynamic system: There are three types of thermodynamic system as follows i)
isolated, ii) closed, and iii) open thermodynamic system.
i) Open System: Open systems allow energy and mass to pass across the system boundary.
ii) Close System: A closed system allows energy but not mass across its system boundary.
iii) Isolated System: An isolated system allows neither mass or energy to pass across
the system boundary
Thermoelectric Thermometer:
Thermocouple is a device made up by connecting two different types of metal wire which produce
an emf while placing the junction in a temperature difference.
Different scales of temperature:
The instrument by which temperature of a body and also the difference of the temperature of different
bodies can be determine accurately is called a thermometer.
Celcius Scale:
The scale in whice the ice point and steem point are taken as 0°C and 100°C, respectively and the
fundamental interval is equally divided into 100 divisions is called the Celsius scale and each division is
called one degree Celsius(1°C).
Farenheit Scale:
The scale in which the ice point and steam point are takent to be 32° and 212°, respectively and the
fundamental interval is divided intio 180 equal divisions is known as Farenheit scale and each division is
called one degree Faranheit(1°F.)
International Scale of Temperature:
The scale of temperature adopted by International Committee of Weights and Measures taking the triple
point temperature of water equal to 273.16 Kelvin and equating to one Kelvin and also taking a
number of agreed and easily reproducible fixed points is known as International Temperature Scale.

Different scales of temperature are given bellow-

1. Celsius scale
2. Fahrenheit scale
3. Ideal gas scale
4. Kelvin scale
5. Kelvins thermodynamic scale
6. International scale of temperature.
Relation among different scales of temperature:
= =

= =

= =

Exercise 1:
At Fahrenheit scale if the temperature of a body is 50° F, then at kelvin scale what will be the value
of that body.
Solution: Given,
F = 50° F
K =?
We know,

Or, =

Or, =

Or, 2 =

Or, K = 273 + 10
Or, K = 283 K
Exercise-2. At what temperature both the Celsius and Farenheit scales give the same value?
Let the temperature be x.

We know,

Here, C = F = x

or, 9x = 5x -160
or, 9x – 5x = - 160
or, 4x = - 160

x = = - 40o

Ans. -40oC and - 40oF

Exercise-3: Find the temperature whose value is the same in Farenheit and Kelvin scales.

Tripple Point: In thermodynamics, the triple point of a substance is the temperature and pressure at
which the three phases of that substance coexist in thermodynamic equilibrium.
Kinetic theory of gas

 What is Gas?

A substance like air and has no fixed shape is called gas such as oxygen or hydrogen.
 Ideal gas and Real Gas:
Ideal gas: The gases which follow fundamental postulates of kinetic theory of gases and at all
temperatures and pressures simultaneously obey Boyle’s and Charles’s law arecalled ideal gases.
Real Gas: A real gas does not behave as ideal gas due to interactions between gas molecules.
Kinetic Theory of gases:

The molecules of all bodies are always in a state of random motion and this possesses kinetic energy. As
temperature increases their kinetic energies increase. This is the basic principle of kinetic theory of matter
(gases).
To analysis the nature of the motion, scientist Clausius in 1857 developed the kinetic theory of
gas. This theory is based on some postulates which are as follows -

01. The gas is composed of small particles called molecules. The molecules of a gas are identical
and the molecules of different gases are different.
02. The molecules are point masses. Their volumes are negligible compared to the volume of the
container.
03. The molecules are assumed to be perfectly elastic spheres and there is no mutual attraction or
repulsion among the molecules.
04. The molecules are continuously in motion. This motion is completed random in all directions
with all possible velocities ranging from zero to infinity.
05. Since, the molecules are perfectly elastic the momentum and kinetic energy of the molecules
before and after collisions remains same.
06. The time spent in a collision is negligible with respect to time taken between two collisions.

Boyle’s law:

The absolute pressure exerted by a given mass of an ideal gas is inversely proportional to the volume it
occupies if the temperature and amount of gas remain unchanged within a closed system.
Mathematically, Boyle's law can be stated as
 P∞

Where P is the pressure of the gas and V is the volume of the gas.

Charles’s law: When the pressure is held constant, temperature and the volume will be directly
proportional to each other.

Mathematically,
V∞ T
Where V is the volume of the gas and T is the temperature.
Avogadro's law: For a given mass of an ideal gas, the volume and amount (moles) of the gas are directly
proportional if the temperature and pressure are constant.

Mathematically,
V∞ n
Where V is the volume of the gas and n is the amount of substance of the gas (measured in moles).
Ideal Gas law:
The ideal gas law also called the general gas equation. It is a good approximation of the behavior of many
gases under many conditions, although it has several limitations. It was first stated by Émile Clapeyron in
1834 as a combination of the empirical Boyle's law, Charles's law and Avogadro's law. The ideal gas law
is often written as,
PV = nRT
Where P is the pressure of the gas, V is the volume of the gas, n is the amount of substance of gas (in
moles), R is the ideal or universal gas constant and T is the absolute temperature of the gas.
Degrees of freedom: In physics, the degrees of freedom (DOF) of a mechanical system is the number of
independent parameters that define its configuration or state. Skidding or drifting is a good example of an
automobile's three independent degrees of freedom. The minimum number of independent coordinates
needed to specify the position and configuration of a thermo-dynamical system in space is called the
degree of freedom of the system in kinetic theory.

Equipartition of Energy:

The equal distribution of the kinetic energy of a system among its various degrees of freedom is called
Equipartition of energy.

Brownian Motion: Brownian motion is the random motion of particles suspended in a fluid (a liquid or
a gas) resulting from their collision with the fast-moving atoms or molecules in the gas or liquid.
 Figure: Brownian motion

For an ideal gas PV = :

Consider a volume of gas V enclosed by a cubical box of sides l. Let the box contain n molecules of gas
each of mass m and Let the velocities of the molecules be u, v, w along x, y, z axis. Since the average
speed of molecules is c.

Let a molecule moving in the x-direction towards face A with velocity

u. The momentum before collision is mu and after collision is
– mu.
Change of momentum per collision = 2mu.

If the distance between two opposite wall is cm the

total number of collisions per second =

Total change of momentum per second = 2mu × =
Similarly the change of momentum for other components v & w are

& respectively.

Total change of momentum for per molecule per second = +

= (u2 + v2 + w2)
 = c2 [Here, c2 = u2 + v2 + w2]

Total change of momentum for molecules per second = c2

According to the second law of motion, the rate of change of momentum is numerically to the applied
force.

So, c2 = F. Where F = 6 × P, Here P is the force per unit area of the wall, is the area of the wall,
& there are 6 faces of the cube.

c2 = 6 ×P

c2 = P

=V
c2 = P

PV = (Showed)