Sreedhar’s CCE

COMPUTER AWARENESS-3
MEMORY &STORAGE AND ITS CHRACTERISTICS
Storage
a) Primary Memory b) Secondary Memory

Primary Memory:
Primary Memory holds two kinds of information
1) Data 2) Instruction
- Instruction / program of software stored in primary memory, tells
the CPU what to do. Instructions provide the logic of the computer,
they enable it to perform calculations and manipulate data.
- The main feature of the memory is its passive nature; memory is only
a storage place for information. Instructions are executed in the
CPU; data are moved between the CPU and memory when a
calculation is preformed.
- Primary memory has no logic capability but is only a storage unit for
data and instructions.

Secondary storage (Hard Drive):

- Secondary storage Devices in machines are generally connected
online to the CPU and they serve as reference libraries by
accepting data directly from and returning data to the CPU directly
without human intervention.
- It is used as storehouse and used only when necessary.
- Example: Magnetic Tapes, Floppy Disk, Hard Disks, Optical and
Compact discs.
- Secondary storage is usually larger than and cheaper than primary
memory.
- The logic required to connect the disk to the computer is called
Dist Controller.

Tertiary storage:
Tertiary storage is a system where robotic arm will “mount” (connect) or
“dismount” off-line mass storage media according to the computer operating system‟s
demand. It is used in the realms of enterprise storage and scientific computing on
large computer systems and businesses computer network, and is something a typical
personal computer user never sees firsthand.

Off-Line Storage:

1
 Sreedhar’s CCE
Off-line storage is a system where the storage medium can easily removed
from the storage device. Off-line storage is used for data transfer and archival
purposed. In modern computers, floppy disks, optical discs and flash memory devices
including “USB” drives are commonly used for off-line mass storage purposes.

1.

STORAGE
Area where the program instructions and data are retained for processing is
called memory of storage. Like human brain computes also requires some space to
store data and instruction for addressing their processing needs.

NETWORK STORAGE:
Network storage is any type of computer storage that involves accessing
information over computer network. Network storage arguably allows to centralize
the information management in an organization and to reduce the publication of
information.
Types of Network Storage
 It is a dedicated shared storage solution.
 It is independent of the platform and operating
system adopted.
 It can be attached without powering down the
network.
 It runs independently and provides services if
the network server is down.
 It is connected via Ethernet.

Characteristics of Storage

i) Volatility of information
a) Volatile memory requires constant power to maintain the stored
information.
b) It is typically used only for primary storage.

ii) Non-volatile memory

a) It will retain the stored information even if it is not constantly
supplied with electric power.
b) It is suitable for long-term storage of information, and therefore
used for secondary, tertiary and off-line storage.
iii) Dynamic memory
It is volatile memory which also requires that stored
information‟s periodically refreshed, or read and rewritten
without modifications.

Random Access:
It means that any location in storage can be accessed at any moment in the
same, usually small, mount of time. This makes Random access Memory (RAM) well
suited for primary storage.

2
 Sreedhar’s CCE

Sequential Access:
It means that accessing a piece of information will take a varying amount of
time, depending on which piece of information was accessed last. The device may
need to seek or cycle (e.g. wait for the correct location in a constantly revolving
medium to appear below the read/write head).

Capacity and performance

i) Storage capacity
a) It refers the total amount of stored information that a
storage device or medium can hold.
b) It is expressed as a quantity of bits of bytes

ii) Storage density

a) It refers to the compactness of stored information.
b) It is the storage capacity of a medium divided with a
unit of length, area of volume.
iii) Latency
a) It is time it takes to access particular location in storage.
b) The relevant is typically nanosecond for primary
storage, milliseconds for storage, and second for tertiary
storage.
c) It may make sense to separate read latency and write
latency, and in case of sequential access storage,
minimum, maximum and average latency.
iv) Throughput
a) It is the rate at which information can read form or written
to the storage.
b) In computer storage, throughput is usually expressed in
terns of megabytes per second of MBPS, through bit rate
may also be used.
c) As with latency, read rate and write rate may need to be
differentiated.

System Memory: System Memory is a place in the computer where data can be
stored permanently and retrieved wherever required. The commonly used memory
types are-

1. Integrated Circuits (or semiconductor Memories):-

 They are made up of a number of transistors combined together
on a thin silicon wafer to form a complete set of circuits.
 Faster and expensive Bipolar Semiconductor Chips are used in
the Arithmetic-Logic Unit and high speed buffer storage
sections of the CPU, while the slower and less expensive ships
that employ Metal –Oxide Semiconductor (MOS) technology
are used in the main memory section.

3
 Sreedhar’s CCE
 Non-volatile Memory Chips retain the data even when the
computer is switched off.
 Volatile Memory chips lose their contents when the computer
is switched off. Loss if data us these memory chips can be
avoided by using an uninterrupted Power Supply System
(UPS).

Random Access Memory:

 RAM is constructed with Metal Oxide Semiconductor (MOS) technology.
 It is called the random Access Memory since each separate location inside the
memory can be accessed as easily as any other location and takes the same
amount of time.
 It is highly volatile and its contents will be lost when the computer‟s electric
supply is disrupted.
 It is very fast and expensive.
 The amount of RAM in a computer ha significant direct in the computer‟s
computing power. More RAM makes the computer run faster. If the system
has more RAM, it can use bigger, more powerful program and those program
and access bigger data files.
 The computer need not necessarily have to load the entire program into
memory to run it. However, if it can fit more of the program into the memory,
the faster the program can run.
 RAM can be further subdivided into TWO

 Static RAM
 Dynamic RAM

Static RAM
Static RAM is faster, larger and more expensive than dynamic RAM. Static
Ram is used mainly is a special area of memory called a cache.
The Static RAM retains the data stored data as long as power remains on need
not be continually refreshed. Because of its speed it is mainly used in cache memory.
But, the power consumption of Static RAM is more than Dynamic RAM.

Dynamic RAM

Dynamic RAM is the most common type of main memory. They contain a
transistor that acts as a switch and capacitor which is capable storing electric charge.
Depending on the switching action of the transistor, the capacitor either contains no
charge or does hold a charge.
Each memory cell loses its charge do it must be refreshed hundreds of times
each second to prevent data from being lost. In DRAM, The computer does the
refreshing process taking time out from together chores every millisecond.
Popular DRAM used in desktop system is: Extended Data out DRAM,
Synchronous DRAM and Rambus DRAM, RDRAM sends data down at high-
bandwidth channel.

Read Only Memory (ROM):

4
 Sreedhar’s CCE
1. Read Only Memory (ROM) provides permanent memory storage I.e. data can only
be
read from such memory but cannot be written.

2. The data, instructions and information stored on ROM chip are generally recorded
when the chip is manufactured.

3. ROM holds the micro-instructions for a process. The ability to micro-program a

process means that quite specialized instructions of data are placed in thermo to
provide the processor with logic.

4. In a personal computer there are several ROMs- one for the CPU, one for the key
board, and one containing instructions to start the computer when it is turned on,
called
the “boot” ROM and one or two holding the BIOS (Basic Input /output System) of
the
computer.

5. Some common variations of the ROM concept are:-

 PROM: (Programmable Read Only Memory)

- The user can store a set of instructions in PROM
- It can be programmed only once.

 EPROM: (Electrically programmed Read Only Memory).

- It can be programmed many times.
- It contents can be erased by passing ultra violet rays.

 EEROM: (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only

Memory)
- It can be programmed may times.
- Passing electricity can erase programmed
instructions.

MEASURING UNIT OF COMPUTER MEMORY

BIT (i.e. Binary digit) is the smallest unit used for measuring memory. A
single „1‟ or a single „0‟ is called a bit. The waves have a high state and a low state.
The high state represents „1‟ and the low state represent „0‟.

1 Nibble 4 bits
8 bits 1 Byte
16 bits 2 Bytes
1024 Bytes 1 Kilo Bytes
1024 Kilo Bytes 1 Mega Bytes
1024 Mega Bytes 1 Giga Bytes
1024 Giga Bytes 1 Tera Bytes
Peta, Exa, Zetta, Yotta
Bubble Memory

5
 Sreedhar’s CCE

a) Bubble Memory consists of a thin single crystal film of synthetic garnet,

which contains magnetic bubbles, which move ahead on electrical charge,
and the presence of absence of a bubble indicated that it is in on or off
position.

b) Bubble Memory is non-volatile and can be used for auxiliary storage.

c) It is small. Light weight and does not use much power and is sometimes
used in portable computers to store data between operating sessions.

d) It could be used as main memory because of its low production cost and
direct access capabilities.

Flash Memory
a) These memory chips are one of largest storage devices, which are in form
of static RAM (SRAM) chips stores data much like those used, in the
computer‟s primary storage.
b) It is non-volatile i.e. data stays recorded even when the power is turned
off.
c) They have no moving parts and so very fast, they may eventually replace
slower, mechanical hard disk drives.

Video RAM:
It is used to accelerate the display of graphics on the screen; this is done by
using two „ports on connected to CPU and other connected to the screen. Data flows
out in the other port very smoothly. A variation of this is Window RAM (WRAM)
that supports memory.

Core Memory:

It is a non-volatile memory. Ti offers destructive read – out. It has limited range of

cycle and the access time is relatively large and heavy. Its power consumption is high.
It is moderately priced. It is available only in large blocks. It is best suited for large
memories.

Ferrite Core Memory:

Its memory is made of ferrite core is more reliable. It is a non-volatile memory
i.e. contents are not lost when power is switched off. It is large in size, as compared to
semi-conductor memory. It is very expensive, slow and lower storage capacity.

Difference between RAM and ROM

Random Access Memory (RAM) Read Only Memory (ROM)

RAM used as main computer memory ROM is used for storing micro programs,
control instructions that cause the
machine to perform certain special

6
 Sreedhar’s CCE
operations.
RAM is a temporary memory (volatile) ROM is permanent memory (non-
volatile)
Programmers and machine use RAM Only machines use ROM
Data and programs can be stored in RAM ROM will not allow storing data of
through input device of through auxiliary instructions instead they will be written
storage devices. by the manufacturer once for all.
Power interruptions destroy RAM Power interruption do not destroy the
contents. contents of ROM

SECONDARY STORAGE DEVICES

FLOPPY DISKETTES

In the early 1970‟s IBM introduced a new medium for storing data. This
medium consisted of a circular piece of thin plastic material, approximately eight
inches in diameter, which was coated with an oxide material.
The concentric circles formed magnetically in the disk are called Tracks
which are cut perpendicularly astriangles to form Sectors. The meeting point of the
track and sector forms Block which is given an address where data is stored. Two
types of Floppy disc
1. 3.5-inch
2. 5.25-inch
1) The electro magnets presents on the read / write heads generate a magnetic
field in the iron on the storage medium as the head passes over the diskette.
2) A motor rotates the disk on spindle and also moves the Read / Write Head on
the notch of the disk, which allows data to be read randomly.
3) The access time of the time for one revolution of the disk is 0.20 seconds only.

Formatting:
Before the computer can use a Floppy Disk to store data, it must be
magnetically mapped into tracks and sectors called formatting. The Floppy Disk is
formatted so that the computer can go directly to a specific point on the diskette with
out searching through data. Formatting facilities easy access and storage.

Number of sectors in a disk:

a) Unit used to refer the number of sectors in a disk is sectors per track.
b) If the diskette has 80 tracks and 18 sectors per track, it has 1440 sectors
(80x18) and not 18 sectors.

Formatting or Initializing:
a) When the new diskettes are purchased, the disks inside are nothing more
than simple, collated disks encased in plastic.
b) Before the computer can use tem to store data, they must be magnetically
mapped.

7
 Sreedhar’s CCE
c) Mapping is required for the computer to go directly to a specific point on
the diskette with out searching through data.
d) This process of mapping a diskette is called formatting or initializing.
e) Today, many diskettes come preformatted for either PCS or Macs.
f) The computer will warn the user if the disk is unformatted, and will format
the diskette for him if he wishes to do so.

Formatting of a disk:
Creating set of magnetic concentric circles
a) The first thing a disk drive does when formatting a disk is to crate a set of
magnetic concentric circles called tracks.
b) The number of tracks on a disk varies with the type.
c) The tracks on a disk do not form a continuous spiral like those on a
phonograph-each record one is a separate circle.
d) Most tracks are numbered from the outermost circle to the innermost, starting
from zero.

Storage capacity of a Magnetic Disk / Hard Disk / Floppy Disk

1) Number of Sides: Disks can be either single-sided of double-sided drive. Data

can be stored on one side of both sides depending on the diskette and drive
used. Use of double-sided drives and diskettes doubles the number of
characters that can be stored.
2) Density: The recording density of bits per track measured, as bits per inch
should also be taken into account. It can be single density or double density.
3) Number of Tracks: Number of tracks can either be 40 (in case of a single
track drives) or 80 (in the case of double track drive).

Operating system finds the data on a disk

A computer‟s Operating system is able to locate data on a disk because each

track and sectors is labeled, and the location of all data is kept in a special log on
the disk. The labeling of tracks and sectors is called formatting, which results in
creation of the following four disk areas-

1. Boot Record:
a) It is the small record that runs when the computer is started.
b) This program first determines whether the disk has basic components
of the operating system, which is necessary to run the system
successfully.

8
 Sreedhar’s CCE
c) If the required files are present and the disk has a valid format, the boot
record transfer control to one of the operating system programs and
continues the process of staring up.

2. File Allocation table (FAT):

a) FAT is the log, which records the location of each file and the status of
each sector.
b) When a file is written to a disk, the operating system checks the RAT
for an open area, stores the file, and then identifies the file and its
location in the FAT.
c) Data is stored in a place where the FAT identifies as free area and
places pointers in that link together the scattered parts of the file. When
a file is saved in fragments, the process of loading and saving is slow.
d) When the FAT area is corrupted in a disk, it is hard to retrieve data that
is lost of corrupted in the disk.

Root Folder or Directory

a) Root Folder is an index to organize files on the disk, which contains the
name of the file and a Pinter to the track and sector where the file begins.
b) It contains not only files but also sub-folders. The top folder on any disk is
called Root.
Data Area: it is that part of the disk that remains free, after the Boot Sector, FAT, and
Root Folder are created. This is the area where the data files of program files are
actually stored.

MAGNETIC HARD DISKETTE

It is secondary storage medium in which data of information are stored by
means of magnetic spots in the disk. It most common device for storing Direct
Access files.

Operation:
a) Magnetic disk consists of a series of platters mounted on a spindle. The top
and bottom of platter are coated with a magnetic material like that on a
music cassette tape.
b) Read and Write head are fitted between the platters; they floated on a
cushion of air created by the rotation of the disk and do not actually touch
the surface of the platter.
c) By moving the heads in and out, the system can access any track on the
rotating disk.
d) These tracks from a cylinder, when using a disk file sequentially, the disk
data is written on a given track of the first platter, then on the same track
of the second platter, and so on. This strategy minimizes the access time
because the heads do not have to move. If the access arms do not move
each head reads or writes on the same tracks of each platter.

9
 Sreedhar’s CCE

e) Maximum Block size / Physical Record Size for a disk file are limited by
the physical capacity of each track.
f) The disks move at a constant speed, which rages from 2,400 to 7,200 rpm
(revolutions per minute).

Advantages
1) Provides direct access storage. So, individual record can be retrieved with
out searching the entire file.
2) Costs of disks are much less nowadays.
3) They are useful I real-time systems where direct access is required.
4) They permit easy updating of new information over the area where the old
information was stored.
5) They have faster data transfer data rates when compared with tape
systems.
6) Their storage capacities are higher when compared with other storage
devices

Disadvantages:
Magnetic Disk does not proved an automatic audit trail as on updating a
master file stored on disk destroys the old information.

Capacity:
Hard disk can hold more data because they pack data more closely together
and has more than one platter. Breakdown of storage capacity of 541-MB disk is
given below:
 1,632 cylinders * 12 heads (sides) =19,584 tracks.
 19,584 tracks * 52 heads (sides) = 1,057,536 sectors.

Removable Hard Disks:

Removable hard disks and drives attempt to combine the speed and capacity of a hard
disk with the portability of a diskette. There are many different types of devices in this
category. Choosing the best type is usually a matter of balancing the needs for speed,
storage capacity, compatibility and prices.

Access Time
Time interval between when the data is called for or requested to be stored in
storage device and when delivery or storage is completed. The total access time
typically ranges form 8 to 12 milliseconds.
Seek + Latency = Access
Seek: The time taken to find the Track.

Latency: The time taken to read the data or to move the storage medium underneath
the read-write head.

Data transfer time: This is the time taken to activate the read-write head, read the
requested data and transmit them to primary memory for processing.

OPTICAL LASER DISK

10
 Sreedhar’s CCE
Optical laser disk storage is capable of storing vast amount of data. Some industry
analysts have predicted that optical laser disk technology may eventually make
magnetic disk and tape storage obsolete. With this technology the read/write head
used in magnetic storage replaced by two lasers.

a) One laser beam writes to the recording surface by scoring macroscopic

pits in the disk.
b) Another laser reads the data form the light sensitive‟s recording
surface.
1. Compact Disk – Read Only Memory (CD –ROM) Disks
a. In CD ROM Disks, data is already encoded and hence they can
only be read and cannot be modified.
b. Using this disk, the user can store data of the CD in the primary
memory and use it at a later stage either for processing of for
display.
c. CD ROMs have high storage capacities e.g. 650 MB

2. CD Rewritable: These are CDs on which data can re-write like on a Floppy disk.
This can hold 650MB data. It allows users to save data on the disk and as it is portable
and can be used to take a backup have to update data.

1. Write Once Ready Many (WORM) Disk:

a. WORM disks permit the user write information that will
not be changed; the user can read the data may time.
b. They are used extensively in image processing systems in
which a document is scanned and its digitized image is
burned onto an optical disk.
c. End user companies to store their own proprietary
information of permanent nature use these.
2. Magneto-Optical Disk:
a. This can hold data up to 1,000 MB. But they are very
expensive and have less reliability.
b. The access is very slow when compared to optical disks.
3. Video Disk:
a) Digital Video Disk (DVD) closely resembles a CD-ROM.
It used laser to encode macroscopic pits in its surface but
are much closer.
b) DVD technology use higher frequency and shorter
wavelength laser to etch pits, to make a CD and therefore
the pits are smaller resulting in huge storage capabilities.

Difference between Floppy Disk, Hard Disk and CD-ROMs:

Floppy Disk:

11
 Sreedhar’s CCE

1. A floppy is a single thin plastic sheet.

2. Head touches a floppy.
3. It is inexpensive, but also has low storage capacity.
4. Access speed is slow.
5. Can remove at any point of time.

Hard Disk

A Hard Disk may one of the packs of a cylinder.

1. Head does not touch a hard disk.
2. Access speed is high.
3. Storage capacity is high and less expensive.
4. It is fixed to the system cabinet.
5. It is consists of rigid aluminum platters.

CD-ROMs:
1. It is high storage capacity.
2. The data can be written only once and can read many times
3. It is an optical media.
4. Laser light for accessing and reading data.
5. Access time is slow.

MAGNETIC TAPES

Magnetic tapes are secondary storage devices in which data and information
are stored sequentially be means of magnetized spots on a tape. It has an underlying
base that is covered with magnetically sensitive coating.

The tape is a matrix of bit positions, that is, nine rows or tracks of magnetic
positions that can be either 1 or 0, stretching along the length of the tape. Each
character is represented by one column of bits.

The Density of the tape is the number of character of character that can be
recorded in an inch and is often referred to as bits per inch (BPI) or characters per
inch (CPI).

The tape is cheap and provides convenient off-line storage and backup.
Two types:
1. Detachable Reel Magnetic Tapes
2. Tape Cartridge System.

12
 Sreedhar’s CCE

Detachable Reel Magnetic Tapes:

i. These Magnetic Tapes are read on a hardware device called a Tape

Unit.
ii. It is coated with magnetically surface that can be encoded with 0 and
1 bits.
iii. It is used in mainframes and minicomputers.

Tape Cartridge System:

 It is cassette tapes and is frequently used to back up hard disks. These are
also called streaming tapes.
 It has high storage capacity and can usually aback up the contents of a Hard
Disk in a few minutes.

Difference between Magnetic Tape and Magnetic Disk:

Magnetic Tape:
1. It is a sequential Access media
2. It is economical.
3. Data more Secure
4. Tapes are vulnerable to dust of careless handling.
5. It is portable.
6. It cheap
7. High storage capacity.
8. Less use due to sequential Access
9. Data Accessing is slow.

Magnetic Disk:
1. It is a Direct Access media
2. It is a well known media
3. Less secure
4. It is damage form dust.
5. Earlier it is costlier but it is cheap.
6. More in use due to Direct Access.
7. Data Accessing is fast.

Blue Ray Disk:

13
 Sreedhar’s CCE
Blu-ray Disc (BD) is an optical disc storage medium designed to supersede
the DVD format. The plastic disc is 120 mm in diameter and 1.2 mm thick, the same
size as DVDs and CDs. Conventional (pre-BD-XL) Blu-ray Discs contain 25 GB per
layer, with dual layer discs (50 GB) being the industry standard for feature-length
video discs. Triple layer discs (100 GB) and quadruple layers (128 GB) are available
for BD-XL re-writer drives.
The major application of Blu-ray Discs is as a medium for video material such as
feature films. Besides the hardware specifications, Blu-ray Disc is associated with a
set of multimedia formats. Generally these formats allow for the video and audio to be
stored with greater definition than on DVD.

14