Reading Essentials

and Study Guide

Student Workbook
To the Student
The American Republic Since 1877 Reading Essentials and Study Guide is designed to help you
use recognized reading strategies to improve your reading-for-information skills. For each
section of the student textbook, you are alerted to key terms, asked to draw from prior
knowledge, organize your thoughts with a graphic organizer, and then follow a process to
read and understand the text. The Reading Essentials and Study Guide was prepared to help
you get more from your textbook by reading with a purpose.

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Table of Contents
Chapter 1: Converging Cultures
Section 1: The Migration to America.......................................................................1
Section 2: Europe and Africa...................................................................................5
Section 3: Europe Encounters America ..................................................................11
Section 4: Spain and France Build Empires ...........................................................15

Chapter 2: The English Arrive in America

Section 1: England’s First Colonies........................................................................20
Section 2: The New England Colonies ...................................................................24
Section 3: The Middle and Southern Colonies.......................................................29
Section 4: Colonial Ways of Life............................................................................33
Section 5: A Diverse Society..................................................................................40

Chapter 3: The American Revolution

Section 1: The Colonies Fight for Their Rights ......................................................45
Section 2: The Revolution Begins ..........................................................................50
Section 3: The War for Independence ...................................................................55
Section 4: The Confederation ................................................................................59
Section 5: A New Constitution ..............................................................................64

Chapter 4: Federalists and Republicans

Section 1: The Federalist Era .................................................................................70
Section 2: The Republicans Take Power ................................................................76
Section 3: The Growth of American Nationalism ..................................................81

Chapter 5: The Young Republic

Section 1: A Growing Nation.................................................................................85
Section 2: The Age of Jackson ...............................................................................90
Section 3: The Reform Spirit .................................................................................96
Section 4: Manifest Destiny.................................................................................101

Chapter 6: Sectional Conflict Intensifies

Section 1: Slavery and Western Expansion..........................................................107
Section 2: The Crisis Deepens..............................................................................111
Section 3: The Union Dissolves............................................................................115

Chapter 7: The Civil War and Reconstruction

Section 1: The Opposing Sides ............................................................................119
Section 2: The Early Stages .................................................................................124
Section 3: The Turning Point ...............................................................................129
Section 4: Reconstruction Begins ........................................................................134
Section 5: Reconstruction and Republican Rule ..................................................139

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Chapter 8: Settling the West
Section 1: Miners and Ranchers ..........................................................................144
Section 2: Farming the Plains..............................................................................148
Section 3: Native Americans................................................................................151

Chapter 9: Industrialization
Section 1: The Rise of Industry ...........................................................................156
Section 2: The Railroads......................................................................................160
Section 3: Big Business .......................................................................................164
Section 4: Unions ................................................................................................168

Chapter 10: Urban America

Section 1: Immigration ........................................................................................173
Section 2: Urbanization .......................................................................................176
Section 3: The Gilded Age ...................................................................................179
Section 4: The Rebirth of Reform........................................................................182

Chapter 11: Politics and Reform

Section 1: Stalemate in Washington....................................................................186
Section 2: Populism.............................................................................................191
Section 3: The Rise of Segregation ......................................................................196

Chapter 12: Becoming a World Power

Section 1: The Imperialist Vision.........................................................................200
Section 2: The Spanish-American War ................................................................204
Section 3: New American Diplomacy ..................................................................209

Chapter 13: The Progressive Movement

Section 1: The Roots of Progressivism ................................................................213
Section 2: Roosevelt in Office..............................................................................220
Section 3: The Taft Administration ......................................................................224
Section 4: The Wilson Years................................................................................227

Chapter 14: World War I and Its Aftermath

Section 1: The United States Enters World War I ................................................231
Section 2: The Home Front..................................................................................237
Section 3: A Bloody Conflict................................................................................242
Section 4: The War’s Impact................................................................................246

Chapter 15: The Jazz Age

Section 1: A Clash of Values................................................................................250
Section 2: Cultural Innovations ...........................................................................255
Section 3: African American Culture ...................................................................258

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Chapter 16: Normalcy and Good Times
Section 1: Presidential Politics ............................................................................261
Section 2: A Growing Economy ...........................................................................264
Section 3: The Policies of Prosperity ...................................................................268

Chapter 17: The Great Depression Begins

Section 1: Causes of the Depression....................................................................272
Section 2: Life During the Depression .................................................................276
Section 3: Hoover Responds................................................................................279

Chapter 18: Roosevelt and the New Deal

Section 1: Roosevelt Takes Office........................................................................283
Section 2: The First New Deal .............................................................................286
Section 3: The Second New Deal.........................................................................291
Section 4: The New Deal Coalition ......................................................................296

Chapter 19: A World in Flames

Section 1: America and the World ......................................................................300
Section 2: World War II Begins ...........................................................................304
Section 3: The Holocaust .....................................................................................308
Section 4: America Enters the War......................................................................311

Chapter 20: America and World War II

Section 1: Mobilizing for War .............................................................................315
Section 2: The Early Battles.................................................................................319
Section 3: Life on the Home Front.......................................................................323
Section 4: Pushing the Axis Back ........................................................................327
Section 5: The War Ends .....................................................................................331

Chapter 21: The Cold War Begins

Section 1: Origins of the Cold War......................................................................336
Section 2: The Early Cold War Years ...................................................................340
Section 3: The Cold War and American Society ..................................................345
Section 4: Eisenhower’s Policies..........................................................................349

Chapter 22: Postwar America

Section 1: Truman and Eisenhower .....................................................................354
Section 2: The Affluent Society ...........................................................................358
Section 3: Popular Culture of the 1950s ..............................................................362
Section 4: The Other Side of American Life ........................................................365

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Chapter 23: The New Frontier and the Great Society
Section 1: The New Frontier................................................................................368
Section 2: JFK and the Cold War .........................................................................372
Section 3: The Great Society ...............................................................................376

Chapter 24: The Civil Rights Movement

Section 1: The Movement Begins ........................................................................380
Section 2: Challenging Segregation .....................................................................385
Section 3: New Issues..........................................................................................391

Chapter 25: The Vietnam War

Section 1: The United States Focuses on Vietnam ...............................................396
Section 2: Going to War in Vietnam....................................................................399
Section 3: Vietnam Divides the Nation ................................................................403
Section 4: The War Winds Down.........................................................................407

Chapter 26: The Politics of Protest

Section 1: The Student Movement and the Counterculture .................................411
Section 2: The Feminist Movement .....................................................................415
Section 3: New Approaches to Civil Rights..........................................................419
Section 4: Saving the Earth..................................................................................424

Chapter 27: Politics and Economics

Section 1: The Nixon Administration...................................................................427
Section 2: The Watergate Scandal .......................................................................430
Section 3: Ford and Carter ..................................................................................434
Section 4: The “Me” Decade: Life in the 1970s....................................................439

Chapter 28: Resurgence of Conservatism

Section 1: The New Conservatism .......................................................................442
Section 2: The Reagan Years ...............................................................................446
Section 3: Life in the 1980s .................................................................................451
Section 4: The End of the Cold War ....................................................................456

Chapter 29: Into a New Century

Section 1: The Technological Revolution .............................................................460
Section 2: The Clinton Years................................................................................464
Section 3: An Interdependent World...................................................................470
Section 4: America Enters a New Century...........................................................473
Section 5: The War on Terrorism ........................................................................476

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Study Guide
Chapter 1, Section 1
For use with textbook pages 12–16

THE MIGRATION TO AMERICA

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
Ice Age a period of time beginning about 100,000 years ago when the earth’s water froze into
huge ice sheets (page 13)
glaciers huge ice sheets (page 13)
nomads people who continually move from place to place in search of food and water (page 13)
Mesoamerica area that includes what is now central and southern Mexico and Central America
(page 13)
civilization a highly organized society marked by advanced knowledge of trade, government,
the arts, science, and, often, a written language (page 13)
pueblos large multi-story buildings of adobe and stone (page 15)
Cahokia one of the largest cities of the Mississippian culture located near present-day St. Louis
(page 15)
kachina a good spirit of the Pueblo people (page 15)
slash-and-burn agriculture the practice of cutting down forests and then burning the cleared
land to use for farming (page 16)
longhouses rectangular houses used by the Iroquois (page 16)
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

What styles of homes are built where you live? Are the styles of the homes
influenced by the type of environment where you live? If so, in what ways?
In this section, you will learn how and why the first people came to the
Americas. You will learn about the cultures of these early Americans, as well as
the diverse cultures of the Native Americans in what is today the United States.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the concept web below to help you take notes. A civilization has five
characteristics. Name the characteristics.

1.

5. 2.

Characteristics of
4. Civilizations 3.

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Study Guide
Chapter 1, Section 1 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• The Asian Migration to America (page 12)
Scientists are not sure when the first people came to America. Some scien-
tists think that the first people came between 15,000 and 30,000 years ago.
Scientists study the skulls, bones, teeth, and DNA of ancient peoples to learn
where they came from. Evidence shows that the earliest Americans probably
came from Asia.
The earth began to slowly cool about 100,000 years ago. This caused much
of the earth’s water to freeze into glaciers, or huge ice sheets. This period is
called the Ice Age. Ocean levels dropped, uncovering a land bridge that con-
nected Asia to Alaska. Scientists think that about 15,000 years ago, or even
earlier, people from Asia crossed this land bridge as they hunted large ani-
mals. These people were probably nomads, or people who continually moved
from place to place in search of food.
6. How did the first people come to America?

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

• Early Civilizations of America (page 13)
Between 9,000 and 10,000 years ago, Native Americans in Mesoamerica
learned how to plant and raise crops. The first crops grown included pump-
kins, peppers, and beans. The most important crop was maize, known today
as corn. The change to agriculture allowed people to end their nomadic way
of life. They built permanent villages where they raised crops and stored the
harvest. As a result, civilizations grew. A civilization is a highly organized soci-
ety that is characterized by knowledge of trade, government, the arts, science,
and, often, a written language.
The Olmec culture is thought to be the first civilization in America. This
culture started between 1500 and 1200 B.C. in present-day Mexico. The Olmec
developed societies with large villages, temples, and pyramids. They built
large monuments. Olmec ideas spread throughout Mesoamerica, influencing
other people. One group built Teotihuacán, the first large city in America. The
civilization there set up a trade network and influenced the development of
Mesoamerica.
Around A.D. 200, the Mayan civilization developed in the Yucatán
Peninsula and Central America. The Maya developed calendars based on the
position of the stars, and they built temple pyramids.
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Study Guide
Chapter 1, Section 1 (continued)

The city of Tenochtitlán was built by the Aztec in about 1325. It is located
on the site of present-day Mexico City. The Aztec built a great empire by con-
quering neighboring cities. They controlled trade in the region and demanded
gifts from the cities they conquered.
Scientists believe that the farming technology of Mesoamerica spread into
the American Southwest. The Hohokam built a civilization in what is now
south-central Arizona that lasted from about A.D. 300 to the 1300s. They built a
detailed system of irrigation canals, using the Gila and Salt Rivers as their
water supply. They grew large crops of corn, cotton, and beans.
Between A.D. 700 and 900, the Anasazi built a civilization in the area where
the present-day states of Utah, Colorado, Arizona, and New Mexico now
meet. The Anasazi built networks of basins and ditches to collect water for
their crops. Between A.D. 850 and 1100, the Anasazi living in Chaco Canyon in
northwest New Mexico began to build large multi-storied buildings of adobe
and cut stone called pueblos.
About the same time the Olmec culture began, the people of the eastern
woodlands were developing their own culture. The people of the region
began to bury their dead under large dome-shaped mounds of earth. Between
200 and 100 B.C., the Hopewell culture rose. These people built huge geomet-
ric earthworks.
Between A.D. 700 and 900, the Mississippian culture arose in the Mississippi
River valley. The Mississippians were great builders. One of their largest
cities, Cahokia, was built near what is today St. Louis, Missouri.
7. What were the achievements of early civilizations in Mesoamerica?
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• Native American Cultural Diversity (page 15)

Two Native American groups of the Far North were the Inuit and the Aleut.
The Inuit lived in territory that stretched across the Arctic from Alaska to
Greenland. The Aleut lived on Alaska’s Aleutian Islands.
The Inuit and the Aleut hunted seals, walruses, whales, polar bears, and
caribou. They invented many things, such as harpoons, kayaks, and dogsleds.
They used whale oil and blubber for fuel.

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Study Guide
Chapter 1, Section 1 (continued)

Native Americans along the Pacific Coast fished in the ocean and rivers.
They lived in permanent settlements. Native Americans who lived farther
inland fished, hunted, and gathered roots and berries. Between the Sierra
Nevada and the Rocky Mountains, where the land was much drier, the Native
Americans were nomads. In what is today central California, groups such as
the Pomo enjoyed abundant wildlife and a mild climate.
The Native American groups of the dry Southwest farmed like their ances-
tors the Anasazi and the Hohokam. These groups included the Zuni, Hopi,
and other Pueblo peoples. They believed in a spirit world. When men mar-
ried, they joined the kachina cult. A kachina was a good spirit.
Up until 1500, Native Americans of the Great Plains were farmers. About
1500 Native Americans in the western plains left their villages and became
nomads. They may have done this because of drought or war. In the 1500s,
the Spanish had brought horses to North America. The Sioux and other
Native Americans of the Great Plains began to use the horses for hunting or
for wars. The Sioux became expert hunters and warriors on horseback.
The Native Americans in the Eastern Woodlands had an environment with
many kinds of plant and animal life. These Native Americans combined hunt-
ing and fishing with farming. Deer provided food and clothing. Corn, beans,
and squash were grown.
Peoples of the Northeast practiced slash-and-burn agriculture. They cut
down forests and burned the cleared land. Then they worked the ashes into
the soil to make it more fertile. The peoples of the Northeast had many styles
of homes. They lived in large rectangular longhouses that housed kinship
groups, or extended families headed by the elder women of each clan.

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Despite their similarities, the Iroquois groups often fought one another. Five
Iroquois nations formed an alliance to keep the peace. It was called the
Iroquois League.
Southeast Native Americans lived in towns. The buildings were built
around a central plaza. Large, heavy fences surrounded the towns. The
women farmed while the men hunted. The houses were made of poles and
covered with grass, mud, or thatch.
8. How did their environment influence the ways Native Americans got their food?

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Study Guide
Chapter 1, Section 2
For use with textbook pages 18–23

EUROPE AND AFRICA

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
Middle Ages the period from about A.D. 500 to 1400 in which western Europe became isolated
from the rest of the world, and law and order disappeared (page 19)
feudalism the political system that developed in western Europe during the Middle Ages in
which the king gave estates to nobles in exchange for protection (page 19)
manorialism the economic system in western Europe during the Middle Ages linking nobles and
the peasants on their land (page 19)
serf a peasant who worked the land of a manor and who was not allowed to leave it without
permission (page 19)
Urban II the pope who called for the Crusades in 1095 (page 19)
Crusades military expeditions by European Christians in the late 1000s to the 1200s to regain
the Holy Land from the Muslims (page 19)
Renaissance an intellectual revolution in western Europe that began around A.D. 1350 and
lasted until around 1600 (page 20)
astrolabe a device that uses the position of the sun to determine direction, latitude, and local
time (page 21)
caravel a ship with multiple sails that was easier to steer and that made travel much faster
(page 21)
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Sahara a vast desert in the interior of West Africa (page 21)

savannah rolling grassland (page 23)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

Have you ever thought about traveling into outer space to explore other
planets? What do you think you might find? Would you be afraid to explore
these new places? Why or why not?
This section describes the developments between the 1100s and 1400s that
helped unify Europe and that led to European exploration. It also discusses
the diverse governments and lifestyles of Africans from West Africa.

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Study Guide
Chapter 1, Section 2 (continued)

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the diagram below to help you take notes. There were several reasons
the Europeans were able to explore the world. Name these reasons.

Reasons

1.

2.

3.
Europeans
Explore the
World 4.

5.

6.

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

READ TO LEARNII
• European Society (page 18)
For hundreds of years, the Roman Empire had controlled much of Europe
with a stable social and political order. By A.D. 500, however, the empire
ended. Western Europe became isolated. Its trade declined. Cities, bridges,
and roads were not kept up. Law and order ended. Money was not used. This
period, from about A.D. 500 to 1400, is called the Middle Ages.
Because the central government was weakened in western Europe, feudalism
developed as the political system. The king gave large areas of land to nobles
in exchange for their loyalty and military support. The economic tie between
nobles and their peasants is called manorialism. In return for protection, peas-
ants provided various services for the feudal lord on his manor, or land. Most
peasants were serfs. These people spent most of their time working the land.
They could not leave the manor without permission.

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Study Guide
Chapter 1, Section 2 (continued)

Around A.D. 1000, western Europe’s economy began to improve. Many vil-
lages were able to produce a food surplus because of new farming inventions,
such as a better plow and the horse collar. This revived trade in Europe and
encouraged the growth of towns.
After the fall of Rome, the Roman Catholic Church brought stability and
order to Europe. The church had its own laws and courts. There were severe
penalties for those who disobeyed Church teachings.
In 1095 Pope Urban II called for the Crusades. These military expeditions to
regain the Holy Land lasted almost two centuries.
Western European society changed greatly as a result of the Crusades.
These series of wars brought western Europeans into contact with Muslims
and Byzantine civilizations of the Middle East. Trade increased in the eastern
Mediterranean area. Italian cities especially benefited.
As a result of Europe’s expanded trade with Asia, there was an increasing
demand for gold from Africa during the 1200s. The gold was used to make
gold coins. The rise of the Mongol Empire in the 1200s made trade with Asia
easier. The Mongols made roads safer from bandits. This encouraged even
more trade between Asia and Europe.
By the 1300s, Europe was importing large amounts of spices and other
goods from Asia. The Mongol Empire, however, ended in the 1300s. As a
result, Asia became many independent kingdoms and empires. The flow of
goods from Asia declined, and the prices of goods went up. Europeans began
to look for a sea route to Asia to bypass Muslim traders.
7. Why did Europeans begin to look for a sea route to Asia in the 1300s?
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• New States, New Technology (page 20)

Starting in the 1300s, many major changes took place in Europe, enabling
Europeans to begin to look for a water route to China. The Crusades and
trade with Asia helped weaken feudalism. An increase in towns and mer-
chants gave kings and queens a new source of wealth to tax. Kings and
queens used their armies to open and protect trade routes and to enforce trade
laws. Merchants, who wanted increased trade, loaned money to kings and
queens to search for a water route to China. European rulers relied less on
help from nobles. The rulers began to unite their kingdoms with strong cen-
tral governments. By the mid-1400s, the strong states of Portugal, Spain,
England, and France emerged in western Europe.

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Study Guide
Chapter 1, Section 2 (continued)

About A.D. 1350, a rebirth of interest in learning about the cultures of

ancient Greece and Rome began. This period of time is known as the
Renaissance. The Renaissance lasted until about 1600. It produced great works
of art and started a scientific revolution.
By the early 1400s, Europeans had acquired new technologies to make long-
distance travel across the ocean possible. Western Europeans learned about
the compass—a Chinese invention—and from Arab texts they learned about
the astrolabe, a tool that uses the position of the sun to find direction, latitude,
and local time. In the 1400s, the Portuguese invented the caravel. This ship
had many sails that made it travel much faster than other ships.
In 1419 Prince Henry of Portugal, known as Henry the Navigator, set up a
center in Portugal for the study of astronomy and geography. Mapmakers,
astronomers, and shipbuilders from throughout the Mediterranean region
came to study and plan explorations. Starting in 1420, Portuguese captains
began mapping and exploring Africa’s west coast. In 1488 a Portuguese ship
commanded by Bartolomeu Dias reached the southern tip of Africa. A little
over nine years later, four Portuguese ships commanded by Vasco da Gama
found a water route to eastern Asia. The route went from Portugal, rounded
Africa, and ended on the southwest coast of India.
8. Why was Portugal the leader in exploration?

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

• West African Civilization (page 21)
Between the 400s and 1400s, the West African empires of Ghana, Mali, and
Songhai rose and fell. They grew wealthy by trading in gold and salt.
West Africa is a large area. It is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the
north. The Atlantic Ocean lies to the west and south. The northern and south-
ern edges of West Africa are wet and fertile. The Sahara, a vast desert, takes
up much of the interior of West Africa.
The Niger River, which cuts through West Africa, was a major route for
east-west migration and trade. Camels, brought to the area between the 200s
and 400s by Arabs, opened up long-distance trade routes through the Sahara.
Camels could go for a week without water. They could easily withstand the
desert’s hot days and cold nights.
Ideas and goods traveled along the African trade routes. The religious ideas
of Islam, whose followers are known as Muslims, spread into West Africa.

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Study Guide
Chapter 1, Section 2 (continued)

West Africa grew and became wealthy mostly because of the gold trade.
The demand for gold increased as the Muslim states of North Africa and the
countries of Europe used gold coins.
The African peoples on the southern edge of the Sahara gained control of
the gold trade. Since they were in the middle of the trade, they had access
both to the gold from the south and the salt and other goods from the north.
Ghana, the first West African empire, began in the A.D. 400s. The Soninke
people of Ghana controlled the region’s trade. After the Muslims conquered
North Africa and the Sahara in the 600s and 700s, Ghana’s merchants and
rulers grew wealthy from the gold and salt trade. New gold mines opened in
Bure. Trade routes to these mines did not go through Ghana. By the early
1200s, Ghana’s empire ended.
The Malinke people controlled the upper Niger valley and the gold trade
from Bure. This allowed them to conquer Ghana and build the Mali empire.
By the mid-1300s, the empire of Mali had spread east past Timbuktu and west
to the Atlantic Ocean. It reached its peak in the 1300s under the rule of Mansa
Musa and his brother Mansa Sulayman. New gold mines opened in the Akan
region, moving the trade routes further east. As a result, Timbuktu became a
center of trade and Muslim learning.
By the 800s, the Sorko people of the Niger River east of Mali had built the
Songhai empire. The Sorko used their fishing vessels to control the trade
along the river. In 1468 the Songhai ruler, Sonni Ali, and his army gained con-
trol of Timbuktu. Ali conquered land along the Niger River. The Songhai ruler
Askiya Muhammad restored Timbuktu as a great center of learning. He also
encouraged more trade across the Sahara. The Songhai empire began to
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

decline by 1591, after Moroccan troops defeated Songhai’s armies.

The sprawling empires of Ghana, Mali, and Songhai arose on West Africa’s
expansive savannah, a kind of rolling grassland. Guinea was located on West
Africa’s southern coast. Small states and kingdoms formed in Guinea because
the area was made up of thick, dense forests.
The Edo people of Benin were hunters, farmers, and traders. They lived in
small villages. Benin developed city-states in the 1000s and 1100s. By the mid-
1400s, Benin was an empire. The Edo traded with the Portuguese.
9. Why did the West African empires become wealthy?

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Study Guide
Chapter 1, Section 2 (continued)

• Slavery and Sugar (page 23)

African society had slavery. Most enslaved people had been captured in
war. Most African societies would either sell back the enslaved Africans to
their people or the enslaved Africans would become part of their new African
society.
African slavery changed when Arabs began to trade goods for enslaved
Africans. In the early 1400s, the Akan people acquired enslaved Africans from
Mali traders. The enslaved Africans were used to clear land and mine gold.
In the 1400s, Spain and Portugal set up plantations off the west coast of
Africa. The growing and processing of sugarcane required heavy manual
labor and a large labor force. Europeans used enslaved workers on their plan-
tations. Europeans also entered into the slave trade.
10. Why did the use of enslaved Africans increase during the 1400s?

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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Study Guide
Chapter 1, Section 3
For use with textbook pages 24–28

EUROPE ENCOUNTERS AMERICA

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
Leif Ericsson a Viking from Scandinavia who explored the coast of Labrador (page 25)
Claudius Ptolemy a Greek-educated Egyptian geographer and astronomer who drew maps of a
round world in the A.D. 100s (page 25)
San Salvador Island the place in the Bahamas where Christopher Columbus most likely landed
on his first voyage across the Atlantic in 1492 (page 25)
line of demarcation an imaginary north-to-south line running down the middle of the Atlantic
Ocean that granted Spain control of everything west of it and Portugal control of everything
east (page 26)
Treaty of Tordesillas treaty signed in 1494 that confirmed Portugal’s route around Africa to
India and Spain’s claim to most of the Americas (page 26)
Ferdinand Magellan Portuguese explorer whose expedition was the first to sail around the
globe (page 27)
circumnavigate to sail completely around (page 27)
Columbian Exchange a series of interactions between the Native Americans and Europeans
(page 28)
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

What do you usually have for breakfast? Did you know that many of the
foods that make up the average American breakfast, such as bananas, oranges,
and grains, were brought to this country by Europeans hundreds of years
ago?
The last section described civilizations in Europe and Africa, examining
changes that enabled Europeans to explore the world as well as incentives for
their explorations. This section discusses European explorations of the
Americas.

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Study Guide
Chapter 1, Section 3 (continued)

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the time line below to help you take notes. List the major events in
European exploration of the Americas.

READ TO LEARNII
• The Vikings Arrive in America (page 24)
Archaeologists have found evidence that the first Europeans to arrive in the
Americas were the Vikings from Scandinavia. Around A.D. 1000 Leif Ericsson
and other Vikings explored the coast of Labrador and may have stayed the

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

winter in Newfoundland. Vikings later tried to settle permanently in the
Americas, but failed. Native Americans fought against the Viking settlements.
8. What part of the Americas did the Vikings explore?

• Columbus’s Plan (page 25)

During the Renaissance, the works of scientists like Claudius Ptolemy were
rediscovered. He had drawn a map of a round world in the A.D. 100s. His
maps included latitude and longitude markings, but he seriously under-
estimated the distance represented by each degree of longitude.
In the mid-1400s, Christopher Columbus, an Italian navigator, used
Ptolemy’s calculations to help him estimate the distance between Spain and
Japan. But Ptolemy’s calculations made the earth seem much smaller than it
actually was. As a result, Christopher Columbus miscalculated the distance
from Spain to Japan.

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Study Guide
Chapter 1, Section 3 (continued)

Columbus tried, but failed, to get the rulers of Portugal, England, and
France to pay for an expedition. Finally, in 1492 Spain’s King Ferdinand and
Queen Isabella agreed to pay for Columbus’s expedition.
Columbus and his three ships left Spain in August 1492. The trip across the
Atlantic Ocean was long and dangerous. The expedition finally landed in the
Bahamas, on what is today San Salvador. Columbus called the local people he
met Indians because he thought he had reached the Indies. Columbus also
found the islands of Cuba and Hispaniola. He mistakenly thought that Cuba
was China and that Hispaniola was Japan.
In March 1493 Columbus returned to Spain with gold, parrots, spices, and
Native Americans. King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella were pleased.
Columbus convinced them to pay for another trip by promising them as much
gold as they wanted.
Before Spain was able to colonize the Americas, Ferdinand and Isabella had
to establish their claim to the new lands. Portugal claimed the right to control
the Atlantic route to Asia. The two nations asked the pope to help solve this
problem peacefully.
In 1493 the Catholic Church’s Pope Alexander VI set up a line of demarca-
tion. This was an imaginary north-to-south line running down the middle of
the Atlantic. It gave Spain control of everything west of the line. It gave
Portugal control of everything east of the line. In 1494 Spain and Portugal
signed the Treaty of Tordesillas. This gave Portugal the right to control the route
around Africa to India. Spain claimed most of the new lands of the Americas.
Columbus made three more voyages from Spain in 1493, 1498, and 1502. He
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

explored several Caribbean islands and sailed along the coasts of Central
America and northern South America, claiming new lands for Spain and
establishing settlements.
9. What were Columbus’s accomplishments on his four voyages to the Americas?

• Continuing Expeditions (page 26)

The Americas were named after Amerigo Vespucci, an Italian who repeated
Columbus’s attempt to sail west to Asia. In 1499 Vespucci sailed for Spain. He
explored the coast of South America. He thought he had reached Asia. His
voyage in 1501 was for Portugal. Vespucci again explored the coastline of
South America, but this time he discovered that this large landmass could not
be part of Asia. In 1507 a German scholar proposed that the new continent be
named America for Amerigo Vespucci.

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Study Guide
Chapter 1, Section 3 (continued)

In 1513 Juan Ponce de Leon, the Spanish governor of Puerto Rico, sailed
north and discovered Florida. In 1513 Vasco de Balboa became the first
European known to see the Pacific Ocean. In 1520 Ferdinand Magellan, a
Portuguese sailor working for Spain, discovered the strait at the southernmost
tip of South America. Magellan died in the Philippines, but his crew became
the first known people to circumnavigate, or sail around, the globe.
10. Who were the leaders of later expeditions and what areas did they explore or discover?

• The Columbian Exchange (page 27)

The Columbian Exchange was a series of exchanges between Native
Americans and Europeans. These exchanges changed the world’s environ-
ments and changed most cultures around the world.
Native Americans taught the Europeans local farming methods. They intro-
duced the Europeans to new crops and foods. These included corn, squash,
pumpkins, beans, sweet potatoes, tomatoes, and potatoes. Europeans also
adopted many Native American inventions, such as the canoe, the snowshoe,

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

and the poncho.
The Europeans introduced the Native Americans to many crops, such as
wheat, oats, barley, rice, coffee, bananas, oranges, and onions. The Europeans
also brought livestock, such as chickens, cattle, pigs, sheep, and horses. The
Europeans introduced the Native Americans to technologies, such as metal-
working, new methods of shipbuilding, and new types of weapons.
Europeans brought diseases that killed millions of Native Americans because
they lacked immunity to the diseases. Native American illnesses infected
Europeans, but were not nearly as deadly.
11. What technologies did the Native Americans and the Europeans exchange?

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Study Guide
Chapter 1, Section 4
For use with textbook pages 30–35

SPAIN AND FRANCE BUILD EMPIRES

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
Hernán Cortés Spanish explorer who led his troops into the Aztec Empire (page 30)
conquistador a Spanish explorer in the Americas (page 32)
Francisco Pizarro Spanish explorer in South America who found the Inca Empire in Peru (page 32)
Hernando de Soto Spanish explorer in the area north of Florida (page 32)
presidio a Spanish fort (page 32)
hacienda a huge cattle ranch in New Spain (page 33)
vaquero Spanish cowhand (page 33)
encomienda a system of rewarding conquistadors by giving them control of Native American
villages (page 33)
Quebec a trading post established by Champlain which became the capital of New France
(page 34)
Northwest Passage a northern route through North America to the Pacific Ocean (page 34)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

Do you know people who have moved to your community from other parts
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

of the country or world? What reasons did they have for moving? What do you
think are some positive aspects of moving? What are some negative aspects?
In this section, you will learn about Spanish and French exploration and
settlement of the Americas. You will also learn about the kind of society each
nation established.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the chart below to help you take notes. The Spanish and French
explored the Americas and started colonies here. Explain the effects of colo-
nization by each of the explorers listed in the chart.

Explorer Effects of Colonization

Hernán Cortés 1.

Francisco Pizarro 2.

Francisco Vásquez de Coronado 3.

Hernando de Soto 4.

Jacques Cartier 5.

René-Robert Cavelier de La Salle 6.

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Study Guide
Chapter 1, Section 4 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• The Conquest of Mexico (page 30)
Hernán Cortés was asked by the government of Spain to lead an expedition
to the Yucatán Peninsula in Mexico. He was to find people to work for the
Spanish and to investigate reports of a wealthy civilization there.
When Cortés and his troops landed in the Yucatán Peninsula, they were
attacked by thousands of warriors from a nearby city. The Spanish with their
swords, guns, and cannons had a technological advantage over the local peo-
ple. They quickly killed more than 200 warriors. After talking with local
rulers, Cortés learned that the Aztec were at war with many people in the
region, including the powerful Tlaxcalans. After several displays of Spanish
power, he convinced the Tlaxcalans to join the Spanish against the Aztec.
Montezuma, the Aztec ruler, decided to attack the advancing Spanish-
Tlaxcalan forces. However, Cortés was warned of the upcoming attack and
attacked the Aztec first, killing thousands. Montezuma now believed that
Cortés could not be stopped, and in 1519 the Spanish peacefully entered the
Aztec capital of Tenochtitlán. When thousands of Aztec surrounded Cortés, he
decided to take Montezuma hostage. He then ordered the statues of Aztec
gods to be replaced by Christian images. This angered the Aztec priests, who
organized a rebellion against the Spanish in 1520 and forced them out of the
city. However, Cortés did not give up, and in May 1521 the Spanish again
attacked the Aztec. By August they had conquered them.
7. Why did the Spanish easily conquer the people in the Yucatán Peninsula?

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

• New Spain Expands (page 32)
After defeating the Aztec, the Spanish built a new city, Mexico, where
Tenochtitlán had been. Mexico became the capital of the Spanish colony of
New Spain. Cortés sent expeditions to conquer what is present-day Mexico
and Central America. The men who led these expeditions were known as
conquistadors.
At the same time, Francisco Pizarro, a conquistador, began to explore the
Inca Empire, on the western coast of South America. In 1532 he took the pow-
erful Inca emperor prisoner and executed him a year later. Pizarro appointed
other Inca emperors, who were forced to follow his orders. Many Incas did
not accept the new system and continued to fight the Spanish until 1572.

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Study Guide
Chapter 1, Section 4 (continued)

Rumors about wealthy cities in the Americas led to expeditions by other

conquistadors. In 1528 Pánfilo de Narváez searched northern Florida to find a
rumored city of gold. In 1540 the Spanish sent an expedition led by Francisco
Vásquez de Coronado to find the Seven Golden Cities of Cibola that were
rumored to exist north of New Spain. He did not find these cities, but he did
explore much of what is the present-day southwestern United States. Hernando
de Soto explored parts of a region north of present-day Florida. His expedi-
tion killed many Native Americans and raided their villages for supplies.
The Spanish gave the name New Mexico to the area north of New Spain.
They built forts called presidios throughout the area to protect the Spanish set-
tlers and to serve as trading posts. Few Spaniards, however, were interested in
settling the territory.
The Catholic Church became important in colonizing the area. Spanish
priests built missions and spread Christianity to the Native Americans living
there. Father Junipero Serra took control of California by establishing missions
there. The Spanish priests tried to end traditional Native American practices
that were in conflict with Catholic beliefs. As a result, in 1680 thousands of
Native American warriors destroyed most of the missions in New Mexico.
8. Why did many conquistadors explore different parts of the present-day United States?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

• Spanish American Society (page 33)

Most of the conquistadors were adventurers who came to the Americas in
search of wealth. They set up a society that reflected their goals.
Although the Spanish did not find gold, they did find silver and set up sil-
ver mines all across northern Mexico. They used the Native Americans to
work the mines. To feed the miners, the Spanish set up large cattle ranches,
called haciendas, in northern Mexico. The men who herded the cattle were
called vaqueros. Cowhands in the United States later adopted the lifestyles of
the vaqueros.
Another feature of Spanish colonial society was the encomienda, a system
that gave control of Native American villages to conquistadors. The Native
Americans were forced to pay the men part of the products they farmed or
made. In exchange, the men were to protect the Native Americans and con-
vert them to Christianity. However, many of the Spaniards abused their
power and mistreated the Native Americans.
The Spanish in the Americas built a highly structured society. At the top
were peninsulares—people who had been born in Spain. Below them were the

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Study Guide
Chapter 1, Section 4 (continued)

criollos—those born in the colonies of Spanish parents. Next were the

mestizos—those born of Spanish and Native American parents. The lowest
level included Native Americans, Africans, and people of mixed Spanish and
African or African and Native American ancestry.
The Spanish king created a council to advise him and watch over colonial
activities. The king divided the empire into regions called viceroyalties and
appointed a viceroy to rule each region.
9. Who made up the highest social class in New Spain?

• The French Empire in America (page 34)

In 1524 King Francis I of France sent Giovanni da Verrazano to explore
North America to find a Northwest Passage—a northern route through North
America to the Pacific Ocean. Verrazano explored from what is now North
Carolina to Newfoundland but never found such a passage. In 1534 France
sent Jacques Cartier to explore North America. He discovered the St.
Lawrence River.
In 1602 King Henry IV of France authorized some French merchants to cre-
ate colonies in North America. The French hired Samuel de Champlain to help
them colonize the area. He founded Quebec, which became the capital of the
French colony of New France.
New France grew slowly because few people came to build farms and settle

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

there. The colony was made up mostly of fur traders who lived among the
Native Americans with whom they traded.
In 1663 France’s King Louis XIV was concerned about the slow growth of
New France. He saw how the Spanish and English colonies to the south had
prospered. His government created several projects to increase the colony’s
population. It sent several thousand immigrants to the colony and rewarded
parents who had many children. The French also began to explore North
America. Louis Joliet, Jacques Marquette, and René-Robert Cavelier de La
Salle explored the Mississippi River. La Salle claimed the region for France
and named it Louisiana in honor of the French king.
10. Why did New France grow slowly?

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Study Guide
Chapter 1, Section 4 (continued)

• Settling Louisiana (page 35)

The geography and climate of the lower Mississippi hindered settlement.
The French did not permanently settle the region until 1698. Several settle-
ments were established in Louisiana over the next few decades. The French
soon realized that crops that were suitable for the region, such as sugarcane,
rice, tobacco, and indigo, required hard manual labor, which few settlers were
willing to do. The French in Louisiana began importing enslaved Africans and
forced them to work the plantations.
The Spanish had established the town of St. Augustine, Florida, in 1565 to
protect their claim to the region after the French tried to settle north of the
region. The town became the first permanent settlement established by
Europeans in the present-day United States. After the French arrived at the
mouth of the Mississippi River, the Spanish established a mission in eastern
Texas to attempt to block French expansion into that region.
11. Why did the French begin importing enslaved Africans to Louisiana?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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Study Guide
Chapter 2, Section 1
For use with textbook pages 42–47

ENGLAND’S FIRST COLONIES

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
Puritans people who wanted to purify the Anglican Church of all Catholic elements (page 44)
enclosure movement English landowners fenced in their lands and evicted thousands of tenant
farmers (page 44)
joint-stock company company that pooled the money of many investors for big projects
(page 44)
privateer privately owned ships licensed by the government to attack merchant ships of other
countries (page 44)
John Smith leader of the Jamestown colony (page 45)
Chief Powhatan Native American leader who lived in the area of Jamestown (page 45)
burgesses representatives to Virginia’s legislative body (page 46)
headrights a system introduced by the Virginia Company to entice settlers to Virginia (page 46)
Lord Baltimore founder of Maryland (page 47)
proprietary colony a colony governed by the proprietor, or owner, of the colony (page 47)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

The United States Constitution guarantees freedom of religion. What does
that freedom mean? Why is having this freedom important to a democracy?
The last chapter discussed Spanish and French settlement of the Americas.
This section discusses the English exploration and settlement of North
America.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the diagram below to help you take notes. The English people had reli-
gious and economic reasons for coming to America. List the reasons below.

1. Religious Reasons

English Go
to America 2. Economic Reasons

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Study Guide
Chapter 2, Section 1 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• England Takes Interest in America (page 42)
In 1497 England sent John Cabot to find a western route to Asia. He landed
in present-day Nova Scotia and sailed southward along the Atlantic coast.
Although Cabot had arrived in America only a few years after Columbus had,
the English government did not attempt to establish colonies there for another
80 years. However, in the late 1500s, changes in England occurred that led to
English colonization in America.
One change had to do with religion. In the early 1500s, western Europe was
Catholic. However, in 1517 a German monk named Martin Luther accused the
Church of corruption. This started the Protestant Reformation. Luther founded
the German Protestant Church, which became the Lutheran Church. The
Reformation spread to other parts of Europe. In England the Reformation
occurred when the pope refused to annul King Henry VIII’s marriage. The
king broke with the Church and declared himself the head of England’s
church, which became known as the Anglican Church. Some people wanted
the Anglican Church to keep the organization of the Catholic Church. Others
wanted to “purify” the Church of all Catholic elements. These people were
known as Puritans. They wanted every congregation to appoint its own leaders,
rather than having the king appoint them. In 1603 King James I refused to let
the Puritans change the organization of the Church. As a result, many Puritans
left England for America in order to practice their religion in their own way.
England also experienced economic changes. Much of England was divided
into large estates. The nobles rented their land to tenant farmers. Then in the
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

1500s, Europeans began to buy English wool. English landowners realized

that they could make more money by raising sheep than by renting their land.
They enclosed their land for sheep farming and forced the tenant farmers to
leave the land. This enclosure movement caused some poor people to leave
England for a better life in America.
When England began producing more wool than Europe would buy, mer-
chants began to look for new markets. They began to organize joint-stock
companies, in which many investors pooled their money to use for large proj-
ects. Doing so allowed English merchants to trade with and colonize other
parts of the world without financial support from the government.
3. What caused some English tenant farmers to leave England for America?

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Study Guide
Chapter 2, Section 1 (continued)

• England Returns to America (page 44)

England needed new markets for its wool, so it again became interested in
America. At the same time, the Reformation had changed Europe’s balance of
power. England had become the leading Protestant power while Spain was
the leading Catholic power. The two countries became enemies. By the 1560s,
most Dutch people, who were part of the Spanish Empire, had become
Protestants. When the Spanish tried to stop Protestantism in the Netherlands,
the Dutch rebelled. England came to the aid of the Dutch. Queen Elizabeth
allowed privateers to attack Spanish ships. Privateers are privately owned
ships licensed by the government to attack merchant ships of other countries.
English privateers had a difficult time against the Spanish in the Caribbean
because they had no bases in the area. Queen Elizabeth’s advisers urged her
to establish bases in America. As a result, the queen gave Walter Raleigh a
charter to explore the American coastline. His ships landed on Roanoke, an
island off the North Carolina coast. He named the land Virginia.
4. Why did England and Spain become enemies in the mid-1500s?

• Jamestown Is Founded (page 45)

In 1606 King James I granted the Virginia Company, a group of investors, a

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

charter to start colonies in Virginia. The company sent 144 colonists to Virginia,
and they founded the settlement of Jamestown in 1607. However, the settle-
ment faced many problems. Many of the colonists knew nothing about farming.
The upper-class colonists were not used to manual labor and refused to do it.
They also argued with one another and were not able to make decisions. As a
result, lawlessness, sickness, and food shortages killed many of the settlers.
Captain John Smith, the leader of the settlement, began trading with the
Powhatan Confederacy, the local Native Americans. Their leader, Chief
Powhatan, helped the colony survive. To increase the population of Jamestown,
the Virginia Company offered free land to people who worked for the colony
for seven years. About 400 new settlers arrived in 1609. However, there was
not enough food for these settlers, and by winter they began to steal food
from the Native Americans. As a result, the Native Americans attacked the
settlers. By 1610 only 60 settlers were still alive. By 1614 the colony still had
not found something it could produce that could be sold in England for a
profit. It looked to growing tobacco.
The Jamestown colonists tried growing tobacco, but the crop grown there
was too bitter. John Rolfe, a Jamestown colonist, experimented with seeds
from Trinidad, a Caribbean nation. His tobacco sold for a good price, and the
Jamestown settlers began planting large amounts of it.
22 The American Republic Since 1877
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Study Guide
Chapter 2, Section 1 (continued)

In 1618 the head of the Virginia Company gave Jamestown the right to elect
its own legislative assembly. The new government included 20 representa-
tives, called burgesses. The assembly was called the House of Burgesses. To
attract new settlers to Virginia, the company also started the system of head-
rights. New settlers who bought a share in the company or who paid for their
passage were given 50 acres of land and 50 more acres for additional family
members. In 1619 the Virginia Company brought 90 women to the colony to
provide for marriage opportunities. That same year, the settlers purchased
20 Africans as servants.
The changes introduced by the Virginia Company attracted many new set-
tlers to Virginia. This increase upset the Native Americans, and they attacked
the settlers. Hundreds of settlers died. The king, upset about the colony’s high
death rate, took back the Virginia Company’s charter. He made Virginia a
royal colony and appointed a governor to run the colony.
5. What changes made by the Virginia Company attracted settlers to Virginia?

• Maryland is Founded (page 47)

In England, Catholics did not accept the king as head of the Church. As a
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

result, many were persecuted. Lord Baltimore, who had been a member of the
English Parliament until he converted to Catholicism, decided to found a
colony in America where Catholics could practice their faith without persecu-
tion. In 1632 King Charles granted Baltimore an area of land northeast of
Virginia, which he named Maryland. Baltimore owned Maryland, making it a
proprietary colony. The proprietor, or owner, could govern the colony as he
saw fit.
Lord Baltimore’s son Cecil became the head of the colony when Lord
Baltimore died. Although Lord Baltimore hoped that Maryland would become
a refuge for Catholics, most of the settlers were Protestant.
6. What kind of colony was Maryland?

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Study Guide
Chapter 2, Section 2
For use with textbook pages 48–52

THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
Separatists Puritans who broke away from the Anglican Church to form their own
congregations (page 48)
Pilgrims a group of Separatists who fled to America to escape persecution (page 49)
Squanto a Native American who helped the Pilgrims survive (page 49)
Great Migration the movement of large numbers of people from England (page 50)
heretics people whose religious beliefs differ from those accepted by the majority (page 50)
Anne Hutchinson founder of the town of Portsmouth (page 51)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

What images come to mind when you think of New England? What major
cities are found there?
In the last section you learned about English exploration and settlement of
North America. This section describes the founding of the New England
colonies.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

The English established several colonies in New England. In the diagram
below, identify the people who were important in establishing each of the
colonies.

1. Plymouth

6. Maine 2. Massachusetts
Bay Company

New England
Colonies
5. New Hampshire 3. Rhode Island

4. Connecticut

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Study Guide
Chapter 2, Section 2 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• The Pilgrims Found Plymouth Colony (page 48)
When some Puritans, called Separatists, broke away from the Anglican
Church, they were persecuted by the English government. To escape persecu-
tion, they fled to Holland in 1608. However, some of these Separatists, known
as Pilgrims, found it difficult to live in Holland and decided to immigrate to
America. They left on the Mayflower in 1620. After a storm blew the ship off
course, they landed at a place across Massachusetts Bay called Plymouth.
Under the leadership of William Bradford, the Pilgrims went to work as soon
as they arrived at Plymouth. They also received help from a Native American
named Squanto. He taught the Pilgrims how to farm and fish. He also helped
them work out a treaty with the Native Americans who lived nearby. The fol-
lowing autumn, the Pilgrims joined the Native Americans in a festival to
celebrate the harvest. The festival became the basis for Thanksgiving Day.
7. Why did the Pilgrims immigrate to America?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

• The Puritans Found Massachusetts (page 49)

Most Puritans stayed in England and tried to reform the Anglican Church.
However, persecution of the Puritans increased in the mid-1620s, when King
Charles took the throne. At the same time, a depression hit England’s wool
industry. It hit especially hard in southeastern England, where many Puritans
lived. John Winthrop, a Puritan and wealthy attorney, wanted to help the
Puritans leave England. He was one of the stockholders in the Massachusetts
Bay Company, which had received a charter from the king to create a colony
in New England. Winthrop used the charter to find a refuge in America for
the Puritans. In 1630 about 900 settlers set sail for America. They arrived in
Massachusetts.
More settlers followed, and Massachusetts quickly expanded. Several
towns were founded, including Boston. As conditions in England worsened,
more people left in what became known as the Great Migration.
The government of Massachusetts was based on the charter of the
Massachusetts Bay Company. Those who owned stock in the company were
called “freemen,” and all of the freemen made up the General Court. The
General Court made the laws and elected the governor. John Winthrop was

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Study Guide
Chapter 2, Section 2 (continued)

chosen the first governor. The General Court eventually became a representa-
tive assembly. Every year the freemen of each town elected up to three
deputies to send to the General Court. Laws required everyone in the colony
to attend church services. The government collected taxes to support the
Church. The government also regulated behavior. The leaders of the
Massachusetts Bay Colony did not tolerate differences in religious beliefs.
Heretics, or people whose religious beliefs differed from those of the majority,
were considered a threat to the colony.
8. Why did many Puritans leave England in 1630?

• The Founding of Rhode Island (page 50)

Roger Williams was a strict Separatist who believed that the Puritans
should not have remained a part of the Anglican Church. However, his criti-
cism of the Puritan churches angered many Puritans, and he decided to move
to Plymouth Colony. When Williams returned to Massachusetts in 1633, he
continued to challenge Puritan authority. Finally, in 1635 the General Court
ordered him to leave Massachusetts. Williams headed south, where he bought

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

land from the Native Americans and founded the town of Providence. There
the government did not involve itself in religious matters.
Anne Hutchinson also lived in Massachusetts. A devout Puritan, she began
holding prayer meetings in her home and soon developed a wide following.
However, when she began challenging the authority of Puritan ministers, the
General Court charged her with heresy and banished her for it. She and some
of her followers headed south and founded the town of Portsmouth.
Over the years, other Puritans were banished from Massachusetts. They
headed south and founded the towns of Newport and Warwick. In 1644 these
two towns joined with Providence and Portsmouth to become the colony of
Rhode Island and Providence Plantations.
9. How was the colony of Rhode Island different from Massachusetts?

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Study Guide
Chapter 2, Section 2 (continued)

• The River Towns of Connecticut (page 51)

In 1636 the Reverend Thomas Hooker moved his entire congregation to the
Connecticut River valley. Hooker was frustrated with the government in
Massachusetts because he thought that everyone, not just church members,
should be allowed to vote. Hooker and his followers left Massachusetts and
founded the town of Hartford. In 1637 Hartford and two other towns joined
together and created their own General Court. They adopted a constitution
known as the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut. This was the first written
constitution of the American colonies. It provided for all adult men, not just
church members, to elect the governor and the General Court.
The Pequot were a Native American group who lived in the Connecticut
River valley. When two Massachusetts traders were killed in Pequot territory,
Massachusetts sent troops to punish the Pequot. A war started, and the
Pequot began raiding towns along the river. The Connecticut settlers organ-
ized an army under Captain John Mason. Other Native American groups,
enemies of the Pequot, fought alongside Mason’s army. Hundreds of Pequot
were killed. Those who were captured were sold into slavery or given to other
Native Americans groups as war prizes. The Connecticut government reset-
tled some Pequot in two villages.
10. Why did Thomas Hooker move his congregation to the Connecticut River valley?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

• New Hampshire and Maine (page 52)

Some people who disagreed with Puritan authority in Massachusetts
moved north of the colony. Massachusetts granted this northern area to two
men, who split their grant in two. The southern part was named New
Hampshire and the northern part was named Maine. Massachusetts claimed
both parts, but the two men challenged the claims in court. An English court
ruled against Massachusetts in 1677. In 1679 New Hampshire became a royal
colony. Massachusetts bought back Maine, which remained a part of
Massachusetts until 1820.
11. What two colonies were started north of Massachusetts?

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Study Guide
Chapter 2, Section 2 (continued)

• King Philip’s War (page 52)

After the Pequot War, the Native Americans and New England settlers
enjoyed peaceful relations. However, by the 1670s, colonial governments
began demanding that the Native Americans follow English law. This demand
angered Native Americans, who believed that the English were trying to
destroy their way of life.
In 1675 the Plymouth Colony tried and executed three Wampanoag for a
murder. The Wampanoag warriors then attacked the settlers. This attack
marked the beginning of King Philip’s War, named after the Wampanoag
leader. The settlers won the war in 1678. After the war, few Native Americans
were left in New England. New England now belonged to the English settlers.
12. Why did Native Americans living in New England become angry with the English settlers?

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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Study Guide
Chapter 2, Section 3
For use with textbook pages 53–56

THE MIDDLE AND SOUTHERN COLONIES

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
English Civil War a war between the armies of the English Parliament and those of the
English King (page 54)
William Penn a Quaker who founded the colony of Pennsylvania (page 55)
pacifism opposition to war or violence as a means to settle disputes (page 55)
James Oglethorpe founder of the colony of Georgia (page 56)
debtors people who could not pay their debts (page 56)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

What factors do you think are most important for people in deciding where
to live? What factors would be important to you?

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the diagram below to help you take notes. England continued to estab-
lish colonies in America throughout the late 1600s and early 1700s. Identify an
effect for each of the causes listed in the diagram.
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Cause Effect
After the Civil War, the English 1.
government decided that colonies
were not a business risk.

England wanted the area of New 2.

Netherland as a link between
Virginia and Maryland.

William Penn established a colony 3.

with readily available land and
religious freedom.

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Study Guide
Chapter 2, Section 3 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• The English Civil War and the Colonies (page 53)
In 1642 King Charles I sent troops into the English Parliament to arrest
some Puritan leaders. Parliament then organized its own army, and the
English Civil War began. Parliament’s army was victorious and the king was
put to death in 1649. Oliver Cromwell, the head of Parliament’s army, seized
power and became dictator of England.
In 1660 Parliament asked King Charles’s son, Charles II, to take the throne.
After the king was back on the throne, colonization began again. The English
government now believed that colonies were no longer a risky business ven-
ture. Rather, the government believed that colonies were a good source of raw
materials and a good market for manufactured goods.
4. Which side do you think the New England colonies supported in the English Civil War?

• New York and New Jersey (page 54)

In 1609 Henry Hudson explored the Hudson River valley for a group
of Dutch merchants. The Dutch claimed the region and called it New
Netherland. Their major settlement was called New Amsterdam, located
on Manhattan Island. Because fur trade was the major activity in New
Netherland, the colony grew slowly. To increase the population, the Dutch

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

allowed anyone to buy land in the colony. Settlers came from all parts of the
world.
King Charles II wanted New Netherland. Having this territory would link
Virginia and Maryland to New England. In 1664 King Charles decided to take
the land. He granted the land to his brother James, who sent warships to seize
New Netherland from the Dutch. After taking the land, which he named New
York, James later gave a large part of it to two of the king’s closest advisers
and named the new colony New Jersey. To attract people to New Jersey, pro-
prietors gave generous land grants, religious freedom, and the right to elect a
legislative body.
5. How did the proprietors of New Jersey attract settlers to the colony?

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Study Guide
Chapter 2, Section 3 (continued)

• Pennsylvania and Delaware (page 55)

Charles II also gave a land grant to William Penn. Penn was a wealthy
Quaker who used the grant to create a colony in America for Quakers.
Quakers believed that religion was a personal experience. They believed that
there was no need for a church or ministers. Quakers were against political or
religious authority. They believed in pacifism, which is opposition to war or
violence as a way of settling conflicts. The English government and others
often persecuted Quakers for their beliefs.
Penn used the land grant and started a colony across the Delaware River
from New Jersey. He named the colony Pennsylvania. He wanted the colony
to be a place where people had complete political and religious freedom. He
signed a treaty with the local Native Americans, who gave the land to the
colonists. This action started a time of peace between the European settlers
and the Native Americans that lasted many years. Penn built the capital of
Pennsylvania and named it Philadelphia, or the “city of brotherly love.”
Pennsylvania had a lawmaking body that was elected directly by voters. All
colonists who owned land and believed in Christianity had the right to vote.
All Pennsylvanians had the right to practice their religion with no interfer-
ence. Land was readily available. In addition to English Quakers, many
Germans and Scotch-Irish immigrated to Pennsylvania. By 1684 Pennsylvania
had more than 7,000 colonists and Philadelphia became a center for trade. In
1682 Penn bought more land south of Pennsylvania. This land later became
the colony of Delaware.
6. What rights did Pennsylvanians have?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

• New Southern Colonies (page 55)

King Charles granted a territory south of Virginia to several friends. The
land was named Carolina. It developed into two separate regions: North
Carolina and South Carolina. Most people who came to North Carolina were
farmers from Virginia. North Carolina did not have a good harbor. As a result,
it grew slowly.

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Study Guide
Chapter 2, Section 3 (continued)

The proprietors were more interested in South Carolina. They believed that
the land there was good for growing sugarcane. However, sugarcane did not
grow well there. Eventually, the colony began to capture Native Americans
and ship them to the Caribbean as enslaved workers. The first settlers in
South Carolina arrived in 1670 and named their settlement Charles Town,
which is known today as Charleston.
In the 1720s James Oglethorpe, a member of Parliament, began investigating
English prisons and was shocked to find out that many were debtors—people
sent to prison because they could not pay their debts. He asked King George II
for a colony where people who owed debts could start over. England was
eager to give Oglethorpe the land. Not only would it help England’s poor, but
it would also give England a buffer between South Carolina and Spanish
Florida. The new colony was named Georgia. It established strict laws. Settlers
from many other countries came to Georgia. Eventually, they began to object
to the strict laws of the colony. The owners of the colony eventually lifted
some of the laws. They also set up an elected lawmaking body. In 1751 the
owners gave control of the colony back to the king. Georgia became a royal
colony.
7. Why did James Oglethorpe start the Georgia colony?

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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Study Guide
Chapter 2, Section 4
For use with textbook pages 58–64

COLONIAL WAYS OF LIFE

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
cash crop crop grown primarily for market (page 59)
indentured servant person who agreed to work for an employer in the colonies in exchange for
passage to America (page 59)
subsistence farming system of farming in which farmers produce only enough crops to feed
themselves and their families (page 59)
Nathaniel Bacon leader of a militia who attacked threatening Native Americans and battled for
control of Jamestown (page 60)
slave code a set of laws that formally regulated slavery and defined the relationship between
enslaved Africans and free people (page 61)
entrepreneurs business people who risk their money for a profit (page 63)
capitalists people who invest their money in new businesses (page 63)
triangular trade a three-way trade established by New England merchants (page 64)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

What images come to mind when you hear the word plantation? Where did
these images come from?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

In this section, you will learn about the economies that developed in the
Southern colonies. You will also learn how slavery developed there.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the diagram below to help you take notes. Acquiring land was an
important issue in the Southern colonies in the 1600s. Bacon’s Rebellion was
one such conflict. List the effects of Bacon’s Rebellion in the spaces provided.

Effects
1.

Bacon’s Rebellion
2.

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Study Guide
Chapter 2, Section 4 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• Southern Society (page 58)
The economy of the Southern Colonies depended on commercial agricul-
ture. Tobacco became the South’s first successful cash crop, or crop grown
primarily for market. Rice and indigo were also important cash crops. They
needed the right kind of climate and techniques to be grown. This need
resulted in the start of plantations, or large commercial estates where many
workers lived on the land and cultivated the crops for the landowner.
The Southern Colonies had plenty of land for growing tobacco, but not
enough workers. England had many poor tenant farmers without work. Many
of these people were willing to sell their labor for a chance to come to
America and obtain land. To pay for their journey, these people agreed to
become indentured servants. The American colonists agreed to pay the cost of
the passage and to provide food, shelter, and clothing for the servants until
their labor contracts ended. The servants agreed to work for the owners for a
certain number of years. About half of the indentured servants who came to
Virginia and Maryland in the 1600s died before receiving their freedom. Even
those who became free were rarely able to purchase their own land.
At first, farmers in South Carolina were unable to grow rice because they
did not know how to harvest it properly. Then planters began to grow a new
type of rice and decided to import enslaved Africans to raise it. Rice soon
became a major cash crop.
In the early 1740s, Eliza Lucas discovered that indigo, a plant used to make
blue dye, could grow on high ground and sandy soil. Indigo could be grown

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

on land unsuitable for rice. It quickly became a good second cash crop.
Very few planters actually became wealthy. However, planters who could
afford a large labor force and many acres of land could produce a large crop
and extend their estates. This resulted in a wealthy elite who controlled most
of the land and needed workers to work the land. These wealthy landowners
were referred to as the Southern gentry. They influenced much of the econ-
omy and politics of the region.
Because of the few towns and roads in the region, the Southern plantations
were self-contained communities. A large plantation included the planter’s
house, the workers’ houses, a school, a chapel, and workshops. Tenant farm-
ers worked lands that they rented from the planter elite.

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Study Guide
Chapter 2, Section 4 (continued)

The majority of landowners in the South were small farmers. They gener-
ally bought land in the “backcountry” farther inland. The farmers in the
backcountry worked small plots of land and lived in small houses. They prac-
ticed subsistence farming, or growing only enough crops to feed their own
families. By the late 1600s, Southern society was divided into a wealthy elite
at the top and poor backcountry farmers, tenant farmers, indentured servants,
and enslaved Africans at the bottom.
3. How was Southern society divided by the late 1600s?

• Bacon’s Rebellion (page 59)

By the 1660s, Sir William Berkeley controlled the House of Burgesses—
Virginia’s legislative assembly. He arranged for the House to limit the vote to
people who owned property. This act cut the number of voters in Virginia by
half. This angered the backcountry and tenant farmers.
Backcountry farmers also wanted to expand their landholdings. By the
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

1670s, the only land left was that claimed by Native Americans. Most wealthy
planters lived near the coast in the region known as the Tidewater. They did
not want to risk war with the Native Americans, so they opposed expanding
the colony. This angered the backcountry farmers.
In 1675 war broke out between backcountry farmers and the Native
Americans of the region. Governor Berkeley did not authorize military action.
His lack of response angered the backcountry farmers. In April 1676, a group
of backcountry farmers led by a wealthy planter named Nathaniel Bacon took
action. Bacon organized a militia and attacked the Native Americans. He ran
for office and won a seat in the House of Burgesses. The assembly authorized
another attack on the Native Americans. The House also restored the vote to
all free men.
Bacon was not satisfied with the changes. In July 1676, he and several hun-
dred armed men returned to Jamestown and took power from Berkeley,
charging him with corruption. Berkeley raised his own army and the two
sides fought for control of Jamestown. Jamestown was burned down. Bacon’s
Rebellion ended when Bacon became sick and died.

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Study Guide
Chapter 2, Section 4 (continued)

Bacon’s Rebellion showed many wealthy planters that they needed to have
land available for backcountry farmers in order to keep Virginia society stable.
It also resulted in the planters using enslaved Africans more than indentured
servants. They used enslaved Africans because they never had to be freed and
therefore would never need land. The policies of the English government also
encouraged slavery. In 1672 King Charles II granted a charter to the Royal
African Company to start a slave trade. The English colonists no longer had to
purchase enslaved Africans from the Dutch or the Portuguese.
4. How did the policies of the English government help increase slave labor in Virginia?

• Slavery in the Colonies (page 60)

By 1870 between 10 and 12 million Africans had been transported by force
to the Americas from West Africa. They endured horrible conditions on
crammed ships. The passage across the Atlantic Ocean was known as the
Middle Passage.
When the first Africans arrived in Virginia in 1619, English law did not rec-

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

ognize slavery. As a result, these Africans were treated like indentured
servants. However, as the number of Africans increased in Virginia and
Maryland, their status began to change. In 1705 Virginia enacted a slave code,
a set of laws that formally regulated slavery and defined the relationship
between enslaved Africans and free people. Other colonies also enacted slave
codes. Under these laws, Africans could not own property and could not meet
in large numbers. By the early 1700s, slavery had become an accepted institu-
tion, especially in the Southern Colonies where the work of enslaved Africans
was important to the plantation economy.
5. How were the first Africans to arrive in Virginia treated?

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Study Guide
Chapter 2, Section 4 (continued)

• Life in New England (page 61)

Unlike in the Southern Colonies, the climate and soil in New England was
unsuitable for the development of large plantations. New England farmers
practiced subsistence farming. The main crop grown in New England was
corn, which was suitable for the region’s short growing season and rocky soil.
New England farmers also raised livestock.
Because of New England’s geography, fishing became a major industry in
the region. The Grand Banks lay northeast of New England in the Atlantic
Ocean, and it teemed with a large number and variety of fish. New England
had good harbors and plenty of timber for building fishing boats. Whaling
was also an important industry. The whale’s blubber, intestines, and bones
were used to make a variety of products.
New England also developed a large timber industry. Forests covered much
of New England. Maine and New Hampshire had many waterfalls, which
were used to power sawmills. The lumber was then transported downriver to
the coast and then shipped to other colonies and to England. The lumber was
used to make goods such as furniture and barrels. It was also used to build
ships. Shipbuilding became another important industry in New England.
The town was the center of New England society. It determined how the
land was settled and how the people were governed. The residents of towns
met to discuss local problems and issues. These town meetings eventually
became the local town government. Anyone could attend a town meeting, but
only men who were granted land by the town could vote.
The men who were chosen to run the town’s affairs were called selectmen.
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

They appointed other officials the town needed. Town meetings led people to
believe that they had a right to govern themselves. They helped set the stage
for democratic government in the colonies.
New England Puritans were expected to attend Sunday worship. They
were expected to obey strict rules that regulated most activities of daily life.
Puritans also felt that they had a duty to watch over the moral behavior of
others. Although Puritans appeared to be intolerant and rigid, they did enjoy
activities that were fun.
6. Why were town meetings important?

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Study Guide
Chapter 2, Section 4 (continued)

• Life in the Middle Colonies (page 63)

Unlike the New England Colonies, the Middle Colonies had abundant rich
soil and a long growing season suitable for farming. Farmers grew a variety of
crops, but wheat became the main cash crop. The Middle Colonies had three
wide rivers that ran deep into the region’s interior. The rivers allowed farmers
to move their goods to the Atlantic coast to ship to other markets.
In the early 1700s, Europe experienced a population explosion. The
increased number of people in Europe created a big demand for wheat to feed
these people. As a result, wheat prices in the Middle Colonies soared, making
these colonies very profitable. Also at that time, many Europeans immigrated
to America, particularly to the Middle Colonies.
The wheat trade and the increase of new settlers changed society in the
Middle Colonies. Some farmers became very wealthy by hiring immigrants to
work their land and grow large amounts of wheat for sale. Other colonists
grew wealthy by becoming entrepreneurs. These were businesspeople who
risked their money buying land and equipment and selling them to the new
immigrants for a profit. The wheat boom also created a new group of capital-
ists, people who had money to invest in new businesses. Most farmers in the
Middle Colonies, however, did not become wealthy.
7. How did the geography of the Middle Colonies help make the colonies prosperous?

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

• Trade and the Rise of Cities (page 63)
New England produced few products that England wanted. However,
England produced many goods that New England colonists wanted. To get
these goods, New England merchants had to sell products from New England
somewhere else in exchange for goods that England wanted. The sugar plan-
tations in the Caribbean wanted to buy New England’s food and lumber. The
planters would pay for the goods by trading sugar or by giving the New
England merchants bills of exchange. These were credit slips that English
merchants had given the planters earlier in exchange for sugar. The New
England merchants would take the bills back to New England and trade them
to English merchants for their manufactured goods. The three-way trade New
England merchants developed with the Caribbean colonies is an example of
triangular trade.

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Study Guide
Chapter 2, Section 4 (continued)

The development of trade in the colonies led to the growth of America’s

first cities, such as Philadelphia and Charles Town. Distinct social classes
developed in these cities. Wealthy merchants made up the top social class.
This class made up a minority of the urban population. Artisans, or skilled
workers who manufactured goods, made up about half of the urban popula-
tion. Artisans included carpenters, masons, silversmiths, and glassmakers.
Innkeepers and people who owned their own businesses were part of the
same social class as artisans. Below the artisan class were the people without
skills or property. They included people who loaded ships, servants, and
street sweepers. Below this social class were indentured servants and enslaved
Africans.
The rapid growth of cities created problems such as overcrowding, pollu-
tion, and crime. City governments created specific departments to deal with
these problems. Various charities tried to help the growing number of poor
people in the cities.
8. How did New Englanders get the manufactured goods they wanted from England?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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Study Guide
Chapter 2, Section 5
For use with textbook pages 65–69

A DIVERSE SOCIETY
KEY TERMS AND NAMES
mercantilism a set of ideas about the world economy and how it works (page 65)
John Locke a political philosopher who wrote about individuals’ natural rights and the role of
government (page 67)
Enlightenment a movement that promoted the idea that people should use reason and natural
law to shape society (page 68)
revivals large public meetings for preaching and prayer (page 69)
Great Awakening a religious movement that stressed emotionally uniting with God and gained
appeal among farmers, workers, and slaves (page 69)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

What rights do you think all people have? What rights do you have as a
student in your school? As a member of your community?
The last section described the economy of New England and the Middle
Colonies. This section discusses the measures that England adopted to make
the American colonies more profitable and how with wealth, a new spirit of
independence began to emerge.

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII
Use the diagram below to help you take notes. Mercantilism was a popular
idea in the 1600s and 1700s. List some of the major ideas of mercantilism.

1. 2.

Mercantilist
Ideas

4. 3.

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Study Guide
Chapter 2, Section 5 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• Mercantilism (page 65)
Mercantilism, a set of ideas about the world economy and how it works,
was very popular in the 1600s and 1700s. Mercantilists believed that a country
could become wealthy by accumulating gold and silver. It could do this by
selling more goods to other countries than it bought from them. By doing so,
more gold and silver would flow into the country than would flow out.
Mercantilists also believed that a country should establish colonies in order to
buy raw materials from the colonies and, in turn, sell them manufactured
goods. Mercantilism benefited colonies by giving them a ready market for their
raw materials. The drawback, however, was that it prevented colonies from
selling their goods to other nations. Also, if a colony did not make goods that
the home country needed, then that colony could not accumulate the gold and
silver it needed to buy manufactured goods. The New England colonies had
that problem, which made them turn to triangular trade and smuggling.
When King Charles II came to the throne, he decided to regulate trade with
the colonies in order to bring wealth to England. In 1660 he asked Parliament
to pass the Navigation Act. The act said that all goods coming in and out of
the colonies had to be carried on English ships. The act also listed specific raw
materials that could be sold only to England or to other English colonies. The
list included the major goods that earned money for the colonies. Another
navigation act said that all merchants bringing European goods to the
colonies had to stop in England, pay taxes, and then ship the goods on
English ships.
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Colonial merchants were angry, and many broke the new laws.
Massachusetts in particular defied the Navigation Acts. King Charles
responded by taking away the colony’s charter and making it a royal colony.
James II, who succeeded Charles as king, went even further in punish-
ing the colonies. Under his authority, England merged the colonies of
Massachusetts, Plymouth, and Rhode Island to create a new royal province
called the Dominion of New England. Later, England added Connecticut,
New York, and New Jersey to the Dominion.
The king appointed Sir Edmond Andros the first governor-general. His
harsh rule made nearly everyone in New England angry.
5. Why did England pass the Navigation Acts?

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Study Guide
Chapter 2, Section 5 (continued)

• The Glorious Revolution of 1688 (page 66)

The English people were growing suspicious of King James II. He rejected
the advice of Parliament and offended many of them by openly practicing
Catholicism.
The birth of James’s son triggered protests against a Catholic heir. Not will-
ing to risk a Catholic dynasty, Parliament asked William and Mary to take the
throne. When William arrived, James fled the country. This bloodless change
of power became known as the Glorious Revolution.
In 1689 Parliament enacted the English Bill of Rights. It outlined the powers
the king did not have and the rights that Parliament and citizens did have,
such as the right to a fair jury in legal cases.
As soon as the Massachusetts colonists learned about the English Bill of
Rights, an uprising occurred in Boston, and the colonists ousted Andros. The
new monarchs permitted Rhode Island and Connecticut to resume their previ-
ous form of government, but they issued a new charter for Massachusetts. This
charter combined Massachusetts Bay Colony, Plymouth Colony, and Maine
into the royal colony of Massachusetts. The new charter allowed the people in
the colony to elect an assembly, but the governor was to be appointed by the
king. Voters did not have to be members of a Puritan congregation.
During the Glorious Revolution, a political philosopher named John Locke
wrote a book entitled Two Treatises of Government. In the book, Locke argued
that a monarch’s right to rule had to come from the people. He said that all
people were born with certain natural rights. These included the right to life,
liberty, and property. He said that people came together to create a govern-

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

ment to protect their rights. In return, the people agreed to obey the
government’s laws. He also said that if a government violated the people’s
rights, the people were justified in changing their system of government.
Locke’s ideas influenced American colonists, who would use these ideas to
start a revolution against Great Britain.
6. According to John Locke, why did people create a government?

• America’s Population Grows (page 67)

The population of the American colonies increased dramatically by the
mid-1700s. People in the colonies were having large families and many immi-
grants were arriving in America.

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Study Guide
Chapter 2, Section 5 (continued)

Many immigrants arrived in the colonies in the 1700s. German immigrants

came to Pennsylvania in search of religious freedom and as a way to escape
the religious wars in Germany. By 1775 Germans, known as the Pennsylvania
Dutch, made up about one-third of the population. They became some of
Pennsylvania’s most prosperous farmers.
The Scotch-Irish also flocked to Pennsylvania. Many left Ireland for the
American colonies to escape rising taxes, poor harvests, and religious
discrimination.
Jews first arrived in the colonies in the Dutch colony of New Netherland in
the mid-1600s. They came to the colonies to practice their religion without
persecution. Most Jews lived in colonial cities.
Women in the American colonies had few legal rights, particularly married
women. A married woman could not own property. Single women and wid-
ows had more rights. They could own property, file lawsuits, and run
businesses. By the 1700s, however, the status of married women in the
colonies improved.
No group in the American colonies endured more hardship than enslaved
Africans. Africans arrived in the colonies from many parts of West Africa.
Most lived on Southern plantations, where they worked long days and were
subject to harsh and cruel means to control them. Although slaveholders tried
to force enslaved Africans to obey, Africans developed many ways to fight
back against slavery. Some ran away, others would refuse to work hard or
staged work slowdowns. Sometimes groups of enslaved people banded
together to resist slaveholders. In 1739 a group of Africans gathered near the
Stono River, attacked their white overseers, and fled toward Spanish Florida.
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

The local militia ended the Stono Rebellion, which took the lives of 21 whites
and 44 Africans.
7. What reasons did immigrants have for coming to the American colonies?

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Study Guide
Chapter 2, Section 5 (continued)

• The Enlightenment and the Great Awakening (page 68)

Two European cultural movements influenced American colonies. The
Enlightenment championed human reason. The Enlightenment thinkers
believed that people could apply natural laws to social, political, and eco-
nomic relationships, and that people could figure out these laws if they used
reason. John Locke was an influential Enlightenment writer. He argued that
people were not born sinful, as the Church claimed. Instead, he believed that
experience and education could make people better. This thinking influenced
beliefs in American society.
Many Americans followed a religious movement that stressed an individ-
ual’s devoutness and union with God. Ministers spread pietism through
revivals, which were large public meetings for preaching and prayer. This
rebirth of religious feelings became known as the Great Awakening. Two
preachers of the Great Awakening were Jonathan Edwards and George
Whitefield. Both preachers led religious revivals throughout the colonies.
A central idea of the Great Awakening was that people had to be “born
again,” or have an emotional experience that brings a person to God.
Churches that accepted the new ideas, such as the Baptists and Methodists,
saw an increase in their membership.
The Great Awakening had a great impact on the South, particularly among
backcountry and tenant farmers. Baptist preachers condemned slavery and
welcomed Africans at their revivals. As a result, thousands of enslaved
Africans joined Baptist congregations. This angered the white planters, who
feared that they would lose control of their workforce.

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

8. Why did many enslaved Africans join Baptist congregations?

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Study Guide
Chapter 3, Section 1
For use with textbook pages 74–79

THE COLONIES FIGHT FOR THEIR RIGHTS

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
Albany Plan of Union a proposal for the colonies to unite to form a federal government (page 75)
French and Indian War the war between France and Britain in America (page 75)
Royal Proclamation of 1763 royal decree prohibiting settlement west of the Appalachian
mountains (page 76)
customs duty a tax on imports and exports (page 77)
Sons of Liberty organization of colonists opposed to British rule (page 77)
Stamp Act Congress representatives from nine colonies that drafted the Declaration of Rights
and Grievances in 1765 (page 77)
nonimportation agreement an agreement by New York merchants not to buy any British goods
until Parliament repealed the Stamp Act (page 78)
writs of assistance general search warrants (page 78)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

Look at the title of this section. What kinds of rights do you think the
colonists will be fighting for?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

In this section, you will learn about the increasing tensions between Britain
and the American colonies. You will also learn about the effect of the Stamp
Act on Britain and the colonies.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the diagram below to help you take notes. Several laws and declara-
tions passed by the British Parliament led to tensions between the colonists
and Britain. List these acts in the diagram.

1.

6. 2.

British Acts that

Led to Tension
5. 3.

4.

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Study Guide
Chapter 3, Section 1 (continued 74)

READ TO LEARNII
• The French and Indian War (page 74)
The French and English had fought three major wars in Europe between
1689 and 1748. The conflict spilled over into America. In the 1740s, both the
British and the French became interested in the Ohio River valley. The French
found that they could cross from Lake Ontario to the Ohio and Mississippi
Rivers and, thus, to Louisiana. British fur traders also came to the region, and
British land speculators hoped to sell the land to settlers for profit. To block
British claims, France ordered forts to be built from Lake Ontario to the Ohio
River. Then the British ordered a fort to be built in western Pennsylvania.
However, the French seized it before it could be completed and built a French
fort, Fort Duquesne, at the site. George Washington, an officer in the Virginia
militia, was asked to raise a force and get rid of the French. In the spring of
1754, Washington’s troops came upon a French force and a small battle
occurred. Washington retreated, but the fighting that began there would grow
into a war involving several European powers.
The British government had told the colonies to work together to prepare
for the coming war. The government also told the colonies to negotiate an
alliance with the Iroquois, who controlled western New York. This was terri-
tory that the French had to go through to reach the Ohio River. Seven colonies
sent delegates to meet with Iroquois leaders at Albany, New York, in June
1754. This meeting became known as the Albany Conference.
The Iroquois refused an alliance with the British, but did agree to remain
neutral. The colonies agreed to appoint one commander of all British troops in

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

the colonies. Finally, the conference issued the Albany Plan of Union, which
proposed that the colonies unite to form a federal government. Many colonies
rejected the plan, but it showed that many leaders were beginning to think
about the colonies coming together for defense.
In 1755 Edward Braddock, the British commander in chief, arrived in
Virginia with British troops. He connected with local militia troops and made
Lieutenant Colonel George Washington his aide. Braddock was not worried
about Native American allies of the French. He believed that the British
would be able to defend against the Native Americans. However, Native
American and French forces did ambush the British troops near Fort
Duquesne. Braddock was killed. Washington rallied the British troops and
organized a retreat. The Native Americans of western Pennsylvania now real-
ized that they could beat the British. As a result, they began attacking British
settlers in their territory.
The French and Indian War took place along the frontier. Both sides raided
each other’s territory. In 1756 the fighting between England and France then
spread to Europe, where it became known as the Seven Years’ War. The British
cut off French supplies to North America. Knowing that the British were gain-
ing the upper hand, the Iroquois pressured the Native Americans in Pennsyl-

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Study Guide
Chapter 3, Section 1 (continued)

vania to end their attacks on the British. The French were now outnumbered.
The British defeated the French at a battle at Quebec City. Spain entered the
war on the side of the French.
The Treaty of Paris finally ended the war in 1763. It also ended French
power in North America. New France and all of Louisiana east of the
Mississippi became part of the British Empire. Spain lost Florida to Britain but
kept Cuba and the Philippines. Spain also gained New Orleans and the land
west of the Mississippi.
7. What was the purpose of the Albany Plan of Union?

• The Colonies Grow Discontented (page 76)

The French and Indian War caused the British government to borrow a
large amount of money to pay for the war. Many British officials believed that
the colonies should pay for part of the war.
In the spring of 1763, Pontiac, the Ottawa chief, united several Native
American groups and convinced them to attack forts along the frontier. The
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Native Americans were upset about British settlers moving into western
Pennsylvania. The British did not want to pay for another war. So in October
1763, Britain issued the Royal Proclamation of 1763. It declared that colonists
could not settle west of the Appalachian Mountains without the British gov-
ernment’s permission. The proclamation upset many farmers who wanted
more land.
Merchants in the east were upset about new British tax policies. In 1763
George Grenville became the prime minister and first Lord of the Treasury. He
had to find a way to lower the British debt and to pay for thousands of troops
stationed in North America. As a result, he set up new tax policies. Grenville
discovered that British custom agents in America were collecting very little
money. Merchants were smuggling goods in and out of the colonies without
paying customs duties, or taxes on imports and exports. Britain passed a law
that said those accused of smuggling would be tried at a British court in Nova
Scotia instead of colonial courts. Colonial courts were more sympathetic to
smugglers, however.
Grenville also introduced the Sugar Act in 1764. It changed the tax rates for
sugar and molasses imported from foreign colonies. Colonial merchants com-
plained to Parliament that the Sugar Act hurt trade. The act also went against

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Study Guide
Chapter 3, Section 1 (continued)

English rights because merchants accused of smuggling were presumed guilty

until proven innocent. The act also allowed British officials to seize goods
without due process, or proper court procedures. Parliament did not pay
attention to the merchants’ concerns.
Many pamphlets began circulating in colonial cities. They condemned the
Sugar Act. One pamphlet argued that because the colonists had no representa-
tives in Parliament, they could not be taxed. The Sugar Act, however,
remained in force. Grenville introduced new policies. The Currency Act of
1764 banned the use of paper money because it tended to lose its value
quickly. This angered colonial farmers and artisans. They liked paper money
because it could be used to pay back loans. Since the money was not worth as
much as when they borrowed it, the loans were easy to pay back.
8. Why did some colonists believe that they should not be taxed?

• The Stamp Act Crisis (page 77)

In March 1765, Parliament passed the Stamp Act to raise more money. It
called for stamps to be placed on most printed materials, such as newspapers,
pamphlets, wills, dice, and playing cards. The Stamp Act was the first direct tax

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

that Britain had placed on the colonists. Parliament then passed the Quartering
Act. It called for colonies to provide shelter for British troops. Protests to the
Stamp Act spread throughout the colonies. In Virginia, the House of Burgesses
passed resolutions declaring that Virginians should be granted the rights of
British people and could only be taxed by their own representatives. Other
assemblies passed similar resolutions, and groups called the Sons of Liberty
were organized. The Sons of Liberty organized meetings and demonstrations.
In October 1765, representatives from nine colonies met for the Stamp Act
Congress and issued the Declaration of Rights and Grievances. It said that
only colonial political representatives and not Parliament had the right to tax
the colonists. When the Stamp Act took effect in November 1765, the colonists
ignored it. Colonists boycotted British goods. In New York, 200 merchants
signed a nonimportation agreement. They promised not to buy British goods
until Parliament repealed the Stamp Act.
The boycott had an effect on Britain. Thousands of British workers lost their
jobs. The British could not collect money that the colonists owed them. The
British repealed the Stamp Act in 1766. However, Parliament then passed the
Declaratory Act. It said that Parliament had the power to make laws for the
colonies.

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Chapter 3, Section 1 (continued)

9. How did the colonists respond to the Stamp Act?

• The Townshend Acts (page 78)

Britain continued to have financial problems. In 1767 Charles Townshend, a
new minister in charge of British finances, set up new laws and taxes. They
were called the Townshend Acts. One of the acts was the Revenue Act of 1767.
It placed taxes on glass, lead, paper, and tea imported into the colonies. The
Revenue Act legalized the use of writs of assistance. Writs were general search
warrants. They were used to help customs officers arrest smugglers.
The Townshend Acts angered many colonists. The Massachusetts assembly
started organizing resistance against Britain. One of the leaders of the resist-
ance was Sam Adams. He and James Otis wrote a letter for the assembly to
pass and to send to other colonies expressing opposition to the Townshend
Acts. The British government ordered the Massachusetts assembly to with-
draw the letter. When the assembly refused, the government ordered the
assembly to dissolve. The merchants of Boston and New York and then those
in Philadelphia signed nonimportation agreements.
In May 1769, the Virginia House of Burgesses passed the Virginia Resolves,
which said that only the House of Burgesses had the right to tax Virginians.
Britain ordered the Virginia governor to dissolve the House of Burgesses. The
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

leaders of the House called members to a convention. This convention passed

a law that blocked the sale of British goods in Virginia.
The boycott spread through the colonies. Americans stopped drinking British
tea and stopped buying British cloth. The Sons of Liberty encouraged people
to support the boycott. In the fall of 1768, violence against customs officers in
Boston increased. The British sent 1,000 troops to keep order. Colonists began
harassing the troops. On March 5, 1770, colonists began throwing snowballs at
a British soldier guarding a customs house. In the commotion that followed,
the British troops began firing into the crowd. Five people were killed and six
were wounded. The shootings became known as the Boston Massacre. News
of the violence raced throughout the colonies. A few weeks later, news arrived
that the British had repealed almost all of the Townshend Acts. Parliament,
however, kept a tax on tea to show it had a right to tax the colonies. The repeal
of the Townshend Acts brought a temporary peace to the colonies.
10. How did Britain respond to the Boston Massacre?

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Study Guide
Chapter 3, Section 2
For use with textbook pages 82–89

THE REVOLUTION BEGINS

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
committee of correspondence committee designed to communicate with other colonies about
British activities (page 83)
Boston Tea Party a raid by colonists on British tea ships (page 83)
Intolerable Acts a group of laws that led the colonists to believe that the British were trying to
seize control of the colonial governments (page 84)
Suffolk Resolves resolutions urging colonists not to obey the Coercive Acts and to arm
themselves against the British (page 85)
minutemen a special unit of the militia trained to fight at a minute’s notice (page 85)
Loyalist Americans who backed Britain (page 85)
Patriot Americans who believed the British had become tyrants (page 85)
Olive Branch Petition document sent to King George declaring the colonists’ loyalty to the king
(page 87)
Common Sense Thomas Paine’s pamphlet attacking the monarchy and urging independence
(page 89)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Who was Paul Revere? What was the purpose of Paul Revere’s ride?
The last section described the growing tensions between the British
Parliament and the colonists. This section discusses the first battles between
Britain and the colonies.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the chart below to help you take notes. Several battles between the
British and the colonists occurred before the colonies declared their independ-
ence. List the battles and their results in the chart.

Battle Results
Battle at Lexington 1.

Battle at Concord 2.

Battle of Bunker Hill 3.

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Study Guide
Chapter 3, Section 2 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• Massachusetts Defies Britain (page 82)
In 1772 the British introduced new policies that again angered the
American colonies. The British sent customs ships to patrol North American
shores to stop smugglers. One such ship was the Gaspee. It was stationed off
Rhode Island. Rhode Islanders were upset about the ship because it often
searched ships without a warrant. As a result, when the Gaspee ran aground in
June 1772, colonists seized and burned the ship.
The British were furious. They sent a commission to investigate and to
bring suspects to Britain for trial. Colonists were furious because they
believed that it took away their right to a trial by a jury of their peers. Rhode
Island’s assembly sent a letter to other colonial assemblies for help. When the
Virginia House of Burgesses received the letter, Thomas Jefferson suggested
that each colony set up a committee of correspondence to communicate with
the other colonies about British activities. The committees helped unify the
colonies. They also helped colonial leaders coordinate their plans to resist the
British.
In May 1773, England’s new prime minister, Lord North, decided to help
the British East India Company, which was almost bankrupt. British taxes on
tea had caused colonists to smuggle in cheaper Dutch tea. To help the com-
pany sell its tea, Parliament passed the Tea Act of 1773. The act allowed East
India Company tea to be sold at lower prices than smuggled Dutch tea.
Colonists were angered. In October 1773, the East India Company shipped
1,253 chests to several colonial cities, including Boston. The committees of cor-
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

respondence decided the tea must not be allowed to land. Colonists in some
colonies forced the ships to turn back. The tea ships arrived in Boston Harbor
in December 1773. On the night before the customs officials were planning to
take the tea ashore, about 150 men boarded the ships and dumped 342 chests
of tea into the harbor. The raid became known as the Boston Tea Party.
The Boston Tea Party led Parliament to pass four new laws that were
known as the Coercive Acts. The acts violated the colonists’ right to trial by a
jury of one’s peers and the right not to have troops quartered in one’s home.
Then in July 1774, the British introduced the Quebec Act. It said that a gover-
nor and council appointed by the king would run Quebec. The Quebec Act
and the Coercive Acts seemed to show that the British were trying to get
control of the colonial governments. The two acts became known as the
Intolerable Acts.

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Study Guide
Chapter 3, Section 2 (continued)

The colonies responded by calling the first Continental Congress on

September 5, 1774. Fifty-five delegates met in Philadelphia. Although they all
opposed the Intolerable Acts, their response to it varied. Moderates believed a
compromise was possible. Radicals believed it was time for the colonies to
fight for their rights. The delegates approved the Suffolk Resolves, which
urged the colonists not to obey the Coercive Acts and to arm themselves
against the British. The delegates also approved the Continental Association,
which was a plan for every county and town to form committees to enforce a
boycott of British goods. The delegates also agreed to hold a second Continental
Congress if things were not resolved.
4. What led to the first Continental Congress?

• The Revolution Begins (page 85)

While the Continental Congress was meeting, the Massachusetts assembly
organized the Massachusetts Provincial Congress. They formed the Committee
of Safety, chose John Hancock to lead it, and gave him the power to call up
the militia. Militias began to drill and practice shooting. The town of Concord

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

set up a special unit of men called minutemen. They were trained to be ready
at a minute’s notice. The British were angered over what they considered
rebellious acts.
Many colonists were angry, too. They still felt loyal to the king and believed
that the colonists should uphold British laws. Those who backed Britain
became known as Loyalists, or Tories. On the other side were the Patriots, or
Whigs, who believed that the British had become tyrants. Both groups repre-
sented a cross section of colonial society. The Patriots were strong in New
England and Virginia. Most Loyalists lived in Georgia, the Carolinas, and New
York. Many Americans did not support either the Loyalists or the Patriots.
The British government ordered British General Gage to arrest the
Massachusetts Provincial Congress. As a result, on April 18, 1775, British
troops set out for Concord past the town of Lexington. Patriot leaders heard
about the plan and sent Paul Revere and William Dawes to warn the colonists
in Lexington. They then set out for Concord.
On April 19, British troops arrived in Lexington, where 70 minutemen were
waiting on the village green. The British ordered them to leave. As the min-
utemen began to back away, a shot was fired. No one is sure who fired it. The

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Study Guide
Chapter 3, Section 2 (continued)

British soldiers then fired at the minutemen. When the British arrived in
Concord, they found most of the military supplies gone. When they tried to
cross the bridge on the north side of town, they ran into about 400 minute-
men. A fight broke out, and the British were forced to retreat. News of the
fighting spread across the colonies. Militia from all over New England came
to help fight the British. By May 1775, militia troops had surrounded Boston
and had trapped the British inside.
After the battles at Lexington and Concord, the Second Continental
Congress met in Philadelphia. The Congress voted to name the militia sur-
rounding Boston the Continental Army. It appointed George Washington as
general and commander in chief of the army. In the meantime, the British sent
in reinforcements and decided to gain control of the area around Boston. They
decided to take the hills north of Boston. When the militia heard of these
plans, they started building earthen forts at the top of Breed’s Hill near
Bunker Hill. General Gage sent 2,200 troops to the top of the hill. The soldiers,
wearing heavy pack and woolen uniforms, began an uphill attack in swelter-
ing heat. When the British came close to the minutemen, the Americans fired.
They turned back two British advances. The Battle of Bunker Hill gave
Americans confidence. It showed that the colonists could stand up to the
British armies.
5. What effect did the Battle of Bunker Hill have on the colonists?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

• The Decision for Independence (page 87)

In July 1775, the Continental Congress sent a document known as the Olive
Branch Petition to the British king. The document said that the colonists were
still loyal to the king and wanted to work things out peacefully. King George III
refused to consider the petition. Instead, he issued a statement that said the
colonists were now enemies.
A compromise did not seem likely, so the Continental Congress began to act
like a government. In December 1775, the king ordered trade with the colonies
to be shut down. It ordered the navy to blockade the coast. The British also
recruited German mercenaries, or soldiers for hire, from Germany. Most mer-
cenaries were Hessians, from the German region of Hesse.
As the fighting continued, more and more Patriots began to think that it
was time for the colonies to declare independence. By January 1776, the public

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Study Guide
Chapter 3, Section 2 (continued)

opinion also began to change because of a pamphlet called Common Sense,

published by Thomas Paine. In Common Sense, Paine said that the British king
was the enemy, not just Parliament. He said that the king was responsible for
British actions against the colonies. The pamphlet sold over 150,000 copies
within three months. It helped to convince many Patriots and other colonists
that it was time to declare independence. On July 4, 1776, a committee
approved a document Thomas Jefferson had drafted on independence. The
Continental Congress issued the Declaration of Independence, and the
American Revolution had begun.
6. What effect did the pamphlet Common Sense have on the colonies?

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

54 The American Republic Since 1877

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Study Guide
Chapter 3, Section 3
For use with textbook pages 94–99

THE WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
Robert Morris wealthy Pennsylvania banker who helped finance the Revolution (page 95)
guerrilla warfare a kind of fighting in which participants hide and ambush their opponent
(page 95)
John Burgoyne British general who surrendered at the Battle of Saratoga (page 97)
letters of marque licenses given to privateers to attack British merchant ships (page 97)
Charles Cornwallis British general who surrendered at Yorktown (page 98)
Nathaniel Greene American general who organized hit-and-run raids (page 98)
Francis Marion known as “Swamp Fox” for his guerrilla raids (page 98)
Benedict Arnold American commander who became a traitor (page 99)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

Who said, “I have not yet begun to fight”? Why were these words spoken?
The last section described the first battles between the colonies and the
British troops. This section discusses the campaigns in the War for
Independence.
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the diagram below to help you take notes. The British army and the
Continental Army faced certain conditions at the beginning of the war. List
these conditions in the diagram.

Conditions Facing Conditions Facing

Continental Army British Army

1.

































































4.

2.

































































5.

3.

































































6.

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Study Guide
Chapter 3, Section 3 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• The Opposing Sides (page 94)
The British troops were well equipped and well trained. The Continental
Army was not experienced and poorly equipped. The army rarely had more
than 20,000 at any one time. Many soldiers deserted or refused to reenlist.
Others returned home for planting or harvest time.
The Continental Congress had trouble paying for the war, so it issued paper
money. These “Continentals” were not backed by gold or silver so they quickly
became worthless. Robert Morris, a wealthy merchant in Pennsylvania, contri-
buted large amounts of money for the war. He also arranged for foreign loans.
Besides the Continental Army, the British had to worry about local militias.
Although the militias were poorly trained, they fought in a different way.
They used guerrilla warfare. They hid among trees and walls and ambushed
the British. This kind of fighting was difficult for the British to defeat. Another
problem for the British was that they were not united at home. Many mer-
chants and members of Parliament opposed the war. The French, Dutch, and
Spanish were all eager to exploit Britain’s problems. As a result, Britain had to
station much of its military in other places of the world to defend its empire.
7. Why did colonial militias pose a problem for the British?

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

• The Northern Campaign (page 95)
The British knew that to be successful, they had to win several battles and to
convince the Americans that the cause was hopeless. General Howe’s strategy
had two parts. The first part was military. He began a big buildup in New York,
hoping to intimidate the Americans. He also wanted to capture New York City.
The second part of the strategy was a diplomatic one. He invited delegates
from the Continental Congress to a peace conference. Howe told the delegates
that those that put down their arms and swore loyalty to the king would be
pardoned. The delegates refused to talk further, and the first major battle was
about to start.
Washington was unable to prevent the British from capturing New York
City. He moved his troops to northern Manhattan, and then further north to
White Plains.
Then the British troops headed toward Philadelphia, where the Continental
Congress was meeting. The American troops managed to get there ahead of the
British. By the time the troops reached Pennsylvania, winter had begun. The
British scattered into winter quarters. At that time, armies did not usually fight

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Study Guide
Chapter 3, Section 3 (continued)

in the winter because of the weather and the limited food supplies. Washington
decided to do something unexpected. He decided on a winter attack. On
December 25, 1776, Washington led his troops across the Delaware River from
Pennsylvania to New Jersey. The troops attacked Hessian mercenaries at
Trenton and then overcame three British regiments at Princeton. With the two
small victories, Washington headed into northern New Jersey for the winter.
British General John Burgoyne approved a plan to isolate New England
from the other American states. The plan, however, was not coordinated prop-
erly. As a result, British General Howe made his own plans. He launched a
surprise attack on Philadelphia from the south. He thought that capturing the
city and the Continental Congress would cripple the Revolution. Howe
defeated the Americans at the Battle of Brandywine Creek and captured
Philadelphia, but the Continental Congress escaped.
General Burgoyne’s troops were not able to defeat the Americans defending
upper New York. As a result, Burgoyne surrendered at Saratoga. The victory
there was a turning point in the war. It improved American morale, and it
convinced France to help the Americans. The French and Spanish had been
helping the United States with supplies before Saratoga, but neither country
had sent troops. The French had not been willing to risk war until they
believed that the Americans could win. The victory at Saratoga gave them
that assurance. The French then began negotiations with the United States. In
two treaties the French recognized the United States as an independent nation
and committed France to fight alongside the United States.
8. How did General Burgoyne plan to defeat the Americans?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

• Other Fronts (page 97)

Not all of the fighting in the American Revolution occurred in the East.
George Rogers Clark and his troops captured several towns along the Ohio
River. After the British surrendered to Clark, the United States took control of
the West. In the summer of 1779, American troops defeated the British and
Iroquois in western New York. These battles destroyed the power of the
Iroquois.
Americans also fought the British at sea. They attacked British merchant
ships. To disrupt trade even further, the Congress issued letters of marque, or
licenses, to private ship owners to authorize them to attack British merchant
ships. These attacks harmed Britain’s trade and economy.
The most famous naval battle involved naval officer John Paul Jones. He
commanded the Bonhomme Richard. His ship encountered a group of British
merchant ships near Britain. They were surrounded by British warships. After
a three-hour battle, the British surrendered.

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Chapter 3, Section 3 (continued)

After being defeated at Saratoga, the British decided to start a campaign in

the Southern states, where they had greater Loyalist support. In December
1778, British troops captured Savannah, Georgia. Then British forces, led by
General Henry Clinton, surrounded Charles Town, South Carolina, capturing
American forces there. Nearly 5,500 American troops surrendered.
The British continued taking over the Carolina backcountry. Many Loyalists
agreed to fight for Britain. British troops tried to subdue the people living in
the Appalachian Mountains. The people there pulled together and formed a
militia. They intercepted British troops at the Battle of Kings Mountain and
destroyed the army. The battle was a turning point in the South. General
Nathaniel Greene, the new American commander in the region, wanted to
wear down the British and destroy their supplies. Attacks by small guerrilla
units, such as the one commanded by Francis Marion, known as the “Swamp
Fox,” furthered the plan. The plan worked, and by late 1781, the British con-
trolled very little territory in the South.
9. How did American attacks on British merchant ships affect Britain?

• The War Is Won (page 98)

The British realized that to keep control of the South, they had to get
Virginia. As a result, in May 1781, the British, under General Charles
Cornwallis, marched into Virginia. There they linked up with forces under the

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

command of Benedict Arnold, who had been an American commander early in
the war. Arnold later sold military information to the British. When this was
discovered, Arnold fled to British-controlled New York City.
When Arnold joined Cornwallis, the British began to conquer Virginia.
American troops led by the Marquis de Lafayette and General Anthony Wayne
rushed to defend Virginia. Cornwallis was ordered to secure a naval base on the
coast, so he headed to the town of Yorktown, Virginia. This retreat helped the
Americans and their French allies. Washington decided to move the American
and French troops to Yorktown. With a French fleet nearby, the British could
not escape by sea. On September 28, 1781, American and French troops sur-
rounded Yorktown and bombarded the town. On October 19, 1781, the British
surrendered. Parliament voted to start negotiations with the colonists in Paris.
The Treaty of Paris was signed on September 3, 1783. The treaty recognized the
United States as a new nation and set the Mississippi River as the nation’s
western border. In a separate treaty, Florida was returned to Spain.
10. Why did the British troops retreat to Yorktown in June 1781?

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Study Guide
Chapter 3, Section 4
For use with textbook pages 100–106

THE CONFEDERATION
KEY TERMS AND NAMES
republic a form of government in which power resides with a body of citizens who could vote
(page 100)
Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom a law that declared that Virginia no longer had an
official church (page 102)
ratification approval (page 103)
Northwest Ordinance law that provided the basis for governing much of the western territory
and developing them into states (page 104)
recession an economic slowdown (page 106)
inflation a decline in the value of money (page 106)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

How do you think the Revolutionary War affected Americans who were not
involved in the actual fighting? Do you think the war changed the lives of the
American colonists? Why do you think so?
The last section discussed the War for Independence and the treaty that
ended it. This section describes how the war affected American society.
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the diagram below to help you take notes. After the Revolutionary War,
American leaders created a new political system. Describe these features in
the diagram.

2.
1.

Features of New 3.
Political System

5.
4.

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Study Guide
Chapter 3, Section 4 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• New Political Ideas (page 100)
After the war, American leaders created a republic. This is a form of govern-
ment in which power resides with a body of citizens who vote. The citizens
elect representatives who are responsible to them. Americans believed that
a republican society could be better than other societies. Such ideas were in
conflict with traditional beliefs.
American leaders believed that the best form of government was a constitu-
tional republic. They wanted each state’s constitution to be written down. They
wanted constitutions to limit the government’s power. They believed that gov-
ernment needed a system of checks and balances to prevent any one group
from getting too strong. American leaders, including John Adams, argued that
the best government was made up of three separate branches: executive, leg-
islative, and judicial. Adams also argued that the legislature should be made
up of two houses. These ideas influenced many state constitutions.
In addition to writing new constitutions, many new states added a list of
rights to them. Virginia’s Declaration of Rights guaranteed Virginians freedom
of speech and religion. They also had the right to bear arms and to a trial by
jury.
The Revolution led to an expansion of voting rights. Fighting the war
together showed many farmers and artisans that they were equal to the rich
planters and merchants. In most states, the new constitutions made it easier to
gain voting rights. However, people still had to own a certain amount of
property to hold elective office.

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

The war led to changes in the relationship between church and the state.
Many American leaders opposed the power of a church to make people wor-
ship in a certain way. In 1786 the Virginia legislature passed the Virginia
Statute for Religious Freedom. It said that Virginia no longer had an official
church. It also said that the state could not collect taxes for churches.
6. What freedoms did Virginia guarantee its citizens?

• The Revolution Changes Society (page 102)

The ideas of greater freedom applied mainly to white men. These freedoms
did not apply to most women and African Americans. Women played an
important role in the Revolutionary War. Some women ran businesses and

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Study Guide
Chapter 3, Section 4 (continued)

farms at home. Others served on the battlefront. One such woman was Molly
Pitcher who carried water to Patriots during a battle in 1778. Margaret Corbin
replaced her dead husband at his cannon and remained there until the battle
ended.
Women made some advances after the Revolutionary War. They could more
easily obtain a divorce and get an education.
Many enslaved African Americans gained their freedom during the
Revolution and more gained their freedom after the Revolution. After the war
began, many Northern states took steps to end slavery. As a result, slavery
ended slowly in the North over the course of several years.
The South relied heavily on enslaved labor. As a result, Southerners had no
interest in abolishing slavery. Virginia was the only state to attempt to do so.
In 1782 the state passed a law encouraging manumission, or the voluntarily
freeing enslaved persons, particularly those who had fought in the war.
Although about 10,000 enslaved people obtained their freedom this way, most
remained enslaved.
The end of the war changed the life of Loyalists. They were often shunned
by former friends, and their property was often taken by state governments.
About 100,000 fled the United States. Some went to England or the British
West Indies, but many went to what is now Canada.
The Revolutionary War led to nationalist feelings in Americans. The war
brought Americans from all walks of life together against a common enemy.
The war also led to patriotic symbols and stories of heroes.
American painters such as John Trumbull and Charles Willson Peale
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

showed the heroic deeds and leaders of the Revolution in their paintings.
Trumbull is best known for his paintings of battles and important events in
the Revolution. Peale is best known for his portraits of Washington and other
Patriot leaders.
American elementary schools tossed out British textbooks and began teach-
ing republican ideas.
7. What gains did women make after the Revolutionary War?

• The Achievements of the Confederation (page 103)

The Continental Congress adopted the Articles of Confederation and
Perpetual Union in November 1777. This was a plan for a loose union of the
states under the authority of Congress. This plan needed the ratification, or

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Study Guide
Chapter 3, Section 4 (continued)

approval, of all the States. The states did not want to give up their independ-
ence to a strong central government. As a result, the Articles set up a very
weak central government. The Articles called for each state to send a delega-
tion to the Confederation Congress. This was the entire government. The
Congress had the right to declare war, raise armies, and sign treaties.
However, it could not set taxes and could not regulate trade.
The Confederation Congress had some successes. Because the Confederation
Congress could not set taxes, it raised money by selling the land it controlled
west of the Appalachian Mountains. In 1785 Congress set up a system of sur-
veying the lands. The land was arranged into townships, and then subdivided
into smaller sections and sold at auction. Congress passed the Northwest
Ordinance in 1787. It provided the basis for governing much of the western
territory. It created a new territory that could later be divided into three to five
states. When 5,000 adult male citizens had settled in a territory, they could
elect a territorial lawmaking body. When the territory had 60,000 people, it
could apply for statehood. The ordinance also guaranteed certain rights, such
as freedom of religion and property rights, to people living in the territory.
The Confederation Congress worked to promote trade with foreign nations.
It negotiated several trade treaties with other countries.
8. Why did the Articles of Confederation set up a weak central government?

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

• Weaknesses of the Congress (page 105)
Although the Confederation Congress had some successes, it also had some
problems. After the war ended, British merchants flooded the United States
with British goods. This drove many American artisans out of business. Many
Americans states fought back by restricting British imports. However, the
states did not charge the same taxes on imported goods. So the British would
land their ships at the states that had the lowest taxes.
In addition to the taxes on foreign imports, states began placing taxes on
each other’s goods to raise money. Each state began acting as an independent
country.
Before the war, many American merchants had borrowed money from
British lenders. Under the peace treaty, the states were to pay back their debts.
However, the Confederation Congress had no power to force the states to pay
their debts. Many states made it difficult for Britain to collect its debts. To
retaliate, Britain refused to leave some of the forts that they had inside
American territory. The Congress had no way of solving the problem.

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Chapter 3, Section 4 (continued)

Congress had no power to solve the nation’s problems with Spain. One
problem had to do with the boundary between Spanish territory and Georgia.
To pressure the United States on the border issue, the Spanish stopped the
Americans from depositing their goods at the mouth of the Mississippi River.
By doing so, Spain actually closed the Mississippi to American farmers.
The Confederation Congress did not have the power to solve the nation’s
economic problems. After the war, the nation fell into a severe recession, or
economic slowdown. The Revolutionary War left the Congress and many
states in debt. Many states had issued bonds as a way to borrow money from
the wealthy colonists. When the war was over, these colonists wanted their
bonds redeemed. Many people urged the states to issue paper money to pay
off their debts. Due to inflation, paper money was worth less than its face
value. So debtors would be able to pay off their debts more easily. However,
people who were owed money would not receive the true amount that they
were owed.
The paper money eventually became so worthless that merchants in some
states refused to accept it. Rhode Island passed a law that forced people to
accept paper money at its face value. Those who refused to do so could be
arrested and fined.
A rebellion, known as Shays’s Rebellion, broke out in Massachusetts. It
started when Massachusetts decided to raise taxes to pay off its debts rather
than issue paper money. Farmers, especially those in the western part of
Massachusetts, paid most of the taxes. Many farmers faced the possibility of
losing their farms. As a result, farmers in western Massachusetts rebelled.
They closed down some courthouses to stop the courts from foreclosing on
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

their farms. Their leader was Daniel Shays, a bankrupt farmer. In January
1787, Shays and other farmers raided a state arsenal to take weapons. The
governor responded by sending a militia, which quickly crushed the uprising.
People with money and power saw the rebellion and the unstable currency
as a sign that the country was in trouble. Many began to argue for a stronger
central government.
9. Why did some states begin issuing paper money?

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Study Guide
Chapter 3, Section 5
For use with textbook pages 108–115

A NEW CONSTITUTION
KEY TERMS AND NAMES
Virginia Plan plan of government developed by the Virginia delegates to the Constitutional
Convention (page 109)
New Jersey Plan plan of government developed by the New Jersey delegates to the
Constitutional Convention (page 110)
Great Compromise a compromise that solved the problem of representation in Congress
(page 111)
Three-Fifths Compromise a compromise that solved the problem of how enslaved people were
to be counted in determining representation in Congress (page 111)
popular sovereignty rule by the people (page 111)
federalism a system of government in which government power is divided between the federal
government and the state governments (page 111)
separation of powers a government in which powers of government are divided among three
branches (page 111)
checks and balances a system designed to prevent any one of the three branches from becom-
ing too powerful (page 112)
veto to reject (page 112)
impeach to formally accuse of misconduct (page 112)

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

amendment a change to the Constitution (page 112)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

The United States Constitution has lasted for more than 200 years. Why do
you think the Constitution has lasted this long?
The last section described the United States government under the Articles
of Confederation. This section discusses the creation of the United States
Constitution.

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Study Guide
Chapter 3, Section 5 (continued)

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the diagram below to help you take notes. The Constitution set up sev-
eral systems to prevent the national government from becoming too powerful.
List these systems in the diagram.

Preventing the National Government from Becoming Too Strong

1. 2. 3.

READ TO LEARNII
• The Constitutional Convention (page 108)
Many American leaders believed that in order to survive, the United States
needed a strong central government. These people became known as
nationalists.
In 1786 James Madison, an influential nationalist, convinced Virginia’s
assembly to call a convention of all the states. He wanted the states to discuss
the problem they had with trade and taxation. However, too few states came to
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

the convention to be able to solve any problems. In 1787 Alexander Hamilton

called for the Confederation Congress to call a convention in Philadelphia.
Congress called for a convention to discuss revising the Articles. Every state
except Rhode Island came to the Constitutional Convention in May 1787.
Fifty-five delegates attended convention. They included some of the most
prominent leaders of the United States. Most of the delegates had experience
in colonial, state, or national government. George Washington was chosen as
the presiding officer. James Madison kept a record of the debates. His record
is the best source of information of what went on at the convention. The meet-
ings were closed to the public to make sure that the delegates were free to
discuss issues without political pressure.
The Virginia delegation arrived with a plan for a new national government.
It was called the Virginia Plan. The plan called for scrapping the Articles of
Confederation and creating a new national government. It proposed a national
government made up of legislative, executive, and judicial branches. The
Virginia Plan called for a two-house legislature. Voters would elect members of
the first house. Members of the second house would be nominated by state gov-
ernments and elected by the first house. The number of representatives for each
house would depend on the number of people in each state. In this way, the
larger states would benefit. Smaller states opposed a plan based on population.

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Study Guide
Chapter 3, Section 5 (continued)

The New Jersey Plan called for modifying the Articles of Confederation to
make the central government stronger. The plan called for a single-house
Congress in which each state was equally represented. Congress would also
have the power to raise taxes and regulate trade.
After much debate, the Constitutional Convention decided to use the
Virginia Plan. It decided not to revise the Articles of Confederation but to
work on a new constitution for the nation.
4. Why were small states opposed to the Virginia Plan?

• A Union Built on Compromise (page 110)

As they worked on the constitution, the delegates had differences that they
could only solve through compromise. One difference had to do with the
Virginia Plan. The small states wanted each state to have an equal vote in
Congress. Delegates from the larger states wanted representation to be based
on population. Roger Sherman of Connecticut proposed a compromise known
as the Connecticut Compromise. It is also referred to as the Great Compromise.
The compromise proposed two houses of Congress: the House of Representa-
tives and the Senate. Representation in the House of Representatives would
be based on the states’ population. Each state in the Senate would have equal
representation.

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Another difference among the delegates had to do with slavery. A conflict
developed between the Northern and Southern states. Southern delegates
wanted to count enslaved people as part of the population. Northern dele-
gates opposed this because enslaved people were considered property, not
people. Northern delegates also said that if slaves were to be counted for rep-
resentation, they should also be counted for taxation as well. The committee
proposed the Three-Fifths Compromise. Under this compromise, every five
enslaved people in a state would count as three free persons.
The Southern delegates also wanted a limit on Congress’s power to regulate
trade. Northern delegates wanted a government that could control foreign
imports into the United States. A new compromise was worked out. It said
that Congress could not tax exports. It also said that Congress would not ban
the slave trade until 1808.
5. How did the delegates to the Constitutional Convention solve the problem of how states
would be represented in Congress?

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Study Guide
Chapter 3, Section 5 (continued)

• A Framework for Limited Government (page 111)

The new constitution was based on the principle of popular sovereignty,
which is rule by the people. It set up a representative system of government in
which elected officials represented the people. The Constitution created a sys-
tem of government known as federalism. The power of the government is
divided between the federal, or national, government and the state govern-
ments. The Constitution provided for a separation of powers among the three
branches of the federal government. Congress made up the legislative branch.
It made the laws. The president headed the executive branch. It enforced the
laws. The federal courts made up the judicial branch. It interpreted the laws.
In addition to separating the powers, the Constitution also set up a system
of checks and balances to stop any one branch of government from becoming
too powerful.
The president was given several powers. Among them was the power to
veto, or reject, acts of Congress. However, Congress had the power to override
the veto with a two-thirds vote in both houses. Congress also had the power
to impeach, or formally accuse of misconduct, and then remove the president
or other official in the executive or judicial branch.
The judicial branch was balanced by the legislative and executive branches.
The president could nominate members to the judiciary, but Congress had to
approve the appointments.
To provide for a way of making changes to the Constitution, the
Constitution set up a system of making amendments, or changes to the
Constitution. The system made it difficult to make changes, however. An
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

amendment could be proposed by two-thirds of the members of both houses

of Congress. Also, two-thirds of the states could call a constitutional conven-
tion to propose an amendment. The proposed amendment then had to be
ratified by three-fourths of the state legislatures or by conventions in three-
fourths of the states.
6. Why did the Constitution provide for a system of checks and balances?

• Debating the Constitution (page 112)

After the Constitution was written, each state had to elect a convention to
vote on the new Constitution. Those who supported the Constitution called
themselves Federalists. They chose the name to indicate that they supported
the federal system of government. They hoped that people who feared that the

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Study Guide
Chapter 3, Section 5 (continued)

central government would become too powerful would be reminded that the
states would keep many of their powers. Those who supported the Federalists
included large landowners, merchants, and artisans. They believed that a
strong central government would levy taxes on imports, which would help
American businesses. Farmers who lived near the coast or along rivers and
farmers who shipped goods across state borders also supported the Federalists.
Those who opposed the Constitution were called Antifederalists. They sup-
ported the need for a national government, but they questioned whether the
national government or the state governments should be dominant. Anti-
federalists included prominent Americans such as John Hancock and Patrick
Henry. Many Antifederalists were western farmers who lived far from the
coast. They were generally self-sufficient and were suspicious of the wealthy.
The Antifederalists conducted a negative campaign. Whereas the
Federalists presented a definite program for solving the nation’s problems, the
Antifederalists did not. The Antifederalists complained that the Constitution
did not protect people’s rights, but they did not present their own plan for
protecting rights. The Federalists were better organized than the Antifederal-
ists. Most newspapers supported the Federalists. They presented their
program in speeches, pamphlets, and debates. The Federalists explained why
the Constitution should be ratified in a collection of essays known as The
Federalist. The essays were written by James Madison, Alexander Hamilton,
and John Jay under the pen name of Publius. The essays explained how the
new Constitution worked. The essays were very influential.
7. What group of people tended to support the Antifederalists?

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

• The Fight for Ratification (page 114)
The ratifying conventions started in December 1787. Delaware, Pennsylvania,
New Jersey, Georgia, and Connecticut quickly ratified it. In Massachusetts,
Antifederalists held a majority at the convention. They included Samuel
Adams, who objected to the Constitution because he believed it endangered the
independence of the states. The Federalists worked to meet his objections. They
promised to attach a bill of rights once the Constitution was ratified. They also
promised to add an amendment that would reserve for the states all the powers
not specifically given to the federal government. This persuaded Adams to vote
for ratification, and Massachusetts ratified it. By June 1788, Maryland, South
Carolina, and New Hampshire had also ratified the Constitution. Virginia and
New York, however, had not yet ratified it. The Federalists believed that with-
out the support of the two large states, the new government would not succeed.
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Study Guide
Chapter 3, Section 5 (continued)

Federalists, including George Washington and James Madison, presented

strong arguments for ratification to the Virginia convention. Finally, the prom-
ise to add a bill of rights won Virginia’s support. A close vote in New York
resulted in a Federalist victory there. By July 1788, all states except Rhode
Island and North Carolina had ratified the Constitution. Because nine states
were all that was necessary for ratification, the new government could start
without those two states. By 1790 both states finally ratified the Constitution.
8. How did Federalists manage to convince the Massachusetts convention to ratify the
Constitution?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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Study Guide
Chapter 4, Section 1
For use with textbook pages 152–159

THE FEDERALIST ERA

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
cabinet a group of advisers to the president (page 153)
enumerated powers powers specifically mentioned in the Constitution (page 154)
implied powers powers not explicitly listed in the Constitution but necessary for the government
to do its job (page 154)
excise tax tax paid by the manufacturer of a product and passed on to those who buy the
product (page 155)
most-favored nation status given to a nation that guarantees no discrimination in trade with
that nation (page 156)
XYZ Affair incident in which French officials asked for a bribe from American diplomats (page 157)
alien person living in a country who is not a citizen (page 157)
interposition the theory that said a state could step in between the federal government and
the people to stop the federal government from doing something unconstitutional (page 158)
nullification the theory that said the states had the right to declare a federal law invalid if they
considered the law unconstitutional (page 158)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

How does the government of your community raise the money it needs to
pay for community services? How does the government of the United States
raise the money?
In this section, you will learn how the new government of the United States
addressed the challenges it faced. You will also learn why tensions grew
between the two political parties in the nation.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the diagram below to help you take notes. Alexander Hamilton devel-
oped a plan to finance the new national government. Describe four parts of
Hamilton’s plan.

1. 2.

Hamilton’s
Financial
3. 4.
Plan

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Study Guide
Chapter 4, Section 1 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• Creating a New Government (page 152)
The first task facing the new government was to organize the government
itself. The government set up departments to handle different responsibilities.
It created the Department of State, the Department of the Treasury, and the
Department of War. It also created the Office of the Attorney General. To head
the departments, President Washington appointed Thomas Jefferson as secre-
tary of state, Alexander Hamilton as secretary of the treasury, General Henry
Knox as secretary of war, and Edmund Randolph as attorney general. This
group of advisers to the president became known as the cabinet. Through the
Judiciary Act of 1789, Congress established district courts and courts of
appeal. It also established six justices for the Supreme Court. Washington
chose John Jay as the first chief justice of the United States.
In 1789 Congress sent to the states for ratification 12 constitutional amend-
ments. The states approved 10 amendments, and they became the Bill of
Rights. The first 8 provided safeguards for the rights of individuals.
5. Why did Congress create various departments?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

• Hamilton’s Financial Program (page 153)

After the government was organized, it needed to find ways to raise money
to operate. Alexander Hamilton believed that the government needed the abil-
ity to borrow money. To pay for the Revolutionary War, the Continental
Congress issued bonds, or paper notes promising to repay money after a cer-
tain length of time with interest. By 1789 the United States owed about $40
million to American citizens and about $12 million to several foreign coun-
tries. These bonds had fallen in value. However, Hamilton believed that the
government should pay these debts in full. He believed that doing so would
give people confidence in the ability of the government to pay back its loans.
Critics argued that Hamilton’s plan was unfair to the people who first pur-
chased the bonds. Many of these people were farmers and Revolutionary War
veterans. These people feared that they would never be paid, so they sold
their bonds to speculators, or people willing to take a risk in hopes of a future
financial gain. Many of these speculators paid very little for the bonds but
would now receive full value. Southerners were upset because most of the

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Study Guide
Chapter 4, Section 1 (continued)

people who owned the bonds were Northerners, but much of the tax money
used to pay off the bonds would come from the South.
Congress debated Hamilton’s plans for months but finally agreed on a com-
promise. Madison and Jefferson would convince Southerners to vote for
Hamilton’s plan. In exchange, the capital of the United States would be
moved from New York to the Potomac River, which was located in the South.
Hamilton also asked Congress to establish the Bank of the United States.
Hamilton argued that the bank was needed to manage the country’s debts and
interest payments. The bank would also make loans and issue paper money.
Southerners opposed the bank because they believed that Northern mer-
chants would own most of the bank’s stock. Madison argued that Congress
could not establish a bank because it was not among the federal government’s
enumerated powers—powers specifically mentioned in the Constitution.
Hamilton argued that the Constitution gave the federal government the
power to make laws that were necessary for it to execute its responsibilities.
He argued that this created implied powers—powers not explicitly listed in the
Constitution but necessary for the government to do its job. After studying
both sides of the debate, President Washington agreed to sign the bill, which
created the Bank of the United States.
Hamilton also believed that the government had the right to impose direct
taxes on the people. In 1791 Congress passed Hamilton’s proposal for an excise
tax on the making of American whiskey. This tax angered Western farmers,
whose whiskey was used as a medium of exchange. In western Pennsylvania,
farmers rebelled against the tax. Determined to establish the authority of the
federal government to collect taxes, President Washington sent troops to crush

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

the Whiskey Rebellion. The rebels stopped without a fight.
6. Why did Hamilton want to establish a national bank?

• The Rise of Political Parties (page 155)

The debate over Hamilton’s financial plans split Congress into two sides.
These sides became the nation’s first political parties. Those who supported
Hamilton were called Federalists. Those who opposed him took the name
Democratic-Republicans. Most people called them Republicans.
Hamilton supported a strong national government and favored putting the
government into the hands of the wealthy. He believed that manufacturing
and trade were important for a nation’s healthy economy. Thomas Jefferson
opposed Hamilton and was the leader of the Democratic-Republicans. He
believed that a nation’s strength was in its independent farmers. Democratic-
Republicans supported agriculture over manufacturing and trade as
important for a healthy national economy.

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Chapter 4, Section 1 (continued)

In time, the Democratic-Republican Party stood for the rights of states

against the power of the federal government. The South and the West sup-
ported it. The Federalists gained their support from the Northeast.
7. From what regions of the country did the Democratic-Republicans and the Federalists gain
support?

• Washington’s Foreign Policy (page 155)

The French Revolution began shortly after George Washington was inaugu-
rated president in 1789. Americans were divided over the French Revolution.
The Federalists opposed it, while the Republicans supported it. At first, most
Americans supported the French. Then in 1793, the French declared war on
Britain. This put the United States in a difficult position. The Treaty of 1778
with France required that the United States help defend France’s colonies in
the Caribbean, which meant war with Great Britain. President Washington
then declared the United States to be neutral toward both Britain and France.
Although Washington declared neutrality, the British navy seized American
ships carrying goods to France. Britain still occupied forts on U.S. territory
from which they stirred up Native Americans to attack western settlers.
To avoid war with Britain, Washington sent John Jay to Britain to find a
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

solution. The British did not want to fight a war with the United States. It
knew that the United States depended on trade with Britain, so Britain agreed
to sign Jay’s Treaty. Under the treaty, the United States agreed that Britain had
the right to seize merchandise that was bound for France. In return, the British
agreed to give the United States most-favored nation status. This meant that
the United States would not be discriminated against when they traded with
Britain. Although people were upset with the provisions of the treaty and
accused the Federalists of being pro-British, the treaty was ratified. The treaty
prevented war with Britain and protected the U.S. economy.
Spain joined France in its war against Britain. Spain was afraid that the
British and Americans would seize its landholdings in North America. As a
result, in 1795 the Spanish signed Pinckney’s Treaty. The treaty granted the
United States the right to navigate the Mississippi River and to deposit goods
at the port of New Orleans.
8. Why did many people oppose the provisions of Jay’s Treaty?

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Study Guide
Chapter 4, Section 1 (continued)

• A New Administration (page 157)

President Washington decided to retire at the end of his second term as
president. Before he left office, he wrote a letter to the American people.
Washington’s Farewell Address warned Americans against sectionalism and
against political parties. He also warned against the United States becoming
too attached to any foreign nation.
In the election of 1796, the Federalists supported John Adams for president.
The Republicans nominated Thomas Jefferson. John Adams became the sec-
ond president of the United States.
The French were upset with Jay’s Treaty and began seizing American ships
bound for Britain. Many Federalists called for war against France. However,
President Adams did not want to involve the United States in a major war.
Instead, he sent representatives to negotiate with France. The French
demanded bribes for negotiations to begin, an event that became known as
the XYZ Affair. Americans were furious and called for war with France. In
June 1798 Congress stopped trade with France. It directed the navy to capture
French armed ships. Soon the two countries were fighting an undeclared war
at sea that became known as the Quasi-War. After negotiations, France and
the United States signed the Convention of 1800. Under this agreement, the
United States gave up all claims against France for damages to U.S. shipping.
In return, France released the United States from the Treaty of 1778.
Many Federalists were upset about criticisms from the Republicans. When
the American people were angry with France, the Federalists decided to strike
back at the Republicans. In 1798 they pushed four laws through Congress that

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

became known as the Alien and Sedition Acts. The first three laws were aimed
against aliens, or people living in the country who were not citizens. These
immigrants tended to vote for the Republican Party once they became citi-
zens. One law required that immigrants wait 14 years before they could
become citizens. The next two laws gave the president the power to deport
any alien believed dangerous to the United States. The fourth law made it a
crime to say or print anything against the federal government.
In 1798 and 1799, the Republican-controlled legislatures of Kentucky and
Virginia passed resolutions criticizing the Alien and Sedition Acts. The resolu-
tions said that since the states created the Constitution, they had the right to
declare a federal law unconstitutional. The Virginia Resolutions introduced
the theory of interposition. This stated that if the federal government did
something unconstitutional, the states could step in between the federal gov-
ernment and the people and stop the illegal action. The Kentucky Resolutions
introduced the theory of nullification. According to this theory, if the federal
government passed an unconstitutional law, the states had the right to declare
the law invalid.

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Study Guide
Chapter 4, Section 1 (continued)

9. What did President Washington warn the American people about when he left office?

• The Election of 1800 (page 159)

Many people were upset with the Alien and Sedition Acts that the
Federalists supported. In the presidential election of 1800, the Republican
nominees—Thomas Jefferson for president and Aaron Burr for vice presi-
dent—campaigned against the Federalists and their laws.
The election was close and had an unexpected outcome. The Constitution
called for each state to choose the same number of electors as it had senators
and representatives. The group of electors, known as the Electoral College,
then votes for the president. Each elector was to vote for two people—one for
the presidential candidate and one for the vice presidential candidate.
When the vote was counted in the 1800 election, Jefferson and Burr had the
same number of votes. This meant that the Federalist-controlled House of
Representatives had to choose a president from among the top five vote get-
ters. Hamilton urged his fellow Federalists to support Jefferson. This still led
to a tie between Jefferson and Burr. Then Jefferson convinced one Federalist
that if elected, Jefferson would not get rid of Hamilton’s financial system. The
Federalist cast a blank vote, breaking the tie, and Jefferson became the new
president. The election of 1800 showed that power in the United States could
be transferred peacefully despite strong disagreements between the parties.
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10. What did the election of 1800 show?

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Study Guide
Chapter 4, Section 2
For use with textbook pages 161–167

THE REPUBLICANS TAKE POWER

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
judicial review the power of the Supreme Court to decide whether laws passed by Congress
were constitutional and to strike down those laws that were not (page 162)
Louisiana Purchase land purchased from France in 1803 that more than doubled the size of the
United States and gained U.S. control of the entire Mississippi River (page 163)
contraband smuggled goods (page 164)
impressment a legalized form of kidnapping (page 164)
embargo a government ban on trade with other countries (page 164)
War Hawks those who supported war against Britain (page 165)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

Have you ever traveled through the Rocky Mountains? How would you
describe the area there?
The last section described the challenges facing the new government at
home and abroad. This section discusses President Jefferson’s efforts to limit
the powers of the federal government. It also discusses the expansion of U.S.
territory and growing tensions with Great Britain.

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII
Use the diagram below to help you take notes. The United States purchased
the Louisiana Territory from France in 1803. Explain the reasons that France
wanted to sell the territory and the effect of the purchase on the United States.

Reasons for
Selling Effects on U.S.
1. 4.

2. Louisiana
Purchase
3. 5.

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Study Guide
Chapter 4, Section 2 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• Thomas Jefferson Takes Office (page 161)
Thomas Jefferson tried to create a less formal style of presidency. He tried
to bring Republican ideas into the policies that the Federalists had already put
in place. Jefferson wanted to limit the power of the federal government. He
began to pay off the federal debt and to limit federal spending. Federalists
worried that Jefferson would get rid of the national bank and do away with
Hamilton’s financial plan. However, Jefferson appointed a supporter of
Hamilton’s plan to head the Department of the Treasury.
Before Adams’s presidency ended, Congress passed the Judiciary Act of
1801, which created 16 new federal judges. Adams appointed Federalists to
these positions. After Jefferson took office, Congress repealed the Judiciary
Act, thereby removing the newly appointed judges. The Republicans then
tried to remove other Federalists from the judiciary by impeaching them. The
attempt to remove judges showed that judges could only be removed for
crimes committed and not because Congress disagreed with their decisions.
President Adams appointed John Marshall as chief justice of the Supreme
Court. Marshall helped to make the Supreme Court a powerful independent
branch of the federal government. He established this in the Marbury v.
Madison case. President Adams had appointed William Marbury as a judge
before Adams left office. Adams signed the appointment, but the documents
were not delivered before Adams left office. The new secretary of state, James
Madison, was to deliver them, but Jefferson told him to hold them. Marbury
then asked the Supreme Court to order Madison to deliver the documents. He
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

based the request on the Judiciary Act of 1789, which stated that requests for
federal court orders go to the Supreme Court.
John Marshall ruled that the Supreme Court could not issue the order
because it had no jurisdiction to do so. He said that the Constitution specified
the kinds of cases that the Supreme Court could hear, but a request for a court
order was not one of them. He said that that part of the Judiciary Act was
unconstitutional. This decision gave the Supreme Court the right of judicial
review, the power to decide whether laws passed by Congress were constitu-
tional and to strike down those laws that were not.
6. What was the significance of the Marbury v. Madison case?

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Study Guide
Chapter 4, Section 2 (continued)

• The United States Expands West (page 163)

In 1800 the French leader Napoleon Bonaparte convinced Spain to give
Louisiana back to France. This worried President Jefferson because having
France back in North America might force the United States to side with the
British. As a result, Jefferson sent the ambassador to France, Robert
Livingston, to stop the deal.
By 1803 Napoleon had begun plans to conquer Europe. If France resumed
its war with Great Britain, Napoleon did not want to deal with an alliance
between Britain and the United States. In addition, France was short on
money. As a result, Napoleon offered to sell the Louisiana Territory to the
United States. Livingston accepted the offer. The United States bought
Louisiana for about $15 million. The Senate ratified the Louisiana Purchase,
and the United States more than doubled its size. The United States also
gained control of the Mississippi River.
President Jefferson chose Meriwether Lewis and William Clark to lead an
expedition to explore the Louisiana Territory. The expedition met Sacagawea,
a Shoshone woman, who joined the expedition as an interpreter and guide.
The expedition found a path through the Rocky Mountains. It increased
knowledge of the Louisiana Territory. Zebulon Pike mapped much of the
upper Mississippi River, charted the mountain that became known as Pikes
Peak, and mapped part of the Rio Grande.
Federalists opposed the Louisiana Purchase. They believed that New
England would lose its influence in the nation’s affairs, while the South and
the West would gain influence. Some Federalists, known as the Essex Junto,

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

drafted a plan to take New England out of the Union.
7. Why was France willing to sell Louisiana to the United States?

• Rising International Tensions (page 164)

In 1803 war resumed between Britain and France. Both countries left
American ships alone because the United States had declared neutrality. By
1806, however, both Britain and France stopped merchant ships from going to
the enemy. Americans were caught in the middle. Americans became upset by
the British practice of stopping American ships to search for contraband, or
smuggled goods, and to seize sailors. The British navy was short of sailors, so
Britain tried to solve the problem by impressment, a legalized form of kidnap-
ping. They stopped American ships to search for British deserters, and often
forced Americans citizens into service.

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Study Guide
Chapter 4, Section 2 (continued)

In 1807 the British warship Leopard stopped the American warship

Chesapeake to search for British deserters. When the American ship refused, the
British ship opened fire, killing three Americans. The British also seized four
sailors. Americans were outraged. President Jefferson, however, did not want
to involve the United States in a war. Instead, he asked Congress to pass the
Embargo Act of 1807, which stopped all trade between the United States and
Europe. The embargo, a government ban on trade with other countries, hurt
the United States more than Britain or France. As a result, Congress repealed
the act in 1809.
James Madison, a Republican, won the presidential election in 1808. Like
Jefferson, he wanted to avoid war with Britain. To force Britain to stop seizing
American ships, he asked Congress to pass the Non-Intercourse Act. The act for-
bade trade with Great Britain and France. The president could reopen trade with
whichever country removed its trade restrictions first. Napoleon announced
that France would no longer restrict trade, but he did not mention that France
would stop the seizure of American ships. Madison accepted the announce-
ment, hoping that this would pressure Britain to stop its trade restrictions.
When the British refused, Congress passed a bill to stop imports from Britain.
By 1812 the U.S. refusal to buy British goods was hurting the British econ-
omy. In June 1812, Britain agreed to end restrictions on trade. However, the
decision came too late, because Congress had already declared war on Great
Britain.
Most members of Congress who voted for war came from the South and
the West. They were nicknamed the War Hawks. Southern planters and
Western farmers made much of their money by shipping their products over-
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

seas. Eastern merchants made a profit despite British restrictions because they
passed the cost of losing ships and goods onto the farmers. Western farmers
also blamed the British for their conflicts with Native Americans.
Native Americans were upset about the increased number of settlers on
their lands. Tecumseh, a Shawnee leader, believed that they needed to unite to
protect their lands. The governor of the Indiana Territory, William Henry
Harrison, was determined to stop Native American resistance. His troops
clashed with the Native Americans near Tippecanoe River, in the Battle of
Tippecanoe. Although there was no clear winner, many Native Americans fled
to Canada, which was held by the British. This led many Americans to believe
that the British were helping the Native Americans.
Many Americans believed that going to war with Britain would help the
United States gain Canada and end Native American attacks. President
Madison yielded to the pressure and asked Congress to declare war. The
South and the West voted for war, and the Northeast did not.
8. What regions supported war with Great Britain?

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Study Guide
Chapter 4, Section 2 (continued)

• The War of 1812 (page 165)

Although the United States had declared war, it was not ready to fight. The
country did not have enough troops or equipment. It also did not have the
money necessary to fight a war. Despite these problems, President Madison
ordered the military to invade Canada. However, the plan to invade from
three directions failed.
The United States had more success on the sea. Under the command of
Commodore Oliver Perry, the U.S. fleet attacked the British fleet on Lake Erie
in September 1813. After a four-hour battle, the British surrendered. This vic-
tory gave the United States control of Lake Erie, but by the end of 1813, the
United States had still not conquered Canada.
In 1814 the war between Britain and France ended. Britain now turned its
attention on the United States. The British attacked Washington, D.C. They set
fire to the White House and the Capitol. They then moved to Baltimore, but
the militia there was ready for them and the British abandoned their plan to
attack the city. The British plan to cut New England off from the rest of the
country also failed.
The British offensive against the United States made New England even
more opposed to the war. Some New England Federalists met in Hartford,
Connecticut, to talk about what the region could do independently of the
United States. The Hartford Convention called for several amendments to the
constitution to increase the region’s political power.
Then in January 1815, the United States army under the command of
General Andrew Jackson defeated the British in the Battle of New Orleans.

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

The victory made Jackson a national hero and strengthened nationalism, or
feelings of strong patriotism. The Federalists lost popularity, and within a few
years the party dissolved.
In 1814 the Treaty of Ghent ended the War of 1812. It did not change most
existing conditions, but it did increase the nation’s prestige overseas and
started a wave of patriotism and national unity.
9. Why was the Battle of New Orleans important?

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Study Guide
Chapter 4, Section 3
For use with textbook pages 170–173

THE GROWTH OF AMERICAN NATIONALISM

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
revenue tariff tax on goods that provides income for the federal government (page 171)
protective tariff tax on goods to help domestic manufacturers by taxing imports to drive up
their prices (page 171)
McCulloch v. Maryland Supreme Court case that upheld the national bank and the power of
Congress to be flexible in making laws (page 171)
Seminole a Native American group in Florida (page 173)
Monroe Doctrine President Monroe’s declaration that the American continents were no longer
open to colonization (page 173)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

Do you think Americans today are patriotic? If so, how do Americans show
their patriotism? If not, why do you think Americans lack patriotism?
In this section, you will learn about the feelings of patriotism and national
unity developed by Americans after the War of 1812.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Use the outline below to help you take notes. Many actions that strength-
ened the federal government occurred as a result of American nationalism
after the War of 1812. Outline the main actions.

I. Economic Nationalism
A.
B.
C.
II. Judicial Nationalism
A.
B.
III. Diplomatic Nationalism
A.
B.

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Study Guide
Chapter 4, Section 3 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• Political Unity (page 170)
After the War of 1812, Americans had national pride. Americans had a
greater feeling of loyalty toward the United States than toward their state or
region.
The Monroe presidency is described by the phrase an Era of Good Feelings.
It was a time of political harmony in the country. One reason for this was
because the Republican Party was the only major political party that had any
power. The Federalist Party had lost political influence and popularity
because of their actions at the Hartford Convention.
4. Why did the Federalist Party lose political influence and popularity?

• Economic Nationalism (page 171)

American leaders planned a program to bring the nation together. Their
program had three main goals. These included creating a new national bank,
protecting American manufacturers from foreign competition, and linking the
country together through improvements in transportation.

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

In 1811 Republicans blocked the rechartering of the First Bank of the United
States. State-chartered banks and other private banks loaned bank notes that
were used as money. During the War of 1812, prices rose rapidly. The U.S.
government had to pay high interest rates on the money it borrowed to pay
for the war. In 1816 John C. Calhoun proposed the bill that was passed by
Congress to create the Second Bank of the United States.
During the War of 1812, an embargo stopped Americans from buying
British goods. When the war ended, low-priced British goods flooded
American markets. This threatened to put American companies out of busi-
ness. Congress passed the Tariff of 1816 to protect manufacturers from foreign
competition. Earlier revenue tariffs provided income for the federal govern-
ment. The Tariff of 1816 was a protective tariff. It helped American
manufacturers by taxing imports to drive up their prices.
In 1816 Republican John C. Calhoun sponsored a federal plan to improve
the transportation system in the United States. President Madison vetoed it.
He said that spending money to improve transportation was not granted by
the Constitution. Instead, private businesses and state and local governments
paid for road and canal construction.

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Study Guide
Chapter 4, Section 3 (continued)

5. What were the three main goals of the program to bring the nation together?

• Judicial Nationalism (page 171)

Between 1816 and 1824, chief justice of the United States, John Marshall,
helped unify the nation. He ruled in three cases that established the power of
the federal government over the states.
In 1819 the Court decided in McCulloch v. Maryland that the Second Bank of
the United States was constitutional. The decision said that the “necessary and
proper” clause meant that the federal government could use any method to
carry out its powers, as long as the method was not expressly forbidden in the
Constitution. Marshall also ruled that state governments could not interfere
with an agency of the federal government exercising its specific constitutional
powers within a state.
In 1824 the Court decided in Gibbons v. Ogden that the Constitution granted
the federal government control over interstate commerce. The Court said that
interstate commerce included all trade along the coast or on waterways divid-
ing states. The state could regulate commerce within its own borders. This
ruling made it clear that federal law had priority over state law in interstate
transportation.
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

6. What was the effect of the Supreme Court rulings under Chief Justice John Marshall?

• Nationalist Diplomacy (page 172)

Nationalism in Congress and among voters in the United States influenced
the nation’s foreign affairs. Under President Monroe, the United States
expanded its borders and became involved in world affairs.
In the early 1800s, many Southerners were angry with Spanish-held
Florida. Runaway slaves hid there. Also, the Seminoles in Florida, led by
Kinache, raided American settlements in Georgia. Spain could not control its
border, so many Americans wanted the United States to step in. In 1818

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Study Guide
Chapter 4, Section 3 (continued)

General Andrew Jackson captured Spanish settlements in Florida. Secretary of

State John Quincy Adams pressured Spain to make a border treaty with the
U.S. In the Adams-Onís Treaty of 1819, Spain ceded all of Florida to the
United States.
Spain’s colonies began to rebel in 1809. Several European monarchies dis-
cussed the possibility of helping Spain regain control of its overseas colonies.
In response to this threat, President Monroe issued the Monroe Doctrine. This
foreign policy said that the United States would prevent other countries from
becoming involved in the political affairs of Latin American countries. The
Monroe Doctrine became a long-term foreign policy of the United States.
7. What were the outcomes of the Adams-Onís Treaty and the Monroe Doctrine?

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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Study Guide
Chapter 5, Section 1
For use with textbook pages 178–185

A GROWING NATION
KEY TERMS AND NAMES
Robert Fulton American inventor who designed and built the Clermont, the steamboat that
traveled upstream on the Hudson River in 1807 (page 179)
Peter Cooper wealthy industrialist who built the Tom Thumb, a tiny but powerful locomotive
(page 179)
Industrial Revolution time of change in business and industry in which manufacturing shifted
from hand tools to large, complex machines; goods were made in factories instead of work-
shops in homes (page 179)
Francis C. Lowell opened a series of textile mills in Massachusetts; introduced mass production
of cotton cloth to the U.S. (page 180)
Eli Whitney American inventor and developer of interchangeable parts (page 180)
interchangeable parts uniform pieces that can be made in large quantities to replace other
identical pieces (page 180)
nativism prejudice or hostility toward foreigners (page 181)
Know-Nothings a political party centered around anti-foreign and anti-Catholic feelings
(page 181)
labor union organization of workers who press for better wages and working conditions
(page 181)
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

strike work stoppage (page 181)

cotton gin machine for removing cotton seeds from cotton bolls (page 182)
yeoman farmer ordinary Southern farmer who made up the vast majority of the white
population (page 183)
driver director of a work gang on large plantations (page 184)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

How do you get from place to place? Do you ride a bicycle, a bus, a train,
in an automobile? What is the transportation system like where you live?
Could you continue with your lifestyle without it?
The last chapter described the way the United States became more national-
istic after the War of 1812. This section discusses the effects of transportation
advances and the Industrial Revolution on the United States in the early 1800s.

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Study Guide
Chapter 5, Section 1 (continued)

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the chart below to help you take notes. Industrialists and inventors
brought the Industrial Revolution to the United States. Describe what the peo-
ple listed in the chart developed or invented.

Industrialists and Inventors Development or Invention

Robert Fulton 1.

Samuel Slater 2.

Francis C. Lowell 3.

Eli Whitney 4.

Samuel F.B. Morse 5.

READ TO LEARNII
• A Revolution in Transportation (page 178)
The Erie Canal was completed in 1825. This was part of the transportation
revolution that happened in the Northern states in the early 1800s. As a result,
great social and economic changes occurred in the United States.
In 1806 Congress funded the building of the National Road. This was a

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

major east-west highway that started in Cumberland, Maryland, and ended in
Vandalia, Illinois. Conestoga wagons carried pioneers west on this road.
Farmers traveled east on this road to bring their livestock and farm products
to markets in the East. The National Road was the largest federally funded
highway. Most highway improvements were funded by state and local gov-
ernments and by private businesses.
Rivers were a faster, easier, and cheaper way to move goods than roads.
The only problem was that loaded boats and barges could travel only down-
stream or with the current. In 1807 the steamboat called the Clermont,
developed by Robert Fulton and promoted by Robert R. Livingston, traveled
upstream on the Hudson River. This transportation advance made river travel
speedier and upstream travel possible.
Railroads were built in America in the early 1800s. Trains were faster than
stagecoaches or wagons, and they could go more places than steamboats
could. The Tom Thumb, a tiny but powerful locomotive built by Peter Cooper,
pulled the nation’s first train passengers in 1830. Railroads helped settle the
West and expand trade among the nation’s regions.
6. Why was the steamboat an important advance in transportation?

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Study Guide
Chapter 5, Section 1 (continued)

• Industrialization Sweeps the North (page 179)

The Industrial Revolution began in Britain in the 1700s. The revolution con-
sisted of several developments in business and industry. Manufacturing went
from hand tools to large, complex machines. Workers went from skilled arti-
sans to workers given specific jobs. The workers were often unskilled.
Home-based workshops were replaced by factories. Manufactured goods
were sold nationwide and overseas.
Industrialization began in the Northeast. The swift-flowing streams pro-
vided waterpower for the factories. The Northeast had entrepreneurs and
merchants who had money to invest in industry.
Importing British technology was difficult because it was illegal to pass on
British technology to foreigners. In 1789 British textile worker Samuel Slater
built from memory a water frame to spin cotton thread in Rhode Island. In
1814 Francis C. Lowell opened many textile mills in northeastern Massachusetts.
He started mass production of cotton cloth in the United States.
Inventions and technological advances helped industry grow in the United
States. Eli Whitney made the idea of interchangeable parts popular in the gun-
making industry. Machines were able to produce large amounts of identical
pieces that workers assembled into finished goods. During the 1820s, the
practice of canning food in airtight tin containers allowed people to store or
transport many foods. In 1832 Samuel F.B. Morse perfected the telegraph. He
developed the Morse code for sending messages. Newspapers used the tele-
graph to quickly collect and share news stories over wires.
Industrialization caused the rise of large cities. Many people moved to
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

urban areas in search of factory jobs and better pay. By 1860 eight cities in the
U.S. had populations of over 100,000. Immigrants also contributed to city
growth. Many Americans had feelings of nativism, preference for native-born
people and a desire to limit immigration. A political party known as the
Know-Nothings arose to keep foreigners and Catholics out of politics.
By 1860 there were 1.3 million factory workers in the United States. During
the late 1820s and early 1830s, many factory workers joined labor unions to
improve working conditions. The unions, however, had little power or money.
They could not support strikes, or work stoppages. Courts often ruled against
early unions.
Although early labor unions had little success, there were some gains. In
1840 President Martin Van Buren lowered the workday for federal employees
to 10 hours. In 1842 the Supreme Court ruled that labor strikes were legal.
7. How did industrialization affect cities in the United States?

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Study Guide
Chapter 5, Section 1 (continued)

• The Continuing Importance of Agriculture (page 182)

Industry and cities grew in the Northeast during the early 1800s. Farming,
however, was the country’s main economic activity and had the most workers
until the late 1800s. Farming was more important in the South than in the
North. The South had few cities and industries. The North began to focus on
manufacturing.
The economy of the South was based on the farming of several major cash
crops. The cash crops included tobacco, rice, and sugarcane. The major cash
crop was cotton. It was grown in a wide area stretching from inland South
Carolina west into Texas.
In 1793 Eli Whitney invented the cotton gin, which removed the seeds from
cotton bolls. The cotton gin greatly increased the production of cotton in the
South. At this same time, textile mills in Europe were expanding and wanted
all the cotton they could get. The cotton gin made southern planters rich. In
1860 Southern cotton made up almost two-thirds of the total export trade for
the United States.
The South developed a class structure based on social attitudes. At the top
of Southern society were the planters, or owners of the larger plantations. This
group made up less than half of one percent of the white population, but it
ran the region’s economy and political and legal systems.
Most of the white population of the South were yeoman farmers and their
families. Yeoman farmers were ordinary farmers who may have had a few
enslaved persons but usually worked the land themselves.
The South did not industrialize as quickly as the North. The South

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

remained a region of rural villages and plantations. It had only three large
cities. The South had some industry. This included coal, iron, salt, and copper
mines, as well as iron works and textile mills. Many city dwellers in the South
invested in or owned farms.
8. What were the major cash crops of the South?

• Enslaved and Free African Americans (page 183)

The demand for cotton created a huge demand for slave labor. Between 1820
and 1860, the number of enslaved people in the South rose from about 1.5 mil-
lion to nearly 3.2 million. Most enslaved African Americans worked in the
fields. Some worked as factory workers, as skilled workers, or as house ser-
vants.
There were two basic labor systems for enslaved African Americans who
worked in the fields. The task system was used on farms and small planta-

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Study Guide
Chapter 5, Section 1 (continued)

tions. Under this system, workers were given certain jobs to finish every day.
They worked until their work was done. Once they were done, they were
allowed to do other things. Some enslaved people earned money as artisans.
Others gardened or hunted for extra food. Large plantations, however, used
the gang system. Under this system, enslaved persons were put in work gangs
that labored in the fields the entire day. The director of the work gang was
called the driver.
Enslaved persons had few legal rights. State slave codes forbade enslaved
persons from owning property or from leaving their owner’s land without
permission. They could not own guns or testify in court against a white per-
son. They were not allowed to learn to read or write.
Field workers often used song to pass the long workday and to enjoy
their leisure time. Some songs expressed the despair of enslaved African
Americans. Other songs expressed hope for freedom. Songs played an impor-
tant role in African American religion. Many African Americans believed in
Christianity. Their beliefs sometimes included African religious traditions.
Many enslaved persons resisted and rebelled against their enslavement.
They held work slowdowns, broke tools, set fires, or ran away.
In 1822 Denmark Vesey, a free African American in Charleston, South
Carolina, was accused of planning a revolt to free the slaves in the area. Before
the revolt, however, Vesey was arrested and hanged.
In 1831 Nat Turner, an enslaved minister who believed that God chose him
to free his people, led a group of African Americans in an uprising in Virginia.
Turner and his group killed more than 50 white people before he was arrested
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

and hanged.
Some African Americans living in the South were free. Most of them lived
in towns and cities of the upper Southern states. Some were descendants of
Africans brought to the United States as indentured servants in the 1700s.
Others earned their freedom by fighting in the American Revolution. Some
were half-white children of slaveholders, who had given them freedom.
Others had bought their freedom or had been freed by their slaveholders. Free
African Americans also lived in the North where slavery had been outlawed.
9. What two labor systems were used in the plantation fields?

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Study Guide
Chapter 5, Section 2
For use with textbook pages 187–193

THE AGE OF JACKSON

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
Missouri Compromise agreement for admitting to the Union Maine as a free state and Missouri
as a slave state (page 188)
“favorite son” man who enjoyed popularity and political support in his own state and region
(page 188)
“corrupt bargain” accusation that Henry Clay won votes for John Quincy Adams in the House of
Representatives in the presidential election of 1824 in exchange for a cabinet post (page 189)
mudslinging political campaign in which candidates criticize each other’s personalities and
principles (page 189)
spoils system the practice of appointing people to government jobs on the basis of party
loyalty and support (page 190)
caucus a system of selecting presidential candidates in which members of a political party chose
the nominee for president (page 190)
secede to withdraw (page 190)
Indian Removal Act act which helped the states relocate Native Americans west of the
Mississippi River (page 191)
Trail of Tears the forced removal westward of the Cherokee from Georgia to Indian Territory
(page 192)

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Nicholas Biddle president of the Second National Bank (page 192)
Whig new political party formed in opposition to Andrew Jackson by former National
Republicans (page 192)
Specie Circular Jackson’s order that payment for all public lands be made in gold or silver, not
paper money (page 193)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

Have you ever had a disagreement with someone and just could not seem
to resolve your differences? Did you try to compromise, or give up something
in order to get something else in return? Compromise has been an important
problem-solving tool in our country’s history.
The last section described the economy and society of the South during the
1800s. This section discusses the growing differences between the North and
the South.

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Study Guide
Chapter 5, Section 2 (continued)

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the chart below to help you take notes. Each candidate in the election
of 1824 was a “favorite son” and had certain issues that certain regions
favored. Name the candidates and the region that supported them.

Election of 1824
Candidates Region That Supported Them

1. 2.

3. 4.

5. 6.

7. 8.

READ TO LEARNII
• The Resurgence of Sectionalism (page 187)
In 1819 the Union had 11 free states and 11 slave states. Missouri applied
for statehood as a slave state. This set off the divisive issue as to whether slav-
ery should expand westward. Admitting any new state, either slave or free,
would upset the balance of political power in the Senate and start a struggle
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

for political power.

While trying to settle the question of slavery in Missouri, Maine applied
for statehood. The Senate decided to combine Maine’s request with
Missouri’s. The result was the Missouri Compromise. It called for admitting
Maine as a free state and Missouri as a slave state. An amendment was
added to the compromise that prohibited slavery in the Louisiana Purchase
territory north of Missouri’s southern border. Henry Clay of Kentucky
steered the vote through the House of Representatives, which accepted the
compromise.
A new problem developed that threatened the compromise. The Missouri
constitutional convention added a clause to the proposed state constitution
prohibiting free African Americans from entering the state. This threatened
the final approval of Missouri’s admission to the Union. Henry Clay again
engineered a solution.
Sectional differences over beliefs and policies were part of the election of
1824. All four candidates in the presidential election of 1824 were from the
Republican Party. They all were “favorite sons,” or men who were popular
and had political support in their own state and region. Henry Clay of

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Kentucky and Andrew Jackson of Tennessee represented the West. John

Quincy Adams of Massachusetts was the favorite son of New England.
William Crawford of Georgia was the favorite son of the South.
Jackson won the popular vote and led in the Electoral College. No candi-
date, however, won a majority in the Electoral College. The House of
Representatives had to vote to select the president out of the three candidates
with the highest number of electoral votes. Clay had the least electoral votes,
so he was eliminated. Clay, who was Speaker of the House, had great influence
there. He threw his support to John Quincy Adams, hoping that Adams
would support Clay’s American System—a program favoring the national
bank, the protective tariff, and new roads and canals. Adams won the House
vote.
Jackson’s supporters accused Clay of winning votes for Adams in return for
a cabinet post. Adams and Clay were accused of making a “corrupt bargain.”
Adams and Clay said they had done nothing wrong. Jackson’s supporters
took the name Democratic Republicans to point out their differences with
Adams’s party, the National Republicans. The Democratic Republicans later
shortened their name to Democrats.
9. What were the provisions of the Missouri Compromise?

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

• A New Era in Politics (page 189)
In his first message to Congress, President John Quincy Adams proposed a
program that included internal improvements, a national university, astro-
nomical observatories, and funding for scientific research. The legislators
thought his ideas were extravagant. When he ran for re-election in 1828, he
could cite few accomplishments for his first term.
Starting in the early 1800s, the United States saw a growth of democracy.
Hundreds of thousands of males gained voting rights. This was because many
states eliminated property ownership as a voting qualification. Also, the num-
ber of people who owned property had increased. Many of them lived on the
frontiers of the West and South.
John Quincy Adams and Andrew Jackson were the presidential candidates
in the election of 1828. The campaign resorted to mudslinging. The candidates
criticized each other’s personalities and principles. Adams claimed that

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Chapter 5, Section 2 (continued)

Jackson was not fit to be president. Jackson said he was the candidate of the
common man. He said that Adams was an out-of-touch aristocrat.
Jackson won the popular vote and the electoral vote in the election of 1828.
Many voters who supported him were from the West and South. They were
rural and small-town men who thought Jackson would represent their interests.
President Jackson believed in the capability and intelligence of average
Americans. He believed that ordinary citizens should play an active role in
government. As a result, Jackson supported the spoils system, the practice of
appointing people to government jobs on the basis of party loyalty and sup-
port. Jackson replaced large numbers of government employees with his own
supporters. He believed that opening government offices to ordinary citizens
increased democracy.
Jackson and his supporters also wanted to make the way presidential can-
didates were chosen more democratic. At that time, political parties chose
presidential candidates through the caucus system, in which party members
who served in Congress would meet to choose the nominee for president.
Jackson believed that this method gave only the well connected the opportu-
nity to hold office. He and his supporters replaced the caucus with the
national nominating convention. Delegates from the states met to decide on
the party’s presidential nominee.
10. Why did President Andrew Jackson support the spoils system?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

• The Nullification Crisis (page 190)

The economy of South Carolina was weakening throughout the early 1800s.
Many people blamed the nation’s tariffs. South Carolina had to purchase
many manufactured goods from Europe. Tariffs placed on these goods made
them very expensive. In 1828 Congress added a new tariff, which people
called the Tariff of Abominations. Many South Carolinians threatened to
secede, or withdraw, from the union.
John C. Calhoun, the vice president, was torn between following the coun-
try’s policies and helping his fellow South Carolinians. Calhoun proposed the
idea of nullification, which said that states had the right to declare a federal
law null, or not valid. He said that states had this right because they had cre-
ated the union. The issue came up again in 1830 when two senators—Robert
Hayne of South Carolina and Daniel Webster of Massachusetts—debated each
other on the Senate floor. Hayne supported the right of states to do what they
wanted. Webster defended the Union.

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Chapter 5, Section 2 (continued)

President Jackson also defended the Union. When Congress passed another
tariff law in 1832, South Carolina was upset and called for secession, while a
special state convention voted to nullify the tariffs. Jackson considered this an
act of treason. He sent a warship to Charleston, South Carolina, and tensions
increased. Senator Henry Clay pushed through a bill that would lower the tar-
iffs gradually until 1842. South Carolina repealed its nullification decision.
11. Why was South Carolina upset about the nation’s tariffs?

• Other Domestic Matters (page 191)

Like many other people, President Jackson believed that conflicts with
Native Americans would end if they were moved to the uninhabited regions
west of the Mississippi River. In 1830 Jackson pushed through Congress the
Indian Removal Act, which provided money to relocate Native Americans.
Most Native Americans gave in and resettled in the West. However, the
Cherokee of Georgia refused. They sued the state of Georgia, and their case
reached the Supreme Court. Chief Justice John Marshall sided with the

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Cherokee and ordered the state to honor their property rights. President
Jackson, however, did not support the Court’s decision.
Eventually, the army was sent to resolve the conflict with the Cherokee. The
army forced them out of their homes and marched them west to what is now
Oklahoma. Thousands of Cherokee died on the journey, which became known
as the Trail of Tears. By 1838 the government had moved the majority of
Native Americans east of the Mississippi to reservations. Although most
Americans supported the removal policy, some, such as a few National
Republicans and some religious denominations, denounced it.
President Jackson opposed the Second Bank of the United States. He
believed that it benefited only the wealthy, and he disliked the Bank’s presi-
dent Nicholas Biddle. The Bank played an important role in keeping the money
supply and interest rates stable by regulating how state banks loaned money.
Many Western settlers who needed easy credit to run their farms were
unhappy with the Bank’s policies for lending money. President Jackson also
believed that the Bank was unconstitutional, even though the Supreme Court
ruled otherwise.
Jackson’s opponents in Congress introduced a bill that would extend the
Bank’s charter. Congress passed it, but Jackson vetoed it. Many Americans

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Chapter 5, Section 2 (continued)

supported Jackson. He removed the government’s deposits from the Bank and
placed them in state banks. This forced the Bank to call in its loans and stop
lending. Many people later claimed that Jackson’s action contributed to the
nation’s future financial problems.
12. What was the purpose of the Indian Removal Act?

• A New Party Emerges (page 192)

In the mid-1830s, the Whig Party formed to oppose President Jackson. They
wanted to expand the federal government and to develop industry and trade.
The Whig’s ideas were very different from those of Jackson’s Democrats, who
wanted a limited government.
In the presidential election of 1836, Democrat Martin Van Buren easily
defeated the Whigs, who had three candidates. Shortly after he became presi-
dent, an economic crisis hit the United States. Many banks and businesses
failed, and thousands of farmers lost their land. The crisis had been set off by
Jackson, who had issued the Specie Circular before leaving office. It ordered that
payments for public land must be made in gold or silver, not paper currency.
The Whigs hoped that the economic crisis would lead to an easy victory
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

over the Democrats in the 1840 presidential election. The Whigs nominated
William Henry Harrison for president and John Tyler for vice president.
Harrison won, but he died one month after his inauguration, and John Tyler
became president.
Tyler had been nominated by the Whigs mainly to attract the Southern vot-
ers. He actually opposed many Whig policies. As a result, he sided with the
Democrats and refused to support a third Bank and a higher tariff. President
Tyler also had to deal with foreign relations, particularly with Great Britain.
The Webster-Ashburton Treaty established a firm boundary between the
United States and Canada.
13. What helped the Whigs defeat President Van Buren in the 1840 election?

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Chapter 5, Section 3
For use with textbook pages 194–201

THE REFORM SPIRIT

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
Second Great Awakening a movement in the early 1800s to revive Americans’ commitment to
religion (page 195)
benevolent society organization that focused on spreading God’s word and solving social
problems (page 195)
transcendentalism a philosophy that urged people to overcome the limits of their minds and to
embrace the natural world (page 195)
utopia an ideal society (196)
temperance abstinence from alcohol (page 196)
Elizabeth Cady Stanton prominent advocate of women’s rights (page 199)
abolition an immediate end to slavery (page 199)
emancipation freeing enslaved persons (page 199)
Frederick Douglass an African American abolitionist (page 200)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

What aspects of your school or community do you think need improve-
ment? In what ways can you work for these improvements?

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

The last section discussed the issues that faced President Jackson’s adminis-
tration. This section discusses the social and cultural changes the nation
experienced during the early and mid-1800s.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the chart below to help you take notes. In the early 1800s, many people
worked to reform different aspects of society. List the reform that each person
listed below worked for.

Reformer Type of Reform

Dorothea Dix 1.

Horace Mann 2.

Emma Willard 3.

Mary Lyon 4

Lucretia Mott 5.

Elizabeth Cady Stanton 6.

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Chapter 5, Section 3 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• A Religious Revival (page 194)
Dorothea Dix worked to improve conditions for the mentally ill, who were
often locked up in prisons. Many people in the mid-1800s worked to reform
various aspects of American society.
The United States experienced a change in religious life. In the 1800s, reli-
gious leaders organized a movement to revive Americans’ commitment to
religion. This movement came to be known as the Second Great Awakening.
Ministers attracted thousands of followers in revival meetings, where people
sang and prayed. Charles G. Finney, a Presbyterian minister, was an impor-
tant promoter of the Second Great Awakening. His revivals attracted many
followers.
A number of new religions flourished during the mid-1800s. Among these
were Unitarianism and Universalism. New Englander Joseph Smith founded
the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, whose followers are com-
monly known as the Mormons. After being harassed in New England for their
beliefs, the Mormons moved west. Brigham Young became the leader of the
Mormon Church after Joseph Smith’s murder.
Lyman Beecher, a revivalist minister, preached the idea of individuals rather
than government working to build a better society. He and other religious
leaders helped start organizations known as benevolent societies. These organ-
izations focused on spreading God’s word and on solving social problems.
Many women participated in the reform movements in the United States.
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

They focused on aspects of American society that they believed needed change.
7. What new religions started in the United States in the mid-1800s?

• A Literary Renaissance (page 195)

One group of New England writers and philosophers followed the philoso-
phy of transcendentalism. It urged people to transcend, or overcome, the limits
of their minds and to enjoy the natural world.
The most influential transcendentalist was Ralph Waldo Emerson. Other
transcendentalist writers included Henry David Thoreau and Margaret Fuller.
Writers also created uniquely American works about the people, history,
and natural beauty of the United States. These writers included James
Fenimore Cooper, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Herman Melville, and Edgar Allan
Poe. Walt Whitman pioneered a new kind of poetry, free verse, which cele-
brated nature, the common people, democracy, and the human spirit.

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Chapter 5, Section 3 (continued)

During the early 1800s, more Americans learned to read and more men
gained voting rights. Publishers began producing inexpensive newspapers,
which reported on crime, gossip, politics and local news—the kind of news
most people liked. These newspapers became very successful. General interest
magazines, such as the Atlantic Monthly and Harper’s Weekly, also started
around this time.
8. What movement influenced many writers in the 1800s?

• Social Reform (page 196)

The movements that influenced religion and art in the mid-1800s—
optimism about human nature—led to the creation of new communities. The
people who started these communities believed that society corrupted human
nature, and the best way to prevent this from happening was to separate peo-
ple from society. These people formed their own utopia, or ideal society. These
communities promoted cooperative living and no private property. Several
utopian communities started during the mid-1800s. These included Brook
Farm in Massachusetts and several small utopian communities established by
a religious group known as the Shakers.

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Many believed that excessive use of alcohol caused many social problems,
such as crime and poverty. Alcoholism was widespread during the early
1800s. Reformers stepped up their campaign for temperance, or abstinence
from alcohol. Temperance groups formed all across the country. Several
groups joined together to form the American Temperance Union. Temperance
groups also worked for laws to prohibit the sale of liquor.
Some reformers worked to improve prison conditions. In the 1800s, crimi-
nals of all kinds and the mentally ill were often crowded together in prisons
that were often literally holes in the ground. Many states began building new
facilities to provide better conditions for prisoners. Some people also worked
for programs to help prisoners rehabilitate themselves rather than simply
locking them up.
9. What reforms did the temperance movement work toward?

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Chapter 5, Section 3 (continued)

• Educational Reform (page 197)

Many reformers began to push for public education, in which government-
funded schools were open to all citizens. These reformers believed that a
democracy could survive only if the people who voted were educated and
informed. One of the leaders of the public education movement was Horace
Mann. As a Massachusetts legislator, he pushed for more public education
and a bill that created a state board of education in Massachusetts. Mann
became secretary of the new board. He opened more high schools and started
schools for teacher training. Massachusetts passed the first mandatory school
attendance law. By the 1850s, many Northeastern states included tax-
supported elementary schools. Tax-supported schools soon spread to the rest
of the country.
When most people talked about educating voters, they were talking about
educating men. Some women worked to create educational opportunities for
women. Emma Willard opened a girls’ boarding school that taught subjects
such as math and literature, which were rarely taught to girls. Mary Lyon
opened the first institution of higher education for women.
10. How did reformers feel public schools would benefit the country?

• The Women’s Movement (page 198)

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

In the 1800s, people began dividing their lives into two activities—the home
and the workplace. Men now often left home to go to work, while women
took care of the house and children. Many people believed that the home was
the proper place for women. Many women believed that as wives, they were
partners with their husbands.
In 1848 Lucretia Mott and Elizabeth Cady Stanton organized the Seneca Falls
Convention. This was a gathering of women and the start of an organized
woman’s movement. The convention declared that all men and women are
created equal. Stanton also proposed that women focus on gaining the right to
vote, and the proposal narrowly passed.
11. Why was the Seneca Falls Convention significant?

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Chapter 5, Section 3 (continued)

• The Abolitionist Movement (page 199)

Throughout American history, many Americans had opposed slavery. The
first organizations formed to end slavery started in the early 1800s. In 1816 the
American Colonization Society (ACS) was formed. The society bought land in
West Africa and began shipping free African Americans to a colony they
established there. The colony eventually became the country of Liberia.
However, most African Americans regarded the United States as their home
and did not want to move to another continent.
In the 1830s, the idea of abolition, or the immediate end to slavery, took
hold. William Lloyd Garrison was most influential in the development of a
national abolitionist movement in the 1830s. He founded Boston’s antislavery
newspaper, the Liberator. In his newspaper, Garrison called for complete eman-
cipation, or freeing, of enslaved persons. Garrison founded the American
Antislavery Society in 1833. By 1838 the society had more than 250,000 mem-
bers. Many other men and women carried on Garrison’s abolitionist work.
Free African Americans also took on significant roles in the abolitionist
movement. Frederick Douglass, who escaped from slavery in Maryland, was
the most famous. He published his own antislavery newspaper, the North Star.
Another important abolitionist was Sojourner Truth. Her antislavery speeches
drew huge crowds.
Many Northerners disapproved of slavery. However, many thought the
abolitionist movement was a threat to the existing social system. Some
believed that it would create conflict between the North and the South. Others
were afraid that it would lead to the influx of freed African Americans to the

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

North, causing housing and job shortages.
Southerners viewed slavery as a necessity to the Southern way of life and
to its economy. They defended it by claiming that most slaves did not want
freedom because they benefited from their relationship with the slaveholders.
In 1831, shortly after Garrison printed his newspaper, Nat Turner, an
enslaved preacher, led a revolt that killed more than 50 Virginians.
Southerners were furious and demanded that abolitionist material not be cir-
culated in the South. Southern postal workers refused to deliver abolitionist
newspapers. The House of Representatives refused to debate all abolitionist
petitions.
12. How did Southerners respond to the abolitionist movement?

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Chapter 5, Section 4
For use with textbook pages 202–209

MANIFEST DESTINY
KEY TERMS AND NAMES
Manifest Destiny idea that the nation was meant to spread to the Pacific (page 202)
squatters pioneers who settled on lands they did not own (page 203)
Pre-emption Act law in 1841 giving squatters a chance to buy their lands (page 203)
Tejanos Spanish-speaking settlers in Texas (page 204)
empresarios agents who brought settlers to Texas in exchange for large grants of land
(page 204)
Antonio López de Santa Anna Mexican president who declared himself dictator of Mexico in
1834 (page 205)
Sam Houston former governor of Tennessee and military leader who became commander of the
Texan army (page 206)
annexation act of adding a new state to the United States (page 207)
Bear Flag Republic name given to California territory by settlers after they declared the region’s
independence from Mexico (page 209)
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo agreement signed by Mexico and the United States after the
war with Mexico that ceded the United States more than 500,000 square miles of territory,
including what are now the states of California, Utah, and Nevada; most of New Mexico and
Arizona; and parts of Colorado and Wyoming (page 209)
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

Have you ever gone on an extended trip? What methods of transportation
did you take? What obstacles did you face? Were you limited in the amount of
things you could pack to take with you? If so, how did you decide what you
would take?
In this section, you will learn about the problems facing Americans as they
migrated West.

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Chapter 5, Section 4 (continued)

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the outline below to help you take notes. Describe the events that led to
independence for Texas.
A. Opening Texas to Americans
1.
2.
B. Texas Goes to War
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

READ TO LEARNII
• The Western Pioneers (page 202)
In 1800 few settlers lived west of the Appalachian Mountains. By 1850 there
were more than 4 million settlers. The population continued to quickly
increase. Americans moved west for many reasons, including to find religious
freedom and to own their own farms. Many Americans believed in Manifest
Destiny, the idea that the nation was meant to expand to the Pacific.
Some of the first settlers to establish farms west of the Appalachians were

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

called squatters because they settled on lands they did not own. The Pre-emp-
tion Act of 1841 guaranteed squatters the right to buy up to 160 acres.
People who came later to the Midwest pushed on toward California and
Oregon. Other nations had already claimed parts of these lands. The U.S. and
Great Britain competed to own Oregon. In the late 1830s, American missionar-
ies came to the Oregon Territory and wrote enthusiastic reports that attracted
settlers.
Mexico controlled California. Its distance from Mexico made it difficult to
govern. The local California government could not attract enough emigrants
from Mexico, so it welcomed foreign settlers.
Much of the land that pioneers crossed to the Pacific was difficult terrain.
Adventurers like Kit Carson were trail blazers. By the 1840s, they had made
several east-west passages, such as the Oregon Trail, California Trail, and the
Santa Fe Trail.

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Chapter 5, Section 4 (continued)

At first Native Americans often gave emigrants food and helpful informa-
tion about routes, edible plants, and sources of water. As overland traffic
increased, however, Native Americans on the Great Plains were afraid and
angry over the fear that immigration might change their way of life. The Native
Americans in this region relied on buffalo to meet their needs for food, shelter,
and clothing. They feared that the increasing number of settlers moving across
their hunting grounds would disrupt the wanderings of the buffalo herds.
The federal government wanted peace, so in 1851 the U.S. government and
eight Native American groups negotiated the Treaty of Fort Laramie. The
Native American groups agreed to live in certain territories. In return, the U.S
government promised that these territories would always belong to the
Native Americans.
8. Why did the U.S. government and the Native Americans negotiate the Treaty of Fort
Laramie?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

• Americans Settle in Texas (page 204)

In 1821 Texas came under Mexican control after Mexico won its independ-
ence from Spain. Tejanos—the Spanish-speaking people of the area—had set
up settlements in the southern part of the region. Few Tejanos lived in the
northern part of the region where Native American groups lived. So Mexico
invited Americans and other foreigners to settle there. The Americans were
able to buy cheap land. In return, they had to become Mexican citizens, live
under Mexican law, and become Roman Catholic.
Most American emigrants came to Texas at the encouragement of
empresarios—or agents. The empresarios promised to bring in a certain number
of settlers for the land. Stephen Austin, the first and most successful empre-
sario, persuaded about 1,500 American families to settle there.
At first the Americans agreed to Mexican citizenship. The Americans did not
adopt Mexican customs, however. Very few thought of Mexico as their country.
In 1826 empresario Haden Edwards’s brother Benjamin led a rebellion
against the Mexican government. Edwards declared that the American settle-
ments in Texas were the independent nation of Fredonia. Stephen Austin led

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Chapter 5, Section 4 (continued)

some troops that helped Mexico stop Edwards’s revolt. The Mexican govern-
ment feared that Edwards’s revolt might be an American plot to take over
Texas. In 1830 Mexico closed its borders to immigration by Americans. This
new law angered settlers. Their settlements could not grow without immigra-
tion. Worst of all, the Americans resented the Mexican government telling
them what to do.
9. How did Edwards’s revolt against the Mexican government affect Americans in Texas?

• Texas Fights for Independence (page 205)

In 1832 American settlers in Texas held a convention. Members of the con-
vention asked Mexico to reopen Texas to American immigrants. They also
asked Mexico to decrease taxes on imports. Another convention was held in
1833. At that time, Texas was part of the Mexican state of Coahuila. The con-
vention members asked Mexico to separate Texas from Coahuila and create a
new Mexican state. They sent Austin to Mexico City to talk with the Mexican
government. The talks failed, so in a letter Austin suggested that Texas organ-
ize its own state government.

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

After sending his letter, Stephen Austin persuaded Mexican President
Antonio López de Santa Anna to agree to lift the immigration ban and other
demands. Mexican officials intercepted the letter. In January 1834, Austin was
arrested by Mexican officials and jailed for treason on the basis of the letter. In
April 1834, Santa Anna denounced the Mexican Constitution and made him-
self dictator. When Austin was granted amnesty in 1835, he urged Texans to
organize an army. He thought that war with Mexico was certain to happen.
The Texas army’s first victory against Mexico was in October 1835, at the
military post of Gonzales, about 75 miles east of San Antonio. In February
1836, Santa Anna and his forces came to San Antonio. About 150 Texas rebels
were at the Alamo. The small force, commanded by William B. Travis, was
joined by 32 settlers. They held off Santa Anna’s army for 13 days. At this
time, the new Texas government declared independence from Mexico. On
March 6, 1836, Santa Anna’s army defeated the Texans at the Alamo.
Two weeks later, the Mexican army forced the Texas troops to surrender at
Goliad, a town southeast of San Antonio. Santa Anna had the Texas troops
executed. The losses at the Alamo and Goliad united Texans behind their new
country.

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Chapter 5, Section 4 (continued)

At the Battle of San Jacinto, Sam Houston and his Texas troops launched a
surprise attack on the Mexican army. During the attack, Houston’s men
yelled, “Remember the Alamo” and “Remember Goliad.” The Texans easily
beat the Mexican army. They captured Santa Anna. He signed a treaty recog-
nizing the independence of the Republic of Texas.
In September 1836, voters elected Sam Houston president of the Republic of
Texas. They also voted for annexation—to become part of the United States.
Many northern members of Congress, however, were against admitting Texas
to the Union. They thought Texas, with its many enslaved persons, would
become a slave state.
10. Why were the losses at the Alamo and Goliad important to the Texans?

• Texas and Oregon Enter the Union (page 207)

President John Tyler wanted to annex Texas. Texas, however, was certain to
be a slave state because enslaved African Americans were already a large pop-
ulation in Texas. Therefore, antislavery leaders in Congress opposed the
annexation of Texas. Also, Mexico never recognized Texas’s independence.
Mexico considered Texas a Mexican territory.
In 1844 Congress voted against annexation of Texas. Many Northerners
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

thought that annexation was a pro-slavery plot.

James K. Polk of Tennessee was the Democratic candidate in the 1844 elec-
tion. Polk promised to annex Texas and the Oregon Territory. He also
promised to buy California from Mexico. His platform appealed to both
Northerners and Southerners because it expanded the country and kept a bal-
ance between free and slave states. Polk won the election against the Whig
candidate Henry Clay.
In 1845 Congress passed a joint resolution to annex Texas.
President Polk stated that the United States had a right to Oregon. Those
who supported this stand on Oregon used the slogan “Fifty-four Forty or
Fight.” This meant that supporters wanted all of Oregon to the line of 54º 40’
north latitude. In June 1846, Great Britain and the United States divided
Oregon along 49º north latitude.
11. How did the United States gain Oregon and Texas?

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Chapter 5, Section 4 (continued)

• War With Mexico (page 208)

The entry of Texas into the Union angered Mexico, which then broke diplo-
matic relations with the United States. Matters between the two countries got
worse when Mexico and the U.S. could not agree on the location of Texas’s
southwestern border. Mexico said it was the Nueces River. Texas said it was
the Rio Grande.
In November 1845, Polk sent John Slidell to Mexico City as a special repre-
sentative. Slidell was to try and purchase California. Mexico’s president
refused to meet with Slidell.
After Mexico’s president refused to discuss the U.S. purchase of California,
President Polk ordered General Zachary Taylor and his troops to cross the
Nueces River into territory claimed by both the United States and Mexico.
Polk wanted Mexico to attack the U.S. troops so he could win popular sup-
port for the war. Finally a force of Mexicans attacked Taylor’s men. Polk
declared war with Mexico. Many Whigs were against the war because they
saw it as another plan to extend slavery, but Congress voted for the war.
Polk and his advisers developed a military strategy that required the U.S. to
expand its army. The president asked for 50,000 volunteers.
Before Polk had signed the declaration of war, Taylor’s troops defeated
Mexican troops at Palo Alto and at Resaca de la Palma. Taylor and his troops
continued south and defeated the Mexican forces at Matamoros and then cap-
tured Monterrey.
Settlers in northern California, led by American general John C. Frémont
began an uprising. They easily defeated the Mexican presence there. On June

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

14, 1846, the settlers declared California independent from Mexico. They
called the region the Bear Flag Republic. A few weeks later, American naval
forces took possession of California for the United States.
Mexico refused to surrender. Polk sent General Winfield Scott to capture
Mexico City. The city was captured in September 1846. On February 2, 1848,
Mexico and the U.S. signed the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. In this agreement,
Mexico gave the United States territory that included what are now the states
of California, Utah, and Nevada, as well as most of New Mexico and Arizona
and parts of Colorado and Wyoming. Mexico agreed to the Rio Grande as the
southern border of Texas. The United States agreed to pay Mexico $15 million
and to take over $3.5 million in debt that the Mexican government owed
American citizens.
12. What did the United States gain from the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo?

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Study Guide
Chapter 6, Section 1
For use with textbook pages 218–224

SLAVERY AND WESTERN EXPANSION

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
Wilmot Proviso a part of a bill that proposed that slavery not be allowed in any territory gained
from Mexico (page 219)
popular sovereignty the idea that people living in a territory had the right to decide by voting
whether to allow slavery in the territory (page 219)
secession the process of leaving the Union that Southern states threatened (page 220)
Underground Railroad an organized system for helping enslaved persons escape (page 221)
Harriet Tubman a conductor of the Underground Railroad (page 221)
transcontinental railroad railroad that connected the West Coast to the rest of the country
(page 223)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

Why did Southern states support slavery? Why did Northerners oppose it?
What steps do you think the government could have taken to solve the issue?
In this section, you will learn how the government dealt with slavery in the
new territories that were organized after the Mexican War. You will also learn
how the Compromise of 1850 attempted to ease tensions over the slavery
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

issue.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the chart below to help you take notes. In the mid-1800s, the govern-
ment attempted to deal with the issue of slavery in new territories. Explain
how each of the items listed in the chart dealt with the slavery issue.

Action or Event How It Dealt With the Slavery Issue

Wilmot Proviso 1.

California applies for statehood 2.

Compromise of 1850 3.

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Study Guide
Chapter 6, Section 1 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• The Impact of the War With Mexico (page 218)
Although many enslaved people escaped slavery, they were not safe. Many
Southerners believed that they had the right to get an enslaved person back.
However, Northerners believed otherwise and helped enslaved people escape.
The lands acquired after the Mexican War raised the issue of extending
slavery westward. In August 1846, Representative David Wilmot proposed an
amendment to a bill, which became known as the Wilmot Proviso. It proposed
that slavery not be allowed in any territory gained from Mexico. This pro-
posal angered Southerners, who believed that the states owned the territories
of the United States in common, and therefore Congress had no right to ban
slavery in the territories. Although the House of Representatives passed the
proposal, the Senate refused to vote on it.
The issue of expanding slavery had divided along sectional lines—the
North against the South. Senator Lewis Cass of Michigan proposed an idea
that became known as popular sovereignty. The idea stated that the citizens of
each new territory should decide for themselves if they wanted to permit
slavery or not. This idea appealed to many politicians because it removed the
issue of expanding slavery from the national government.
In the 1848 presidential election, the Whig Party chose General Zachary
Taylor as their candidate. The party split over this nomination. Many Whigs
quit the party and joined with antislavery Democrats from New York. These
two groups then joined with members of the abolitionist Liberty Party to form
the Free-Soil Party. This party opposed the spread of slavery into western ter-

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

ritories. They believed that slavery would harm the livelihood of free workers
by driving down labor costs, making it difficult for free men to find work.
Three candidates ran for president in 1848. Democrat Lewis Cass supported
popular sovereignty. Martin Van Buren was the Free-Soil Party candidate and
opposed slavery in the territories. Whig candidate Zachary Taylor avoided the
slavery issue and instead ran on his experience in the Mexican War. Taylor
won the election.
4. How did the land acquired from Mexico bring out the issue of slavery?

• Congress Struggles for a Compromise (page 220)

In 1849 the discovery of gold in California brought thousands of “Forty-
Niners” or people who hoped to get wealthy, to California. Soon Californians
applied for statehood. California asked to be admitted as a free state.

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Chapter 6, Section 1 (continued)

If California came in as a free state, then the slaveholding states would be

in the minority in Congress. Southerners feared losing power in Congress.
Many began talking of secession, or taking their states out of the Union. In
1850 Senator Henry Clay of Kentucky proposed eight resolutions to solve the
crisis. The resolutions offered concessions to both sides. They included admit-
ting California as a free state, but not placing restrictions on slavery in the rest
of the territory from Mexico. Many supporters of Southern rights opposed the
compromise. Congress debated the resolutions. In the end, Congress passed
several separate bills that became known as the Compromise of 1850. Tensions
over slavery had eased.
5. What problem arose when California asked to be admitted as a free state?

• The Fugitive Slave Act (page 221)

Under the Fugitive Slave Act, an individual needed to only point out a per-
son as a runaway slave for that person to be taken into custody. The law
required that any Northerner had to help catch African Americans. If they
refused, they could be jailed. Northerners reacted angrily to the law, and anti-
slavery activists disobeyed it. The Northern opposition to slavery increased.
Whites and free African Americans continued helping runaway slaves by
working with the Underground Railroad. This was an organized system in which
runaways were transported north and given shelter and food along the way.
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

They were moved to freedom in the Northern states or Canada. Many people,
particularly Harriet Tubman, acted as conductors. They made dangerous jour-
neys into the South to guide enslaved persons along the Underground Railroad.
Harriet Beecher Stowe wrote Uncle Tom’s Cabin to show the horrors of slav-
ery. The book stirred people’s feelings about slavery. Southerners were
outraged at Stowe’s novel. They attacked Stowe’s portrayal of slavery. Despite
their efforts, the book sold millions of copies. The book greatly influenced
public opinion regarding slavery.
6. What was the purpose of the Underground Railroad?

• New Territorial Troubles (page 223)

By the early 1850s, many people were interested in the lands west of
Missouri and Iowa. At about the same time, Oregon was opened for settlement
and California was admitted to the Union. Many Americans believed that
they needed a transcontinental railroad to connect the West Coast to the rest of
the country. The railroad would decrease the time it took to travel overland or
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Study Guide
Chapter 6, Section 1 (continued)

by sea around the tip of South America. The railroad would also lead to fur-
ther settlement along its route.
Southerners wanted the railroad to start from New Orleans. However, this
would require the railroad to pass through northern Mexico. As a result, the
government sent James Gadsden to buy land from Mexico. The Mexicans sold
a strip of land that today is part of southern Arizona and New Mexico. The
Gadsden Purchase cost the United States $10 million.
Senator Stephen A. Douglas wanted the railroad to start in Chicago. How-
ever, this northern route would require Congress to organize the territory
west of Missouri and Iowa. He suggested organizing the region into a new
territory to be called Nebraska. Southern Senators responded that to form the
new territory, he needed to repeal the Missouri Compromise and allow slav-
ery in the new territory.
Douglas responded by saying that any states organized in the Nebraska
territory would be allowed to use popular sovereignty on slavery. He then
proposed undoing the Missouri Compromise and allowing slavery in the
region. He also proposed dividing the territory into two territories: Nebraska
in the north and Kansas in the south. Northerner Democrats and Whigs
charged that this proposal broke a promise to limit the spread of slavery.
Despite the opposition, Congress passed the Kansas-Nebraska Act in May 1854.
The conflict over slavery intensified in Kansas. Settlers moving there from
the slave state of Missouri wanted to bring enslaved persons with them and
claim Kansas for the South. Northerners wanted to make the territory a free
territory. Northern settlers armed with rifles headed for the new territory. In
the spring of 1855, thousands of Missourians voted illegally in Kansas and

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

created a pro-slavery legislature. Antislavery settlers held a convention in
Kansas and created their own constitution that prohibited slavery. Kansas
now had two governments.
In the spring of 1856, pro-slavery settlers attacked a stronghold of anti-
slavery settlers. They wrecked property and looted stores and homes. “Bleeding
Kansas,” as one newspaper called it, became involved in a civil war between
pro-slavery and antislavery settlers.
Conflict over the slavery issue spread to the Senate floor. In May 1856,
Senator Charles Sumner of Massachusetts gave a fiery abolitionist speech. He
accused Senator Andrew P. Butler of being important in trying to force Kansas
into becoming a slave state. A few days later, Butler’s cousin, Representative
Preston Brooks, beat Sumner with a cane, leaving him seriously injured on the
Senate floor.
7. Why did violence break out in the territory of Kansas?

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Study Guide
Chapter 6, Section 2
For use with textbook pages 226-231

THE CRISIS DEEPENS

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
Republican Party a political party formed in 1854 as an antislavery party (page 227)
Dred Scott an enslaved man who argued that he should be free because he was taken to a free
territory; his case went to the Supreme Court (page 228)
referendum popular vote on an issue (page 229)
insurrection a rebellion (page 231)
Harpers Ferry site of federal arsenal in Virginia that John Brown tried to raid (page 231)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

What are the major political parties in the United States today? How are
their views about issues facing the country different? How are they the same?
The last section discussed the events that contributed to continuing sec-
tional conflicts. This section describes the breakdown of political parties and
the increasing tensions over the slavery issue.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the chart below to help you take notes. Several events helped sectional
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

divisions in the 1850s to grow. Explain how each of the events listed in the
chart contributed to the growth of sectionalism.

Event How It Contributed to the

Growth of Sectionalism
Dred Scott decision 1.

The Lecompton constitution 2.

John Brown’s raid 3.

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Study Guide
Chapter 6, Section 2 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• Political Developments (page 226)
The Kansas-Nebraska Act contributed to the end of the Whig Party, with
Northern Whigs voting against the bill and Southern Whigs supporting it. A
few Northern Whigs joined antislavery Democrats as well as other antislavery
political parties to form a new party called the Republican Party. The Republi-
cans wanted to prevent the Southern planters from controlling the federal
government. Although Republicans did not agree on whether slavery should
be abolished, they did agree that it should be kept out of the territories.
At about the same time, the American Party, known as the Know-Nothings,
gained popularity in the Northeast. This nativist party hoped to prolong the
naturalization process, weakening immigrant influence. Nativist fears helped
the party gain seats in Congress and in state legislatures. However, like the
Whigs, the Know-Nothings Party split over the issue of the Kansas-Nebraska
Act. Eventually it dissolved.
In the 1856 presidential election, the Republicans nominated John C.
Frémont, an explorer who helped make California a free state and wanted to
make Kansas a free state. The Democrats nominated James Buchanan, whose
record in Congress showed that he believed the best way to save the Union
was to make concessions to the South. The American Party nominated Millard
Fillmore, hoping to get the votes of former Whigs. With solid support from
the South, Buchanan won the election.
4. Why did the South support James Buchanan in the presidential election of 1856?

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

• Sectional Divisions Grow (page 228)
James Buchanan believed that the Supreme Court should decide the issue
of slavery in the territories. The Court did rule in the case of Dred Scott v.
Sandford. The case centered on Dred Scott, an enslaved man whose Missouri
slaveholder had taken him to live in free territory before returning to
Missouri. Scott sued to end his slavery, saying that the time spent in free terri-
tory meant he was free. The case went to the Supreme Court. The Court
decided against Scott, ruling that African Americans were not citizens and
could not sue in federal courts. The Court ruled that the federal government
could not prohibit slavery in the territories. Northerners opposed the decision.
Southerners called on Northerners to obey it if they wanted the South to
remain in the Union.

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Study Guide
Chapter 6, Section 2 (continued)

Conflicts continued between pro-slavery and antislavery forces in Kansas.

The pro-slavery legislature drafted a constitution in the town of Lecompton in
1857 that would legalize slavery. Antislavery forces voted down the constitution
in a territory-wide referendum, but pro-slavery forces approved it. President
Buchanan asked Congress to admit Kansas as a slave state. The Senate voted
to accept the Lecompton constitution, but the House of Representatives
blocked it. Buchanan and Southern congressional leaders agreed to allow
another vote in Kansas on the constitution. Again, settlers in Kansas voted over-
whelmingly against the Lecompton constitution and against allowing slavery
in their state. As a result, Kansas did not become a state until 1861.
5. What ruling did the Supreme Court make in the case of Dred Scott v. Sandford?

• Lincoln and Douglas (page 229)

In 1858 Illinois Republicans nominated Abraham Lincoln to run for the
Senate against the Democratic incumbent, Stephen A. Douglas. Douglas was
popular and drew large crowds along the campaign trail. To overcome
Douglas’s popularity, Lincoln asked Douglas to participate in a series of
debates. Lincoln believed slavery was wrong, and he opposed its spread into
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

the territories. Douglas supported popular sovereignty. In a debate in Free-

port, Lincoln asked Douglas if the people of a territory could ban slavery
before becoming a state. If Douglas said yes, then he would be supporting
popular sovereignty and opposing the Dred Scott decision. This would cost
him Southern support. However, if he said no, that would mean that he no
longer supported popular sovereignty. He had built his national following on
this principle.
To overcome the dilemma he was in, Douglas gave an answer that became
known as the Freeport Doctrine. He said that he supported the Dred Scott rul-
ing. However, he believed that people could still keep slavery out by not
passing or enforcing laws that were needed to regulate slavery. Douglas won
the election. However, Lincoln had established a national reputation for himself.
6. How were Douglas’s and Lincoln’s views regarding slavery different?

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Study Guide
Chapter 6, Section 2 (continued)

• John Brown’s Raid (page 231)

John Brown was an abolitionist. In 1859 he developed a plan to take over
the federal arsenal in Harpers Ferry, Virginia. He wanted to free and arm the
enslaved people of the area and begin an insurrection, or rebellion, against
slaveholders. Brown and his followers seized the arsenal, but soon a force of
U.S. Marines, under the command of Robert E. Lee, stopped the attempted
insurrection. Brown was tried, convicted, and sentenced to death. Many
Northerners viewed Brown as a hero. Most Southerners, however, believed
that his plan was proof that Northerners were plotting the murder of slave-
holders.
7. Why did John Brown seize the arsenal at Harpers Ferry?

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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Study Guide
Chapter 6, Section 3
For use with textbook pages 232–236

THE UNION DISSOLVES

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
Crittenden’s Compromise compromise proposed to stop the secession of Southern states
(page 234)
Confederacy the new nation declared by the seceding Southern states (page 235)
Jefferson Davis president of the Confederacy (page 235)
Fort Sumter site of the first military action of the Civil War (page 235)
martial law the situation in which the military takes control of an area, replacing civilian
authorities and suspending certain civil rights (page 236)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

Have you ever had to compromise with someone? What kinds of conflicts
do you think can be solved through compromise? Do you think the conflict
between the North and the South could have been resolved through compro-
mise? Why or why not?
The last section described the breakdown of political parties over the issue of
slavery. This section discusses the events that led to the start of the Civil War.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Use the cause-and-effect diagram below to help you take notes. Several
events caused the Civil War to begin. List the causes in the diagram.

Causes Effect
1.

2.

Civil War begins

3.

4.

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Study Guide
Chapter 6, Section 3 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• The Election of 1860 (page 232)
The issue of slavery dominated the presidential election of 1860. The
Southern Democrats wanted the party to uphold the Dred Scott decision and
support slaveholders’ rights in the territories. Northern Democrats wanted the
party to support popular sovereignty. The two groups could not agree on a
candidate. As a result, they met again in Baltimore in June 1860 to select their
candidate. Northern Democrats endorsed Stephen Douglas as their candidate.
The Southern Democrats then walked out and organized their own conven-
tion. They nominated John C. Breckinridge, the current vice president, who
supported the Dred Scott decision. Other people who feared the Union was in
danger, including many former Whigs, formed the Constitutional Union
Party. They nominated John Bell, who supported the Union.
The Republicans, who knew they would not be able to get any electoral
votes in the South, needed to nominate a candidate who would be able to get
the electoral votes in the North. The Republicans turned to Lincoln. During
the campaign, the Republicans continued to run on the idea of banning slav-
ery in new territories. They also supported the right of the Southern states to
keep slavery in their borders. They supported higher tariffs and a transconti-
nental railroad.
With the Democrat votes split, the Republicans won the election without
Southern support. For many Southerners, having a Republican president
meant the end of Southern society and culture. They believed there was no
choice but to secede.

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

South Carolina was the first to secede. By February 1, 1861, six more states
in the Lower South—Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and
Texas had voted to secede.
5. Why did many Southerners believe secession was the only answer to the election of a
Republican president?

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Study Guide
Chapter 6, Section 3 (continued)

• Compromise Fails (page 234)

As the Southern states seceded, Congress tried to find a compromise to
save the Union. Senator John J. Crittenden presented a compromise that
received the most support. Crittenden’s Compromise proposed several amend-
ments to the Constitution. The amendments would guarantee slavery where it
existed. Slavery would be prohibited north of the Missouri Compromise line
and allowed south of it. The compromise did not pass Congress. A peace con-
ference also produced no results.
At the same time that some people were working toward compromise, the
seceded states called a convention in Alabama and declared themselves to be
a new nation—the Confederate States of America, or the Confederacy. They
drafted their own constitution, which guaranteed slavery in Confederate terri-
tory. The convention chose former Mississippi senator Jefferson Davis to be
president, who called on the rest of the South to join the Confederacy.
6. What were the results of the convention that the seceded states called?

• The Civil War Begins (page 235)

In his inaugural address, President Lincoln again repeated his promise not
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

to interfere with slavery where it existed. He insisted that the Union could not
be dissolved, and he announced his intentions to take back the federal prop-
erty seized by the seceded states.
In April 1861, Lincoln announced that the federal government intended to
send supplies to Fort Sumter. The Confederacy faced a dilemma. To let federal
troops in to the South’s harbor would be unacceptable for an independent
nation, as the South now saw itself. However, to fire on the supply ship
would most likely lead to war. Davis decided to take Fort Sumter before the
supply ship arrived there. The Confederates demanded that Major Robert
Anderson surrender Fort Sumter. Anderson refused, and Confederate forces
bombarded the fort until Anderson and his men surrendered. The Civil War
had started.
After Fort Sumter fell, President Lincoln called for volunteers to serve in
the military. Many people in the Upper South did not want to secede.
However, with a civil war at hand, they believed they had no choice but to
secede. Virginia seceded first, and the capital of the Confederacy moved to
Richmond, Virginia. By the end of May 1861, Arkansas, North Carolina, and
Tennessee had also seceded.

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Study Guide
Chapter 6, Section 3 (continued)

Lincoln tried to keep the slaveholding border states—Delaware, Maryland,

Kentucky, and Missouri—from seceding. Delaware seemed safe. However, if
Maryland seceded, Washington, D.C., would be surrounded by Confederate
territory. To prevent secession, Lincoln placed Baltimore under martial law.
Under martial law, the military takes control of an area and replaces civilian
authorities, and it suspends certain civil rights. At first, Kentucky declared
itself neutral. However, in September 1861, Confederate troops occupied the
southwest corner of the state. Union troops then moved in. After a struggle
between anti-secession and pro-secession forces, Missouri decided against
secession.
7. Why did President Lincoln want to prevent Maryland from seceding?

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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Study Guide
Chapter 7, Section 1
For use with textbook pages 244–248

THE OPPOSING SIDES

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
Robert E. Lee senior officer in the United States Army, who joined the Confederacy as a military
leader (page 244)
Legal Tender Act created a national currency and allowed the government to issue paper
money (page 245)
greenback green-colored paper money that was created as a national currency in 1862
(page 245)
War Democrats Democrats who supported a war to restore the Union but opposed ending
slavery (page 246)
Copperheads a group of Northern Democrats, known as Peace Democrats, who opposed the
war (page 246)
conscription the drafting of people for military service (page 246)
habeas corpus a person’s right not to be imprisoned unless charged with a crime and given a
trial (page 246)
Trent Affair situation in which a Union warship intercepted the British ship Trent and arrested
two Confederate diplomats (page 247)
attrition the wearing down of one side by the other through exhaustion of soldiers and
resources (page 247)
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Anaconda Plan Union strategy that included a blockade of Confederate ports and sending gun-
boats on the Mississippi River to divide the Confederacy (page 248)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

Have you seen the movie or read the book Gone With the Wind? What was it
about? Did you enjoy it? What did it tell you about the Civil War?
In this section, you will learn about the advantages and disadvantages the
South and the North had at the beginning of the Civil War.

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Study Guide
Chapter 7, Section 1 (continued)

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the diagram below to help you take notes. At the start of the Civil War,
the North had several advantages over the South. List these advantages in the
diagram.

1.

5. 2.

Advantages of
the North

4. 3.

READ TO LEARNII
• Choosing Sides (page 244)
On the day that Virginia seceded from the Union, General Winfield Scott

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

asked Robert E. Lee, one of the best senior officers in the United States Army,
to command the Union’s troops. However, Lee was from Virginia, and so he
chose to serve the Confederacy.
Lee was one of hundreds of military officers who chose to support the
Confederacy. In fact, about one third of the total number of officers in the
United States joined the Confederacy. These officers helped the Confederacy
to quickly organize a fighting force. In 1860 the South had seven out of the
eight military colleges in the United States, which provided the South with a
large number of trained officers. The North had a strong navy. More than
three-quarters of the nation’s naval officers came from the North. The crews of
merchant ships were almost all from the north. They provided the navy with
experienced sailors for the Union navy.
6. Why did the North have a stronger navy than the South?

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Study Guide
Chapter 7, Section 1 (continued)

• The Opposing Economies (page 245)

The North had several advantages over the South. The North had more
people, which made it easier to raise an army and support the war effort.
The North had an economic advantage over the South. It had almost 90
percent of the nation’s factories. Thus, the North could provide its troops with
ammunition and other supplies.
The South had only one railroad line from the eastern to the western part of
the Confederacy. As a result, the Union troops could easily disrupt the South’s
railroad system and stop the South from moving supplies and troops by rail.
The North had financial advantages over the South. The Union controlled
the national treasury. It also continued to get money from tariffs. Northern
banks had large reserves of cash. They loaned the cash to the government by
buying bonds. In February 1862, Congress passed the Legal Tender Act. It cre-
ated a national currency and allowed the government to print green-colored
paper money known as greenbacks.
The finances of the Confederacy, which were never very good, grew worse
over time. Southern planters were in debt and could not buy bonds. Southern
banks were small and did not have enough cash reserves to buy bonds. The
Union’s blockade of Southern ports reduced trade in the South and, therefore,
reduced the amount of money the South could raise by taxing trade. As a
result, the South tried to raise money by taxing the people. Many refused to
pay taxes. The South was forced to print paper money, which caused a huge
rise in inflation.
7. Why did the North have financial advantages over the South?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

• The Political Situation (page 246)

President Lincoln faced conflict from members of the Republican Party.
Many were abolitionists. However, Lincoln’s goal in the Civil War was to pre-
serve the Union.
The President also had to deal with the Democrats who challenged his poli-
cies. The War Democrats supported the war and wanted to restore the Union
to the way it was before. The Peace Democrats, called Copperheads by the
Republicans, opposed the war and called for restoring the Union through
negotiations.

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Study Guide
Chapter 7, Section 1 (continued)

Some disagreements between Republicans and Democrats had to do with

civil rights. In 1862 Congress introduced a militia law that required states to
use conscription, which is the drafting of people for military service. Many
Democrats opposed the law, and riots started in several pro-Democratic cities.
To enforce the militia law, Lincoln suspended writs of habeas corpus. This
refers to a person’s right not to be imprisoned unless charged with a crime
and given a trial. Lincoln suspended writs for those who supported the
Confederacy or encouraged others to resist the draft.
The Confederate constitution stressed states’ rights. As a result, the power
of the central government was limited. Many Southern leaders opposed
Jefferson Davis’s policies. They opposed forcing people to join the
Confederate army and Davis’s suspending of writs of habeas corpus.
8. How did the Democrats react to the militia law introduced by Congress in 1862?

• The Diplomatic Challenge (page 247)

The United States did not want European nations to interfere in the war.
They did not want them to recognize the Confederacy as an independent
country.

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

The Confederates wanted the exact opposite. They wanted Britain to recog-
nize the South and provide it with military assistance against the Union. The
Confederates knew that Britain and France depended on Southern cotton for
their textile factories. To pressure these countries, many planters stopped sell-
ing cotton to them. In autumn of 1861, the Confederacy decided to send two
diplomats to Britain and France. The two boarded the British ship Trent for
Europe. The captain of a Union warship stopped the Trent and arrested the
two men. The Trent Affair gained worldwide interest, but it did not give the
South the support it wanted.
9. What did the Confederates want from the British?

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Study Guide
Chapter 7, Section 1 (continued)

• The First Modern War (page 247)

The Civil War was the first modern war. It involved large armies made up
mostly of civilian volunteers. It needed large amounts of supplies and equip-
ment. By the 1850s, armies began using a new kind of cone-shaped bullet for
rifles. With these bullets, rifles could be loaded and fired faster than before.
Instead of standing in a line, troops defending their positions began to use
trenches and barricades to protect themselves. This method led to high casual-
ties for the forces that were attacking. This meant that armies had to keep
replacing their soldiers. Attrition—the wearing down of one side by the other
through the using up of soldiers and resources—played an important role as
the war dragged on.
The South ran a defensive war of attrition. Davis wanted to force the Union
to use its resources until it became tired of the war and agreed to negotiate.
Many Southerners disliked this strategy. Instead, Southern troops often went
on the offensive. They charged enemy lines and suffered huge casualties.
Union generals proposed their own strategy for defeating the South. It
included blockading Confederate ports and sending gunboats down the
Mississippi to divide the Confederacy. They believed that this would force the
South to run out of resources and surrender. Many Northerners rejected this
Anaconda Plan. They believed it was too slow to guarantee victory. They pre-
ferred a strong, quick invasion of the South.
10. What strategy did Union generals develop to defeat the South?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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Study Guide
Chapter 7, Section 2
For use with textbook pages 249–255

THE EARLY STAGES

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
“Stonewall” Jackson commander of the Confederate Army in the Battle of Bull Run (page 250)
bounty a sum of money given as a bonus (page 250)
blockade runners small, fast vessels that smuggled goods past the blockade (page 250)
David G. Farragut Union naval commander (page 250)
Ulysses S. Grant Union general (page 251)
Emancipation Proclamation a decree freeing all enslaved persons in states still in rebellion after
January 1, 1863 (page 253)
hardtack a hard biscuit made of wheat flour (page 254)
prisoners of war soldiers captured by the enemy in battle (page 254)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

Do you think the government should draft its citizens into military duty?
Why or why not? Would you be willing to serve in the military and possibly
go to war? Why or why not?
The last section discussed the advantages of the North and the South at the

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

beginning of the Civil War. This section discusses the progress of the war in
the East and the West.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the chart below to help you take notes. In the early stages of the war,
Union and Confederate leaders led their troops in many battles. Identify the
leaders and their successes in the chart below.

Military Leader Side Fought On Success

Stonewall Jackson 1. 2.

David G. Farragut 3. 4.

Ulysses S. Grant 5. 6.

Robert E. Lee 7. 8.

George B. McClellan 9. 10.

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Study Guide
Chapter 7, Section 2 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• Mobilizing the Troops (page 249)
The Union hoped for a quick victory against the South by striking
Confederate forces at Bull Run. At first, the attack went well for the Union.
Then Confederate reinforcements, led by Thomas J. Jackson, “Stonewall”
Jackson, arrived. When they arrived, the Union commander decided to retreat.
The Union defeat made it clear that the North would need a large, well-
trained army to defeat the South. The North tried to enlist men by offering a
bounty, or a sum of money given as a bonus, to people who agreed to military
service for three years. Eventually, however, both the Union and the
Confederacy instituted the draft.
11. What caused the Union forces to retreat at Bull Run?

• The Naval War (page 250)

President Lincoln wanted to blockade all Confederate ports. Union ships,
however, found it difficult to stop all of the blockade runners, or small, fast
ships, that the South used to smuggle goods past the blockade. By doing so,
the South could at least get some of its cotton to Europe in exchange for goods
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

that it needed.
At the same time that Union ships were blockading Atlantic ports, the
Union navy began to prepare to take over New Orleans and gain control of
the lower Mississippi River. In April 1862, David G. Farragut led Union forces
and bombarded Confederate forts along the lower Mississippi River. He then
captured New Orleans.
12. Why were blockade runners important to the South?

• The War in the West (page 251)

General Ulysses S. Grant began a campaign to seize control of the Cumber-
land River and the Tennessee River. Control of these two rivers would cut
Tennessee in two and give the Union a river route deep into Confederate terri-
tory. Grant first gained control of Fort Henry, the Confederate’s main fort on
the Tennessee River, and then Fort Donelson on the Cumberland River.

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Study Guide
Chapter 7, Section 2 (continued)

Control of these two forts placed all of Kentucky and most of western
Tennessee under Union military control.
Grant then continued down the Tennessee River. On April 6, 1862, Confed-
erate troops attacked Grant’s forces at Shiloh. The Battle of Shiloh resulted in
twenty thousand casualties, more than in any other battle up to that point.
13. Why did Grant want to gain control of the Cumberland and Tennessee Rivers?

• The War in the East (page 251)

President Lincoln appointed General George B. McClellan to lead the Union
army in the East. On his way to Richmond, McClellan allowed his troops to
be divided by the nearby river. This gave the Confederate commander
General Joseph E. Johnston the opportunity to attack McClellan’s troops.
When Johnston was wounded, General Robert E. Lee took command. He
began a series of attacks on the Union army in the Seven Days’ Battle. He
inflicted heavy casualties on McClellan’s army and forced it to retreat. Lincoln
ordered McClellan to withdraw and bring the troops back to Washington.
Lee’s forces then attacked the Union forces defending Washington. This led

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

to another battle at Bull Run, with the North retreating. Lee then decided to
invade Maryland. Both he and Jefferson Davis believed that invading the
North would force the North to accept the South’s independence. They also
thought that the invasion would help gain recognition from Britain. In addi-
tion, they hoped the invasion would help Peace Democrats gain control of
Congress in the next election.
When Lee invaded Maryland, McClellan and his troops took positions
along Antietam Creek, east of Lee’s location. The Battle of Antietam was the
bloodiest one-day battle in the war. McClellan inflicted so many casualties on
Lee’s troops that Lee was forced to retreat to Virginia. Lee’s defeat prevented
Britain from giving the Confederacy recognition and support. The defeat also
convinced Lincoln that it was time to end slavery.
14. Why did General Lee believe it was necessary to invade the North?

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Study Guide
Chapter 7, Section 2 (continued)

• The Emancipation Proclamation (page 253)

Democrats opposed ending slavery. Republicans were split on the issue.
Some were abolitionists. Others did not want to lose the support of slavehold-
ing border states that remained in the Union. They believed the main purpose
of the war was to preserve the Union. As Northern casualties increased, how-
ever, many began to agree that slavery had to end.
On September 22, 1862, Lincoln announced that he would issue the
Emancipation Proclamation—a decree freeing all enslaved persons in states still
in rebellion after January 1, 1863. The Proclamation changed the purpose of
the war from preserving the Union to ending slavery.
15. Why did many Northerners begin to believe that it was time to end slavery?

• Life During the Civil War (page 253)

By the end of 1862, the South’s transportation system was destroyed. Union
troops were located in several agricultural regions. As a result, the South
experienced severe food shortages. People began to question the purpose of
the sacrifices they were making. Many Confederate soldiers deserted and
returned home to help their families. The food shortages led to riots in several
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

places in the South.

At the same time, the North was experiencing an economic boom. Northern
factories supplied troops with ammunition, clothes, and other necessities.
Northern farmers, many of whom were women, used mechanized reapers and
mowers. This made farming possible with fewer workers. Women also
worked in industries to fill the labor shortages there.
16. Why did Northern factories profit during the Civil War?

• Military Life (page 254)

Both Union and Confederate soldiers suffered hardships during the war.
Food was scarce and tasteless. Soldiers’ meals were often made up of pota-
toes, beans, and hardtack, which was a hard biscuit made of wheat flour.

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Study Guide
Chapter 7, Section 2 (continued)

The Civil War saw huge numbers of casualties. At that time, doctors did not
know about infectious germs. They used unsterilized instruments on their
patients. As a result, infection spread quickly in the field hospitals. Often regi-
ments lost about half their men to illness before going into battle. Soldiers
were exposed to diseases such as smallpox, dysentery, and pneumonia.
Life for prisoners of war was equally horrible. As the number of prisoners
increased, it became more difficult to take care of them. The South particularly
had a hard time. It was not able to feed its prisoners because of the food short-
ages. The prison in Andersonville, Georgia, had horrible conditions. During
the hot summer of 1864, sometimes more than 100 men per day died there
from diseases, lack of food, or overcrowding. After the war, Henry Wirz, the
head of the Andersonville prison, became the only person executed for war
crimes during the Civil War.
17. Why did so many soldiers die from diseases?

• African Americans and Women (page 254)

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

The Emancipation Proclamation officially allowed African Americans to
enlist in the Union army and navy. Thousands of African Americans enlisted
in the military. The 54th Massachusetts was the first African American regi-
ment officially organized in the North.
Women helped in the war effort at home by managing family farms and
businesses. Many women also served as nurses and doctors to soldiers on the
battlefields. Clara Barton and many other Southern women nursed soldiers on
the battlefield. This was a turning point for the American nursing profession.
18. Why did thousands of African Americans enlist in the Union army and navy after the
Emancipation Proclamation?

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Study Guide
Chapter 7, Section 3
For use with textbook pages 257–263

THE TURNING POINT

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
foraging searching and raiding for food (page 258)
siege to cut food and supplies and bombard a city until its defenders give up (page 258)
Pickett’s Charge Confederate attack on Union troops in Gettysburg (page 259)
Gettysburg Address Lincoln’s speech at Gettysburg’s dedication as a cemetery (page 259)
William Tecumseh Sherman Union general (page 261)
torpedo an underwater mine (page 261)
mandate a clear sign from voters that they support a certain policy (page 262)
Thirteenth Amendment amendment to the Constitution that banned slavery in the United
States (page 263)
Appomattox Courthouse place of General Lee’s surrender to General Grant (page 263)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

Do you know the words to the Gettysburg Address? What was the purpose
of the speech? Why do you think the speech is so famous?
The last section discussed the effect of the Civil War on soldiers and civilians.
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

This section describes the events that led to a turning point in the Civil War.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the diagram below to help you take notes. The Union and Confederacy
continued to fight in the east and the west. List the victories for the Union and
the Confederacy discussed in the section and indicate the significance of the
victory.

1. 3. 4.

Confederate Union
Victories Victories

2. 5.

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Study Guide
Chapter 7, Section 3 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• Vicksburg Falls (page 257)
The Union wanted to capture Vicksburg, Mississippi, the last major
Confederate stronghold on the river. Doing so would cut the South in two.
General Grant planned to attack Vicksburg from the south. To distract the
Confederates while he carried out his plan, Grant ordered Benjamin Grierson
to take troops on a cavalry raid through Mississippi. The raid distracted the
Confederate forces defending Vicksburg. This helped Grant to lead his troops
south of the city.
As Grant and his troops marched toward Vicksburg, he ordered the troops
to live off the country by foraging, or searching and raiding for food. Grant
began two attacks on Vicksburg, but both times the Confederates stopped the
attacks and caused high casualties for the Union troops. Grant then decided to
put Vicksburg under siege—cut off its food and supplies and bombard the
city until the Confederates gave up. The Confederates surrendered on July 4,
1863. The Union victory cut the Confederacy in two.
6. Why did General Grant order a siege of Vicksburg?

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

• Gettysburg (page 258)
President Lincoln was frustrated with General McClellan’s performance at
Antietam. As a result, he fired McClellan and gave command of the Union
army to General Ambrose Burnside, then to General Joseph Hooker.
Lee’s troops attacked Hooker’s troops near the town of Chancellorsville,
Virginia. Although the Confederates were outnumbered, they defeated the
Union troops. Lincoln removed Hooker and placed General George Meade in
command.
Meade led his troops north to stop Lee. Some of Lee’s troops headed into
the town of Gettysburg. There they met the Union cavalry. On July 1, 1863, the
Confederates pushed the Union troops out of the town and into the hills to
the south. The main troops of both armies moved to the scene of the fighting.
Lee attacked on July 2, but the Union forces held their ground. On July 3,
Lee ordered General George E. Pickett and General A. P. Hill to lead 15,000
men in an attack on the Union forces. The attack became known as Pickett’s
Charge. The Union forces opened fire on the Confederates, killing more than
7,000. Pickett’s Charge did not break the Union lines. Lee withdrew his troops
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Study Guide
Chapter 7, Section 3 (continued)

from Gettysburg and retreated to Virginia. At Gettysburg, the Union had

23,000 casualties. The Confederacy had 28,000 casualties, more than a third of
Lee’s forces.
The Battle of Gettysburg was a turning point of the war in the east. For the
rest of the war, the Confederate forces would stay on the defensive and the
Union army would continue to advance.
In November 1863, President Lincoln came to Gettysburg to dedicate a part
of the battlefield as a military cemetery. The speech, known as the Gettysburg
Address, became one of the best-known speeches in American history.
7. What was the result of the Battle of Gettysburg?

• Grant Secures Tennessee (page 260)

The Union wanted to take Chattanooga to control a major railroad running
south to Atlanta. This would allow the Union to advance into Georgia. In
December 1863, Union General William Rosecrans forced the Confederates
under General Bragg to evacuate Chattanooga. However, when Rosecrans
advanced into Georgia, Bragg’s forces attacked him at Chickamauga Creek.
Rosecrans retreated to Chattanooga, where he was completely surrounded by
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Bragg’s forces. Lincoln sent some of Meade’s forces to help Rosecrans.

General Grant also hurried to Chattanooga and took charge. Union troops
defeated the Confederates on Lookout Mountain. The retreating Confederates
then joined the Southern forces at Missionary Ridge east of Chattanooga.
Grant ordered General William Tecumseh Sherman to attack Confederate troops
north of the ridge. When Sherman’s troops failed to break through, Grant
ordered General George Thomas to attack the Confederates in front of
Missionary Ridge. Thomas’s troops surprised the Confederates. They
retreated and left Missionary Ridge and Chattanooga to the Union forces.
Lincoln rewarded Grant’s victories in Chattanooga and in Vicksburg by
appointing him general in chief of the Union forces.
8. Why did Lincoln appoint Grant the general in chief of the Union forces?

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Study Guide
Chapter 7, Section 3 (continued)

• Grant Versus Lee (page 261)

General Grant placed Union forces in the West under the command of
General William Sherman. Then in the spring of 1864, Grant headed to
Washington, D.C., to lead the Union troops against General Lee. He was
determined to continue fighting the Confederates until they surrendered. He
fought the Confederates near Fredericksburg, Virginia, and then near Spotsyl-
vania. Grant could not break Confederate lines there, so he headed toward
Cold Harbor. This was an important crossroads northeast of Richmond. Grant
launched an all-out attack on Lee’s forces, but failed. The Union suffered
heavy casualties.
General Grant ordered General Philip Sheridan to lead the cavalry in a raid
north and west of Richmond. Grant wanted the raid to distract Lee’s troops
while he headed south past Richmond. When Grant reached Petersburg, he
ordered his troops to put the city under siege.
9. What was the result of Grant’s attack on the Confederates in Cold Harbor?

• Union Victories in the South (page 261)

While Grant fought Lee, the Union navy led by David Farragut closed the

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

port of Mobile, Alabama. A torpedo had stopped the Union fleet briefly before
Farragut’s ships destroyed a Confederate fleet defending Mobile Bay. Mobile
was the last major Confederate port on the Gulf of Mexico.
General Sherman’s forces worked to encircle Atlanta. Confederate troops
evacuated Atlanta, and Sherman and his troops occupied it.
On November 15, 1864, Sherman began the March to the Sea, cutting a path
of destruction through Georgia that was in places 60 miles wide. His troops
looted houses, burned crops, and killed cattle. By December 21, 1864, the
troops reached the coast and seized the city of Savannah. Sherman then
headed north into South Carolina. The troops burned and pillaged, or looted,
everything in front of them. Many towns were set on fire.
10. What was Sherman’s March to the Sea?

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Study Guide
Chapter 7, Section 3 (continued)

• The South Surrenders (page 262)

The capture of Atlanta had come just in time to revitalize Northern support
for the war and for Lincoln, who won another term in the election of 1864.
Lincoln believed that his re-election was a mandate, a clear sign from the vot-
ers, to end slavery permanently by amending the Constitution. On January 31,
1865, the Thirteenth Amendment, which banned slavery in the United States,
passed the House of Representatives and was sent to the states for ratification.
At the same time, General Lee withdrew from Petersburg and tried to
escape Grant’s forces. However, General Sheridan’s cavalry got ahead of Lee’s
troops and blocked the road at Appomattox Courthouse. With his troops sur-
rounded and outnumbered, Lee surrendered to Grant on April 9, 1865. As
part of the terms for surrender, Grant guaranteed that the United States
would not prosecute Confederate soldiers for treason.
After the end of the war, Lincoln’s advisers warned him not to appear
unescorted in public. However, Lincoln went to Ford’s Theater with his wife
on April 14, 1865. During the play, John Wilkes Booth slipped behind him and
shot the president. Lincoln’s assassination shocked the nation.
The North’s victory saved the Union. It strengthened the power of the fed-
eral government over the states. It changed American society by ending the
enslavement of millions of African Americans. The war devastated the society
and the economy of the South.
11. How did President Lincoln view his re-election in 1865?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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Study Guide
Chapter 7, Section 4
For use with textbook pages 266–271

RECONSTRUCTION BEGINS
KEY TERMS AND NAMES
Reconstruction the rebuilding of the nation after the Civil War (page 266)
amnesty pardon (page 267)
pocket veto the rejection of a bill by the president by leaving the bill unsigned until after
Congress adjourns (page 268)
freedmen freed African Americans (page 268)
Freedmen’s Bureau agency established by Congress to help freed African Americans adjust to
their new freedom (page 268)
black codes a series of laws passed by Southern legislatures, which severely limited African
Americans’ rights in the South (page 269)
Fourteenth Amendment amendment to the Constitution that granted citizenship to all persons
born or naturalized in the United States (page 270)
Military Reconstruction Act divided the former Confederate states into five military districts,
each led by a Union general (page 270)
impeach to bring charges of a crime against a government official (page 271)
Fifteenth Amendment amendment to the Constitution that granted the vote to all citizens
(page 271)

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII
What do you think life was like for Southern planters after the Civil War?
For African Americans?
In this section, you will learn about Lincoln’s plan to reunite the nation.
You will also learn what life was like in the South after the Civil War.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the diagram below to help you take notes. President Lincoln and the
Republicans in Congress differed on how the Confederate states were to be
readmitted to the Union. List the goals of the Republicans in the diagram.

1. Goals of 2.
Radical Republicans

3.

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Study Guide
Chapter 7, Section 4 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• Reconstruction Battle Begins (page 266)
The South was destroyed after the Civil War. Its economy was in shambles.
The value of land had fallen. Confederate money was worthless. The railroad
lines were destroyed. When the enslaved Africans were freed, the Southern
planters lost their workforce. As a result, agricultural output in the South
came to a stop.
The president and Congress had to deal with Reconstruction, or rebuilding
the nation after the war. They had to decide how the former Confederate
states would come back into the Union.
President Lincoln wanted a plan that would bring the South into the Union
without punishing it for treason. His plan offered a general amnesty, or par-
don, to all Southerners who took an oath of loyalty to the United Sates and
accepted the Union’s stand on slavery. When 10 percent of a state’s voters
took the oath, the state could set up a new government.
A group of Republicans, led by Thaddeus Stevens, opposed Lincoln’s plan.
They did not want to reconcile with the South. This group became known as
the Radical Republicans. They had three goals. They wanted to prevent
Confederate leaders from returning to power after the war. They wanted the
Republican Party to become powerful in the South. They wanted the federal
government to help African Americans gain political equality by guaranteeing
their right to vote in the South.
The Republicans knew that after the South came back to the Union, they
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

would gain more seats in Congress. They feared that they would lose control
of Congress unless they found a way to guarantee voting rights to African
Americans. Because African Americans generally supported the Republicans,
giving African Americans voting rights would benefit the Republicans.
Moderate Republicans thought Lincoln’s plan was too easy on the South,
but they thought the Radical Republicans were going too far. As a result, the
moderates and radicals came up with a plan that they both could support as
an alternative to Lincoln’s plan. They introduced the Wade-Davis Bill to
Congress. The bill called for a majority of the adult white men in a former
Confederate state to take an oath of loyalty to the Union. The state could then
hold a convention to create a new state government. The state would have to
abolish slavery, reject all debts the state had taken on as part of the
Confederacy, and not allow former government and military officials the right
to vote or to hold public office.
Congress passed the Wade-Davis Bill, but Lincoln blocked it with a pocket
veto. He let the session of Congress come to an end without signing it into law.
Lincoln believed that a harsh treatment of the South would not be productive.

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Study Guide
Chapter 7, Section 4 (continued)

4. How was Lincoln’s plan for Reconstruction different from that of the Radical Republicans?

• The Freedmen’s Bureau (page 268)

After the war, hundreds of thousands of people in the South were left
unemployed, homeless, and hungry. Thousands of freed African Americans,
or freedmen, were looking for food and shelter. To help feed and clothe these
people, Congress established the Freedmen’s Bureau. The bureau also helped
freed African Americans find work on plantations.
Some Northerners believed that the federal government should take lands of
Confederates and give it to freed African Americans. Others, however, believed
that taking land from plantation owners was against the idea of individual
property rights. Congress refused to support the idea of taking land away.
Although the Freedmen’s Bureau was not able to provide African Ameri-
cans with land to make a new start, it did provide education for African
Americans. It paid teachers and helped to start colleges for training African
American teachers.
Many freed African Americans served in the U.S. Cavalry. Those stationed
in the Southwest became known as buffalo soldiers.

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

5. Why did Congress establish the Freedmen’s Bureau?

• Johnson Takes Office (page 269)

Andrew Johnson became president after Lincoln was assassinated. His plan
for Reconstruction was similar to that of Lincoln’s. In May 1865, he issued a
new Proclamation of Amnesty. It offered to pardon all former citizens of the
Confederacy who took an oath of loyalty to the Union and to return their
property. Confederate officers and officials were not eligible for the pardon. To
return to the Union, each state had to call a convention to ratify the Thirteenth
Amendment.
For the most part, the Confederate states met these conditions. They began
electing people to Congress, and Johnson began granting pardons to thou-
sands of Southerners.
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Study Guide
Chapter 7, Section 4 (continued)

When Congress met in December 1865, many members became angry when
they realized that Southern voters had elected many former Confederate offi-
cers and political leaders. Many Republicans voted to reject the new Southern
members of Congress.
Republicans were also angry about a series of laws that Southern legisla-
tures had passed. Known as black codes, these laws limited African Americans’
rights in the South. The codes were intended to keep African Americans in a
condition similar to slavery.
6. Why did some Southern legislatures pass the black codes?

• Congressional Reconstruction (page 269)

Many moderate Republicans were upset that many former Confederates
were members of Congress. They were also upset about the black codes. As a
result, they joined the radicals. In late 1865, House and Senate Republicans
created a Joint Committee on Reconstruction to set up their own plan for
Reconstruction.
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

In March 1866, Congress passed the Civil Rights Act of 1866. It gave citizen-
ship to all persons born in the United States except Native Americans. It
allowed African Americans to own property and to be treated equally in
court. The Republicans also introduced the Fourteenth Amendment to the
Constitution. It granted citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the
United States. It also said that no state could deny any person equal protec-
tion of the laws.
President Johnson hoped the Northern voters would turn against the
Radical Republicans in the 1866 election and support his Reconstruction plan.
However, the Republicans won, and they had a three-to-one majority in
Congress. They now could override any presidential veto. They also believed
they had a mandate from the people to pass their own Reconstruction program.
In March 1867, Congress passed the Military Reconstruction Act. It divided
the Confederacy into five military districts. A Union general was placed in
charge of each district. Each former Confederate state had to hold a conven-
tion to set up a constitution that Congress accepted. These constitutions had
to give the right to vote to all male citizens, regardless of race. Once the con-
stitution was ratified, the state had to ratify the Fourteenth Amendment
before it could send representatives to Congress.

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Study Guide
Chapter 7, Section 4 (continued)

The Republicans knew that President Johnson would interfere with their
plans. However, they also knew that Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton
agreed with their plans and would enforce them. To prevent Johnson from fir-
ing Stanton, Congress passed the Tenure of Office Act. It required the Senate
to approve the removal of any government official whose appointment had
required the Senate’s consent.
Johnson responded by firing Stanton. A few days later, the House of
Representatives voted to impeach Johnson, charging him with “high crimes
and misdemeanors” in office. The main charge was that Johnson had broken
the law by not upholding the Tenure of Office Act. The Senate then put the
president on trial. The Senate voted in May 1868. It was just one vote short of
convicting Johnson.
Although Johnson remained in office, he had very little power left. He did
not run for re-election in the 1868 presidential election. The Republicans nomi-
nated General Ulysses S. Grant. He won, and the Republicans kept their
majorities in both houses of Congress.
Congress continued with its Reconstruction program. It passed the
Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution. The amendment guaranteed African
Americans the right to vote.
7. Why was the victory of the Republicans in the 1866 congressional elections significant?

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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Study Guide
Chapter 7, Section 5
For use with textbook pages 272–277

RECONSTRUCTION AND REPUBLICAN RULE

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
carpetbagger name given to Northern whites who moved South after the war and supported
Republicans (page 273)
scalawag name given by former Confederates to Southern whites who supported Republican
Reconstruction of the South (page 273)
graft gaining money illegally through politics (page 273)
Panic of 1873 an economic crisis (page 275)
Compromise of 1877 the method used to reach an outcome in the 1876 presidential election
(page 276)
tenant farmers farmers who paid rent for the land they farmed (page 277)
sharecroppers farmers who paid a share of their crops to cover their rent and the equipment
they needed (page 277)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

Have you heard of the Ku Klux Klan? With what kinds of activities is this
group usually associated? How do you think the group got its start?
The last section discussed the presidential and congressional Reconstruc-
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

tion plans. This section describes Republican rule in the South and the ways
that African Americans tried to improve their lives after the Civil War.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the diagram below to help you take notes. During Reconstruction,
African Americans in the South tried to improve their lives in several ways.
List these ways in the diagram.

1. 2.

Ways that African

Americans Improved
Their Lives
4. 3.

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Study Guide
Chapter 7, Section 5 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• Republican Rule in the South (page 272)
By the late 1870s, all the Southern states had rejoined the Union. Many
Northerners moved to the South as Reconstruction began. Some were elected
to the South’s new state governments. Some Southerners referred to these
Northerners as carpetbaggers. Many looked at the carpetbaggers as intruders
who were trying to take advantage of the South’s condition. Some carpetbag-
gers did try to take advantage, but many moved to the South to help educate
whites and African Americans.
Southerners also disliked the white Southerners who worked with the
Republicans and supported Reconstruction. These people were referred to as
scalawags.
Thousands of African Americans took part in governing the South.
Hundreds of African Americans served as delegates to the state constitutional
conventions. They won election to many local offices and to the state
legislatures.
Although African Americans participated in the government, they did not
control it. The Republican Party took power in the South because poor white
Southerners supported it. They resented the planters and the Democratic
Party that had ruled the South before the Civil War.
Republican governments in the South repealed the black codes. They set up
state hospitals and institutions for orphans and the mentally ill. They rebuilt
roads, railroads, and bridges. They paid for these improvements by borrowing
money and setting high property taxes. Those property owners who could not

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

afford the taxes lost their property. Although many Republicans wanted to
help the South, some were corrupt and accepted thousands of dollars in
bribes. Graft, or gaining money illegally through politics, was common in both
the South and the North at that time.
5. Why was the Republican Party able to gain power in the South?

• African American Communities (page 274)

In addition to gaining political rights, many African Americans also tried to
improve their lives in other ways. They wanted to get an education. The
Freedmen’s Bureau established schools for African Americans across the
South. Reconstruction governments built a public school system in the South.
By 1876 about 40 percent of all African American children attended school.

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Study Guide
Chapter 7, Section 5 (continued)

African Americans in the South also worked to establish their own

churches. Religion had always played an important role in their lives. African
Americans used the churches to house schools and to host social events and
political meetings.
6. Why were churches important in African American communities?

• Southern Resistance (page 274)

Many Southern whites resented African Americans. Some organized secret
societies such as the Ku Klux Klan. The goal of the Ku Klux Klan was to drive
out the Union troops and carpetbaggers and to have the Democratic Party
control the South. Ku Klux Klan members terrorized African Americans,
Republican supporters, teachers in African American schools, and others.
As violence between the Klan and Republicans and African American
militias increased, Grant and Congress took action. Congress passed three
Enforcement Acts in 1870 and 1871. One outlawed the activities of the
Ku Klux Klan. Under this law, thousands of Ku Klux Klan members were
arrested. However, only a few hundred were actually convicted or served any
time in prison.
7. What was the goal of the Ku Klux Klan?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

• The Troubled Grant Administration (page 274)

President Grant had little experience in politics. He believed that the presi-
dent’s job was to carry out the laws and Congress’s job to develop them. His
political inexperience helped divide the Republican Party and helped under-
mine political support for Reconstruction.
Scandals hurt Grant’s second administration. One scandal, the “Whiskey
Ring,” broke in 1875. It involved government officials and distillers in St.
Louis who cheated the government out of millions of dollars by filing false
tax reports. Grant’s private secretary was one of the officials involved.
Grant’s administration also experienced an economic crisis. The crisis
started in 1873 when bad railroad investments forced a powerful bank to
declare bankruptcy. A wave of fear known as the Panic of 1873 spread through
the nation. Smaller banks closed and the stock market tumbled. Businesses
shut down and thousands of people were unemployed.

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Study Guide
Chapter 7, Section 5 (continued)

The scandals and the economic troubles hurt the Republicans in the con-
gressional elections of 1874. The Democrats won control of the House and
gained seats in the Senate.
8. Why did the Republicans lose seats in the congressional elections of 1874?

• Reconstruction Ends (page 275)

With more Democrats in Congress, Republicans had difficulty enforcing
Reconstruction. Many Northerners were also focusing more on government
scandals and their own economic problems than with the situation in the
South.
Southern Democrats had worked to regain control of their state and local
governments. They often intimidated African American and white Republican
voters and used election fraud to make political gains. Democrats saw the
elections as a struggle between African Americans and whites. They received
the support of white owners of small farms by promising to lower high taxes
passed during Republican rule. By 1876 the Democrats had taken control of
most of the state legislatures in the South.
For the election of 1876, the Republicans nominated Rutherford B. Hayes,

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

who wanted to end Reconstruction. The Democrats nominated Samuel Tilden.
On election day, neither candidate won the majority of the electoral votes.
Twenty votes were in dispute. Congressional leaders worked out an agree-
ment, which became known as the Compromise of 1877. Although no one is
sure if a deal was actually made, the terms of the compromise most likely
included a promise by the Republicans to pull federal troops out of the South
if Hayes was elected. In April 1877, Hayes did pull the troops out, and
Reconstruction came to an end.
9. Why did it become difficult for Republicans to enforce Reconstruction?

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Study Guide
Chapter 7, Section 5 (continued)

• A “New South” Arises (page 276)

President Hayes called for an end to the nation’s regional conflicts. Many
Southern leaders realized that the South could not return to the kind of agri-
cultural economy it had before the Civil War. These Southerners called for a
“New South.”
Powerful white Southerners joined forces with Northern financiers to bring
about economic changes to some parts of the South. Money from the North
helped build railroads and industries across the South. However, the South
remained mostly agricultural. By 1900 Southern manufacturing establish-
ments equaled only 4 percent of its number of farms.
The end of Reconstruction brought an end to African Americans’ hopes for
gaining land in the South. Many African Americans returned to plantations,
where they became tenant farmers, paying rent for the land they farmed. Most
of these farmers eventually became sharecroppers. Sharecroppers paid their
rent with a share of their crops rather than with cash. In addition to rent, their
payment included the cost of seeds, tools, and the animals they needed.
Although sharecropping allowed African American farmers to control their
own work schedule and working conditions, it also trapped sharecroppers on
the land because they could not make enough money to pay off their debts
and leave the land. This situation took away many of the new freedoms
African Americans had gained after the Civil War.
10. After Reconstruction, why were many African Americans trapped on the land they farmed?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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Study Guide
Chapter 8, Section 1
For use with textbook pages 286–291

MINERS AND RANCHERS

KEY TERMS AND NAMES

placer mining the process of removing mineral ore by hand (page 287)
quartz mining the process of removing ore by digging deep beneath the surface (page 287)
Henry Comstock prospector who found huge silver strike in Nevada (page 287)
vigilance committee self-appointed volunteers who tracked down and punished wrongdoers
(page 287)
open range vast areas of grassland owned by the federal government (page 288)
long drive cattle run in which herds were moved great distances to a rail line, where they were
shipped to market (page 289)
Chisholm Trail a major trail on the long drive (page 289)
maverick stray calf with no identifying symbols (page 290)
barbed wire wire used to fence off the range (page 291)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

What images come to mind when you hear the word cowboys? What kind of
life do you think they had? What kind of work did they do? Where do most

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

of your ideas about cowboys come from?
In this section, you will learn about the start of the mining industry in the
West. You will also learn how ranchers helped to settle large areas of the West.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the cause-and-effect diagram below to help you take notes. The long
drive helped to develop the cattle industry on the Great Plains, but it did not
last long. List the reasons why the long drive came to an end in the diagram.

Causes Effect

1.

2. Long Drive Comes

to an End
3.

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Study Guide
Chapter 8, Section 1 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• Growth of the Mining Industry (page 286)
The discovery of minerals in the West led to a flood of people hoping to
strike it rich. At first, the prospectors would try to remove the mineral ore by
hand. This process was called placer mining. After these deposits diminished,
corporations would move in to dig beneath the surface. This process was
called quartz mining.
In 1859 a prospector named Henry Comstock staked a claim in Six-Mile
Canyon, Nevada. There he found nearly pure silver ore. News of the strike
brought huge numbers of miners to Virginia City, Nevada. The town soon
became a boomtown with thousands of people, shops, newspapers, and a
hotel. When the silver deposits ran out and the mines closed, the once boom-
ing towns became ghost towns.
During boom times, crime was a problem in the mining towns. Prospectors
fought over claims, and thieves roamed the streets. There was little law
enforcement. As a result, volunteers sometimes formed vigilance committees to
find and punish wrongdoers.
Men were usually the first settlers in mining towns. However, the towns
soon attracted women. Some owned property and were leaders of the com-
munity. Others worked as cooks. Some women worked at places called
hurdy-gurdy houses, where they danced with men for the price of a drink.
Mining also led to the development of towns in Colorado, the Dakota
Territory, and Montana. Although there was plenty of gold and silver in the
mountains in Colorado, much of it was below the surface and difficult to get
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

out. A big strike happened in the late 1870s in Leadville, where deep deposits
of lead contained large amounts of silver. By 1879 thousands of people were
pouring into Leadville, which became a well-known boomtown.
The gold and silver found in Colorado were worth more than one billion
dollars. This led to the building of railroads through the Rocky Mountains.
The railroad helped change Denver into the second largest city in the West.
Gold was discovered in the Black Hills of the Dakota Territory in the 1870s.
Copper was discovered in Montana in the 1880s. The discoveries led to a rush
of settlers and the development of boomtowns. Although many individuals
benefited, corporations made the greatest profits from mining. It became big
business in the West.
4. Who made the greatest profits from mining in the West?

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Study Guide
Chapter 8, Section 1 (continued)

• Ranching and Cattle Drives (page 288)

After the Civil War, many Americans headed west to build cattle ranches
on the Great Plains. In the early 1800s, Americans believed that the Great
Plains had too little water and tough prairie grasses for cattle from the East.
However, Texas had a breed of cattle, the longhorn, that was adapted to living
on the Great Plains. This breed had descended from a breed of Spanish cattle
that had been brought to Mexico two hundred years earlier.
Mexicans had begun cattle ranching in New Mexico, California, and Texas
before these places were part of the United States. Cattle ranching grew in
part because of the open range—a vast area of grassland owned by the federal
government. The open range made up a large part of the Great Plains. This
provided land for ranchers to graze their herds free of charge. Mexican
cowhands developed the tools and equipment used for rounding up and driv-
ing cattle.
Before the Civil War, there was little reason for ranchers to round up the
cattle. Beef prices were low, and it was not practical to move the cattle to east-
ern markets. However, the Civil War and the building of railroads changed
this situation. During the Civil War, eastern cattle were slaughtered to provide
food for the armies. After the war, beef prices rose sharply. This made it
worthwhile to round up the longhorns and move them east.
By the end of the Civil War, railroad lines reached to the Great Plains. They
ended at Abilene and Dodge City in Kansas and in Sedalia, Missouri. Cattle
ranchers realized that they could make a profit if they rounded up and drove
their cattle north to the railroad. There they could be sold for profit and
shipped east. In 1866 ranchers rounded up thousands of longhorns and drove

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

them to Sedalia, Missouri. This first long drive was a success. The cattle sold
for 10 times the price they could have gotten in Texas. Several long drive trails
soon opened. The Chisholm Trail, the route to Abilene, Kansas, became the
major trail north. Cowhands drove nearly 1.5 million head of cattle up that
trail. Other trails also connected Texas to towns further north.
The long drive started in the spring when cowhands collected cattle from
the open range. These herds included cattle from many different owners. The
brands on the cattle showed to whom they belonged. Life on the trails was
dangerous. Those cowhands who survived collected their pay in the towns at
the end of the trail.
Some of the cattle that were driven north went straight to slaughterhouses.
Many were sold to ranchers who were building up their herds in Wyoming,
Montana, and other territories. When farmers settled in this area and when
sheepherders moved their sheep onto the open range, they blocked the cattle
trails and caused “range wars” among these groups. Eventually the range was
fenced off with barbed wire. The fencing of the open range led to the end of
the long cattle drives.

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Study Guide
Chapter 8, Section 1 (continued)

The long drive ended for other reasons as well. Investors had put a great
deal of money in the cattle business. This led to an oversupply of animals on
the market, causing prices to drop sharply in the mid-1880s. Then in the win-
ter of 1886–1887, blizzards covered the Great Plains. The snow was so deep
the cattle could not get to the grass. Also, a cold spell set in. The cattle indus-
try was able to survive these events, but the open range ended, and herds
were raised on fenced-in ranches.
5. How did the Civil War contribute to the long drive?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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Study Guide
Chapter 8, Section 2
For use with textbook pages 292–295

FARMING THE PLAINS

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
Great Plains the region that extends westward to the Rocky Mountains from around the 100th
meridian (page 292)
Stephen Long the major who explored the region of the Great Plains and concluded that it was
a desert, unfit for farming (page 293)
Homestead Act a law that helped support settlement in the Great Plains (page 293)
homestead a tract of public land available for settlement (page 293)
dry farming a method of farming in which seeds were planted deep in the ground where there
was enough moisture to grow (page 294)
sodbuster those who plowed the soil on the Great Plains (page 294)
Wheat Belt the wheat-growing region that started at the eastern edge of the Great Plains and
included much of the Dakotas and the western parts of Nebraska and Kansas (page 294)
bonanza farm large, profitable wheat farms (page 294)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

Have you read books by Laura Ingalls Wilder? What kinds of situations did
people living and working on the prairies of the United States face in the 1800s?

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

The last section described the growth of the mining and ranching industries
in the West. This section discusses the beginning of farming on the Great Plains.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the diagram below to help you take notes. The Great Plains was at first
thought of as a desert. List the reasons that helped to change that image of the
Great Plains and encourage settlement there.

1. 2.

Things That
Encouraged
Settlement of the
Great Plains
3. 4.

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Study Guide
Chapter 8, Section 2 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• Geography of the Plains (page 292)
The Great Plains is the region that stretches from the 100th meridian to the
Rocky Mountains. The region receives less than 20 inches of rain per year, and
few trees grow there. In 1819 Major Stephen Long led an expedition through
the region and declared it to be a desert and not fit for settlement.
5. Why did Stephen Long declare the Great Plains a desert?

• The Beginnings of Settlement (page 293)

In the late 1800s, several things changed the image of the Great Plains as
being a desert. Railroad companies sold land along the rail lines that they
built through the Plains. They sold the land at low prices, attracting settlers
there. Railroads opened offices throughout the United States and Europe.
They advertised the Plains as being a ticket to prosperity. A Nebraskan
encouraged settlement by claiming that farming the Plains would increase
rainfall there. In the 1870s, the weather seemed to support that claim. Starting
then, rainfall on the Plains was well above average. This helped to change the
popular belief that the region was a desert.
The government supported settlement of the Great Plains by passing the
Homestead Act in 1862. An individual could file for a homestead, or a tract of
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

public land available for settlement, for a $10 registration fee. People could
claim up to 160 acres of public land. They could receive title to that land after
living there for five years.
The environment was harsh for the settlers on the Plains. Summer tempera-
tures soared above 100˚F, and winters brought blizzards. Prairie fires were a
danger, and sometimes grasshoppers destroyed crops.
6. How did the government encourage settlement of the Great Plains?

• The Wheat Belt (page 294)

New farming methods and inventions helped to make farming on the Great
Plains profitable. One method was called dry farming. It involved planting
seeds deep in the ground where there was enough moisture for them to grow.
By the 1860s, farmers were using newly designed steel plows, reapers, and
threshing machines. The new machines made it possible to work large areas
of land quickly. However, dry prairie soil was often blown away, especially in

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Study Guide
Chapter 8, Section 2 (continued)

a dry season. Many sodbusters, or those who plowed the soil on the Plains,
eventually lost their homesteads because of drought or wind erosion.
New technology helped large landholders make quick profits. Mechanical
reapers speeded the harvest. Wheat could stand drought better than some
other crops. As a result, wheat became an important crop to the Great Plains.
More and more people moved to the Great Plains to take advantage of the
inexpensive land and the new technology. The Wheat Belt eventually included
much of the Dakotas and the western parts of Nebraska and Kansas.
The new technology allowed some farms to become very large. These
bonanza farms brought huge profits to their owners. By the 1880s, the Wheat
Belt helped to make the United States the world’s leading exporter of wheat.
However, the nation faced competition from other wheat-producing countries.
In the 1890s, an oversupply of wheat on the market caused prices to drop.
To make it through bad times, some farmers took out loans based on the
value of their property. If they did not meet their payments, they had to forfeit
the land to the bank and give up their farms. Many worked as tenant farmers
for the new owner.
In addition to the decrease in prices, Plains farmers faced a long drought
that began in the late 1880s. The drought destroyed the crops and forced
many farmers back east. Although many farmers gave up and headed back,
many more arrived to take their place.
7. What forced many Plains farmers in the late 1880s to give up their farms and head back east?

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

• Closing the Frontier (page 295)
In 1890 the Census Bureau reported that settlement throughout the West
had been so quick that the frontier was closed. Although there still was much
unoccupied land, many people believed that this was the end of an era.
8. Why did the Census Bureau report that the frontier was closed?

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Study Guide
Chapter 8, Section 3
For use with textbook pages 297–302

NATIVE AMERICANS
KEY TERMS AND NAMES
nomads people who roam great distances (page 297)
annuity payment to reservation dwellers (page 298)
Little Crow a chief of the Dakota (page 298)
Indian Peace Commission a commission formed by Congress in 1867, which created two reserva-
tions on the Great Plains (page 300)
George A. Custer United States military leader in the Battle of the Little Bighorn (page 301)
Ghost Dance a ritual performed by the Lakota Sioux (page 302)
assimilate to be absorbed into (page 302)
allotment parcel of land (page 302)
Dawes Act a law passed by Congress in 1887 as an attempt to assimilate Native Americans into
American society (page 302)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

How would you feel if someone forced you and your family to move from
where you are living and settle in a place that he or she chose for you? How
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

would you feel if you were forced to change your way of life?
The last section discussed the development of farming on the Great Plains.
This section discusses the effect of settlement on the Great Plains on Native
Americans in the region.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the cause-and-effect diagram below to help you take notes. In the
1880s, the government passed the Dawes Act as an attempt to absorb Native
Americans into American society. List the reasons the Dawes Act failed.

Causes Effect

1.

2. The Dawes Act

Fails
3.

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Study Guide
Chapter 8, Section 3 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• Culture of the Plains Indians (page 297)
Most of the Native Americans who lived on the Great Plains were nomads
who roamed great distances. They followed the buffalo—their main source of
food.
The groups of Native Americans on the Great Plains had differences, but
they were similar in many ways. They lived in extended family networks.
Plains Indian nations were divided into bands of up to 500 people each. A
governing council headed each band. Most members of the band participated
in making decisions for the group. Gender determined the tasks an individual
had to do. Most Plains Indians practiced a religion that was based on a belief
in the spiritual power of the natural world.
4. What was the main source of food for the Plains Indians?

• Cultures Under Pressure (page 298)

Native Americans resisted the advance of settlers on their lands. They
resented the broken treaties of the government and their forced movement
from their lands. They resisted by attacking wagon trains and ranches.
Eventually the resistance turned into a war.
The Dakota Sioux had agreed to live on a small reservation in Minnesota. In
exchange for moving there, the U.S. government issued annuities, or pay-

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

ments to the Native Americans at least once per year. The money did not
amount to much, and much of it ended up in the hands of American traders.
These traders often made up fake debts owed them by the Dakota and took
the annuities as payments.
In August 1862, the government was a month late in paying the annuities.
As a result, some of the Dakota were starving. Chief Little Crow asked the
traders to give the Dakota food on credit. When they refused, he led an upris-
ing. Angry Dakota slaughtered soldiers and civilians in the area. U.S. troops
then put down the uprising. The military sentenced 307 Dakota to death for
taking part in the uprising. President Lincoln reduced the number to 38.
After the uprising, the army sent patrols far into the northern Great Plains
to prevent further trouble with the Sioux there. This caused more conflict. The
soldiers came into contact with the Lakota, a branch of the Sioux. The Lakota
hunting grounds extended from the Black Hills westward to the Bighorn
Mountains. They intended to fight to keep their lands. Their chiefs included
Red Cloud, Crazy Horse, and Sitting Bull.
In 1866 Red Cloud’s forces defeated the U.S. army in a battle in Montana
that became known as Fetterman’s Massacre. Tensions also arose in Colorado,

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Study Guide
Chapter 8, Section 3 (continued)

where thousands of settlers were moving in. Native Americans began raiding
wagon trains, and many settlers were killed. The governor of the territory
ordered the Native Americans to surrender at Fort Lyon. He said they would
be given protection and food. Those that did not surrender would be attacked.
Although several hundred surrendered, many did not. In November 1864,
Chief Black Kettle brought several hundred Cheyenne to negotiate a peace
deal. The fort’s commander did not have the authority to negotiate, so he told
the Chief to wait at Sand Creek while he waited for orders. Then Colonel John
Chivington was ordered to attack the Cheyenne there. When he stopped at
Fort Lyon, Chivington was told that the Native Americans were waiting at
Sand Creek to negotiate a peace deal. Chivington claimed there would be no
peace. No one knows how events actually happened. However, reports said
the Chivington’s troops attacked the Cheyenne, killing hundreds of women
and children. Chivington was investigated by a Senate committee, which
decided not to charge him.
Conflicts such as the Fetterman’s and the Sand Creek Massacres convinced
Congress that something had to be done. In 1867 Congress formed an Indian
Peace Commission. It proposed to create two large reservations—one for the
Sioux and another for southern Plains Indians. Agents from the Bureau of
Indian Affairs would run the reservations. However, many Native Americans
refused to move to the reservations. Those who did move faced miserable
conditions.
5. Why did Congress form the Indian Peace Commission?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

• The Last Native American Wars (page 301)

By the 1870s, many Native Americans had left the reservations. They hated
their life there and joined those who did not move there to hunt buffalo on the
open Plains. However, the buffalo were quickly disappearing. People crossing
the Plains had killed off thousands. After the Civil War, professional buffalo
hunters killed buffalo for their hides to ship to markets in the East. Other
hunters killed merely for the sport. Railroad companies hired people to kill
large numbers of buffalo that were blocking rail lines. The government
encouraged this killing because it forced Native Americans onto reservations.

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Study Guide
Chapter 8, Section 3 (continued)

In 1876 miners overran the Lakota Sioux reservation to mine gold in the
Black Hills. Seeing that the whites were violating the treaty, many Lakota left
the reservation to hunt near the Bighorn Mountains in southeastern Montana.
The government sent an expedition that included Lieutenant Colonel George
A. Custer. On June 25, 1876, he attacked one of the largest groups of Native
American warriors to ever come together on the Great Plains. It was made up
of 2,500 Lakota and Cheyenne warriors camped along the Little Bighorn
River. The warriors responded to the attack by Custer and about 210 soldiers
by killing all of them. The army then stepped up its campaign against the
Native Americans. Some Native Americans, led by Sitting Bull, fled to
Canada. Other Lakota were forced back on the reservation.
In 1877 members of the Nez Perce, led by Chief Joseph, refused to move
from their lands to a reservation in Idaho. When the army came to force them
to move, they fled for more than 1,300 miles. However, in October 1877, after
losing many of his followers in battles, Chief Joseph surrendered. His follow-
ers were moved to Oklahoma.
The Lakota continued to perform the Ghost Dance, a ritual that was impor-
tant to them, on the Lakota Sioux Reservation. They did so against the orders
of the government agent at the reservation. The ritual celebrated a hoped-for
day when settlers would disappear and the buffalo would return. The govern-
ment agent thought the ritual was threatening. He blamed the refusal to stop
the Ghost Dance on Sitting Bull. When police came to arrest him, Sitting Bull
resisted. He died in an exchange of gunfire. The Native Americans who par-
ticipated in the Ghost Dance then fled the reservation. The troops went after
them. On December 29, 1890, a battle broke out at Wounded Knee Creek.

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

About 25 soldiers and 200 Lakota were killed.
6. Why did the United States government support the killing of the buffalo on the Great Plains?

• Assimilation (page 302)

Some Americans had opposed the government’s treatment of Native
Americans. Helen Hunt Jackson’s book, A Century of Dishonor, described the
government’s broken promises and attacks on Native Americans. Her descrip-
tions led to discussions, even in Congress, of better treatment of Native
Americans. Some people believed that the Native Americans’ situation would
improve if they could assimilate, or be absorbed, into American culture as citi-
zens and landowners. This meant breaking up the reservations into individual
allotments, or pieces of land, where families could support themselves.

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Study Guide
Chapter 8, Section 3 (continued)

In 1887 Congress passed the Dawes Act. It gave each head of a household
160 acres of reservation land for farming. Although some Native Americans
succeeded as farmers, many did not want to be farmers. Many found that the
size of the land they received was too small to be profitable.
In the end, the idea of assimilation failed. There was no satisfactory solu-
tion to the problem of the Native Americans. The Plains Indians were doomed
because they depended on the buffalo for food, shelter, and clothing. Once the
herds were wiped out, the Native Americans could not keep up their way of
life. Few were willing to adopt the settlers’ way of life.
7. What did some people in the late 1800s believe was necessary to improve the situation of
Native Americans?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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Study Guide
Chapter 9, Section 1
For use with textbook pages 308–312

THE RISE OF INDUSTRY

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
gross national product the total value of all goods and services produced by a country (page 308)
Edwin Drake drilled first oil well in Pennsylvania in 1859 (page 309)
laissez-faire belief that government should not interfere in a nation’s economy (page 310)
entrepreneurs people who risk their capital in organizing and running a business (page 310)
Morrill Tariff a tariff passed by the Republican Congress after the Civil War (page 310)
Alexander Graham Bell inventor of the telephone (page 311)
Thomas Alva Edison inventor of many devices, including the phonograph and the light bulb
(page 312)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

What invention do you think is the most important to your way of life?
How would your life be different without it?
In this section, you will learn how an increase in population led to a rapid
increase in industry. You will also learn how inventions contributed to indus-
trial growth.

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII
Use the diagram below to help you take notes. Several factors contributed to
the growth of industries in the United States in the late 1800s. Describe seven of
these factors.

2. 3.

1.

Growth of 4.
Industries
7.

6. 5.

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Study Guide
Chapter 9, Section 1 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• The United States Industrializes (page 308)
After the Civil War, industry grew rapidly. Many people left their farms to
find work in factories. By the early 1900s, the United States had become one of
the world’s leading industrial nations. By 1914 the gross national product
(GNP), or the total value of all goods and services produced by a country—
was eight times greater than it had been at the end of the Civil War.
One reason that industries expanded was that the United States had many
natural resources that industries needed. Factories could get these resources
cheaply without having to import them. Many resources were located in the
West. The transcontinental railroad brought settlers to the region and moved
the resources to the factories in the East.
At the same time, a new resource—petroleum—was being developed. This
resource was in demand even before the automobile was invented. Petroleum
could be turned into kerosene, which was used in lanterns and stoves. In 1859
Edwin Drake drilled the first oil well near Titusville, Pennsylvania. Soon more
oil fields were developed across the country. Oil production helped to expand
the nation’s economy.
In addition to natural resources, a population increase provided factories
with a larger workforce. It also provided a demand for the goods that these
factories produced. The population increase was the result of large families
and an increase in immigrants. Between 1870 and 1910, about 20 million
immigrants came to the United States.
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

8. What one resource helped to expand the nation’s economy?

• Free Enterprise (page 310)

The United States’s industries also expanded because of the free enterprise
system. In the late 1800s, Americans took on a laissez-faire policy toward the
economy. Those who supported it believed that the government should not
interfere in the economy. Laissez-faire relies on supply and demand, not the
government, to set prices and wages. The theory states that a free market, in
which companies compete, leads to more wealth for everyone. It also proposes
that taxes should be low and the government’s debt should be kept limited.
The idea of gaining wealth attracted people into businesses. Entrepreneurs, or
people who risk their capital in organizing and running a business, began
developing businesses in hopes of making profits for themselves.
By the late 1800s, New Englanders had saved a great deal of money from
trade, fishing, and manufacturing. Many invested the money in setting up fac-
tories and in building railroads. Europeans, particularly from Great Britain,
also invested in American industries.

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Study Guide
Chapter 9, Section 1 (continued)

9. In what did many entrepreneurs invest their money?

• Government’s Role in Industrialism (page 310)

In the late 1800s, the United States government practiced laissez-faire. It
kept taxes and spending low. It did not pass laws to regulate industries, and it
did not control prices.
In some ways, however, the government introduced policies that were
intended to help industry. Congress passed the Morrill Tariff. This increased
tariffs dramatically, which meant that imports became more expensive than
American goods. It also provided land grants to western railroads. The gov-
ernment also sold public lands with mineral resources for much less than
their value.
High tariffs opposed laissez-faire policies. Tariffs also hurt many
Americans. When the United States raised tariffs on foreign goods, foreign
countries then raised their tariffs against American goods. This hurt
Americans who were trying to sell their goods overseas, particularly farmers.
Many farmers left their farms to take jobs in the new factories.
Before the early 1900s, many business leaders and Congress believed that
tariffs were necessary to help the new American industries compete with the
large established European industries. By the early 1900s, however, many
Americans were large and competitive. Many business leaders now believed
that they could compete internationally and do well. As a result, they began
to push for free trade.

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

10. What policies did the federal government introduce to help industry?

• New Inventions (page 311)

Inventions also contributed to the growth of industries. In 1876 Alexander
Graham Bell developed the telephone. This invention changed both business
and personal communication.
Thomas Alva Edison created many inventions. Two major inventions were
the phonograph and the light bulb. In 1882 the Edison Electric Illuminating
Company began to supply electric power to customers in New York City.
Electric power changed American society.
Technology affected other parts of American society. In 1877 Gustavus Swift
shipped the first refrigerated load of fresh meat. The widespread use of refrig-
eration kept food fresh longer.

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Study Guide
Chapter 9, Section 1 (continued)

New machines helped the textile industry produce cloth faster. Standard
sizes were used to make ready-made clothes. The clothing business moved
from small shops to large factories.
New methods and inventions increased production in the shoe industry.
Large factories now mass-produced shoes more cheaply and efficiently
than small shops could. These changes resulted in lower prices for American
consumers.
11. How did the invention of the telephone change American society?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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Study Guide
Chapter 9, Section 2
For use with textbook pages 314–318

THE RAILROADS

KEY TERMS AND NAMES

Pacific Railway Act the law that provided for the construction of a transcontinental railroad
(page 315)
Grenville Dodge engineer that helped direct the building of the Union Pacific Railroad
(page 315)
Leland Stanford one of the “Big Four” who made a huge fortune by investing in the Central
Pacific Railroad Company (page 315)
Cornelius Vanderbilt consolidated three railroads to form the New York Central (page 316)
time zone the division of the United States into regions where the same time was kept
(page 316)
land grant portions of land given by the federal government to railroad companies (page 317)
Jay Gould entrepreneur who used information he received as a railroad owner to manipulate
stock prices for his benefit (page 318)
Crédit Mobilier scandal involving the Union Pacific (page 318)
James J. Hill entrepreneur who built the Great Northern Railroad (page 318)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

What is the main form of transportation you use when you travel long dis-
tances? Have you ever traveled long distances by train? What was your
experience like?
The last section discussed the reasons for industrial growth in the United
States. This section discusses the effects of the railroad on the nation’s economy.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the diagram below to help you take notes. Railroads grew in the
United States in the 1800s. List three causes for this growth.

Causes Effect

1.

2.
Railroads Grew

3.

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Chapter 9, Section 2 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• Linking the Nation (page 314)
In 1862 President Lincoln signed the Pacific Railway Act. This law called for
the building of a transcontinental railroad by the Union Pacific and the
Central Pacific railroad companies. To encourage the companies, the govern-
ment gave each company land along the route of the tracks.
Grenville Dodge, a former Union general, directed the building of the Union
Pacific. It started in Omaha, Nebraska, in 1865. At one time the Union Pacific
employed about 10,000 workers. They included Civil War veterans, immi-
grants, miners, farmers, and ex-convicts.
A Connecticut engineer sold stock in the Central Pacific Railroad Company
to four merchants in California. One of the investors was Leland Stanford, who
made a huge fortune, founded Stanford University, and later became a U.S.
Senator. The Central Pacific Railroad Company hired about 10,000 workers
from China, because there was a labor shortage in California.
4. What two companies were involved in building the first transcontinental railroad?

• Railroads Spur Growth (page 316)

By 1860 the United States had hundreds of unconnected railroad lines.
Many capitalists in the East saw this as an opportunity to create a single rail
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

transportation system from all these unconnected lines. In the 1880s, large rail
lines combined hundreds of small ones. One of the most famous consolidators
was Cornelius Vanderbilt. By 1869 he had merged three short New York rail-
roads to form the New York Central. He then extended his control over lines
all the way to Chicago.
Before the 1880s, each community set their clocks by the sun’s position at
high noon. For example, when it was 12:50 P.M. in Chicago, it was 11:41 A.M. in
St. Paul, Minnesota. This created a problem for train scheduling and for pas-
senger safety. To make rail service more reliable, in 1883 the American
Railway Association divided the country into four time zones in regions
where the same time was kept.
The large railroad systems benefited the nation in many ways. They could
shift rail cars from one section of the country to another. Long-distance trans-
portation was faster. New technology allowed railroads to put longer and
heavier trains on their lines. More powerful locomotives helped make railroad
operations more efficient and less expensive. Railroads also united people
from different regions of the country.

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Study Guide
Chapter 9, Section 2 (continued)

5. How did large railroad systems benefit the nation?

• The Land Grant System (page 317)

The government helped encourage railroad building by giving many rail-
road companies land grants. Railroads would then sell the land to settlers and
businesses to raise the money they needed to build the railroad. By the 1860s,
the railroads owned an area of land larger than New England, New York, and
Pennsylvania combined. Some railroad companies earned enough money
from the land grants to pay for the entire cost of building their lines.
6. What did railroad companies do with the land grants they received from the government?

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

• Robber Barons (page 317)
Some railroad entrepreneurs in the late 1800s got their wealth by cheating
investors, bribing government officials, and cheating on their contracts. Jay
Gould was famous for these actions. He used information he received as a rail-
road owner to manipulate stock prices for his benefit.
Bribery occurred often with federal and state governments. Railroad
investors knew that they could make more money by getting government
land grants than by operating the railroad. As a result, investors bribed mem-
bers of Congress and state legislatures to vote for more land grants.
The Crédit Mobilier was a construction company that several stockholders
in the Union Pacific set up. The investors set up contracts with themselves.
Crédit Mobilier greatly overcharged the Union Pacific for the work it did.
Because the investors owned both companies, the railroad agreed to pay. The
investors had made several million dollars by the time the Union Pacific was
completed. However, the railroad had used up its land grants and was almost
bankrupt. To convince Congress to give the railroad more grants, one of the

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Study Guide
Chapter 9, Section 2 (continued)

investors gave some members of Congress shares in the Union Pacific at a

price well below what the shares were worth. In the 1872 election campaign, a
letter to a New York newspaper listed the members of Congress who had
accepted the shares. A further investigation into the scandal showed that the
vice president at the time also had accepted money from the railroad.
Not all railroad entrepreneurs were robber barons, or people who loot an
industry and give nothing back. James J. Hill, an entrepreneur, built the Great
Northern Railroad without federal land grants. He planned the route to pass
by towns in the region. To increase business, he promised settlers low fares if
they settled along his route. He transported American-made products that
were in demand in China to Washington State, where they were shipped to
Asia. In this way the railroad made money by transporting goods both east
and west. The Great Northern became the most successful transcontinental
railroad and one that did not eventually go bankrupt.
7. Why did railroad owners bribe members of Congress and state legislatures to vote for more
land grants?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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Study Guide
Chapter 9, Section 3
For use with textbook pages 319–323

BIG BUSINESS
KEY TERMS AND NAMES
corporation an organization owned by many people but treated by law as though it were a
single person (page 320)
stockholders people who own a corporation through shares of ownership (page 320)
stock shares of ownership (page 320)
economies of scale ability of large manufacturing facilities to produce more goods more
cheaply (page 320)
fixed costs costs a company has to pay whether it is operating or not (page 320)
operating costs costs that occur when running a company (page 320)
pool agreement among companies to maintain prices at a certain level (page 320)
Andrew Carnegie made the steel industry a large business (page 320)
Bessemer process process for making high quality steel efficiently and cheaply (page 321)
vertical integration the joining of different types of businesses that are involved in the
operation of a particular company (page 321)
horizontal integration the joining of many firms involved in the same type of business into
one large corporation (page 321)
monopoly a single company that controls an entire market (page 321)
trust a legal concept that allows a person to manage another person’s property (page 322)

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

holding company a company that owns the stocks of companies that produce goods (page 322)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

Where do you shop for things such as clothes? Do you shop in large stores?
Do you shop on the Internet? How does advertising influence what and
where you buy things?
The last section described the impact that railroads had on the nation’s
economy. This section discusses the development of large corporations in the
United States.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the diagram on the next page to help you take notes. The ways that
retailers marketed and sold their goods changed in the late 1800s. In the dia-
gram, list four ways that retailing changed.

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Study Guide
Chapter 9, Section 3 (continued)

1. 2.

Changes in
Marketing and
Selling Goods

3. 4.

READ TO LEARNII
• The Rise of Big Business (page 319)
By 1900 big businesses dominated the nation’s economy. Big businesses
became possible because of the corporation. This is an organization owned by
many people but treated by law as though it were a single person. The people
who own a corporation are called stockholders. They own shares of ownership
called stock. By issuing stock, a corporation can raise large amounts of money
while spreading out the financial risk.
Corporations used the money they received from selling stock to invest in
new technologies, to hire many workers, and to buy many machines.
Corporations were able to achieve economies of scale, in which they made
goods more cheaply because they could manufacture many goods quickly.
Businesses have two kinds of costs. Fixed costs are costs a company has to
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

pay whether or not it is operating, such as taxes. Operating costs are costs that
occur when actually running a company, such as paying wages and buying
supplies. Before the Civil War, small companies usually had low fixed costs
but high operating costs. If sales decreased, these companies found it cheaper
to shut down. Corporations, on the other hand, had high fixed costs. They
needed large amounts of money to build and keep up a factory. However,
they had low operating costs. Wages and transportation costs made up a
small part of a corporation’s costs. As a result, corporations could keep oper-
ating even when the economy suffered a downturn. Corporations could cut
prices to increase sales, rather than shutting down. Small businesses had high
operating costs, so they could not compete with big businesses and many
went out of business. Many people criticized the corporations for cutting
prices. They believed that these corporations used their wealth to drive small
companies out of business.
5. What advantage did issuing stocks offer corporations?

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Study Guide
Chapter 9, Section 3 (continued)

• The Consolidation of Industry (page 320)

Many corporate leaders did not like the competition that they were facing.
Lower prices helped consumers, but they also cut into the corporation’s prof-
its. To stop prices from falling, many corporations organized pools, which are
agreements to keep prices at a certain level. Companies that formed pools
did not get legal protection. The nation’s courts believed that pools went
against competition and property rights. Pools generally did not last long.
They fell apart whenever one company lowered prices to take the market
share away from another company. By the 1870s, competition left only a few
large corporations.
Andrew Carnegie was a poor immigrant who rose to become a leader in
business. After a variety of jobs, Carnegie became a railroad supervisor. He
soon realized that he could make more money by investing in companies that
served the railroad industry. On a trip to Europe, Carnegie met Henry
Bessemer, who had invented the Bessemer process—a new way of making
steel cheaply and efficiently. Carnegie then decided to invest his money in the
steel industry. He opened a steel company in Pittsburgh in 1875 and quickly
adapted his steel mills to use the Bessemer process.
To make his business even bigger, Carnegie began the vertical integration of
the steel industry. A vertically integrated company owns all the different busi-
nesses that it depends on to run. Carnegie’s company bought coal mines and
iron ore fields. Owning these companies saved Carnegie money and made his
company bigger.
Business leaders also looked to horizontal integration, which involved com-
bining many companies involved in the same business into one large

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

corporation. When a single company gains control of an entire market, it
becomes a monopoly. Many people opposed monopolies because they
believed that a monopoly could charge whatever price it wanted for its prod-
ucts. Some people, however, believed that monopolies helped to keep prices
low because raising prices would cause the competition to reappear.
Many states made it illegal for a company to own stock in another com-
pany without getting permission from the state legislature. As a result, in 1882
the Standard Oil Company formed the first trust. This was a new way of com-
bining companies that did not go against the laws that made owning other
companies illegal. A trust is a legal concept that allows a person to manage
another person’s property. The person who manages another person’s prop-
erty is called a trustee.
Instead of buying other companies, Standard Oil had stockholders give
their stocks to a few Standard Oil trustees. These stockholders received shares
in a trust. They were able to get a part of the trust’s profits. The trustees did
not own the stock, but were just managing it for someone else. Therefore, they
were not violating the law. In this way, the trustees controlled a group of com-
panies as if they were one large company.

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Study Guide
Chapter 9, Section 3 (continued)

In 1889 New Jersey passed a law that helped increase big business. The law
allowed corporations in New Jersey to own stock in other businesses without
getting permission from the state legislature. Many companies reacted to the
law by creating a new organization called a holding company. A holding com-
pany does not produce anything itself. Instead, it owns the stock of companies
that do produce goods. The holding company controls all the companies,
combining them into one large corporation.
6. In what two ways did Andrew Carnegie and other business leaders try to make their busi-
nesses larger?

• Selling the Product (page 323)

By the late 1800s, the United States was producing a wide variety of prod-
ucts. Companies needed to find ways to market and sell these goods. The way
of advertising began to change. Large display ads replaced the small ads in
newspapers.
Department stores changed the idea of shopping by bringing together a
variety of products in a large, elegant building. Chain stores, which were a
group of similar stores owned by the same company, also changed the way
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

people shopped. Chain stores offered low prices instead of special services
and elegant surroundings. To reach people who lived in rural areas far from
department and chain stores, retailers began to use mail-order catalogs.
7. How did the way retailers advertise goods change in the 1800s?

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Study Guide
Chapter 9, Section 4
For use with textbook pages 326–331

UNIONS
KEY TERMS AND NAMES
deflation a rise in the value of money (page 327)
trade unions unions that were limited to people with specific skills (page 327)
industrial union unions that represented all craft workers and common laborers in a particular
industry (page 327)
blacklist a list of people who tried to organize a union or strike and were considered trouble-
makers by employers (page 328)
lockout a method used by employers to prevent unions from forming (page 328)
Marxism the ideas of Karl Marx (page 328)
Knights of Labor the first nationwide industrial union (page 329)
arbitration a process in which an impartial third party helps workers and management reach an
agreement (page 330)
closed shop a system in which companies could only hire union members (page 330)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

What are unions? Why do people join unions? Do you think unions are

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

important for workers? Why or why not?
The last section discussed the rise of big business in the United States. This
section discusses the reaction of workers to big businesses—the rise of unions.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the diagram below to help you take notes. Employers in the late 1800s
tried to stop unions from forming. Describe four of these actions in the chart.

Ways Employers Stopped Unions From Forming

1. 2. 3. 4.

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Study Guide
Chapter 9, Section 4 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• Working in the United States (page 326)
Conditions for workers in industries were difficult. Work was monotonous
and repetitive. Workers often worked in unhealthy and unsafe environments.
However, industrialization brought people a higher standard of living.
The difference in the standard of living between the wealthy owners and
the working class was great. For this reason, workers often resented the
wealthy. Relations between workers and the employers grew worse in the late
1800s because of deflation. This is a rise in the value of money. This caused
prices to fall and it increased what workers could buy with their wages. As a
result, companies began cutting workers’ wages. Workers were upset because
they were getting less money for the same work. Many workers decided that
the best way to improve their conditions was to organize into unions.
5. Why did employers cut workers’ wages in the late 1800s?

• Early Unions (page 327)

There were two kinds of workers in industries in the 1800s. Craft workers
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

had special skills and training. They included machinists, shoemakers, and
carpenters. Common laborers had few skills. Craft workers generally received
higher wages for their work than common laborers did. In the 1830s, craft
workers began to form trade unions. These were unions that were limited to
people with specific skills. By the early 1870s, there were over 30 national
trade unions in the United States.
Employers had to deal with trade unions because they needed the skills the
workers in the unions had. However, they thought unions interfered with
property rights. Employers of large corporations particularly opposed indus-
trial unions. These unions represented all craft workers and common laborers
in a particular industry.
Employers tried to stop unions from forming in their companies in several
ways. They required workers to sign contracts promising not to join unions.
They hired detectives to point out union organizers. Those who tried to start a
union or strike were fired and placed on a blacklist—a list of “troublemakers.”
Once a worker was blacklisted, a person found it almost impossible to get
hired. If workers did form a union, companies often used a lockout to break it.
The employers locked workers out of the factory and refused to pay them. If
the union called a strike, employers would hire replacement workers.

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Study Guide
Chapter 9, Section 4 (continued)

Workers who wanted to organize unions faced several problems. No laws

gave them the right to organize. Some people thought that unions threatened
American institutions. Others believed that unions were influenced by
Marxism—the ideas of Karl Marx. Marx believed the basic force that shaped
society was the conflict between workers and owners. He believed that even-
tually workers would revolt, take control of the factories, and overthrow the
government. He believed that then the government would take all private
property and distribute wealth evenly among everyone. Marxism greatly
influenced European unions.
Some workers supported anarchism. They believed that government was
not necessary. They believed a few violent acts could start a revolution and
get rid of governments. As Marxist ideas spread in Europe, thousands of
European immigrants began arriving in the United States. Some Americans
began associating European immigrants with anarchism. Because many work-
ers were European immigrants, these Americans also became suspicious of
unions.
6. Why were some Americans suspicious of unions?

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

• The Struggle to Organize (page 328)
Although many workers tried to organize unions, they were not often suc-
cessful. In 1873 a severe economic recession hit the nation. This forced many
companies to cut wages. In July 1877, several railroads cut wages again. This
started a nationwide workers’ protest. Railroad workers across the nation
walked off their jobs. Some workers turned to violence. Several state militias
were called out to stop the violence. Gun battles sometimes broke out
between the militia and the striking workers. President Hayes finally ordered
the army to open the railroads.
Many labor organizers now believed that workers across the nation needed
to be better organized. They organized the first nationwide industrial union,
the Knights of Labor. The Knights called for an eight-hour workday. They sup-
ported equal pay for women, the end of child labor, and worker-owned
factories. At first, they opposed the use of strikes. The Knights’ leaders sup-
ported the use of arbitration. This is a process in which an impartial third
party helps workers and management reach an agreement. However, in the
early 1880s, they began to use strikes. They were successful at first, and mem-
bership in the union soared.

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Study Guide
Chapter 9, Section 4 (continued)

In 1886 union organizers called for a nationwide strike on May 1 to show

support for the eight-hour workday. On May 3, a clash between strikers and
police at Haymarket Square in Chicago left a striker dead. The next day an
anarchist group organized a meeting to protest the killing. About 3,000 people
showed up. Someone threw a bomb, the police opened fire, and workers shot
back. Seven police officers and four workers died. The police arrested eight
men, who were German immigrants and supported anarchism. Many people
were upset about the arrest. Even though no one knew who threw the bomb,
the men were convicted and four of them were executed. One of the men who
was arrested was a member of the Knights of Labor. This hurt the union’s rep-
utation, and the union quickly lost members.
Another industrial union formed during the late 1800s was the American
Railway Union (ARU). Its leader was Eugene V. Debs. One company the ARU
unionized was the Pullman Palace Car Company in Illinois. The company had
built a town, named Pullman, near its factory. Workers in the company were
required to live there and to buy goods from the company stores. In 1893,
when a recession hit the United States, the Pullman Company cut wages.
Workers were unable to pay their rent or the high prices at the stores. In 1894
the company fired three workers who complained. A strike began in protest.
The strike tied up the railroads and threatened the nation’s economy. Railroad
managers attached U.S. mail cars to the Pullman cars. If the strikers refused to
go back to work now, they would be violating a federal law. President Grover
Cleveland sent in troops to keep the mail running. A federal court ordered the
union to stop the strike. Both the strike and the union ended.
7. Why did the Knights of Labor lose members after the Haymarket Riot?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

• The American Federation of Labor (page 330)

Although industrial unions were not very successful in the late 1800s, trade
unions were. Over twenty of the nation’s trade unions organized the
American Federation of Labor (AFL). Samuel Gompers was the union’s first
leader. He believed that unions should stay out of politics. He believed that
they should fight for things such as higher wages and better working condi-
tions. He preferred negotiation over strikes. The AFL had three goals. It tried
to convince companies to recognize unions and to agree to negotiations. It
pushed for closed shops, in which companies hired only union members. It
pushed for an eight-hour workday.

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Study Guide
Chapter 9, Section 4 (continued)

By 1900 the AFL was the largest union in the country. However, by 1900
most workers in the nation were still not union members.
8. What were three goals of the American Federation of Labor?

• Working Women (page 331)

After the Civil War, the number of women who earned wages increased.
About one-third of these women worked as servants. Another third worked
as teachers, nurses, or secretaries. The final third were industrial workers.
Many of these women worked in clothing and food processing factories.
Women were paid less than men, and most unions did not include women. As
a result, in 1903 two women founded the Women’s Trade Union League
(WTUL). This was the first union organized to address women’s labor issues.
9. Why was the Women’s Trade Union League formed?

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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Study Guide
Chapter 10, Section 1
For use with textbook pages 336–340

IMMIGRATION
KEY TERMS AND NAMES
steerage the most basic and cheapest accommodations on a steamship (page 337)
Ellis Island a tiny island in New York Harbor and a processing center for immigrants in the late
1800s (page 338)
Jacob Riis Danish-born journalist who wrote about the urban poor (page 339)
Angel Island a processing center in California for Asian immigrants in the late 1800s (page 339)
nativism an extreme dislike for foreigners by native-born people and a desire to limit immigra-
tion (page 340)
Chinese Exclusion Act a law that barred Chinese immigration for 10 years and prevented the
Chinese already in the country from becoming citizens (page 340)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

Have you ever visited New York City? Have you visited the Statue of
Liberty? What importance does this statue have for many people?
In this section, you will learn about immigration to the United States in the
late 1800s. You will also learn about the reaction of Americans toward this
immigration.
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the diagram below to help you take notes. In the late 1800s, people
from eastern and southern Europe and from Asia came to the United States
for several reasons. List these reasons in the diagram.

1. 2. 4. 5.

Reasons for Reasons for

European Chinese
Immigration Immigration

3. 6.

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Study Guide
Chapter 10, Section 1 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• Europeans Flood Into the United States (page 336)
More than half of all immigrants who came to the United States by 1900
were from eastern and southern Europe. They immigrated for a variety of rea-
sons. Some came for jobs. Some came to avoid forced military service in their
countries. Others, particularly Jews, came to avoid religious persecution.
Most immigrants who came to the United States booked passage in steer-
age, which was the most basic and cheapest accommodations on a steamship.
After about two weeks, they arrived at Ellis Island. This was a tiny island in
New York Harbor. Immigrants were required to pass a medical exam. They
would generally pass through Ellis Island in about a day.
Many immigrants who passed inspection settled in cities such as New York,
Chicago, Milwaukee, and Detroit. Immigrants in cities generally lived in
neighborhoods that were separated into ethnic groups. Journalist Jacob Riis
observed that New York City was filled with ethnic communities. There they
spoke their native languages, worshiped in their churches or synagogues, and
published their own newspapers.
Some immigrants did not stay in America. Some came just to make money
and then return home. Some could not make enough money. Others became
homesick. Those who adjusted well generally learned English quickly and
adapted to the American culture. Those immigrants who had marketable
skills or who settled among members of their own ethnic group also adjusted
more easily to life in the United States.

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

7. Where did many immigrants who arrived at Ellis Island in the late 1800s settle?

• Asian Immigration to America (page 339)

In the mid-1800s, many Chinese immigrants arrived in the United States.
Many came to escape the poverty and famine in their country. The discovery
of gold in California in 1848 brought many Chinese immigrants there. A rebel-
lion in China also led many Chinese to come to the United States. In addition,
the demand for railroad workers on the transcontinental railroad increased
Chinese immigration.
Chinese immigrants settled in western cities. They often worked as labor-
ers, servants, or in skilled trades. Some worked as merchants.

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Study Guide
Chapter 10, Section 1 (continued)

In 1910 California opened a barracks on Angel Island to accommodate Asian

immigrants, who were mostly young men. There, immigrants waited for their
immigration to be processed. Their wait, in crowded conditions, sometimes
lasted months.
8. What kinds of jobs did many Chinese immigrants to the United States generally take on?

• The Resurgence of Nativism (page 340)

The increase of immigration to the United States in the late 1800s led to
increased feelings of nativism. This is a preference for native-born people and
a desire to limit immigration. In the late 1800s, these feelings focused on east-
ern Europeans, Jews, and Asians.
Some nativists feared that the number of Catholics from Europe would take
over the mostly Protestant United States. They feared that the Catholic
Church would have too much power in the nation’s government. Labor
unions were against immigration because they believed that immigrants
would work for low wages or work as strikebreakers.
Some nativists formed anti-immigrant organizations. The American Protec-
tive Association worked to stop Catholic immigration. In the West, the
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Workingman’s Party of California worked to stop Chinese immigration.

Concerns over unchecked immigration pushed Congress to create immigra-
tion limits. In 1882 a law banned convicts and the mentally disabled from
coming to the United States. It placed a 50-cent head tax on each immigrant
arriving in the United States. Congress also passed the Chinese Exclusion Act.
This law banned Chinese immigration for 10 years. It also prevented the
Chinese already in the country from becoming citizens. The Chinese in the
United States protested the law. They pointed to the fact that laws did not ban
European immigration. However, Congress renewed the law in 1892 and made
it permanent in 1902. It did not repeal the Chinese Exclusion Act until 1943.
9. Why did some nativists fear immigration from Europe?

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Study Guide
Chapter 10, Section 2
For use with textbook pages 341–345

URBANIZATION
KEY TERMS AND NAMES
skyscraper tall steel frame buildings (page 342)
Louis Sullivan architect who designed skyscrapers (page 342)
tenement dark and crowded multi-family apartments in cities (page 343)
political machine an informal political group designed to gain and keep power (page 345)
party boss individual who ran a political machine (page 345)
George Plunkitt a powerful party boss in New York City (page 345)
graft getting money through dishonest or questionable means (page 345)
William M. Tweed corrupt political boss of Tammany Hall, a New York Democratic political
machine (page 345)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

Do you live in or have you visited a large city? What are some positive
aspects of a city? What are some negative aspects?
The last section discussed immigration to the United States in the late
1800s. This section describes how the United States changed from a rural to an
urban nation.

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII
Use the diagram below to help you take notes. A new kind of political sys-
tem developed in cities to deal with problems there. Show how this system
worked in the diagram below.

Provided
1.
Political Bosses City Dwellers
Provided
2.

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Study Guide
Chapter 10, Section 2 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• Americans Migrate to the Cities (page 341)
By the 1890s, the urban population of the United States increased greatly.
Most of the immigrants who arrived did not have the money to buy farms or
the education to get high-paying jobs. They settled in the cities, where they
worked for low wages in the factories. Even though the wages were low, the
standard of living for most immigrants had improved. Farmers also moved to
the cities looking for better-paying jobs. Cities offered running water and
modern plumbing. It also had things to do, including museums and theaters.
3. Why did many immigrants work in low-paying factory jobs in the cities?

• The New Urban Environment (page 342)

As city populations increased, the demand for land increased its price. As a
result, people began building upward rather than outward. Tall, steel frame
buildings called skyscrapers were constructed in the nation’s cities. Louis
Sullivan was famous for his skyscraper designs.
Different kinds of transportation developed in the late 1800s to move the
large numbers of people around the cities. At first cities used horsecars for
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

transportation. These were railroad cars pulled by horses. Some cities, such as
San Francisco, began using cable cars. They were pulled along tracks by
underground cables. Some cities began using the electric trolley car. In large
cities, congestion on streets became a problem. As a result, some cities built
elevated railroads or subway systems.
4. Why did some cities begin using elevated railroads and subway systems for their transporta-
tion needs?

• Separation by Class (page 343)

Wealthy people, the middle class, and the working class lived in different
parts of the cities. The wealthy lived in fashionable districts in the heart of the
city, where they built large, beautiful homes.
Industrialization contributed to a growing middle class in the nation.
The middle class included doctors, lawyers, engineers, and teachers. Many
middle-class people moved from the heart of the cities to suburbs. Commuter
rail lines helped to connect the suburbs to the cities.

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Study Guide
Chapter 10, Section 2 (continued)

The working class generally lived in tenements, or dark and crowded

multi-family apartments, in the cities.
5. Where did wealthy people generally live in the nation’s cities?

• Urban Problems (page 344)

People living in cities in the late 1800s faced several problems. They faced
the threat of crime, violence, disease, and pollution. Native-born Americans
often blamed immigrants for the increase in crime and violence in the cities.
Alcohol did contribute to the increase in violent crimes.
Improper ways of getting rid of sewage contaminated drinking water and
caused diseases. Smoke from factory chimneys and soot from coal fires caused
pollution.
6. What caused diseases in the nation’s urban areas?

• Urban Politics (page 344)

A new kind of political system started in cities to deal with urban problems.
The political machine, an informal political group that was designed to gain

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

and keep power, became popular. People moving into cities needed jobs,
housing, food, and police protection. Political machines led by party bosses
provided these things in exchange for votes. George Plunkitt became one of
New York City’s most powerful party bosses.
Party bosses controlled the cities’ money. Machine politicians grew rich
through fraud or graft. They got money through dishonest or questionable
ways. For example, they accepted bribes from contractors in exchange for
awarding the contractors with city contracts.
One of the most famous political machines was Tammany Hall in New York
City. William M. Tweed was its famous corrupt party boss. City machines often
controlled city services. For example, Thomas and James Pendergast, the politi-
cal bosses in St. Louis, controlled the city’s police department. Although
political machines were corrupt, they did provide necessary services to people
living in the nation’s cities.
7. How did the cities’ political bosses grow wealthy?

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Study Guide
Chapter 10, Section 3
For use with textbook pages 348–352

THE GILDED AGE

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
Gilded Age the time period between 1870 and 1900 (page 349)
Social Darwinism the idea that society progresses and becomes better because only the fittest
people survive (page 349)
Gospel of Wealth the philosophy that wealthy people who profited from society owed it some-
thing in return (page 350)
philanthropy the using of one’s wealth to further social progress (page 350)
realism a movement in art and literature that attempted to portray people realistically
(page 350)
vaudeville a theater show that included animal acts, acrobats, gymnasts, and dancers
(page 352)
ragtime music with syncopated rhythms that grew out of riverside honkey-tonks, saloon
pianists, and banjo players (page 352)
Scott Joplin An African American ragtime composer (page 352)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

How do you and your family enjoy spending your leisure time? Does your
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

community provide the activities that you enjoy participating in?

The last section described the growth of cities in the United States in the
late 1800s. This section discusses changes in thinking and leisure activities in
the United States in the late 1800s.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the diagram below to help you take notes. Several philosophies and
movements became popular in the United States in the late 1800s. List and
describe them in the diagram.

2.

Philosophies
1. and
Movements
3.

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Study Guide
Chapter 10, Section 3 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• A Changing Culture (page 348)
The time in American history that begins about 1870 and ends around 1900
is often referred to as the Gilded Age. The term was the title of a novel by
Mark Twain and Charles Warner. The time was one of new inventions, rapid
industrial growth, growing cities, and wealthy people building huge man-
sions. The word gilded refers to something that is covered in gold only on the
outside. Twain and Warner tried to point out that although things looked
good on the outside, beneath the surface lay corruption, poverty, crime, and a
huge difference in wealth between the rich and the poor.
The Gilded Age was a time of cultural change. One of the strongest beliefs
of the time was the idea of individualism. Many people believed that no mat-
ter where they started in life, they could go as far as they were willing to go.
Horatio Alger, an author, expressed the idea of individualism in his “rags-to-
riches” novels. In these novels, a poor person generally arrived in a big city
and became successful. The novels led many people to believe that they could
overcome obstacles and become successful, too.
4. What was a strong belief of the Gilded Age?

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

• Social Darwinism (page 349)
Another important idea of the Gilded Age was proposed by the philoso-
pher Herbert Spencer. He applied the work of Charles Darwin to human
society. Darwin said that plants and animals evolved through a process called
natural selection. In this process, the species that cannot adapt to the environ-
ment in which they live gradually die out. Those that adapt survive. Spencer
applied this idea to society. He said that society progressed because only the
fittest people survived. His views became known as Social Darwinism. Those
that shared these views were known as Social Darwinists. Industrial leaders
quickly agreed with the theory. They believed themselves to be the fittest peo-
ple, and therefore deserving of the wealth they had.
Andrew Carnegie also agreed with the ideas of Social Darwinism. However,
he also believed in a philosophy called the Gospel of Wealth. This philosophy
said that wealthy people who profited from society owed it something in
return. They should take part in philanthropy—using their wealth to further
social progress. Carnegie donated millions of dollars to social causes.

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Study Guide
Chapter 10, Section 3 (continued)

5. According to Herbert Spencer, why did society progress?

• Realism (page 350)

A new movement known as realism became popular during the late 1800s.
Realism attempted to show people realistically. Thomas Eakins and other real-
ist painters often showed day-to-day activities, such as people swimming or
surgeons operating.
Realist writers tried to show the world as it is. Mark Twain is one of the
most famous of these writers. His novel Adventures of Huckleberry Finn
included a setting, subject matter, characters, and style that were totally
American. Writers such as Henry James and Edith Wharton realistically
showed the lives of the upper class.
6. What did realist writers try to show?

• Popular Culture (page 351)

With industrialization, many urban Americans in the late 1800s divided
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

their lives into time at home and time at work. Industrialization also provided
people with more money to spend on entertainment.
In many big cities, saloons played an important role in the life of male
workers. They also served as political centers. Families in the late 1800s
enjoyed their leisure time in amusement parks. Many people enjoyed watch-
ing professional boxing and baseball. Football also gained popularity. Many
people enjoyed activities that involved physical exercise. Tennis, golf, and
basketball became popular.
The theater provided other kinds of entertainment. Vaudeville, which was
based on French theater, included animal acts, acrobats, gymnasts, and
dancers. Ragtime music also became popular in the fast-paced cities. Its
rhythms were based on the patterns of African American music. Scott Joplin
was one of the most important African American ragtime composers.
7. What sports became popular in the United States in the late 1800s?

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Study Guide
Chapter 10, Section 4
For use with textbook pages 353–358

THE REBIRTH OF REFORM

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
Henry George a journalist who criticized the effects of industrialization (page 354)
Lester Frank Ward a writer who challenged the ideas of Social Darwinism (page 354)
Edward Bellamy a writer whose ideas were a form of socialism (page 355)
naturalism a new style of writing that suggested that some people failed in life because of
circumstances beyond their control (page 355)
Jane Addams reformer who established settlement houses (page 357)
settlement house residences in poor neighborhoods in which middle-class people lived and
helped poor people (page 357)
Americanization the process of becoming knowledgeable about American culture (page 357)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

What kinds of services does your community provide to help people in
need? In what ways can you help needy people in your community?
The last section discussed the changes in thinking and leisure activities that
took place in the United States in the late 1800s. This section discusses the
reforms that some people worked for to solve the problems of the urban poor.

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII
Use the diagram below to help you take notes. In the late 1800s, many peo-
ple attempted to improve the lives of the poor living in the nation’s cities. List
the movements and the organizations that tried to improve urban society.

1. 2.

Ways of Helping
Urban Poor

3. 4.

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Study Guide
Chapter 10, Section 4 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• Social Criticism (page 353)
Many people in the United States in the late 1800s began to disagree with
the ideas of individualism. They believed that many of the nation’s problems
could be solved only if Americans and the government had a role in regulat-
ing the economy and helping people who were needy.
In 1879 Henry George, a journalist, published Progress and Poverty. In it he
wrote about the widening gap between the wealthy and the poor. He believed
that the answer to the problem was land. George argued that people could
become wealthy by waiting for land prices to increase. He believed that a tax
on the land should replace all other taxes. He believed that it would help
make society more equal. It would also give the government more money to
help the poor. Although most people did not agree with George’s economic
theory, he was one of the first to challenge the ideas of Social Darwinism and
laissez-faire economics.
Lester Frank Ward also challenged the ideas of Social Darwinism. He argued
that human beings were not like animals in that they had the ability to think
ahead and make plans to get what they wanted. His ideas became known as
Reform Darwinism. He believed people succeeded because they were able to
cooperate, not because they were able to compete. He believed competition
was wasteful. Ward believed that government and not competition in the
marketplace could regulate the economy and cure poverty. Many people came
to believe that the government should be more active in trying to solve soci-
ety’s problems.
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Edward Bellamy published a book in 1888 that described life in the year 2000
as a perfect society. His ideas were a form of socialism and helped to shape
reformers’ beliefs.
5. What did Lester Ward believe could solve society’s problems?

• Naturalism in Literature (page 355)

A new style of writing known as naturalism became popular as a result of
many of the criticisms of industrial society. Naturalists challenged the ideas of
Social Darwinism that people controlled their lives and made the choices to
improve it. Naturalists believed that some people were not successful because
they had circumstances they could not control. Among the most famous natu-
ralist writers were Stephen Crane, Frank Norris, Jack London, and Theodore
Dreiser.

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Study Guide
Chapter 10, Section 4 (continued)

6. According to naturalists, why were some people not successful in life?

• Helping the Urban Poor (page 355)

Many people who criticized industrial society worked for reform. The
Social Gospel movement tried to improve conditions in cities based on ideas
in the Bible regarding charity and justice. Many supporters of the Social
Gospel movement believed that competition caused many people to behave
badly. The movement resulted in many churches providing social programs to
help people.
The Salvation Army provided help and religious counseling to poor people
in the cities. The Young Men’s Christian Association (YMCA) tried to help the
urban poor by setting up Bible studies, citizenship activities, and group activi-
ties. YMCAs quickly spread throughout the country. The facilities included
gyms, swimming pools, and low-cost hotel rooms that were available on a
temporary basis for those who needed them.
Some reformers believed it was their duty as Christians to improve condi-
tions for the poor. One such reformer was Jane Addams. She started settlement

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

houses in poor city neighborhoods. Middle-class residents lived there and
helped poor people, who were mostly immigrants. Addams started Hull
House in Chicago. She inspired other people, such as Lillian Wald, to establish
settlement houses across the country.
7. How did the YMCA try to help poor people in the cities?

• Public Education (page 357)

The new industries that developed in the late 1800s needed workers who
were trained and educated. As a result, the United States began to focus more
on building schools in the late 1800s.

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Study Guide
Chapter 10, Section 4 (continued)

The number of public schools increased greatly after the Civil War. Public
schools were especially important for immigrant children. It was there that
they became Americanized, or knowledgeable about American culture. This
Americanization, however, sometimes caused problems for immigrant chil-
dren. Many parents worried that their children would forget their own
cultural traditions. Some parents took their children out of the public schools.
Other parents took their children out because they needed them to work to
help the family survive.
Many people still did not have educational opportunities. Rural areas did
not receive the same funds as urban schools. Many African Americans did not
have equal educational opportunities. As a result, some started their own
schools. Booker T. Washington was an important leader in this movement. He
started the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama in 1881.
Schools helped prepare future workers for jobs that would get them out of
poverty. Grammar schools stressed attendance, neatness, and efficiency.
Vocational and technical schools taught skills that were needed in specific
trades.
Colleges also increased in the late 1800s. This was partly due to the Morrill
Land Grant Act. This law gave states federal land grants to start agricultural
and mechanical colleges. Between 1870 and 1890, the number of students
attending these colleges tripled.
Educational opportunities for women also expanded in the late 1800s. The
start of private women’s colleges resulted in an increase in the number of
women attending colleges.
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Free libraries also made education available to people living in cities.

Andrew Carnegie was a major supporter of public libraries, donating millions
of dollars to building them.
8. Why did attending public schools sometimes create problems for immigrant
children?

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Study Guide
Chapter 11, Section 1
For use with textbook pages 364–369

STALEMATE IN WASHINGTON
KEY TERMS AND NAMES
patronage system in which government jobs went to supporters of the winning party in an
election (page 364)
Stalwarts politicians who opposed Hayes’s plan of ending patronage (page 365)
Pendleton Act a law which set up a system for filling government jobs based on passing an
examination (page 365)
rebates partial refunds (page 367)
Interstate Commerce Commission a commission created to regulate interstate trade
(page 368)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

What problems are facing the president of the United States today? How is
the president addressing these problems?
In this section, you will learn about the political conflicts between
Democrats and Republicans in the 1880s. You will also learn about the eco-
nomic problems facing the nation at that time.

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII
Use the diagram below to help you take notes. President Grover Cleveland
faced several problems during his administration. Identify the problems in the
diagram.

2.

1.

Problems
Facing
President
Cleveland 3.
5.

4.

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Study Guide
Chapter 11, Section 1 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• A Campaign to Clean Up Politics (page 364)
Under the spoils system, or patronage, government jobs were given to those
who supported the winning party in an election. When Rutherford B. Hayes
became president, he tried to stop patronage. He appointed reformers to his
cabinet and got rid of people who received their jobs through party bosses.
Some Republicans, called Stalwarts, opposed Hayes’s actions. They were
angry with him because he ended Reconstruction, thereby letting Democrats
regain control of the South. They called Hayes and other Republican reform-
ers “Halfbreeds.”
In the 1880 presidential election, the Republicans nominated James
Garfield, a Halfbreed, for president and Chester Arthur, a Stalwart, for vice
president. They won, but President Garfield was assassinated a few months
into his presidency. He was killed by Charles Guiteau, a patronage job seeker,
who was upset with Garfield’s policy against patronage.
In response, Congress passed the Pendleton Act in 1883. This law allowed
the president to decide which federal jobs would be filled according to rules
set up by a Civil Service Commission. People applying for these jobs had to
pass an exam. Once a person received the job, he or she could not be removed
for political reasons. Although President Arthur was a Stalwart, he supported
the Pendleton Act.
6. How did Congress react to President Garfield’s assassination?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

• Two Parties, Neck and Neck (page 365)

In the 1870s and 1880s the Republican Party had support from the North
and the Midwest. Former Union soldiers, Americans who were strongly patri-
otic, big business, and farmers on the Great Plains supported it. Because of its
support for abolition, temperance, and other issues, the Republican Party was
considered the party of reform.
The Democrats gained support from the South, where white voters were
anti-Republican because of the Civil War and Reconstruction. They also had
support from big cities, where large numbers of Catholics and immigrants
lived.

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Study Guide
Chapter 11, Section 1 (continued)

Between 1877 and 1896, the Democrats generally had more members in the
House of Representatives, where each congressional district elected members
directly. Republicans had more members in the Senate, because state legisla-
tures chose senators and Republicans controlled a majority of state
governments.
Most presidential elections during that time were very close. Twice during
this time, a candidate lost the popular vote but won the election. Republicans
won four of the six presidential elections between 1876 and 1896. However,
the president had to deal with a House controlled by Democrats and a Senate
controlled by Republicans who did not always agree with the president. In
addition, at this time, local political bosses controlled the parties. With power
divided almost equally between the two parties, Congress experienced dead-
lock on many issues.
7. Why did Republicans generally have more members in the Senate than the Democrats did?

• Democrats Reclaim the White House (page 366)

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

In the 1884 presidential elections, Democrats nominated Grover Cleveland
of New York. He had opposed Tammany Hall, the corrupt Democratic
machine in New York City. The Republicans nominated James G. Blaine, a
chairman of the Maine committee of the Republican Party. The campaigns
focused on the moral character of the candidates.
Some Republican reformers were unhappy with Blaine as the Republican
candidate. They left the party and supported Cleveland. These reformers
became known as Mugwumps. Cleveland won the election.
8. Who were the Mugwumps?

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Study Guide
Chapter 11, Section 1 (continued)

• A President Besieged by Problems (page 367)

President Cleveland faced many problems. When he was elected, he faced
crowds of supporters who wanted to be rewarded with government jobs for
their support. Mugwumps, on the other hand, expected him to increase the
number of federal jobs to be covered under the civil service system. Cleveland
chose a middle ground.
Unrest among the nation’s workers grew. Many strikes occurred, sometimes
resulting in violence between the strikers and police. Americans were upset
with the power of big business, particularly with the railroads. Some large
corporations, such as Standard Oil, were able to negotiate rebates, or partial
refunds, and lower their rates because of the large volume of goods they
shipped. Those who did not ship large volumes had to pay much higher rates.
Many Americans, particularly farmers and owners of small businesses,
believed railroads were gouging their customers. Many states had passed
laws that regulated railroad freight rates. However, in 1886 the Supreme
Court ruled that the state of Illinois could not regulate the rates that the
Wabash Railroad charged. It ruled that only the federal government could
regulate interstate trade. Congress responded in 1887 by passing the Interstate
Commerce Act, which created the Interstate Commerce Commission. The law
was the first to regulate interstate trade. It limited railroad rates, forbade
rebates to high-volume users, and made it illegal to charge higher rates for
shorter hauls. The commission, however, was not effective in regulating the
railroads because it had to rely on the courts to enforce the rulings.
Tariffs were another issue facing the president. Many Democrats thought
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

that Congress should cut tariffs because the taxes raised the cost of manufac-
tured goods. Many people believed that tariffs were no longer necessary to
protect the nation’s manufacturing because large American companies were
now able to compete internationally. Democrats in the House passed tariff
reductions. The Senate, however, rejected the bill in support of a high protec-
tive tariff.
9. How did Democrats and Republicans differ on the issue of tariffs?

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Study Guide
Chapter 11, Section 1 (continued)

• Republicans Regain Power (page 368)

The Republicans nominated Benjamin Harrison for president in 1888. He
received large contributions from big businesses, which benefited from higher
tariffs. Cleveland and the Democrats campaigned against high tariffs.
Harrison lost the popular vote but won the electoral vote. After the election,
Republicans controlled both the House and the Senate.
The Republicans addressed the tariff issue by passing the McKinley Tariff.
This bill cut tobacco taxes and tariff rates on raw sugar while increasing rates
on items such as textiles. The bill lowered federal revenue. The nation’s
budget surplus became a deficit.
To curb the power of trusts, Congress passed the Sherman Antitrust Act of
1890. However, the courts saw nothing in the law that would require big com-
panies to change the way they did business. By the election of 1890, many
people began to believe that the two political parties could not solve the
nation’s problems.
10. What was the effect of the Sherman Antitrust Act?

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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Study Guide
Chapter 11, Section 2
For use with textbook pages 372–379

POPULISM
KEY TERMS AND NAMES
populism the movement to increase farmers’ political power and to work for legislation in their
interest (page 372)
greenback paper currency that could not be exchanged for gold or silver coins (page 373)
inflation a decline in the value of money (page 373)
deflation an increase in the value of money and a decrease in the level of prices (page 373)
Grange the first national farmers’ organization (page 374)
cooperatives marketing organizations that worked for the benefit of their members (page 374)
People’s Party party formed by members of the Farmers’ Alliance (page 375)
graduated income tax a tax that taxed higher earnings more heavily (page 376)
goldbugs Democrats who believed that the American currency should be based only on gold
(page 378)
silverites Democrats who believed coining silver in unlimited quantities would solve the
nation’s economic crisis (page 378)
William Jennings Bryan Democratic candidate in 1896 and a strong supporter of silver
(page 378)
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

Have you ever visited a farm or know someone who owns one? What kind
of work is done on a farm? What kind of problems do you think farmers face?
The last section described the conflicts between the Democrats and the
Republicans. This section discusses why a new political party started in the
1890s.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the diagram on the next page to help you take notes. Many farmers,
frustrated with the lack of support for their issues from the two major political
parties, supported the new People’s Party. List the issues the People’s Party
ran on in the 1892 election.

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Study Guide
Chapter 11, Section 2 (continued)

People’s Party Issues in 1892 Election

1. 2. 3.

READ TO LEARNII
• Unrest in Rural America (page 372)
Populism was the movement to increase farmers’ political power and to
work to pass laws in their interest. Shortly after the Civil War, technology
helped farmers produce more crops. The increase in crops led to lower prices.
At the same time, high tariffs increased the price of manufactured goods
farmers needed. This made it harder for farmers to sell their products over-
seas. Farmers also felt that they were being treated unfairly by both the banks
from which they obtained their loans and from the railroads.
The farmers were concerned about the nation’s money supply. To pay for
the war, the United States had increased its money supply by issuing millions
of dollars in greenbacks—paper currency that could not be exchanged for gold
or silver coins. This increase in money supply without an increase in goods
for sale led to inflation—a decline in the value of money. As the paper money
lost its value, the prices of goods soared.

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

After the war, the United States had three types of currency—greenbacks,
gold and silver coins, and bank notes backed by government bonds. The gov-
ernment stopped printing greenbacks to get inflation under control. It began
paying off its bonds. Congress also decided to stop making silver into coins.
As a result, the government did not have a large enough money supply to
meet the needs of the economy. As the economy grew, deflation—or an
increase in the value of money and a decrease in prices—began.
The farmers were particularly affected by deflation. They had to borrow
money for seeds and supplies. With money in short supply, interest rates
increased. This increased the amount of money that farmers owed. The falling
prices due to deflation meant that farmers sold their crops for less. However,
they still had to make the same loan payments. Farmers blamed the Eastern
bankers for their condition. They believed that the bankers pressured
Congress to reduce the money supply. Some farmers wanted the government
to print more greenbacks to increase the money supply. Those who lived in
the West, where silver mines were located, wanted the government to mint
silver coins. Many farmers believed that the only way they could convince the
government was to organize.

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Chapter 11, Section 2 (continued)

The first national farm organization was the Patrons of Husbandry. It was
better known as the Grange. In 1873 the nation faced a recession and farm
income fell drastically. Many farmers joined the Grange to get help.
The Grangers pressured state legislatures to regulate the railroads to reduce
rates. Others joined the Greenback Party, which wanted the government to
print more greenbacks to increase the money supply. Grangers also pooled
their resources and created cooperatives, which were marketing organizations
that worked for the benefit of their members. Farmers could not charge more
for their crops because there were so many farmers in competition. So when
they joined a cooperative, farmers pooled their crops and held them off the
market in order to force the price up. A cooperative could also work for better
shipping rates from railroads.
The Grangers’ strategies were not successful. The Greenback Party failed to
get much support because many Americans did not believe that paper money
could hold its value. The Grange’s cooperatives failed because they were too
small to influence prices. Also, Eastern businesses refused to deal with them
because they believed that they were too much like unions.
4. Why did farmers organize the Grange?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

• The Farmers’ Alliance (page 374)

By the late 1880s, a new organization known as the Farmers’ Alliance began
to form. The Alliance was strong in the South and on the Great Plains. The
Alliance organized large cooperatives called exchanges in hopes of increasing
farm prices while making loans to farmers at low interest rates. These
exchanges had some success.
However, overall the cooperatives failed. Many loaned too much money
that was never repaid. They also were too small to affect world prices for farm
goods. Soon, conflict started among members of the Alliance. Alliance mem-
bers in the West wanted to form a new party and push for political reforms.
They formed the People’s Party, also known as the Populists. The party nomi-
nated candidates to run for Congress and the state legislature.
Most Southern members of the Alliance did not want to form a third party.
They wanted the Democrats to keep control of the South. Instead, they
wanted to produce a list of demands and promise to vote for candidates who
supported the demands. They also introduced the subtreasury plan. Under

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Chapter 11, Section 2 (continued)

the plan, the government would set up warehouses called subtreasuries.

Farmers would store their crops there, and the government would provide
loans to the farmers at low interest rates. The members believed that storing
the crops would allow farmers to keep their crops off the market in large
enough quantities to force prices up.
5. What was the purpose of the subtreasury plan?

• The Rise of Populism (page 375)

In 1890 the Farmers’ Alliance met in Ocala, Florida, and set up the Ocala
Demands. The demands were to help farmers decide whom to vote for in
1890. The demands called for the adoption of the subtreasury plan, the free
coinage of silver, an end to tariffs and the national bank, regulation of the rail-
roads, and direct election of senators instead of by state legislatures.
Both the Southern and Western plans of the Alliance had worked. In the
South, many Democratic governors and state legislators who were elected
promised to support the demands of the Alliance. In the West, the People’s
Party took control of some state legislatures and some were elected to the
House of Representatives and to the Senate.

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Many southern members of the Alliance soon realized that they could not
count on Democrats to work for their programs. Many broke with the
Democrats and joined the People’s Party. The party held its first national con-
vention in Omaha, Nebraska, in July 1892. It nominated James B. Weaver to
run for president. The Populists wanted the government to coin silver to
increase the money supply. It wanted a graduated income tax, one that taxed
higher earnings more heavily. The Populists also believed that the govern-
ment should take a greater role in regulating big business. Although the
Populists supported many of the positions that labor unions had, most urban
workers continued to support the Democratic Party.
The Democratic Party nominated Grover Cleveland as their presidential
candidate. He won easily. However, James Weaver did very well, winning
four states and 22 electoral votes.
In 1893 the United States entered a serious economic crisis. Many railroad
companies had expanded too quickly and were unable to repay their loans.
They declared bankruptcy. The stock market crashed, and banks closed. By
1894 the economy was in a depression. As the nation’s economy worsened,
many foreign investors started cashing in their U.S. government bonds for
gold. This left the government with a very small gold reserve. Gold was also

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Chapter 11, Section 2 (continued)

being lost every time people exchanged silver for gold under the Sherman
Silver Purchase Act. As a result, in 1893, President Cleveland asked Congress
to repeal that law. His actions split the Democrats into two groups. The gold-
bugs believed the American currency should be based only on gold. The
silverites believed coining silver in unlimited quantities would solve the
nation’s economic problems.
6. Why did many members of the Southern Farmers’ Alliance break with the Democratic
Party?

• The Election of 1896 (page 378)

In the 1896 presidential election, the Republicans supported a gold stan-
dard. The Populists hoped that pro-silver Democrats would vote for
Populists. However, the Democrats nominated William Jennings Bryan, a sup-
porter of silver, as their candidate. As a result, the Populists decided to
support Bryan instead of nominating their own candidate.
Bryan was a forceful speaker. He ran an energetic campaign, traveling thou-
sands of miles and making hundreds of speeches. Republicans knew that
Bryan would be difficult to beat in the West and the South. They knew that
they had to win in the Northeast and in the Midwest. They nominated
William McKinley. Most urban workers and business leaders supported the
Republicans. McKinley won the election.
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

In 1896 gold was discovered in Alaska and in Canada’s Yukon Territory.

This helped to increase the money supply without turning to silver. Credit
became easier to get and the farmers’ situation improved. In 1900 the United
States officially adopted a gold-based currency when it passed the Gold
Standard Act.
When the silver issue died out, the Populists lost much of their energy.
They had not been successful in helping the farmers or in regulating big busi-
ness. However, some of the reforms that they wanted, such as the graduated
income tax, came later.
7. From what parts of the country did Bryan and McKinley gain support during the 1896 presi-
dential election?

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Study Guide
Chapter 11, Section 3
For use with textbook pages 380–384

THE RISE OF SEGREGATION

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
sharecroppers landless farmers who had to give landlords large portions of their crops to cover
rent and supplies (page 381)
poll tax a fee required to register to vote (page 382)
grandfather clause a clause that allowed people to vote if their ancestors had voted in 1867
(page 382)
segregation separation of the races (page 382)
Jim Crow laws laws that enforced segregation (page 382)
lynching an execution without proper court proceedings (page 383)
Ida B. Wells African American woman who started a crusade against lynching (page 383)
W.E.B. Du Bois African American leader who believed that African Americans could obtain full
equality only by demanding their rights (page 384)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

What is racism? Can you name prominent Americans who have spoken out
against racism? What was their message?
The last section discussed the organization of farmers into a new political

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

party. This section discusses the discrimination that African Americans faced
in the late 1800s.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the diagram below to help you take notes. Southern states went around
the Fifteenth Amendment to prevent African Americans from voting. List and
describe the methods they used.

1. 2.

Ways of
Denying
Voting Rights

3.

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Chapter 11, Section 3 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• Resistance and Repression (page 380)
After Reconstruction, many African Americans in the South lived in condi-
tions that were similar to slavery. Although they were technically free, many
could not escape poverty. Most African Americans were sharecroppers, or land-
less farmers who had to hand over a large part of their crops to the landlord
to pay for rent and supplies. Because they were always in debt, many African
Americans left farming to look for jobs or to claim homesteads in the West.
In 1879 thousands of African Americans migrated from the South to
Kansas. They became known as Exodusters. Some African Americans did not
move but joined with poor white farmers in the Farmers’ Alliance. In 1886 a
group of African Americans formed their own organization called the Colored
Farmers’ National Alliance. This organization worked to help its members set
up cooperatives. Many members joined the Populist Party when it formed in
1891. They hoped that by joining poor whites with poor African Americans,
they could challenge the Democrats in the South.
The Democrats feared that if enough poor whites left the party and joined
the African American Populists, that combination might become unbeatable.
As a result, the Democrats began to appeal to racism. They warned whites
that joining African Americans in the Populist Party would bring back “Black
Republican” rule like that during Reconstruction. Democrats were also mak-
ing it more difficult for African Americans to vote.
4. How did Democrats try to prevent poor whites from joining the African American Populists?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

• Disfranchising African Americans (page 382)

The Fifteenth Amendment said that states could not deny people the right
to vote because of race or color. It did not, however, say that states could not
require that citizens had to know how to read and write or had to own prop-
erty in order to vote. Southern states began to use this loophole to prevent
African Americans from voting.
Some Southern states began requiring that all citizens pay a $2 poll tax.
Most poor African Americans could not afford to do so and were, therefore,
not allowed to vote. Some states required that voters had to prove that they
could read and write. Because the literacy rate for those who had grown up

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Study Guide
Chapter 11, Section 3 (continued)

under slavery was less than 20 percent, many failed the test. Some African
Americans who did know how to read and write failed because they were
deliberately given complicated passages that few could understand. As a
result of these restrictions, the number of African Americans registered to vote
fell dramatically between 1890 and 1900.
Election officials did not apply these laws as strictly to poor whites. Some
states gave whites a break by introducing a grandfather clause. This allowed
any man to vote if he had an ancestor who voted in 1867. The clause made
almost all former enslaved Africans ineligible to vote.
5. What was the effect of the voting restrictions that were placed on African Americans in the
South?

• Legalizing Segregation (page 382)

African Americans faced discrimination in the North as well as in the
South. They were often not allowed in public places used by whites. In the
South, laws enforced segregation, or separation of the races. These laws were

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

known as Jim Crow laws. The Civil Rights Act of 1875 prohibited keeping peo-
ple out of public places and prohibited racial discrimination when selecting
jurors. Whites challenged the law in both the North and the South. In 1883 the
Supreme Court ruled that the Fourteenth Amendment said that no state could
deny people equal protection under the laws. The Court said that private
places and organizations could practice segregation.
After the ruling, Southern states passed laws that enforced segregation in
all public places. Southern whites and African Americans could no longer ride
in the same railroad cars or drink from the same drinking fountains. Restrooms
and hotels were segregated. In 1892 an African American named Homer
Plessy was arrested for riding in a railroad car that was designated for whites
only. He challenged the law as being unconstitutional. Judge John H.
Ferguson rejected that argument. In 1896 the Supreme Court ruled in Plessy v.
Ferguson that the Louisiana law was constitutional. The ruling supported the
idea of “separate but equal” facilities for African Americans. However,
although facilities for African Americans were separate, they were almost
always inferior to those for whites.

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Chapter 11, Section 3 (continued)

In addition to the Jim Crow laws, African Americans faced mob violence
from whites. The incidences of lynchings—executions without proper court
proceedings—by mobs increased. More than 80 percent of the lynchings hap-
pened in the South and most of the victims were African Americans.
6. What was the effect of the Supreme Court’s ruling in Plessy v. Ferguson?

• The African American Response (page 383)

In the 1890s, Ida B. Wells, an African American woman from Tennessee,
started a campaign against lynching. She worked to get courts to bring those
accused of violence against African Americans to trial and to punish them
after they were convicted.
Booker T. Washington believed that the way to stop discrimination was for
African Americans to concentrate on economic goals rather than on political
ones. He believed that African Americans should postpone the fight for civil
rights and focus on education and vocations to prepare themselves economi-
cally for equality.
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Other African Americans, such as W.E.B. Du Bois, challenged Washington’s

ideas. Du Bois pointed out that the civil rights of African Americans contin-
ued to be taken away even after they had educational and vocational training.
He believed that the only way African Americans could achieve full equality
was by demanding their rights, particularly voting rights.
7. How did the views of Booker T. Washington and W.E.B. Du Bois regarding the best way to
solve discrimination differ?

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Study Guide
Chapter 12, Section 1
For use with textbook pages 392–397

THE IMPERIALIST VISION

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
imperialism the economic and political domination of a strong nation over other weaker
nations (page 393)
protectorate territory in which an imperial power allowed the local rulers to stay in control
while protecting them from rebellion and invasion (page 393)
Anglo-Saxonism the idea that English-speaking nations had superior character, ideas, and
systems of government and were destined to control other nations (page 393)
Matthew C. Perry naval officer sent by the United States to negotiate a trade treaty with Japan
(page 394)
Queen Liliuokalani ruler of Hawaii in the 1890s (page 395)
Pan-Americanism the idea that the United States and Latin American nations could work
together to support peace and to increase trade (page 396)
Alfred T. Mahan an officer in the U.S. Navy who pushed for the need for the United States to
have a large navy (page 397)
Henry Cabot Lodge senator who pushed for the construction of a new navy (page 397)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Think of all the products you use every day. Are all the products made in
the United States? What products are made in other parts of the world?
In this section, you will learn how and why the United States became an
imperial power.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the cause-and-effect diagram below to help you take notes. European
nations in the late 1800s began expanding overseas. List the causes for this
expansion.

Causes Effect

1.

2. European nations began

overseas expansion.
3.

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Chapter 12, Section 1 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• Building Support for Imperialism (page 392)
In the 1880s, many Americans wanted to make the United States a world
power. At the time, several European nations were expanding overseas. This
expansion became known as imperialism. It is the economic and political dom-
ination of a strong nation over other weaker nations.
The Europeans began expanding for several reasons. By the late 1800s, high
tariffs had helped to reduce trade between industrial countries. This led these
countries to look overseas for markets for their products. The possibilities for
investment in Europe had slowed. Most of the industries that needed to be
built already had been. As a result, Europeans began investing in industries in
other countries, especially in Africa and Asia. To protect their investments in
these territories, the European countries began exercising control there. Some
areas became colonies, while other areas became protectorates. In a protec-
torate, the imperial power allowed the local rulers to stay in control and
protected them against rebellion or invasion. However, in exchange for the
protection, the local rulers had to follow advice from Europeans on how to
govern.
The United States also became interested in expanding overseas. Before the
late 1800s, the United States expanded by settling more territory in North
America. With most of the frontier settled by the late 1800s, many Americans
looked to develop overseas markets.
Many Americans used the ideas of Social Darwinism—that the strongest
nations would survive—to defend overseas expansion. Some took the idea
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

even further, stating that English-speaking nations had superior character and
systems of government and were therefore destined to control other nations.
This idea became known as Anglo-Saxonism.
4. Why did Americans become interested in expanding overseas in the late 1800s?

• Expansion in the Pacific (page 394)

In the 1800s, many Americans began looking to expand across the Pacific
Ocean. Business leaders wanted to trade with Japan and China. Japan’s lead-
ers believed that contact with the West would destroy Japanese culture. As a
result, they allowed their nation to trade only with the Chinese and the Dutch.

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Chapter 12, Section 1 (continued)

In 1852 President Franklin Pierce decided to force Japan to trade with the
United States. He sent Commodore Matthew C. Perry to take a naval expedi-
tion to negotiate a treaty with Japan. Perry entered the Japanese waters with
four American warships. The Japanese were impressed by American technol-
ogy and power. They realized that they could not compete against modern
Western technology. As a result, the Japanese opened two ports to American
trade. They also decided to Westernize their country by starting their own
industrial revolution. By the 1890s, the Japanese set out to build their own
empire in Asia.
In addition to being interested in China and Japan, Americans became
interested in Hawaii. At first, missionaries settled there. Then American whal-
ing ships operating in the North Pacific began using Hawaii as a base.
Americans soon discovered that the soil and climate of Hawaii were suitable
for growing sugarcane. By the mid-1800s, many sugarcane plantations had
been started there. In 1875 the United States signed a treaty that exempted
Hawaiian sugar from tariffs. This led to a boom in the Hawaiian sugar indus-
try and wealth for the planters. In 1887 the planters pressured the Hawaiian
king into signing a constitution that would limit the king’s power but increase
the planters’ power. This angered the Hawaiian people.
When Congress passed the McKinley Tariff in 1890, it eliminated all taxes
on sugar. However, it also gave subsidies to sugar producers in the United
States. This meant that Hawaiian sugar was now more expensive than
American sugar. This caused the sales of Hawaiian sugar to decrease and the
Hawaiian economy to weaken.
In 1891 Queen Liliuokalani became the Hawaiian queen. She disliked the

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

influence that Americans were gaining in Hawaii, and tried to create a new
constitution that reestablished her authority as a ruler of the Hawaiian people.
The planters responded by overthrowing the government and forcing the
queen to give up her power. They then set up their own government and
asked the United States to annex the islands.
5. How did American planters react to Queen Liliuokalani’s attempt to reestablish her authority?

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Study Guide
Chapter 12, Section 1 (continued)

• Trade and Diplomacy in Latin America (page 395)

The United States also wanted to increase the sale of its products to Latin
America. They wanted Europeans to see the United States as the dominant
power in Latin America. In 1889 the United States invited the Latin American
nations to a conference in Washington, D.C., to discuss ways in which the
nations could work together to increase trade. The idea of working together
became known as Pan-Americanism. The nations in the conference agreed to
create an organization that worked to promote cooperation among the nations
of the Western Hemisphere.
6. Why did the United States invite Latin American nations to a conference?

• Building a Modern Navy (page 396)

In the late 1800s, the United States began taking a more assertive role in for-
eign affairs. The nation was more willing to risk war to defend its interests
overseas. Many people, particularly Captain Alfred T. Mahan, believed that the
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

United States needed a powerful navy. Mahan believed that a nation needed a
large navy to protect its merchant ships and to defend its right to trade with
other countries. Mahan also believed that building a large navy made it neces-
sary for the United States to get territory for naval bases overseas.
In Congress, two senators, including Henry Cabot Lodge, pushed to build a
strong navy. By the late 1890s, the Unites States was on its way to becoming
one of the world’s big naval powers.
7. What did Captain Alfred T. Mahan believe?

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Study Guide
Chapter 12, Section 2
For use with textbook pages 399–405

THE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
José Martí leader of Cuban rebels fighting for independence from Spain (page 400)
William Randolph Hearst publisher of the New York Journal, whose sensational reporting led to
U.S. support of Cuba (page 400)
Joseph Pulitzer publisher of the New York World, whose sensational reporting led to U.S. sup-
port of Cuba (page 400)
yellow journalism sensationalist reporting in which writers often exaggerate or make up stories
to attract readers (page 400)
jingoism an attitude of aggressive nationalism (page 401)
Theodore Roosevelt one of the leaders of the Rough Riders (page 401)
Platt Amendment an amendment added to the Cuban constitution that ensured that Cuba
would remain tied to the United States (page 405)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

What do you know about Cuba? What relationship does the United States
have with Cuba today?
The last section explained the reasons the United States began expanding
overseas. This section discusses the Spanish-American War and the results of

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

the war.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the diagram below to help you take notes. After the Spanish-American
War, the U.S. had to decide what to do with the Philippines. Describe the
arguments for and against annexing the Philippines.

1. 2. 6. 7.

Arguments
Arguments for Against
3.
Annexing the Annexing the
Philippines Philippines

4. 8.
5.

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Study Guide
Chapter 12, Section 2 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• The Coming of War (page 399)
On February 1898 the U.S.S. Maine blew up in the harbor in Havana, Cuba.
No one is sure why it happened. Some experts believe that the ship’s ammu-
nition supply accidentally blew up. Others think a mine had exploded near
the ship and had set off the ammunition. Many Americans blamed the explo-
sion on Spain.
At the time, Cuba was fighting for independence from Spain. In 1878 the
rebellion collapsed. Many rebels, including José Martí, fled to the United
States. Martí lived in New York City and brought together many other Cuban
exiles living in the United States. They raised money to buy weapons. They
also trained their troops to prepare an invasion of Cuba.
By the 1890s, the United States and Cuba had become linked economically.
The United States imported sugar from Cuba. Americans had invested mil-
lions of dollars in Cuba’s railroads and sugar plantations. However, when the
United States placed a tariff on imported sugar, the sale of Cuban sugar in the
United States fell. The Cuban economy was devastated. Martí and his follow-
ers started a rebellion in February 1895. They took control of eastern Cuba and
declared Cuba independent.
At first the United States government stayed neutral. However, many
Americans supported the Cuban rebels. Americans were especially influenced
by the gruesome stories of Spanish brutality that they read about in the news-
papers. The New York Journal, published by William Randolph Hearst, and the
New York World, published by Joseph Pulitzer, reported outrageous stories of
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

how the Spanish were treating the Cubans. This sensational reporting of exag-
gerated and sometimes untrue stories written to attract readers became
known as yellow journalism.
Although many stories were exaggerated, the Cubans did suffer under the
Spanish. Cuban rebels carried out raids, burning plantations and sugar mills
and destroying railroads. They knew that many Americans invested in the
plantations and the railroads. They hoped that destroying this property would
lead the United States to intervene in the war. The governor of Cuba, who
was appointed by Spain, wanted to prevent Cuban villagers from helping the
rebels. So he placed hundreds of thousands of villagers—men, women, and
children—into reconcentration camps. Thousands died of starvation and dis-
ease in these camps. When Americans heard about this brutality, they called
for American intervention on behalf of the Cubans.
President McKinley did not want the United States to get involved. He
asked Spain if the United States could help negotiate an end to the problem.
The Spanish government responded by removing the Spanish governor. They
offered Cuba self-rule but only if it remained part of the Spanish empire. The
Cubans refused, because they wanted full independence.

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Study Guide
Chapter 12, Section 2 (continued)

In January 1898, people loyal to Spain rioted in Havana. President McKinley

was worried that American citizens there might be attacked, so he sent the
battleship Maine to Havana in case the Americans had to be evacuated. In
February 1898, the New York Journal published a private letter that the Spanish
ambassador to the United States had sent. The letter described McKinley as
being weak. Many Americans were angry about the insult. Then the Maine
exploded, and Americans quickly blamed Spain. Many young members of the
president’s political party held attitudes of aggressive nationalism, or jingoism.
They pressured the president to declare war on Spain, which he did on April
11, 1898. On April 19, Congress declared Cuba independent. It demanded that
Spain withdraw from Cuba and gave the president the authority to use armed
forces. Spain then declared war on the United States.
9. How did American newspapers contribute to Americans’ feelings against Spain?

• A War on Two Fronts (pages 401–403)

Spain was not prepared for war. However, the United States Navy was

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

ready for war. A navy fleet blockaded Cuba. Another fleet in the Pacific was
ordered to attack the Spanish fleet in the Philippines to prevent the fleet from
attacking the United States. Under the command of Commodore George
Dewey, the navy quickly overwhelmed the Spanish warships. Surprised by
the quick victory, the U.S. army sent about 20,000 troops to the Philippines.
In the meantime, Filipinos were staging a rebellion against Spanish rule in
the Philippines. The rebellion was led by Emilio Aguinaldo. At first Aguinaldo
believed that the American troops would help him. However, he soon became
suspicious of the Americans. The Americans quickly took Manila, the capital
of the Philippines, from the Spanish. However, they refused to let the rebel
troops into the city. They also refused to recognize Aguinaldo’s rebel govern-
ment. Hostility between the rebels and the Americans grew.
The U.S. army was not as ready for war as the navy was. The army did not
have the resources necessary to train the volunteers. Training camps had
unsanitary conditions, and many Americans died from disease. On June 14,
1898, about 17,000 soldiers landed in Cuba, in the city of Santiago. In addition
to the troops, a volunteer cavalry regiment from the United States advanced
into Santiago. They were a group of cowboys, miners, and law officers known
as the “Rough Riders.” Their commander was Leonard Wood, and the second

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Study Guide
Chapter 12, Section 2 (continued)

in command was Theodore Roosevelt. He had resigned from the government

to join the cavalry.
The Rough Riders and the army troops defeated the Spanish in two battles.
The victories panicked the Spanish commander in Santiago, who ordered the
Spanish fleet in the harbor to leave. As the ships left the harbor, the American
warships attacked them and sank every ship. The Spanish occupying Santiago
surrendered. Soon American troops occupied the Spanish colony of Puerto
Rico. On August 12, 1898, Spain and the United States agreed to a cease-fire.
10. Why did hostilities develop between Emilio Aguinaldo and the United States?

• An American Empire is Born (page 403)

After the war, Cuba obtained its freedom, and the United States annexed
Guam and Puerto Rico. The question that remained was what to do with the
Philippines. Some Americans pushed for annexing the Philippines. They
believed that the Philippines would have economic and military benefits.
They would also give the United States a naval base in Asia and a market for
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

American goods. Some people believed it was America’s duty to teach “less
civilized” people how to live properly.
Some Americans opposed annexation. Some thought it would be too
expensive to keep an empire. Others believed that cheap Filipino labor would
drive down wages. Some believed that imperialism went against American
principles.
The United States and Spain signed the Treaty of Paris on December 10,
1898. Under the treaty, Cuba became independent and the United States got
Puerto Rico and Guam. The United States also agreed to pay $20 million to
annex the Philippines. The United States now became an imperial power.
Aguinaldo viewed the annexation of the Philippines as an aggressive act.
He ordered his troops to attack the American soldiers stationed in the
Philippines. To fight the guerrillas, the United States army did some of the
same things that the Spanish did in Cuba. They set up reconcentration camps
to separate the guerrillas from the people who supported them. Thousands of
Filipinos died in these camps.
In the meantime, William Howard Taft, the first U.S. civilian governor of
the islands, tried to win over the people by introducing reforms. New bridges,
railroads, and telegraph lines helped the economy. The United States helped

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Study Guide
Chapter 12, Section 2 (continued)

set up a public school system. New health care policies helped eliminate cer-
tain diseases. These reforms helped to decrease the Filipino hostility towards
the United States. Filipino resistance ended by April 1902. Over the years, the
United States gave the Filipinos more control in governing their own country.
It finally granted independence to the Philippines in 1946.
The United States had to figure out how to govern Puerto Rico. At first
Congress made Puerto Rico an unincorporated territory. This meant that
Puerto Ricans were not citizens and had no constitutional rights. It also meant
that Congress could pass whatever laws it wanted for Puerto Rico.
Congress gradually gave Puerto Rico some self-government. Puerto Ricans
were made citizens of the United States in 1917. In 1947 the island was given
the right to elect its own governor. The debate over whether Puerto Rico
should become a state, an independent country, or remain a Commonwealth
of the United States continues today.
After the Spanish-American War, the United States set up a military gov-
ernment in Cuba. Many Americans did not support giving Cuba its independ-
ence. They believed that Cubans would not be able to govern themselves.
Others believed that if it became independent, Cuba would be taken over by
some other imperial power. President McKinley supported Cuban independ-
ence. However, he made sure that Cuba would remain tied to the United
States. He allowed the Cubans to set up a new constitution, but he set up con-
ditions. These conditions became known as the Platt Amendment. It said that
Cuba could not make any treaty with another nation that would weaken its
independence. Cuba could not allow a foreign power to get territory in Cuba.
Cuba had to let the United States lease naval stations in Cuba. Cuba’s debts

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

had to stay low so that foreign countries would not try to invade it to get
their payments. The United States had the right to intervene to protect Cuban
independence.
The Cubans opposed the Platt Amendment. However, they did not want
the United States to keep its military government there. So they added the
amendment to their constitution. The Platt Amendment had in actuality made
Cuba a protectorate of the United States.
11. Why did the Cubans agree to include the Platt Amendment in their constitution?

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Study Guide
Chapter 12, Section 3
For use with textbook pages 408–413

NEW AMERICAN DIPLOMACY

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
sphere of influence an area in a country where a foreign nation controlled economic develop-
ment (page 410)
Open Door policy a policy in which all countries were allowed to trade in China (page 410)
Boxer Rebellion a rebellion led by a Chinese secret society to rid China of foreign control (page 411)
“Great White Fleet” battleships of the United States Navy sent around the world to show
America’s military power (page 411)
Hay-Pauncefote Treaty the treaty that gave the United States the exclusive right to build and
control a canal through Central America (page 412)
Roosevelt Corollary an addition to the Monroe Doctrine, in which President Roosevelt stated
that the United States would intervene in Latin American affairs when necessary to maintain
economic and political stability in the Western Hemisphere (page 413)
dollar diplomacy President Taft’s policy of influencing Latin American and Asian nations
through American businesses rather than military force (page 413)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

What countries today are considered world powers? What do you think
helps to make the United States a world power?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

The last section discussed the lands acquired by the United States after the
Spanish-American War. This section discusses the role of President Theodore
Roosevelt’s administration in foreign affairs.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the chart below to help you take notes. President Roosevelt wanted to
make the United States a world power. List the ways in which he attempted
to do so.

Ways Roosevelt Helped Make

the U.S. a World Power

1.

2.

3.

4.

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Study Guide
Chapter 12, Section 3 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• Theodore Roosevelt’s Rise to Power (page 408)
In the election of 1900, President McKinley once again ran against William
Jennings Bryan. He asked Theodore Roosevelt to run as his vice president.
McKinley won the election by a wide margin. On September 6, 1901, as
President McKinley was making a public appearance in Buffalo, New York, he
was shot by Leon Czolgosz, an anarchist who opposed all forms of govern-
ment. McKinley died a few days later of his wounds. Theodore Roosevelt, just
42 years of age, became the youngest person ever to become president. Many
Republicans chose Roosevelt to be McKinley’s running mate because they
hoped that the powerless position would quiet him down. Now they were
worried about having a headstrong person in the White House.
Roosevelt was an energetic president. Although often sick as a child,
Roosevelt pushed himself to overcome his frailties. He became a marksman
and an excellent horseback rider. He also boxed and wrestled. As president,
Roosevelt believed in making the United States a world power.
5. What event made Theodore Roosevelt president of the United States?

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

• American Diplomacy in Asia (page 409)
By 1899 the United States had bases all across the Pacific Ocean and was a
major power in Asia. The United States was very interested in developing
trade in Asia. By 1900 American exports to China had quadrupled.
In 1894 China and Japan went to war over Korea, which was part of the
Chinese empire. The United States expected China to win easily, but Japan
easily defeated China. The peace treaty that ended the war gave Korea its
independence. It also gave Japan a part of Manchuria. The defeat of China
showed other nations that it was weaker than everyone thought.
Japan’s increasing power worried Russia. They did not want Japan to have
territory in Manchuria because it bordered Russia. The Russians forced Japan
to return the part of Manchuria it got from China. Then Russia demanded that
China lease that part of Manchuria to Russia instead. Leasing the territory
meant that it would still belong to China but it would be under Russia’s con-
trol. Then Germany, France, and Britain also wanted China to lease territory
to them. Each part that was leased became the center of a sphere of influence.
This is an area where a foreign nation controlled economic development such
as mining and railroad building.

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Chapter 12, Section 3 (continued)

The United States supported an Open Door policy, in which all countries
would be allowed to trade with China. The United States Secretary of State
John Hay called on all nations who had leaseholds in China to keep the
Chinese ports open to ships of all nations.
In the meantime, secret Chinese societies were working to rid China of for-
eign control. One of these groups was the Boxers. In 1900 in the Boxer
Rebellion, members of the organization seized foreign embassies in Beijing
and killed more than 200 foreigners. An international force, including U.S. sol-
diers, crushed the rebellion. Some nations wanted to use the rebellion as an
excuse to divide China among themselves. However, the country was never
broken up into colonies, and the United States continued its trade with China.
President Roosevelt supported the Open Door policy. He did not want any
single nation to monopolize trade there. For this reason, Roosevelt stepped in
to negotiate a peace treaty between Japan and Russia in 1905 in Portsmouth,
New Hampshire. He persuaded Russia to recognize the territories that Japan
had gained. He persuaded Japan to stop fighting and to not try and gain more
territory.
After the treaty, relations between Japan and the United States worsened.
The two nations both looked to gain influence in Asia. Through several agree-
ments, they agreed to respect each other’s possessions and to uphold the
Open Door policy in China. In 1907 President Roosevelt sent 16 battleships of
the United States Navy, known as the “Great White Fleet,” on a trip around
the world to show the military power of the United States. The fleet made a
stop in Japan, which increased the tensions between the two countries.
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

6. Why did President Roosevelt send the “Great White Fleet” on a trip around the world?

• A Growing Presence in the Caribbean (page 412)

Roosevelt believed that if the United States displayed its power, it would
make other nations think twice about fighting. He believed in the West
African saying, “Speak softly and carry a big stick.” He applied the “big stick”
policy in the Caribbean. In 1903 Roosevelt purchased the Panama Canal Zone.
He believed that a canal through Central America was important to American
power in the world. It would save time and money in shipping.

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Study Guide
Chapter 12, Section 3 (continued)

In 1901 the United States and Great Britain signed the Hay-Pauncefote
Treaty. The treaty gave the United States the exclusive right to build and con-
trol a canal through Central America. The United States decided to build a
canal through Panama. In 1903 Panama was still a part of Colombia. Secretary
of State Hay offered Colombia $10 million and a yearly rent for the right to
build a canal and control a strip of land on either side of it. The Colombian
government refused the offer.
The Panamanians wanted the benefits of having a canal. They also did not
want to be under Colombian control. As a result, Panamanian officials
decided that the only way to get the canal was to declare independence from
Colombia and make its own deal with the United States. A small army staged
an uprising in Panama against Colombia. President Roosevelt sent ships to
Panama to prevent Colombia from interfering. The United States recognized
Panama’s independence, and the two nations signed a treaty allowing the
canal to be built. Protesters in the United States and in Latin America con-
demned the nation’s actions. Roosevelt justified U.S. actions by stating that
the canal shortened the distance from the Atlantic to the Pacific Ocean by
about 8,000 nautical miles.
In 1904 President Roosevelt expanded his “big stick” diplomacy. In an
address to Congress he declared the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe
Doctrine. In it, he said that the United States would intervene in Latin
American affairs when necessary to help keep the Western Hemisphere eco-
nomically and politically stable.
The United States applied the Roosevelt Corollary in the Dominican
Republic. The nation had fallen behind in paying its debts to European

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

nations. In 1905 the United States took on the responsibility of collecting tar-
iffs in the Dominican Republican. Latin American nations resented the extent
of American involvement in the Caribbean. President William Howard Taft,
Roosevelt’s successor, continued Roosevelt’s policies. Taft focused more on
helping the region’s industries than on military force. He believed that help-
ing the industries would increase U.S. trade, increase American businesses’
profits, and help get Latin American countries out of poverty. Taft’s policy
became known as dollar diplomacy.
7. Why did President Roosevelt want to build a canal across Panama?

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Study Guide
Chapter 13, Section 1
For use with textbook pages 418–425

THE ROOTS OF PROGRESSIVISM

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
progressivism reform movement that believed the solution to social problems lay in a more
active role on the part of government (page 419)
muckrakers journalists who investigated social conditions and political corruption (page 419)
Jacob Riis muckraker who wrote about the poor conditions facing many immigrant
neighborhoods in New York City (page 419)
commission plan a system of city government in which a board of commissioners with expertise
in city services hires specialists to run city departments (page 420)
Robert La Follette Republican governor of Wisconsin who attacked the way political parties ran
their conventions and introduced the direct primary (page 421)
direct primary a party election in which all party members could vote for a candidate to run in
the general election (page 421)
initiative a reform that allowed a group of citizens to introduce legislation and required the
legislature to vote on it (page 421)
referendum a reform that allowed proposed legislation to be submitted to the voters for
approval (page 421)
recall a reform that allowed voters to demand a special election to remove an elected official
from office before his or her term had expired (page 421)
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

suffrage the right to vote (page 421)

Alice Paul suffragist who formed the National Woman’s Party (page 422)
temperance the moderation or elimination of alcohol (page 425)
prohibition laws banning the manufacture, sale, and consumption of alcohol (page 425)
socialism the idea that the government should own and operate industry for the community as
a whole (page 425)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

Imagine that you are a reporter for a newspaper. What issues do you think
would be important for you to report on? Why would these issues be impor-
tant for people in your community to be aware of?
In this section, you will learn about the development of the Progressive
movement. You will also learn how progressives attempted to solve the
nation’s social problems.

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Study Guide
Chapter 13, Section 1 (continued)

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the diagram below to help you take notes. Progressives worked to
reform several aspects of American society. Explain the reforms they made in
each of the four areas listed.

Progressive Reforms

Government Extending Social Big

Efficiency Democracy Problems Business
1. 2. 4. 9.

3. 5. 10.

6.

7.

8.

READ TO LEARNII

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

• The Rise of Progressivism (page 418)
The time in American history from about 1890 to 1920 is known as the
Progressive Era. Progressivism was not a single political movement. It was a
collection of ideas and views about how to fix the nation’s problems.
Most progressives believed that industrialism and urbanization had caused
many social problems. Although progressives focused on a variety of issues,
they all believed that a more active role on the part of government was the
solution to most of society’s problems. Progressives belonged to both major
political parties. Most were urban, educated middle-class Americans. Many
worked as journalists, educators, and politicians.
Many progressives believed people could improve society because they had
a strong faith in science and expertise. They believed that society could fix its
problems by applying scientific principles to society.
Several journalists were the first to express Progressive ideas. These journal-
ists, known as muckrakers, investigated social conditions and political corrup-
tion. They uncovered corruption in many areas. Some investigated the unfair
practices of large American corporations. Ida Tarbell published articles about
the practices of the Standard Oil Company. Some muckrakers investigated the

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Study Guide
Chapter 13, Section 1 (continued)

government. Lincoln Steffens reported on vote stealing and other corrupt

practices of political machines. Other muckrakers focused on social problems.
Jacob Riis wrote about the poverty and disease that were part of many immi-
grant neighborhoods in New York City. The work of the muckrakers put
pressure on politicians to start reforms.
11. What did most progressives believe was the cause of the nation’s social problems?

• Making Government Efficient (page 420)

One group of progressives focused on making the government more effi-
cient. These progressives took their ideas from business. They believed that
businesses became efficient by applying the ideas of scientific management.
Efficiency progressives believed that governing a modern city required
experts, not politicians. In most cities, the mayor or city council chose the
heads of the city’s departments. These jobs generally went to political sup-
porters and friends. These people often knew nothing about managing these
departments.
Efficiency progressives wanted to replace this system with a commission
plan or council-manager system of government. A board of commissioners or
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

a city manager who had a background in city services would hire specialists
to run city departments. Galveston, Texas, took on the commission system in
1901. Other cities soon followed.
12. From where did efficiency progressives get their ideas on how to run city government?

• Democracy and Progressivism (page 421)

Some progressives did not agree with efficiency progressives. They believed
that society needed more democracy. They believed that elected officials
should be more open to voters’ concerns. Robert La Follette was the governor
of Wisconsin. He used his office to oppose the way that political parties ran
their conventions. At this time, party bosses controlled which candidates were
chosen to run for office. La Follette pushed the state legislature to require each

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Study Guide
Chapter 13, Section 1 (continued)

party to hold a direct primary. This is a party election in which all party mem-
bers could vote for a candidate to run in the general election.
Progressives in other states pushed for similar changes. Three reforms were
introduced. The initiative allowed a group of citizens to introduce laws and
require the legislature to vote on them. The referendum allowed proposed
laws to be submitted to the voters for approval. The recall allowed voters to
demand a special election to remove an elected official from office before his
or her term had expired.
Another reform affected the federal government. This was the direct elec-
tion of senators. The United States Constitution provided for each state
legislature to elect two senators from that state. Often, political machines or
trusts influenced the election of senators. The senators repaid them by award-
ing federal contracts and jobs. To stop this corruption, some progressives called
for the direct election of senators by state voters. In 1913 Congress passed the
Seventeenth Amendment, which provided for the direct election of senators.
13. What election reform did Robert La Follette introduce?

• The Suffrage Movement (page 421)

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

The first women’s rights convention met in Seneca Falls, New York, in 1848.
It was organized by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott. They believed
that the top priority of the convention should be getting women the right to
vote. The movement for gaining voting rights became known as the suffrage
movement. Suffrage is the right to vote. Many progressives joined the woman
suffrage movement.
When Congress introduced the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments to
the Constitution to protect voting rights of African Americans, some suffra-
gists wanted the amendments worded to also give women the right to vote.
The Republicans refused to do so. The debate over the Fourteenth and
Fifteenth Amendments split the suffrage movement. One group, the National
Woman Suffrage Association, was led by Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony.
This group wanted Congress to pass a constitutional amendment to guarantee
woman suffrage. The other group, the American Woman Suffrage Association,
was led by Lucy Stone and Julia Ward Howe. This group wanted state gov-
ernments to give women the right to vote. The split made the movement less
effective.
In 1890 the two groups joined to form the National American Woman
Suffrage Association (NAWSA). The organization had a slow start, partly

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Study Guide
Chapter 13, Section 1 (continued)

because it was difficult to convince many women to become politically active.

However, many women realized that they needed to have the right to vote to
push for social reforms that they wanted passed. Many working-class women
wanted the vote to push for labor laws that would protect women.
The suffrage movement began lobbying lawmakers and organizing
marches. Alice Paul, who headed NAWSA’s congressional committee, had
organized a march in Washington, D.C. She wanted the march to push
President Wilson to act on behalf of suffrage. Some people in NAWSA who
wanted to work with the president opposed Paul’s actions. Paul then left
NAWSA and formed the National Woman’s Party.
Carrie Chapman Catt became NAWSA’s leader in 1915. She threw the orga-
nization’s support behind Wilson in the 1916 presidential election. Although
Wilson did not support a suffrage amendment, he supported the call for states
to grant women the right to vote. As more people pushed for woman suf-
frage, Congress began to support a constitutional amendment. Finally, in June
1919, the Senate passed the Nineteenth Amendment. It was ratified by the
states in 1920.
14. How did the National Woman Suffrage Association and the American Woman Suffrage
Association differ regarding gaining suffrage for women?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

• Social Welfare Progressivism (page 423)

Many progressives focused on social problems. One problem involved child
labor. In 1900 more than 1.7 million children under the age of 16 worked out-
side the home, often in unhealthy and unsafe conditions. Muckrakers
described the harsh conditions for children working in coal mines. These
reports convinced many states to pass laws that set a minimum age for
employment. It set limits on child labor, such as maximum hours children
could work. By the early 1900s, the number of child workers had decreased.
Working conditions were also difficult for adults. During the early 1900s,
thousands of workers were injured or died on the job. They and their families
received little compensation. Progressives and union leaders pushed states for
workers’ compensation laws. These laws set up insurance funds that were
paid for by employers. Workers who were hurt on the job received payments
from these funds.

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Study Guide
Chapter 13, Section 1 (continued)

Some progressives pushed for zoning laws. These laws divided a city into
zones for specific uses. They regulated how land and buildings could be used.
Building codes set minimum requirements for air, fire escapes, room size, and
sanitation in tenements. Health codes required that restaurants keep a clean
environment for their customers.
Some progressives believed that alcohol was responsible for many prob-
lems in society. Some employers believed that drinking hurt workers’
effectiveness. Many Christians opposed drinking on moral grounds. All these
concerns led to the start of the temperance movement. It called for the moder-
ation or elimination of alcohol.
Women were the main leaders of the temperance movement. In 1874 they
formed the Women’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU). At first the move-
ment worked to reduce alcohol consumption. Soon, however, it pushed for
prohibition, or laws banning the making, sale, and consumption of alcohol.
15. What reforms did progressives work for regarding labor?

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

• Progressives Versus Big Business (page 425)
Some progressives focused on regulating big business. They believed that
too much wealth was owned by too few people. They were especially con-
cerned about large trusts and holding companies. Progressives did not agree on
how big business should be regulated. Some wanted the government to break
up large corporations to restore competition. This led to the passage of the
Sherman Antitrust Act in 1890. Other progressives pushed for the creation of
agencies to regulate big companies and to prevent them from abusing their
power. This led to the creation of the Interstate Commerce Commission in 1887.
Some progressives pushed for socialism. This is the idea that the govern-
ment should own and operate industry for the community as a whole. They
wanted the government to buy up companies that affected everyone, such as
railroads and utilities. Many cities began to own and manage the local gas
and water companies and set the price the consumers had to pay.
Socialism had gained some support at the national level. Eugene Debs, the
leader of the American Socialist Party, won almost 1 million votes as the
party’s presidential candidate in the 1912 election. However, socialism never
gained the support of more than a minority of the progressives. Most believed
in America’s free enterprise system.

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Study Guide
Chapter 13, Section 1 (continued)

16. In what two ways did progressives believe big business should be regulated?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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Study Guide
Chapter 13, Section 2
For use with textbook pages 427–431

ROOSEVELT IN OFFICE
KEY TERMS AND NAMES
Square Deal the reform programs of President Roosevelt (page 428)
Northern Securities a giant holding company broken up by Theodore Roosevelt (page 428)
United Mine Workers a union for mine workers (page 428)
arbitration a settlement imposed by an outside party (page 429)
Hepburn Act a law intended to strengthen the Interstate Commerce Commission (page 429)
Upton Sinclair author of The Jungle, which described horrible conditions in the meatpacking
industry (page 430)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

How do you and your family know that the food you eat is safe? How does
the government help to ensure that food is safe?
The last section discussed the development of the Progressive movement.
This section discusses the administration of President Roosevelt and the
Progressive programs he started.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Use the chart below to help you take notes. Under President Roosevelt, the
role of the federal government in solving social and economic problems
expanded. Describe the federal government’s role in each of the items listed in
the chart.

1.
Labor and business

2.
Consumer protection

3.
Conservation

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Study Guide
Chapter 13, Section 2 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• Roosevelt Revives the Presidency (page 427)
President Theodore Roosevelt was a progressive. He believed that the gov-
ernment should become involved in the competing needs of various groups in
American society. Roosevelt’s reform programs became known as the Square
Deal.
Roosevelt believed that large corporations were important and part of the
reason for the nation’s prosperity. However, he also believed that these corpo-
rations were hurting the public interest. During his first year in office, a fight
began over the control of the Burlington Railroad. It involved the owners of
two other railroad companies. The conflict almost caused a financial crisis.
Then the owners agreed to form a new holding company called Northern
Securities.
Many Americans and President Roosevelt became concerned about the for-
mation of this company. Roosevelt decided that the holding company went
against the Sherman Antitrust Act. He filed a lawsuit against Northern
Securities. In 1904 the Supreme Court ruled that Northern Securities violated
the Sherman Antitrust Act. This was a victory for Roosevelt, who was labeled
as a “trustbuster” by newspapers.
President Roosevelt believed it was his job to stop conflicts between differ-
ent groups in the nation. In 1902 the United Mine Workers (UMW) union had
called a strike of miners who dug anthracite, or hard coal. The workers were
demanding higher wages, fewer work hours, and recognition of their union.
As the strike continued, coal prices increased. If the strike continued too long,
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

the nation might have had a coal shortage that could shut down factories and
keep people cold in the winter.
Roosevelt wanted the union and the owners to agree to arbitration, or a set-
tlement imposed by an outside party. The union agreed, but the owners did
not. The owners’ refusal made Roosevelt and many Americans angry.
Roosevelt threatened to have the army run the mines. The owners finally
agreed to arbitration by a commission appointed by Roosevelt. By intervening
in the dispute, Roosevelt had used presidential power in a new way.
Roosevelt believed that most trusts benefited the nation’s economy. He did
not want to break them up, but he did want to investigate them. In 1903 he
convinced Congress to create the Department of Commerce and Labor. The
department would include a special division called the Bureau of
Corporations. Its job was to investigate corporations and report on them.
Many corporations that were worried about antitrust lawsuits agreed to be
investigated by the Bureau. However, they made a deal that if the bureau
found anything wrong, the companies would be allowed to correct the prob-
lem without going to court. Only companies that refused to cooperate would
be subject to antitrust lawsuits.

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Study Guide
Chapter 13, Section 2 (continued)

In 1906 Roosevelt pushed Congress to pass the Hepburn Act. It was

designed to strengthen the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC), which
did not have enough authority to be effective. The Hepburn Act gave the ICC
the power to set railroad rates to make sure that companies did not compete
unfairly with each other. At first the railroads were suspicious of the ICC.
However, by 1920 the ICC became a supporter of the railroads’ interests and
had started raising rates to ensure the railroads’ profits.
4. What was President Roosevelt’s view of big corporations?

• Social Welfare Action (page 430)

In the early 1900s, consumer protection had become an important issue.
Some journalists had published articles that exposed the harmful practices of
some industries. One journalist reported on the pharmaceutical industry.
Many companies marketed medicines as cures for a variety of illnesses. These
medicines were often little more than alcohol, colored water, and sugar.
Consumers had no way of knowing what they were taking.

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Many Americans became concerned about the food they ate. In 1906 Upton
Sinclair published The Jungle. The book described the unsanitary conditions in
the meatpacking industry. The book made consumers angry. President
Roosevelt pushed for federal laws. Congress passed the Meat Inspection Act.
It required federal inspection of meat and the Agriculture Department to set
standards of cleanliness in meatpacking plants. The Pure Food and Drug Act
banned the sale of impure or falsely labeled food and drugs.
5. What was the subject of Upton Sinclair’s The Jungle?

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Chapter 13, Section 2 (continued)

• Conservation (page 430)

President Roosevelt was especially influential in environmental conserva-
tion. Roosevelt saw that the nation’s abundant natural resources were being
used up. He urged people to conserve resources.
In 1902 Roosevelt supported the passage of the Newlands Reclamation Act.
This law allowed the use of federal funds from the sale of public lands to be
used to pay for irrigation and land development projects in the West.
Roosevelt also worked to preserve the nation’s forests. He appointed
Gifford Pinchot to head the United States Forest Service. Pinchot, like
Roosevelt, believed in managing natural resources. He drew up regulations to
control lumbering on federal lands. Roosevelt also helped to conserve natural
resources by adding millions of acres of land as protected national forests. He
established new national parks and federal wildlife reservations.
Roosevelt changed the role of the federal government. Americans came to
believe that the federal government should help solve the nation’s social and
economic problems. Roosevelt also increased the power of the executive
branch. More departments in the executive branch became involved in regu-
lating different parts of the nation’s life.
6. How did Americans’ view of the federal government change during the Roosevelt
administration?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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Study Guide
Chapter 13, Section 3
For use with textbook pages 434–437

THE TAFT ADMINISTRATION

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
Joseph G. Cannon Speaker of the House under President Taft (page 436)
Payne-Aldrich Tariff a law passed during the Taft administration that did not effectively lower
tariffs (page 436)
Richard Ballinger Taft’s secretary of the interior who was a conservative corporate lawyer
(page 436)
syndicate a business group (page 436)
insubordination disobedience (page 437)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

Have you ever visited a national park? What park was it? How would you
describe your experiences there?
The last section discussed the domestic policies of President Roosevelt. This
section discusses the policies of the Taft administration.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the diagram below to help you take notes. President Taft faced several

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

controversies with progressives during his administration. In the diagram, list
the three major conflicts.

Taft' s Conflicts With Progressives

1. 2. 3.

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Study Guide
Chapter 13, Section 3 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• Taft Becomes President (page 434)
President Roosevelt supported Howard Taft as the Republican candidate in
the 1908 presidential election. Taft and Roosevelt were very different people.
Roosevelt was very dynamic and loved to be in the spotlight. Although Taft
was a skilled administrator, he preferred to avoid conflict with others.
Roosevelt acted quickly and decisively on issues. Taft preferred to respond
slowly. His approach led to conflicts between him and other progressives.
One conflict had to do with tariffs. President Taft believed that high tariffs
limited competition. He called Congress into special session to lower tariffs.
To pass a new tariff, Taft needed the help of the Speaker of the House, Joseph
G. Cannon. Progressives wanted to get rid of Cannon because he often blocked
the laws they wanted. Taft disagreed. He pressured progressives to stop try-
ing to unseat Cannon. In return, Cannon quickly pushed the tariff bill through
the House of Representatives. However, the following year progressives
joined with the Democrats and removed Cannon from power.
The progressives were also angry when the tariff bill went to the Senate.
Republican Senator Aldrich, along with other conservative senators, wanted
to keep high tariffs. The resulting bill was the Payne-Aldrich Tariff. The law
hardly cut tariffs at all, and even raised them on some goods. Taft decided to
accept the new tariff.
Taft’s relationship with progressives grew worse after a controversy in 1909.
Progressives had been unhappy with Taft’s replacement of James Garfield, a
conservationist, with Richard A. Ballinger as secretary of the interior.
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Ballinger was a conservative corporate lawyer. He tried to remove nearly a

million acres of forests and mineral reserves from public lands and make
them available for private development. Gifford Pinchot charged Ballinger
with having plotted to turn over public lands in Alaska to a private syndicate,
or business group, for profit. Taft dismissed the charges as groundless. Pinchot
then leaked the story to the press. He asked Congress to investigate. Taft fired
Pinchot for insubordination, or disobedience. Congress cleared Ballinger.
Taft’s actions resulted in an easy Democratic victory in the 1910 congres-
sional elections.
4. What were President Taft’s views on tariffs?

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Study Guide
Chapter 13, Section 3 (continued)

• Taft’s Progressive Reforms (page 437)

Despite many of his problems, Taft had several successes. He was a big
supporter of competition and brought more antitrust cases than did
Roosevelt. Taft also set up the Children’s Bureau. This was a federal agency
that investigated and publicized child labor problems.
Taft was a conservationist. His contributions in the area of conservation
were at least equal to those of Roosevelt. Taft set up the Bureau of Mines to
oversee the activities of mining companies. He expanded the national forests.
When Taft brought an antitrust suit against U.S. Steel, Roosevelt was upset.
He believed that doing so would disturb the system of cooperation and regu-
lation that he had arranged with big business. Roosevelt criticized Taft for his
dealings with big business. After he broke with Taft, progressives convinced
Roosevelt to run against Taft as the progressive candidate in the 1912 presi-
dential election.
5. What led to the break between Roosevelt and President Taft?

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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Study Guide
Chapter 13, Section 4
For use with textbook pages 438–442

THE WILSON YEARS

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
Progressive Party newly formed political party, nicknamed the Bull Moose Party (page 439)
New Nationalism suggested reform programs of Theodore Roosevelt in the 1912 election
(page 439)
New Freedom suggested reform programs of Woodrow Wilson in the 1912 election (page 439)
income tax direct tax on the earnings of individuals and corporations (page 440)
Federal Reserve Act law that set up a central banking system in 1913 (page 441)
Federal Trade Commission agency created by Congress to monitor American business (page 441)
unfair trade practices business practices that unfairly limited competition (page 441)
National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) association formed in
1909 to bring an end to lynching and racial discrimination (page 442)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

What are income taxes? Who pays them? How are they paid?
The last section described Progressive reforms and problems during the
Taft administration. This section discusses Progressive reforms under
President Wilson.
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the diagram below to help you take notes. Several Progressive reforms
under President Wilson helped to regulate the economy. List these reforms in
the diagram.

1. 2.

Progressive Reforms
That Regulated the
Economy

3. 4.

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Study Guide
Chapter 13, Section 4 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• The Election of 1912 (page 438)
Theodore Roosevelt was displeased with President Taft’s performance. He
did not believe that Taft lived up to Progressive ideals. So Roosevelt declared
that he was willing to accept the Republican nomination for president in the
1912 election. At the Republican convention, conservative Republicans sup-
ported Taft. Progressives supported Roosevelt. Roosevelt decided to leave the
party and run as an independent candidate. He became the candidate for the
newly formed Progressive Party, which was nicknamed the Bull Moose
party. The election actually became a contest between Roosevelt and the
Democratic candidate Woodrow Wilson.
Wilson was a progressive. As governor of New Jersey, he pushed through
one Progressive law after another. Although Wilson and Roosevelt were both
progressives, they approached reform differently. Roosevelt’s programs
became known as the New Nationalism. He favored regulating trusts, setting
up laws to protect women and children in labor. He also wanted a federal
trade commission to regulate industry.
Wilson’s programs became known as the New Freedom. He believed that
trusts were “regulated monopolies.” He believed that Roosevelt’s approach
toward businesses gave the federal government too much power in the
nation’s economy. He believed that freedom in the economy was more impor-
tant than efficiency.
Roosevelt and Taft split the Republican vote in the election, giving the pres-
idency to Woodrow Wilson.

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

5. How did Roosevelt’s and Wilson’s views of trusts differ?

• Regulating the Economy (page 439)

Shortly after becoming president, Wilson worked to get Congress to reduce
tariffs. He believed that lowering tariffs would lead manufacturers to produce
better products and to lower prices in order to be competitive with foreign
goods. In 1913 Congress passed the Underwood Tariff. It lowered the average
tariff on imported goods. Part of the Underwood Tariff Act included levying
an income tax, or a direct tax on the earnings of individuals and corporations.

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Study Guide
Chapter 13, Section 4 (continued)

Since the 1800s, economic depressions had hit the United States. During
those times many people lost their savings when small banks collapsed. The
most recent economic crisis had occurred in 1907. To restore people’s confi-
dence in banks, Wilson proposed the creation of a Federal Reserve system.
Under this system, banks would keep a portion of their deposits in a regional
reserve bank. This would provide a cushion for these banks during an eco-
nomic crisis. The president would appoint a Board of Governors. The Board
could set interest rates that the reserve banks charged other banks. It would
control the amount of money in circulation. Congress approved this system by
passing the Federal Reserve Act in 1913.
Wilson wanted to restore competition in the economy. He wanted to break
up monopolies. However, once he became president, Wilson realized that it
would be unrealistic to try and break up large companies. In 1914 Wilson
asked Congress to create the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) to regulate
American businesses. The commission could order companies to stop unfair
trade practices, or business practices that unfairly limited competition. Pro-
gressives in Congress were not satisfied. They passed the Clayton Antitrust
Act. The law banned businesses from charging different customers different
prices for the same product. Manufacturers could no longer give discounts to
those who bought a large volume of goods.
6. Why did President Wilson support the Federal Reserve system?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

• Federal Aid and Social Welfare (page 441)

By 1914 Wilson believed that his reforms were complete. However, when
Democrats suffered losses in the House of Representatives during the 1914
congressional elections, Wilson decided to support further reforms. He signed
the Keating-Owen Child Labor Act, which banned the employment of chil-
dren under the age of 14 in factories that made goods for interstate trade. He
supported the Adamson Act, which set up an eight-hour workday for railroad
workers. He supported the Federal Farm Loan Act to make long-term loans
available to farmers.

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Study Guide
Chapter 13, Section 4 (continued)

7. What program did President Wilson support to help farmers?

• The Legacy of Progressivism (page 442)

Like Roosevelt, Wilson expanded the role of the president and the federal
government. Before the Progressive era, most Americans did not expect the
government to pass laws to protect workers or to regulate businesses. By the
end of the Progressive era, most Americans expected the government to play
an active role. Through the passage of various programs, progressives did
improve the quality of life of many people.
The Progressive movement, however, did not address issues facing African
Americans. As a result, in 1905 W.E.B. Du Bois and other African American
leaders met to demand full political rights for African Americans. The meet-
ing eventually resulted in the beginning of the National Association for the
Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) in 1909. African American lead-
ers believed that voting was absolutely necessary to bring about an end to
racial discrimination.

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

8. What group of people failed to benefit from Progressive reforms?

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Study Guide
Chapter 14, Section 1
For use with textbook pages 448–455

THE UNITED STATES ENTERS WORLD WAR I

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
Pancho Villa leader of a Mexican guerrilla group (page 449)
guerrillas an armed band that carries out surprise attacks and sabotage rather than open
warfare (page 449)
nationalism an intense pride in one’s homeland (page 450)
self-determination the idea that people who belong to a nation should have their own country
and government (page 450)
Franz Ferdinand the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne (page 450)
Allies the alliance of France, Russia, Great Britain, and Italy in World War I (page 452)
Central Powers the alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria in
World War I (page 452)
propaganda information designed to influence opinion (page 453)
contraband prohibited materials (page 453)
U-boat German submarines (page 453)
Sussex Pledge German promise not to sink merchant ships without warning (page 454)
Zimmermann telegram letter sent by a German official to Mexico asking Mexico to ally itself
with Germany against the United States in exchange for regaining its territories lost earlier to
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

the U.S. (page 454)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

Do you think the United States should ever become involved in conflicts
between foreign nations? Why or why not?
In this section, you will learn about American intervention in Mexico and
the Caribbean. You will also learn what caused the United States to enter
World War I.

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Study Guide
Chapter 14, Section 1 (continued)

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the cause-and-effect diagram below to help you take notes. Several fac-
tors caused conflicts among European nations by 1914. List these causes.

Causes Effect

1.

2. Conflicts develop among

European nations.
3.

READ TO LEARNII
• Woodrow Wilson’s Diplomacy (page 448)
President Wilson opposed imperialism. He did, however, believe that the
United States should promote democracy. He believed that was important to
keep peace in the world. His beliefs were put to the test soon after he took
office.
Mexico was ruled by dictator Porfirio Díaz from 1884 to 1911. He encour-
aged foreign investment to help build Mexico’s industries. A few wealthy
landowners controlled Mexican society. Most Mexicans were poor and land-

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

less. Eventually these people revolted against Díaz, who fled the country.
Francisco Madero replaced Díaz, but he proved to be an ineffective admin-
istrator. He was replaced by General Victoriano Huerta, who had Madero
murdered. President Wilson was disgusted with Huerta’s actions and refused
to recognize the new government. He hoped that Huerta would be over-
thrown, so he allowed Americans to arm the groups within Mexico who
opposed Huerta.
In April 1914, some American sailors visiting a Mexican city were arrested
for entering a restricted area. Although they were released, their commander
demanded an apology. The Mexicans refused. Wilson used this as an opportu-
nity to overthrow Huerta and sent marines to take over the port of Veracruz.
Anti-American riots followed this action. Venustiano Carranza, whose forces
obtained arms from the United States, became the Mexican president.
Mexican forces opposed to Carranza were angry. They carried out raids
into the United States. Pancho Villa led a group of guerrillas, or an armed band
that carries out surprise attacks rather than open warfare, who burned the
town of Columbus, New Mexico. They killed a number of Americans. Wilson
sent troops into Mexico to find and capture Villa. They were unable to do so.

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Study Guide
Chapter 14, Section 1 (continued)

Many nations were critical of Wilson’s actions in Mexico, which damaged

U.S. foreign relations. However, in his first term Wilson sent the marines into
Nicaragua, Haiti, and the Dominican Republic to try and set up governments
that he hoped would be more democratic and stable than those that were there.
4. Why did President Wilson send marines into Nicaragua, Haiti, and the Dominican Republic?

• The Outbreak of World War I (page 449)

By 1914 conflicts among European nations led to the outbreak of war. In
1864 the German kingdom of Prussia started wars to unite the various German
states into one nation. By 1871 Prussia succeeded in uniting Germany and set-
ting up the German Empire. The Prussians attacked and defeated France and
took a part of French territory along the German border. This action made
France and Germany enemies. To protect itself, Germany signed an alliance
with Austria-Hungary, an empire that controlled much of southeastern
Europe, and with Italy. This alliance became known as the Triple Alliance.
The rise of Germany also upset Russia. It was afraid that Germany might
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

expand into Russia. At the same time, Russia was a rival of Austria-Hungary.
Many people living in Austria-Hungary were Slavs, who were the same eth-
nic group as the Russians. Russia and France found that they both opposed
Germany and Austria-Hungary. So they signed the Franco-Russian Alliance.
In 1898 Germany began to build a navy. Great Britain, which had remained
neutral up to this time, also started building up its navy. This naval race led to
tensions between Germany and Britain. Britain then joined into an alliance
with France and Russia, which became known as the Triple Entente.
Nationalism, or an intense pride in one’s homeland, became a powerful idea
in Europe by the late 1800s. It was one of the reasons for the conflicts among
European countries. Each nation viewed the other nations as competitors.
Many people were willing to go to war to expand their own nation. An
important idea of nationalism is the right to self-determination. This is the
idea that people who belong to a nation should have their own country and
government. This idea led to problems in the Balkans, a region in southeast-
ern Europe. The Ottoman Empire and the Austro-Hungarian Empire ruled the
region. These empires were made up of different nations. In the 1800s, the dif-
ferent nations wanted their independence.

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Study Guide
Chapter 14, Section 1 (continued)

Among the groups wanting independence were the Serbs, Bosnians, Croats,
and Slovenes. They all spoke similar languages. They called themselves the
South Slavs, or Yugoslavs. The Serbs were the first to gain independence.
They formed a nation between the Ottoman and Austro-Hungarian Empires
and wanted to unite the South Slavs. Russia supported the Serbs. Austria-
Hungary wanted to limit Serbia’s growth. So it annexed Bosnia, which had
been part of the Ottoman Empire. The Serbs were angry because they believed
that Austria-Hungary did not want to let the Slavic people in its empire
become independent.
In June 1914, the Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir to the Austro-
Hungarian throne, visited Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia. While there, he was
assassinated by a Bosnian, who was a member of a Serbian nationalist group.
Austria-Hungary blamed Serbia and wanted to attack it. However, the Austro-
Hungarian government knew that attacking Serbia might trigger a war with its
ally, Russia. So the Austrians asked its ally Germany for support. At the same
time, the Serbs counted on Russian support, who in turn counted on French
support. On July 28, 1914, Austria declared war on Serbia. A few days later,
Germany declared war on Russia and then on France. World War I had begun.
Germany planned on invading France and then on concentrating its efforts
against Russia. However, it had to cross Belgium, which was neutral. The
British promised to protect Belgium’s neutrality. So when Germany crossed
Belgium, Britain declared war on Germany. Those who were part of the Triple
Entente were the Allies. It included France, Russia, Great Britain, and Italy.
The Triple Alliance became the Central Powers and included Germany,
Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria.

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

The German troops advanced into France. However, they were surprised
by the Russian invasion of Germany. As a result, the Germans had to pull
some of their forces away from France to stop the Russians. The Allies took
advantage of the situation by stopping the German advance at the Battle of
the Marne, near Paris. Both sides became locked in a stalemate. The Germans
and Austrians were more successful against the Russians. They swept across
hundreds of miles of territory and took hundreds of thousands of prisoners.
5. What was Germany’s early plan in fighting the war?

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Study Guide
Chapter 14, Section 1 (continued)

• American Neutrality (page 452)

At the beginning of the war, President Wilson declared the United States
neutral. However, many Americans supported one side or the other. Most
Americans favored the Allies. Most of President Wilson’s cabinet also sup-
ported the Allies. They believed that an Allied victory was necessary to keep
the international balance of power.
The British worked to win U.S. support. They used propaganda, which is
information designed to influence opinion. Britain also cut the transatlantic
telegraph cable from Europe to the United States. This limited the news about
the war mainly to British communications. Although many reports were exag-
gerated, enough Americans believed them to sway American support for the
Allies.
Businesses also supported the Allies because they had ties with businesses
in the Allied countries. American banks began to loan money to the Allies,
investing in an Allied victory. If the Allies won, the money would be paid
back. If the Allies lost, the money would be lost.
6. What method did Britain use to gain American support?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

• Moving Toward War (page 453)

Although most Americans did not want to be involved in the war, several
events drew the United States into it. After the war began, the British navy
blockaded Germany. The British stopped neutral ships to inspect them for
contraband, or prohibited materials. The contraband included food.
To get around the blockade, Germany used submarines known as U-boats.
In February 1915, it announced that it would sink without warning any ship
located in the waters around Britain. People in the United States and in other
countries were angry. Attacking civilian ships without warning was against
international rules. The Germans said that many civilian ships were actually
warships in disguise and that the U-boats would be at risk if they gave warn-
ing. In May 1915, the British passenger ship Lusitania entered the war zone
after being warned by Germany. A German submarine fired on the ship,
killing nearly 1,200 people. About 128 people were Americans.
President Wilson tried to stay out of the war. However, he did send notes to
Germany insisting that it safeguard the lives of civilians in the war zones.
After a U-boat shot at the French passenger ship Sussex, Wilson warned

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Study Guide
Chapter 14, Section 1 (continued)

Germany to stop its submarine warfare or risk war with the United States.
Germany was not interested in having the United States join the Allies in the
war. In the Sussex Pledge, Germany promised to not sink any merchant ships
without warning.
In January 1917, Arthur Zimmermann, a German official, instructed the
German ambassador to Mexico to propose to Mexico that it ally itself with
Germany in case of war between Germany and the United States. In return,
Mexico would get back the territory that it once had in Texas, New Mexico,
and Arizona. The British intercepted the Zimmermann telegram, which was
leaked to American newspapers. Many Americans now believed that war
with Germany was necessary. Then in February 1917, Germany again began
unrestricted submarine warfare. Finally, after Germany sank six American
merchant ships, Wilson asked Congress to declare war on Germany, which it
did on April 6, 1917.
7. What event led many Americans to call for war against Germany?

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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Study Guide
Chapter 14, Section 2
For use with textbook pages 456–461

THE HOME FRONT

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
conscription forced military service (page 457)
War Industries Board a government agency created to coordinate the production of war
materials (page 458)
Bernard Baruch the head of the War Industries Board (page 458)
victory garden garden planted by Americans to raise their own vegetables (page 458)
Liberty Bonds bonds bought by Americans as a loan to the government to finance World War I
(page 458)
Victory Bonds bonds bought by Americans as a loan to the government to finance World War I
(page 458)
Committee on Public Information a government agency created to sell the war to the American
people (page 460)
espionage spying to acquire secret government information (page 460)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

What do you think freedom of speech means? Do you think people should
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

be allowed to say whatever they want whenever they want to? Explain your
opinion.
The last section explained the reasons the United States entered World
War I. This section describes the war effort at home.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the chart below to help you take notes. The United States government
had to prepare for war in several areas. Identify the ways it prepared in each
of the areas listed.

How the Government Prepared

Building Up the Military 1.

Organizing the Economy 2.

Setting Up a Workforce 3.

Getting Public Support 4.

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Study Guide
Chapter 14, Section 2 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• Building Up the Military (page 456)
When the United States entered the war, it did not have enough soldiers.
Although many people volunteered, most officials believed that they would
have to turn to conscription, or forced military service. Many progressives
believed that conscription was against democratic principles.
Congress, however, believed conscription was necessary. It set up a new
system of conscription called selective service. It required all men between 21
and 30 to register for the draft. A lottery then randomly decided the order
they were called to military service. Eventually about 2.8 million men were
drafted. About 42,000 of the 400,000 African Americans who were drafted
served in the war overseas. African American soldiers faced discrimination
and prejudice in the army. They often served in racially segregated units that
were almost always under the control of white officers. Despite this, many
African Americans fought with distinction in the war. Two African American
divisions fought in battles along the Western Front.
Women officially served in the armed forces for the first time in World
War I. They served in non-combat positions. Women nurses served in both the
army and the navy. With men serving in combat, the armed forces faced a
shortage of clerical workers. The navy enlisted women to serve as clerical
workers, radio operators, electricians, torpedo assemblers, and other occupa-
tions. The army, however, refused to enlist women. It hired women as
temporary employees to fill clerical jobs. The only women to actually serve in
the army were the army nurses.

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

5. Why did the United States use conscription during World War I?

• Organizing Industry (page 457)

To get the economy ready for the war, Congress created special agencies.
One of the first agencies was the War Industries Board (WIB). Its job was to
coordinate the production of war materials. Bernard Baruch was in charge of
the board. The WIB worked with business leaders. It told industries what they
could and could not make.

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Study Guide
Chapter 14, Section 2 (continued)

The Food Administration was responsible for increasing the amount of food
available for the armed forces, while decreasing the amount of food available
for civilians. The government encouraged Americans to save food on their
own such as by having Wheatless Mondays or Meatless Tuesdays. The gov-
ernment encouraged people to plant victory gardens to raise their own
vegetables. This would leave more food for the troops. The government set
high prices on wheat and other grains to increase farm production.
The Fuel Administration managed the use of coal and oil. To conserve
energy, the government introduced daylight savings time. It also shortened
workweeks for factories that did not make war materials.
To raise money to pay for the war, Congress raised income tax rates. It
placed new taxes on company profits and on the profits of arms factories. The
government also borrowed money from the American people through Liberty
Bonds and Victory Bonds. The government agreed to pay back the money with
interest in a certain number of years.
6. How did the government attempt to get the money to pay for World War I?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

• Mobilizing the Workforce (page 459)

To prevent workers from striking, the government set up the National War
Labor Board (NWLB). This agency mediated labor disputes that might other-
wise lead to strikes. The NWLB pushed industry to give workers wage
increases, an 8-hour workday, and the right to organize unions. In return,
labor leaders agreed not to disrupt war production through strikes. Union
membership increased.
Women’s opportunities in the workforce increased during the war. Women
took over jobs in industries that the men who were serving in the military had
left. After the war, however, most women returned to their previous jobs or
stopped working.
Many African Americans started working in factories that produced war
materials. Many left the South and moved to factories in the North. This
movement became known as the “Great Migration.” It changed the racial
makeup of cities such as Chicago, New York, Cleveland, and Detroit.

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Study Guide
Chapter 14, Section 2 (continued)

Many Mexicans left Mexico and headed north. Some worked as farmers
and ranchers in the Southwest. Others moved north to get wartime factory
jobs. Mexican Americans often faced discrimination. They often settled in
their own separate neighborhoods, where they could support each other.
7. Why did the government set up the National War Labor Board?

• Ensuring Public Support (page 459)

The government wanted to make sure that the public supported the war. It
set up an agency called the Committee on Public Information (CPI) to do so.
George Creel was the head of the agency. He hired advertisers, artists,
authors, songwriters, entertainers, and others to sway public opinion in favor
of the war. The CPI arranged for short patriotic talks at movie theaters and
public gatherings. It hired thousands of “Four-Minute Men” to urge audiences
to support the war in various ways.
The government passed laws to fight antiwar activities. The Espionage Act
of 1917 provided for penalties and prison terms for anyone convicted of espi-

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

onage, or spying to acquire secret government information. The law also
provided for penalties for interfering with the war effort. The Sedition Act of
1918 made illegal any public expression of opposition to the war. In reality, it
let officials prosecute anyone who criticized the government.
The fear of spies led to the mistreatment and persecution of German
Americans. Things that were German came under suspicion. Some schools
dropped the German language from its curriculums. Orchestras stopped play-
ing music by German composers.
Other people also came under suspicion. They included radical labor
activists and socialists. Newspaper ads urged people to report on any people
who might be harming the war effort. Many people became concerned about
the intolerance that was occurring in the country.
The courts, however, generally upheld the government’s tactics. In Schenck
v. the United States, the Supreme Court ruled that a person’s freedom of speech
could be curbed if the speech presented a danger. The Court said that many
things that could be said in peace time could be considered dangerous during
war.

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Study Guide
Chapter 14, Section 2 (continued)

8. How did the Sedition Act of 1918 affect freedom of speech?

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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Study Guide
Chapter 14, Section 3
For use with textbook pages 464–469

A BLOODY CONFLICT
KEY TERMS AND NAMES
“no man’s land” the space between opposing trenches (page 465)
convoys groups of merchant ships and troop transports (page 466)
Vladimir Lenin leader of the Bolshevik Party (page 467)
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk treaty between Germany and Russia that ended Russia’s involvement in
World War I (page 467)
armistice a cease-fire (page 468)
Fourteen Points President Wilson’s plan for peace after World War I (page 468)
League of Nations an association of nations organized to help keep peace and prevent future
wars (page 468)
Treaty of Versailles treaty that ended World War I (page 468)
reparations payments for war damages (page 468)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

You have probably heard of the United Nations. Do you know what it
does? Its forerunner was the League of Nations set up after World War I. The
last section discussed the war effort at home during World War I. This section

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

discusses the new technology used during the war and the treaty that ended
the war.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

The treaty ending World War I involved the Big Four. In the diagram,
describe the major people involved and the major provisions of the treaty.

World War I Peace Talks

People Involved Provisions of Treaty

(Big Four)
1. 5.

2. 6.

3. 7.

4.

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Study Guide
Chapter 14, Section 3 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• Combat in World War I (page 464)
The ways used to fight wars changed during World War I. Troops began
using the rapid-fire machine gun. They dug trenches to defend their lines
against enemy attacks. On the Western Front, troops dug a network of
trenches that stretched from the English Channel to the Swiss border. The
space between the opposing trenches became known as “no man’s land.”
Soldiers from either side would race across no man’s land and throw
grenades into the opposing trenches. As they ran across, many were shot. In
major battles, both sides sometimes lost hundreds of thousands of men.
Both sides developed new technologies. The Germans began using poison
gas. The fumes caused vomiting, blindness, and suffocation. The Allies also
began using poison gas, and gas masks became necessary equipment. The
British introduced the tank, which could roll over barbed wire and trenches.
Airplanes were first used in World War I. They were used at first to observe
enemy activities. Then they were used to drop bombs. Later, machine guns
were attached to airplanes, which took part in air battles.
8. What technology did the British introduce in World War I?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

• The Americans and Victory (page 466)

About 2 million American soldiers fought in World War I. Although they
were mostly inexperienced, they boosted the morale of the Allied forces. The
commander of the U.S. army was General John J. Pershing.
To avoid having troop ships sunk on their way to Europe, the admiral of
the U.S. navy suggested that merchant ships and troop transports be gathered
in groups, called convoys. Warships escorted the convoys. This system
reduced the number of ships that were lost and made sure that American
troops reached Europe safely.
In February 1917, riots broke out in Russia over the government’s involve-
ment in the war. Food and fuel was scarce. Russia’s leader, Czar Nicholas II,
stepped down from the throne. A temporary government took over. The
government, however, was unable to deal with the major problems, such as a
lack of food, that the country faced.

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Study Guide
Chapter 14, Section 3 (continued)

The Bolsheviks, a group of Communists, soon wanted power in Russia. In

November 1917, Vladimir Lenin, the leader of the Bolshevik Party, overthrew the
Russian government and set up a Communist one. Lenin immediately pulled
Russia out of the war. He signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany in
March 1918. Under the treaty, Russia lost a great deal of land. The treaty also
removed the German army from the remaining Russian lands. This helped
Germany, which now was free to concentrate its troops on the Western Front.
German troops now launched a massive attack and pushed deeply into
Allied lines and almost reached Paris. American troops helped to stop the
offensive by launching their own attack. American and French troops blocked
the German drive on Paris. Germans tried to launch one last attack to take
Paris, but American and French troops once again blocked the drive.
On September 16, 1918, American troops under General Pershing started a
huge offensive against the Germans. By November, the Americans had
destroyed the German defenses and pushed a hole in the German lines.
Finally, on November 11, 1918, Germany signed an armistice, or cease-fire,
that ended the war.
9. How did the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk affect Germany?

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

• A Flawed Peace (page 468)
The peace conference started in January 1919, in Paris, France. The main
people involved were known as the Big Four, made up of the leaders of the
Allied nations. They included President Wilson of the United States, Prime
Minister David Lloyd George of Britain, Premier Georges Clemenceau of
France, and Prime Minister Vittorio Orlando of Italy. Germany was not
included.
President Wilson’s plan for peace was known as the Fourteen Points. The
fourteenth point called for the formation of an association of nations known
as the League of Nations. The purpose of the League would be to help keep
peace and prevent future wars. The other Allied governments did not support
Wilson’s plan. They believed that it was too easy on the Germans. The Treaty
of Versailles weakened many of Wilson’s proposals. Under the treaty,
Germany had to disband its armed forces. It was forced to pay reparations, or
war damages to the Allies, that amounted to $33 billion. That amount was
more than Germany could afford to pay. Germany also had to accept blame
for the outbreak of World War I and the destruction it caused.
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Study Guide
Chapter 14, Section 3 (continued)

The war led to the end of four empires: the Russian Empire, the Ottoman
Empire, the German Empire, and the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Austria-
Hungary was split into separate countries. In addition, nine new countries
were established in Europe. The treaty did include Wilson’s plan for the
League of Nations.
Many members of Congress opposed the Treaty of Versailles, particularly
the League of Nations. They believed that it would force the United States to
fight in many conflicts. Some senators, led by Henry Cabot Lodge, supported
the League of Nations. However, they agreed to ratify the treaty only if some
amendments were added to ensure that the United States could always act
independently. Wilson wanted the Senate to ratify the treaty without any
changes. So he took his case directly to the American people. The 8,000 miles
of travel cost Wilson his health. He suffered a stroke, was bedridden, and iso-
lated from his closest advisers.
The U.S. Senate refused to ratify the Treaty of Versailles. Instead, it signed
treaties with each of the Central Powers. The League of Nations started with-
out the United States.
10. Why did many Allied powers oppose President Wilson’s plan for peace?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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Study Guide
Chapter 14, Section 4
For use with textbook pages 471–475

THE WAR’S IMPACT

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
cost of living the cost of food, clothing, shelter, and other essentials that people need to
survive (page 471)
general strike a strike that involves all workers in a certain location, not just workers in a partic-
ular industry (page 472)
Red Scare a panic in the United States caused by the fear that Communists would seize power
in the United States (page 474)
A. Mitchell Palmer Attorney General of the United States in 1919 (page 474)
J. Edgar Hoover head of the General Intelligence Division, which became the FBI (page 474)
deported to be expelled from a country (page 474)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

What do you think of when you hear the word “Communist”? What coun-
tries today have a Communist government? How do Americans today feel
about communism?
The last section discussed the provisions of the treaty that ended World
War I. This section discusses the effects of the war on the United States.

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII
Use the diagram below to help you take notes. The United States faced sev-
eral problems after World War I. Identify these problems in the diagram.

1. 2.

Problems After
World War I

3. 4.

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Study Guide
Chapter 14, Section 4 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• An Economy in Turmoil (page 471)
After the war ended, the United States government removed the controls it
had placed on the economy during the war. People quickly bought goods that
they were not able to buy during the war. Businesses increased their prices,
which they could not do during the war. The result was inflation. It increased
the cost of living, or the cost of food, clothing, shelter, and other items people
need to survive.
Many businesses raised wages during the war. However, after the war the
inflation wiped out most of the gains that workers had made. Workers
wanted an increase in wages. Business owners, however, wanted to hold
down wages to hold down their operating costs.
During the war, the number of workers in unions increased. After the war,
unions were better organized than they were before the war and more ready
to organize strikes. Business leaders were determined to break the unions. The
situation resulted in a huge increase in strikes in 1919.
The first big strike took place in Seattle. It involved shipyard workers who
wanted higher wages and shorter hours. Soon other workers joined the ship-
yard workers and organized a general strike. This is a strike that involves all
workers living in a certain location, not just workers in a particular industry.
The strike paralyzed the city for several days. In the end, the strikers made no
gains. The strike did worry many Americans because the general strike was a
technique used by Communists and radical groups in Europe.
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

The Seattle strike was followed by a strike by police officers in Boston. Riots
soon broke out in the city. Calvin Coolidge, the governor of Massachusetts,
was forced to send in the National Guard. When the strikers returned to
work, they were fired. The police commissioner hired a new police force
instead.
One of the largest strikes was held by steelworkers. They went on strike
against U.S. Steel for higher pay, shorter hours, and a recognition of their
union. The company was determined to break the union. Many steelworkers
were immigrants. The company blamed the strike on foreign radicals. It hired
African Americans and Mexicans as replacement workers. The company was
able to keep the steel mills operating. The strike failed and so did the union.
5. What did many workers in the United States in 1919 strike for?

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Study Guide
Chapter 14, Section 4 (continued)

• Racial Unrest (page 473)

After the war, many soldiers returned to the United States looking for
work. Many African Americans who moved north during the war were also
looking for jobs and housing. Racism and frustration led to violence. In the
summer of 1919, riots broke out in many Northern cities. The worst violence
occurred in Chicago.
6. What led to race riots in many American cities in the United States in 1919?

• The Red Scare (page 473)

The strikes in 1919 led many people to believe that Communists were try-
ing to start a revolution in the United States. Many Americans were very
angry with Russia when it withdrew from the war. Since the late 1800s, many
Americans blamed immigrants for bringing Communist ideas into the United
States. They also blamed immigrants for labor problems and violence. When
Communists took control of Russia, Americans feared they would try to start
revolutions in other places. Americans became especially fearful when the

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Soviet Union formed the Communist International. This was an organization
that coordinated the activities of Communist parties in other countries.
As strikes started across the United States in 1919, the fear of Americans
that Communists, or “Reds,” would seize power led to a panic known as the
Red Scare. Several incidents supported the panic. In June 1919, eight bombs in
eight cities exploded within minutes of one another. One of these bombs dam-
aged the home of United States Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer. Although
no one was ever caught, most people believed the bombings were the work of
Communists trying to destroy the American way of life.
Attorney General Palmer set up a special division within the Justice
Department. The General Intelligence Division was headed by J. Edgar Hoover,
and it later became the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). In the next few
months, Palmer organized raids on several radical organizations, although no
evidence pointed to any one group as the bombers. Palmer rounded up many
immigrants and had them deported, or expelled from the country.
The Palmer raids were carried out without concern for people’s civil rights.
Homes were entered without search warrants. People were jailed indefinitely
and not allowed to talk to their attorneys. Palmer was first praised for his

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Study Guide
Chapter 14, Section 4 (continued)

work. However, when he failed to find any real evidence of a revolutionary

conspiracy, his popularity faded. The Red Scare led to anti-immigrant feelings
and a call for Congress to limit immigration.
7. How did the Palmer raids violate people’s civil rights?

• An End to Progressivism (page 475)

By 1920 most Americans wanted an end to the unrest that overcame the
country. In the 1920 election, the Democrats ran James M. Cox and Franklin D.
Roosevelt. They ran on the ideals of progressivism. The Republicans ran
Warren G. Harding. He called for a return to “normalcy.” He wanted the
United States to return to the simpler days before Progressive Era reforms.
Many voters agreed with Harding, and he won by a landslide.
8. Why did Warren G. Harding win the presidential election in 1920?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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Study Guide
Chapter 15, Section 1
For use with textbook pages 482–488

A CLASH OF VALUES
KEY TERMS AND NAMES
anarchist individual who opposes all forms of government (page 483)
eugenics a false science that deals with the improvement of hereditary traits (page 483)
Ku Klux Klan a society set up to restore white Protestant America by terrorizing African
Americans and other minorities (page 483)
Emergency Quota Act law that established a temporary quota system and limited immigration
(page 484)
flapper a young, dramatic, stylish, and unconventional woman (page 485)
Fundamentalism religious movement that focused on the authority of the Bible (page 486)
evolution theory that suggests that human beings had developed from lower forms of life over
the course of millions of years (page 486)
creationism Fundamentalist belief that God created the world as described in the Bible (page 486)
police powers government’s power to control people and property in the interest of public
safety, health, welfare, and morals (page 487)
speakeasy bar where people illegally purchased alcohol (page 487)

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII
How would you describe today’s fashion style? What kinds of features
make up this style?
In this section, you will learn about the increase in racism and nativism in
the 1920s. You will also learn about the conflicts between traditional and mod-
ern values that shook the country.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the diagram below to help you take notes. The 1920s saw the develop-
ment of the new morality. List the ways the new morality showed itself.

2.
1.

Aspects of 3.

6.
New Morality

5. 4.

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Study Guide
Chapter 15, Section 1 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• Nativism Resurges (page 482)
During the 1920s, anti-immigrant feelings increased in the United States,
leading to increased feelings of racism and nativism. Many Americans viewed
immigrants as a threat to the traditional American society. They believed that
immigrants were taking jobs away from the millions of Americans who
returned from the war.
In the 1920s, the majority of immigrants arrived from southern and eastern
Europe. They faced ethnic and religious prejudices. The Sacco-Vanzetti case is
an example of this discrimination. On April 15, 1920, two armed men killed
two employees of a factory in Massachusetts and robbed the company of its
payroll. Two Italian immigrants—Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti—
were arrested for the crime. Newspapers closely covered the case. They
reported that the two immigrants were anarchists, those who opposed all
forms of government. They also reported that Sacco owned a gun similar to
the murder weapon. Although no one at the time knew whether the two men
were guilty, many people concluded that they were guilty because they were
Italian immigrants and anarchists. Other people believed that the case was an
example of prejudice against people based on their ethnic origin. In July 1921,
Sacco and Vanzetti were found guilty and sentenced to death. They were exe-
cuted six years later, maintaining their innocence to the end.
Nativists used the idea of eugenics to boost their arguments against immi-
gration. Eugenics is a false science that deals with the improvement of
hereditary traits. It stressed that human inequalities were inherited. Eugenics
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

boosted the nativists’ idea that white Protestants from northern Europe who
first came to America were the superior stock. People such as Woodrow
Wilson supported this idea and lent support to racist theories.
One of the biggest movements to restrict immigration came from the Ku
Klux Klan. After the Civil War, the Ku Klux Klan used violence to intimidate
freed African Americans. After World War I, the Klan targeted immigrants,
Catholics, Jews and other groups they believed did not represent traditional
American values. Because of a large public campaign, Klan membership sky-
rocketed in the 1920s, spreading beyond the South and into Northern cities.
7. Why did nativist feelings increase in the 1920s?

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Study Guide
Chapter 15, Section 1 (continued)

• Controlling Immigration (page 484)

In 1921 Congress responded to the nativist demands to limit immigration
with the Emergency Quota Act. The law set up a temporary quota system. The
law limited the number of people admitted in a single year to 3 percent of the
total number of people in any ethnic group already living in the United States
as determined in the 1910 census. The provision discriminated against people
from southern and eastern Europe. The National Origins Act, passed in 1924,
made immigration restriction permanent. The law also changed the year
residing to 1890. By moving the year back to 1890, it basically allowed immi-
gration from northwestern Europe.
The reduction in immigration caused a shortage of workers for agriculture,
mining, and railroad work. Mexican immigrants filled some of these jobs.
Mexican immigration started after the passage of the Newlands Reclamation
Act. This law provided money for irrigation projects in the dry Southwest.
The factory farms that started there needed large numbers of laborers. The
quotas set up by the National Origins Act did not include natives of the
Western Hemisphere. More than 600,000 Mexicans arrived in the United
States between 1914 and the end of the 1920s.
8. How did the Emergency Quota Act and the National Origins Act affect immigration?

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

• The New Morality (page 484)
During the 1920s, a “new morality” took over the nation. The new morality
challenged traditional ways of thinking. It stressed youth and personal free-
dom. In the family, the new morality focused on the ideas of romance,
pleasure, and friendship for a successful marriage. Work changed the relation-
ships between men and women. In the 1920s, young single women began to
work not just for wages for themselves and their family, but also as a way to
break from parental authority and to establish their own personal identities.
The automobile also played a part in the new morality. It gave America’s
young people more independence and made it easier for them to escape
parental control and find new forms of entertainment with their friends.

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Study Guide
Chapter 15, Section 1 (continued)

A new fashion look started in the 1920s. Women shortened their hair and
wore silk stockings. Glamorous stage and screen stars became popular. A
flapper was a young, dramatic, stylish, and unconventional woman. She
smoked cigarettes and drank liquor. She also dressed in clothes considered too
revealing at that time.
Many women in the 1920s looked for financial independence. They entered
the workforce as salesclerks and secretaries. They made contributions in fields
such as science, medicine, and literature.
9. What things did the new morality stress?

• The Fundamentalist Movement (page 486)

Many Americans feared that the new morality threatened traditional values
and beliefs. These Americans believed that the nation was going through a
moral decline. Many joined a religious movement known as
Fundamentalism. This movement stressed the teachings of the Bible.
Fundamentalists rejected the theory of evolution, which suggested that human
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

beings had developed from lower forms of life over millions of years.
Fundamentalists believed in creationism, that God created the world as
described in the Bible.
Evolutionists and creationists eventually clashed. In 1925 Tennessee passed
a law that prohibited the teaching of evolution. When John T. Scopes, a biol-
ogy teacher, taught evolution in his high school in Dayton, Tennessee, he was
arrested and put on trial. In the Scopes trial, William Jennings Bryan, a
Fundamentalist, was the prosecutor. Clarence Darrow defended John Scopes.
Scopes was found guilty and fined $100. The conviction was later overturned.
10. On what two theories did the Scopes trial focus?

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Study Guide
Chapter 15, Section 1 (continued)

• Prohibition (page 487)

Throughout the early 1900s, many people began supporting prohibition.
Many believed that prohibition would reduce unemployment, domestic vio-
lence, and poverty. The Eighteenth Amendment, which took effect in January
1920, provided for prohibition. To enforce the amendment, Congress passed
the National Prohibition Act, also known as the Volstead Act. Enforcing
Prohibition became the job of the U.S. Treasury Department, which greatly
expanded the federal government’s police powers. This is a government’s
power to control people and property in the interest of public safety, health,
welfare, and morals. The Treasury Department set up the Prohibition Unit to
enforce Prohibition. It made hundreds of thousands of arrests. However,
Americans ignored the law. They went to secret bars called speakeasies, where
they could buy alcohol. Organized crime supplied and often ran these
speakeasies, which were located all over the country.
The huge profits that could be made from illegally selling liquor led to
smuggling. Smugglers brought liquor into the United States from Canada and
the Caribbean. Smuggling and the buying of liquor led to an illegal billion-
dollar industry. Violence broke out in the streets as gangs fought to control the
liquor trade. Crime became big business. Some gangsters made enough
money and had enough power to corrupt local politicians. The Eighteenth
Amendment was eventually repealed by the Twenty-first Amendment in 1933.
11. What was the purpose of the Eighteenth Amendment?

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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Study Guide
Chapter 15, Section 2
For use with textbook pages 492–495

CULTURAL INNOVATIONS
KEY TERMS AND NAMES
Bohemian an artistic and unconventional lifestyle (page 493)
Carl Sandburg a poet who used common speech to glorify the Midwest (page 493)
Eugene O’Neill an innovative playwright whose plays showed realistic characters and situations
(page 493)
Ernest Hemingway a novelist who presented a new literary style characterized by direct, simple,
and concise prose (page 493)
F. Scott Fitzgerald famous writer of the 1920s who created colorful, glamorous characters that
chased futile dreams (page 494)
mass media radio, movies, newspapers, and magazines aimed at a broad, popular audience
(page 495)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

What do you think is the most popular form of entertainment in the United
States today? What is the most popular form of entertainment among your
classmates and friends?
The last section discussed the conflicts that developed in the 1920s between
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

traditional and modern values. This section discusses the cultural trends of
the 1920s.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the diagram below to help you take notes. New forms of entertain-
ment became popular in the United States in the 1920s. List these forms in
the diagram.

New Forms of Entertainment

1. 2. 3.

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Study Guide
Chapter 15, Section 2 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• Art and Literature (page 492)
During the 1920s, American writers and artists searched for meaning in the
modern world. Many artists, writers, and intellectuals gathered in Greenwich
Village in Manhattan and Chicago’s South Side. There they lived a Bohemian,
or artistic and unconventional, way of life. The places helped free them from
conforming to old ideas.
European art movements influenced American art. The modernist artists
tried to express the individual, modern experience. They included painters
John Marin, whose subjects included nature and New York City, and Edward
Hopper, whose paintings used Realism and often showed isolated individuals.
Poets and writers of the 1920s used a variety of styles and subject matter.
Carl Sandburg used common speech to glorify the Midwest. Edna St. Vincent
Millay wrote about women’s freedom and equality. Some poets, such as T.S.
Eliot, wrote about the negative effects of modernism. Other writers of the
1920s included Ezra Pound, Amy Lowell, and William Carlos Williams. One
of the most creative playwrights was Eugene O’Neill. He wrote about realistic
characters in realistic, sometimes tragic, situations.
World War I affected many American novelists. They wrote about disillu-
sionment with war and the myths of American heroes. Ernest Hemingway was
one such writer. John Dos Passos criticized the capitalist culture. F. Scott
Fitzgerald wrote about the emptiness of modern society.
4. What was the subject matter of many artists and writers in the 1920s?

• Popular Culture (page 494) Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Many Americans in the 1920s had more money and more leisure time than
they ever had before. Many used their leisure time to watch sports such as
baseball and boxing. Some sport stars, such as baseball star Babe Ruth and
boxing champion Jack Dempsey, became national celebrities. Newspaper cov-
erage of sports helped Americans follow their favorite sports and sports
figures.
Motion pictures became even more popular than sports. Feature-length
films became popular. Although sound was still not possible, theaters pro-
vided music during the movie and subtitles told the movie’s story line. Actors
such as Mary Pickford, Charlie Chaplin, Douglas Fairbanks, and Gloria
Swanson became very famous.

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Study Guide
Chapter 15, Section 2 (continued)

Radio shows and music also became popular. Most radio stations in the
1920s played the popular music of the day. Radio shows also included classi-
cal music and comedy shows. In addition to entertaining, the mass
media—radio, movies, newspapers, and magazines aimed at a broad, popular
audience—helped to expand people’s view of the world. It helped unify the
nation and spread the new ideas of the time.
5. How did the mass media change American society?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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Study Guide
Chapter 15, Section 3
For use with textbook pages 498–502

AFRICAN AMERICAN CULTURE

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
Great Migration the movement of African Americans from the rural South to the industrial
North (page 498)
Harlem Renaissance the flourishing of African American arts (page 499)
Claude McKay an important writer of the Harlem Renaissance (page 499)
Langston Hughes a writer of the Harlem Renaissance and leading voice of the African American
experience in the United States (page 499)
jazz a style of music influenced by Dixieland music and ragtime (page 499)
Cotton Club a famous Harlem nightspot (page 499)
blues a soulful style of music that evolved from African American spirituals (page 500)
Marcus Garvey African American leader and founder of the Universal Negro Improvement
Association, who urged African Americans to settle in Africa (page 501)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

What kinds of music do you enjoy listening to? How would you describe
the music?

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

The last section described some cultural trends in the United States in the
1920s. This section describes some aspects of African American culture in the
United States in the 1920s.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the chart below to help you take notes. The Harlem Renaissance pro-
duced many African American writers, musicians, and actors. Identify them
in the space available.

Writers 1.

2.

3.

Musicians 4.

5.

Actors 6.

7.

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Study Guide
Chapter 15, Section 3 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• The Harlem Renaissance (page 498)
Many African Americans were part of the Great Migration, the movement
from the rural South to the industrial North. They hoped to escape segrega-
tion and to find opportunities to better their lives. As African American
population increased in the large northern cities, so did nightclubs and music.
This was particularly true in the New York City neighborhood of Harlem,
which was the center for artistic development, racial pride, and a feeling of
community. This flourishing of African American arts became known as the
Harlem Renaissance.
One of the most important writers of the Harlem Renaissance was Claude
McKay. His writing reflected defiance and a hatred of racism, two major char-
acteristics of Harlem Renaissance writing. Another important writer of the
Harlem Renaissance was Langston Hughes. He became a leading voice of the
African American experience in the United States. Zora Neale Hurston wrote
the first major stories about female African American characters.
Louis Armstrong introduced an improvisational form of jazz. This was a
style of music influenced by Dixieland music and ragtime. Armstrong broke
away from the New Orleans tradition of group playing to imaginative solo
playing. He became the first great cornet and trumpet soloist in jazz music.
Duke Ellington was also influenced by ragtime. He created his own sound
using different combinations of instruments. Like other African American
musicians, Ellington got his start at the Cotton Club. This was one of the most
famous Harlem nightspots. Bessie Smith was famous for singing the blues, a
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

soulful style of music that evolved from African American spirituals. Smith
performed with many of the greatest jazz bands.
The theater also thrived during the Harlem Renaissance. Paul Robeson and
Josephine Baker were two of the most famous theater performers of the time.
8. What was Harlem?

• African American Politics (page 501)

African Americans’ political goals changed after World War I. As the num-
ber of African Americans increased in the North, they became an important
voting bloc. Most African Americans voted for Republicans. African
Americans in Chicago elected Oscar DePriest, the first African American rep-
resentative in Congress from a Northern state.

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Study Guide
Chapter 15, Section 3 (continued)

The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)

worked against segregation and discrimination. It did so mainly by lobbying
politicians and working through the courts. The NAACP lobbied against
lynching throughout the 1920s and 1930s. It worked with organized labor and
was successful in defeating the nomination of Judge John J. Parker to the U.S.
Supreme Court. Parker was known for his racist and anti-labor positions.
While some people were fighting for integration, others were calling for
African American separation from white society. One such person was Marcus
Garvey. He founded the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA). It
was an organization that worked to promote black pride and unity. Garvey
believed that African Americans could gain economic and political power
through education. He also believed African Americans should separate them-
selves from whites. Garvey told his followers that they would never find
justice in the United States. He urged them to settle in Liberia, in Africa. Many
African Americans distanced themselves from Garvey and his push for sepa-
ration. Although Garvey was not successful in getting support for his
movement, he did instill millions of African Americans with pride in their
heritage. This feeling would eventually inspire the civil rights movement of
the 1960s.
9. Why did Marcus Garvey call for African Americans to settle in Africa?

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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Study Guide
Chapter 16, Section 1
For use with textbook pages 510–513

PRESIDENTIAL POLITICS
KEY TERMS AND NAMES
normalcy a reference to returning to a normal time (page 511)
Ohio Gang a group of friends President Harding appointed to cabinet positions and other high-
level positions (page 511)
Albert B. Fall secretary of the interior under President Harding (page 512)
Teapot Dome scandal scandal involving Harding’s secretary of the interior (page 512)
immunity freedom from prosecution (page 512)
Progressive Party political party formed during the 1924 election by those who would not
support either the Republican or Democratic candidate (page 513)
Robert M. La Follette presidential candidate for the Progressive Party in the 1924 election
(page 513)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

How would you describe the current president of the United States? What
style of leadership does the president have? Do you think his style appeals to
most Americans?
In this section, you will learn about the administration of President
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Harding. You will also learn about Calvin Coolidge’s presidency.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the chart below to help you take notes. President Harding’s and
President Coolidge’s presidencies differed greatly. Describe some aspects of
each in the chart.

Harding’s Presidency Coolidge’s Presidency

1. 4.

2. 5.

3. 6.

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Study Guide
Chapter 16, Section 1 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• The Harding Administration (page 510)
Warren G. Harding was elected president in 1920. He ran on the campaign
slogan to return to normalcy, or a return to “normal” life after the war.
Harding was charming and well-liked. Although Harding appointed some
distinguished people to cabinet posts, he also appointed many friends to cabi-
net positions and high-level jobs. These people became known as the Ohio
Gang. Some members used their offices to sell government jobs or immunity
from prosecution. They were involved in several scandals. One scandal broke
in July 1923. At that time, President Harding was touring the West. During his
trip, he became ill and died.
One of the scandals involved Harding’s secretary of the interior, Albert B.
Fall. He secretly allowed private companies to lease lands containing U.S.
Navy oil reserves at Teapot Dome, Wyoming, and Elk Hills, California. He
received bribes from these companies. The Senate investigated the Teapot
Dome scandal, and Secretary Fall became the first cabinet member to go to
prison.
Another scandal involved Attorney General Harry Daugherty, Harding’s
former campaign manager. This scandal involved a German-owned American
company that the Americans took over during World War I. To buy the com-
pany, a German agent bribed a politician. A part of the bribe ended up in a
bank account that Daugherty controlled. Daugherty refused to turn over bank
files and testify under oath. He claimed immunity, or freedom from prosecu-
tion, because he said he had had confidential dealings with the president.

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Daugherty’s attitude disgusted the new president, Calvin Coolidge. He
demanded Daugherty’s resignation.
7. What problems did President Harding face in his administration?

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Study Guide
Chapter 16, Section 1 (continued)

• The Coolidge Administration (page 512)

President Coolidge tried to distance himself from the corruption of
Harding’s administration. He asked only the most capable cabinet members
to stay on. Coolidge believed that the country would prosper if businesses
prospered. He was determined that the government should interfere as little
as possible with business. Coolidge restored integrity to the presidency. The
nation prospered during his administration, and he easily won the Republican
Party’s nomination for president in 1924.
The Democrats were divided between supporters from the urban East and
those from the rural South and West. As a result, they had a difficult time
choosing a candidate. They finally agreed on John W. Davis of West Virginia.
Many people who did not want to choose between the Republican and the
Democratic candidates left their parties to form a new Progressive Party. They
nominated Robert M. La Follette as their presidential candidate. Coolidge won
easily.
8. Why did some people form a new Progressive Party?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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Study Guide
Chapter 16, Section 2
For use with textbook pages 514–520

A GROWING ECONOMY
KEY TERMS AND NAMES
mass production large-scale product manufacturing usually done by machinery (page 515)
assembly line a manufacturing system that divided operations into simple tasks that unskilled
workers could do (page 515)
Model T assembly-line automobile manufactured in Henry Ford’s plants (page 515)
Charles Lindbergh former airmail pilot who made transatlantic solo flight (page 517)
National Broadcasting Company company that established a permanent network of radio sta-
tions to distribute daily programs (page 518)
Columbia Broadcasting System company that established a coast-to-coast network of radio sta-
tions (page 518)
welfare capitalism situation in which companies allowed employees to buy stock, take part in
profit sharing, and receive benefits (page 519)
open shop a workplace where employees were not required to join a union (page 519)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

How important is the automobile today to American life? How important is
it to your life?

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

The last section described the administrations of Presidents Harding and
Coolidge. This section discusses the nation’s economy in the 1920s.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the diagram below to help you take notes. The automobile greatly
changed American life in the 1920s. Explain how it did so in the diagram.

2.
1.

How
Automobiles
Changed
American Life
3.
5.

4.

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Study Guide
Chapter 16, Section 2 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• The Rise of New Industries (page 514)
During the 1920s, the automobile became an important part of American
life. During that time, Americans earned more money than ever before. The
number of work hours decreased. The use of mass production, or large-scale
product manufacturing usually done by machinery, made more products
available. It also lowered the costs of the products. It helped to change the
American economy.
Carmaker Henry Ford used the assembly line to make cars. This system
divided operations into simple tasks that unskilled workers could do. After
Ford started using this system, the time it took to build a car decreased dra-
matically. Whereas in 1913, workers built a car in about 12 hours, by 1925 the
assembly line built a car every 10 seconds. Ford’s assembly-line product was
the Model T. Using mass production to build cars helped to decrease the price
of cars. In 1908 a Model T sold for about $850. By 1924 Model Ts sold for
about $295.
The low prices for cars created a huge demand. By the mid-1920s, other
corporations, such as General Motors and Chrysler, were competing with
Ford. The automobile industry also led to the growth of other industries, such
as plate glass, rubber, and steel.
Just as the automobile changed the way manufacturing was done, it also
changed American life. The automobile created an increase in small busi-
nesses such as garages and gas stations. It brought people in rural areas closer
to cities and city people closer to the country. It allowed people to live farther
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

away from work. A new kind of worker, the auto commuter, developed. Many
commuters lived in the suburbs and drove to work in the city.
With an increased income, consumers were also able to buy the many new
products that came on the market. They bought items such as electric razors
and frozen foods. They also bought labor-saving appliances such as electric
irons, vacuum cleaners, refrigerators, and washing machines. Industries that
made personal care items—such as mouthwash, deodorants, and cosmetics—
became major industries in the 1920s.
The airline industry began to develop rapidly after the successful flight of
the Wright brothers in 1903. Leading the way was Glenn Curtiss, an American
who invented ailerons, which can be tilted to steer the plane.
By the 1920s, airplanes were used by the Post Office to deliver mail. In 1926
Congress passed the Air Commerce Act. The law provided federal aid for
building airports. The idea of using airplanes for commercial flights received
a boost in 1927, when former airmail pilot Charles Lindbergh made a solo
flight across the Atlantic Ocean. Commercial flying became popular among
American business executives in the 1920s.

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Study Guide
Chapter 16, Section 2 (continued)

Commercial radio also became popular in the 1920s. In 1926 the National
Broadcasting Company (NBC) established a permanent network of stations to
distribute daily programs. There were almost 700 stations across the country
by 1927. The Federal Radio Commission had been set up to regulate these sta-
tions. Sales of radio sets soared. In 1928 the Columbia Broadcasting System
(CBS) set up a coast-to-coast network of stations to compete with NBC. The
two networks sold advertising time. They hired musicians, actors, and come-
dians to appear on their shows. In 1928 the stations provided complete
coverage of the presidential election for the first time.
6. What was the effect of using mass production in making goods?

• The Consumer Society (page 518)

The higher wages Americans earned in the 1920s allowed them to increase
their buying power. The prosperity of the 1920s gave many Americans the
confidence to go into debt to buy new goods. Before the 1920s, most
Americans considered debt shameful. However, this attitude changed in the
1920s. Americans began believing that they could pay what they owed at a

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

later time. Americans began buying items such as cars and furniture on credit.
One problem that many inventors faced was getting people to become
aware of the invention. To get people to buy the new products, manufacturers
turned to advertising. It became an important industry in the 1920s.
Unions in the 1920s lost membership and were not influential. This was due
in large part because of anti-union activities of the employers. Employers sup-
ported the open shop—a workplace where employees were not required to join
a union. Many companies also set up welfare capitalism. They allowed employ-
ees to buy stock, participate in profit sharing, and receive benefits such as
medical care. These measures made unions seem unnecessary to many workers.
7. How did manufacturers make people aware of their new products?

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Study Guide
Chapter 16, Section 2 (continued)

• The Farm Crisis Returns (page 519)

Farmers did not prosper in the 1920s. New technology allowed them to
produce more. However, demand for the products did not increase, so farm-
ers received lower prices for their goods.
During the war, the government encouraged farmers to produce more to fill
the need for food in Europe. Many farmers went into debt to buy more land
and machinery in order to grow more crops. The sales and prices were high,
and farmers made money. After the war, Europeans began producing more
farm products on their own. They no longer had the need for American prod-
ucts. Then in 1922, Congress passed the Fordney-McCumber Act. The law
raised tariffs to protect American industries from foreign competition.
However, Europeans reacted by not buying American agricultural products.
American farmers could not sell their products overseas, and prices dropped.
Some members of Congress tried to help the American farmers sell their
surplus products. They proposed that the government buy the crop surpluses
and sell them abroad. They believed this would help farmers. Although
Congress passed the bill, President Coolidge vetoed it. He believed that the
bill would encourage farmers to produce even greater surpluses that the gov-
ernment would not be able to sell. As a result, American farmers stayed in
recession throughout the 1920s.
8. Why did American farmers have difficulty selling their products overseas after World War I?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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Study Guide
Chapter 16, Section 3
For use with textbook pages 521–524

THE POLICIES OF PROSPERITY

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
supply-side economics the idea that the economy would grow by lowering taxes, which would
increase spending and investing (page 522)
cooperative individualism an idea promoted by Herbert Hoover that encouraged manufacturers
and distributors to form trade associations and voluntarily share information with the federal
government (page 522)
isolationism philosophy that a nation should limit its involvement in international affairs
(page 523)
Charles G. Dawes American banker and diplomat who negotiated a loan repayment plan with
France, Britain, and Germany (page 523)
Charles Evans Hughes secretary of state who proposed a 10-year moratorium on construction of
new warships (page 524)
moratorium a pause (page 524)
Kellogg-Briand Pact a treaty in which signing nations agreed to outlaw war and to negotiate
disputes peacefully (page 524)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

How is the United States involved in the affairs of other nations? Do you
think the United States could avoid being involved? Why do you think so?
The last section described the economic growth in the United States in the
1920s. This section discusses the economic policies of the government that
contributed to the economic prosperity.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the chart below to help you take notes. The United States continued to
be involved in world affairs during the 1920s, signing several treaties. Explain
the conditions of each of the treaties listed.

Treaty Conditions of Treaty

Five-Power Naval Limitation Treaty 1.

Four-Power Treaty 2.

Nine-Power Treaty 3.

Kellogg-Briand Pact 4.

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Study Guide
Chapter 16, Section 3 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• Promoting Prosperity (page 521)
Presidents Harding and Coolidge opposed government regulation of busi-
ness. Secretary of the Treasury Andrew Mellon was important in developing
much of the economic policy of the United States during the 1920s. He
reduced government spending and cut the federal budget. A major expense of
the United States at that time was the interest on the national debt. The
national debt had increased by 1920 because of World War I costs. Mellon
refinanced the debt to lower the interest. He also persuaded the Federal
Reserve to lower interest rates as well. These steps helped reduce the debt.
Mellon also worked to reduce tax rates. He believed that lowering taxes
would allow businesses and consumers to spend and invest their extra
money. This would cause the economy to grow. He believed that as the econ-
omy grew, Americans would earn more money and the government would
actually collect more taxes at the lower rate than it would if the tax rates were
kept high. This idea is known as supply-side economics. By 1928 Congress
drastically lowered the tax rates.
In addition to Mellon’s policies, other government programs also helped
business. Secretary of Commerce Herbert Hoover tried to balance government
regulation with his idea of cooperative individualism. This idea encouraged
manufacturers and distributors to form trade associations, which would vol-
untarily share information with the government.
5. What were two important policies of Andrew Mellon’s economic program?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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Study Guide
Chapter 16, Section 3 (continued)

• Trade and Arms Control (page 522)

Before World War I, the United States owed more money to foreign
investors than foreigners owed the United States. This situation was reversed
by the end of the war. By the 1920s, the United States was the world’s domi-
nant economic power.
After World War I, most Americans favored isolationism. They did not want
the United States to become involved in foreign affairs. The nation, however,
was too interconnected with other countries, both politically and economi-
cally, to go back to isolationism.
After the war, the U.S. allies had a difficult time repaying their war debts.
They claimed that the tariffs the American government placed on European
goods closed the United States to European imports, which slowed down
Europe’s economic recovery. The United States argued that American taxpay-
ers should not have to assume the debts of others. They argued that European
nations received extra territory as a result of the war, whereas the United
States had gained nothing. They also pointed out that European nations were
receiving reparations, or huge cash payments that Germany was required to
pay as punishment for causing the war. The payments, however, were crip-
pling the German economy.
The United States wanted the European economies to be stable. It wanted
Europeans to be able to buy American exports and to repay their debts. In
1924 Charles G. Dawes, an American banker, negotiated an agreement with
France, Britain, and Germany. Under the agreement, American banks would
loan money to Germany to help it meet their reparation payments. At the

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

same time, Britain and France would accept less in reparations while paying
more on their war debts. The plan, however, actually put Britain, France, and
Germany deeper into debt to American banks.
After the war, the major powers became involved in a naval arms race. To
stop the arms race, the United States asked the representatives of eight nations
to Washington to discuss disarmament. Secretary of State Charles Evans
Hughes proposed a 10-year moratorium, or pause, on the building of major
new warships. He also proposed a list of warships for each country to destroy.
The conference resulted in three agreements. In the Five-Power Naval
Limitation Treaty, Britain, France, Italy, Japan, and the United States basically
agreed to Secretary Hughes’s proposals. Under the Four-Power Treaty, the
United States, Japan, France, and Britain recognized each country’s island
possessions in the Pacific. In the Nine-Power Treaty, all participating countries
guaranteed China’s independence.
The conference, however, did not place a limit on land forces. It angered
Japan because it required the Japanese to keep a smaller navy than the United
States or Great Britain.

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Study Guide
Chapter 16, Section 3 (continued)

The success of the Washington Conference led to the belief that nations
could work together to negotiate agreements to end war altogether. U.S.
Secretary of State Frank Kellogg and French Foreign Minister Aristide Briand
proposed a treaty that banned war. The United States and 14 other nations
signed the Kellogg-Briand Pact on August 27, 1928. The treaty stated that all
signing nations agreed to abandon war and negotiate disputes peacefully.
6. Why was it not possible for the United States to go back to a policy of isolationism after
World War I?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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Study Guide
Chapter 17, Section 1
For use with textbook pages 530–534

CAUSES OF THE DEPRESSION

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
Alfred E. Smith the Democratic nominee in the 1928 presidential election (page 531)
stock market a system for buying and selling shares of companies (page 531)
bull market a long period of rising stock prices (page 531)
margin a way of buying stocks by paying only a small percent of the price of the stock and tak-
ing a loan from a stockbroker to pay the rest (page 531)
margin call a demand by a broker for the investor to repay the loan at once (page 531)
speculation buying shares, betting that the stock market will continue to climb, and then sell-
ing the stock to make money quickly (page 531)
Black Tuesday the day, October 29, 1929, that the stock market experienced its steepest dive
(page 533)
installment monthly payment made on a high-cost item (page 534)
Hawley-Smoot Tariff high tariff that damaged American sales abroad (page 534)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

How important is the stock market to the U.S. economy today? How do

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Americans participate in the stock market?
In this section, you will about the stock market in the 1920s. You will also
learn about the causes of the Great Depression.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the cause-and-effect diagram below to help you take notes. Several sit-
uations led to the stock market crash. List these causes below.

Causes Effect

1.

2.

3.
Stock Market
4. Crashes
5.

6.

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Study Guide
Chapter 17, Section 1 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• The Election of 1928 (page 530)
In the 1928 presidential election, Herbert Hoover ran as the Republican
nominee. The Democrats nominated Alfred E. Smith. Several issues deter-
mined the election results. Hoover supported Prohibition. Smith opposed the
ban. Hoover was a Quaker, and Smith was a Roman Catholic, the first one
ever to be nominated for president. Many Protestants believed that if a
Catholic were elected president, the Pope would rule the White House. This
belief damaged Smith’s candidacy. Hoover and the Republicans were also
given credit for the nation’s prosperity during the 1920s. As a result, Hoover
won in a landslide victory.
7. How did religion play a part in the 1928 presidential election?

• The Long Bull Market (page 531)

After the election, stock prices continued to increase. The stock market was
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

started as a system for buying and selling shares of companies. The late 1920s
saw a bull market, or a long period of rising stock prices. As a result, many
Americans began investing heavily in stocks. As the bull market continued,
many investors began buying stocks on margin. They made a small cash
down payment on the stock, and took out a loan from a stockbroker to pay for
the rest of the stock. The stockbroker earned a commission on the sale and
interest on the loan. Buying on margin was safe as long as the stock prices
kept rising. However, a decrease in prices became a problem. To protect the
loan, the stockbroker could issue a margin call. This was a demand for the
investor to repay the loan. If prices started falling, many investors had to sell
their stock quickly in order to be able to repay their loans.
Before the late 1920s, the prices that investors paid for stocks had to do
with the company’s profits. If the company’s profits rose, the stock price rose.
If earnings decreased, the value of the stock decreased. However, in the late
1920s, new investors would buy a company’s stock without regard to a com-
pany’s earnings. Buyers hoped to make a quick profit and practiced
speculation. Instead of investing in the future of the companies whose stock
they bought, they were betting that the stock market would continue to climb
and then sell the stock quickly to make money.

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Study Guide
Chapter 17, Section 1 (continued)

8. Why did many investors buy stocks on speculation in the late 1920s?

• The Great Crash (page 532)

By mid-1929 the stock market was running out of new customers, and stock
prices stopped rising. Investors began selling off their holdings and prices
decreased. Other investors sold their shares to pay the interest on the loans
they took out from brokers, and prices decreased even more. On October 29,
1929, which became known as Black Tuesday, stock prices took their steepest
dive. By mid-November stock prices had dropped by over one-third. The
stock market crash did not cause the Great Depression, but it prevented the
economy from surviving other weaknesses.
Banks also suffered as a result of the stock market crash. Many banks had
lent money to stock speculators. They also had invested depositors’ money in
the stock market in hopes of getting higher returns. When stock prices fell,
many banks lost money on their investments, and speculators could not repay
their loans. The banks had to cut back on the number of loans they made. As a
result, many people were not able to borrow as much money as they once did.

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Many banks were forced to close because of their losses. People who had
deposits in these banks lost all their savings. Many Americans began with-
drawing their deposits from banks because they feared that the banks would
collapse. This run on the banks caused many banks to collapse.
9. Why did many banks collapse in 1929?

• The Roots of the Great Depression (page 533)

The stock market crash alone did not cause the Great Depression. Other
reasons also contributed to it. One major reason was overproduction of manu-
factured goods. Most Americans did not have enough money to buy all the

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Study Guide
Chapter 17, Section 1 (continued)

goods that were made. During the 1920s, many Americans bought high-cost
items, such as refrigerators, on the installment plan. People made a down pay-
ment and paid the rest of the price in monthly installments. Some people
reached a point where they had to reduce their purchases in order to pay their
debts. When sales slowed, manufacturers cut production and laid off employ-
ees. The slowdown in one industry affected other industries, putting more
and more Americans out of work.
Another reason for the Great Depression was the fact that Americans were
not selling many goods to foreign countries. During the 1920s, banks earned
more money by making loans to speculators than by lending to foreign com-
panies so that they could buy American goods. As a result, foreign companies
bought less from the United States. In 1930 Congress passed the Hawley-Smoot
Tariff. It raised the tax on many imports. Although it protected American man-
ufacturers from foreign competition, it also damaged American sales to
foreign countries. Americans began buying fewer imports, which led foreign
countries to buy fewer American goods. American companies and farmers
were hurt by this situation. The high tariff deepened the Great Depression.
The actions of the Federal Reserve also contributed to the Great Depression.
Instead of raising interest rates to stop speculation buying, the Federal
Reserve lowered rates. These lower rates encouraged banks to make risky
loans. Lower interest rates generally mean the economy is growing. By lower-
ing interest rates, the Federal Reserve misled many business leaders. They
believed the economy was still growing, so they borrowed more money to
expand their production. This led to overproduction at a time when sales
were decreasing. When the Depression finally came, the companies had to cut
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

their costs and lay off their workers. The increased unemployment damaged
the economy even more.
10. How did the Hawley-Smoot Tariff contribute to the Great Depression?

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Study Guide
Chapter 17, Section 2
For use with textbook pages 535–539

LIFE DURING THE DEPRESSION

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
bailiff court official (page 536)
shantytowns communities formed on unused or public lands by newly homeless people (page 536)
Hoovervilles name given to shantytowns (page 536)
hobo an unemployed individual who wandered around the country (page 536)
Dust Bowl the dried-up lands of the Great Plains that resulted from a severe drought (page 537)
Walt Disney producer of the first feature-length animated film (page 538)
soap operas daytime radio shows that were sponsored by the makers of laundry soaps
(page 538)
Grant Wood artist of the regionalist school, who emphasized traditional American values
(page 538)
John Steinbeck novelist who wrote about the poverty in the Great Depression (page 539)
William Faulkner author who used the stream of consciousness technique (page 539)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

What images come to mind when you hear the words Great Depression?

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Where do you think these images come from?
The last section explained the causes of the Great Depression. This section
describes how the Great Depression affected Americans.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the diagram below to help you take notes. Art during the 1930s
reflected the Depression. Describe how it did so in the diagram.

Art Reflects Depression

Painting Writing Photography

1. 2. 4.

3.

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Study Guide
Chapter 17, Section 2 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• The Depression Worsens (page 535)
The Depression grew worse during President Hoover’s administration.
Thousands of banks failed. Thousands of companies went out of business.
Millions of Americans were unemployed. Many of the unemployed went hun-
gry. They joined bread lines to receive a free handout of food. They lined up
outside soup kitchens. These were private charities set up to give poor people
a meal.
Many people could not afford to pay their rent or mortgage and lost their
homes. Those who could not or would not move were given an eviction
notice. Court officials called bailiffs threw them and their belongings in the
street. Many of these homeless people put up shacks on unused or public
lands, forming communities called shantytowns throughout the country.
Many called the shantytowns Hoovervilles, because they blamed President
Hoover for their problems.
Many homeless and unemployed people began to wander around the coun-
try. Known as hobos, they often sneaked rides on railroad cars to get from
place to place.
In addition to the Depression, farmers soon faced a new problem. For a
long time, farmers on the Great Plains had plowed the soil. They uprooted the
grasses that held the soil’s moisture and planted wheat. When crop prices
decreased in the 1920s, however, Midwestern farmers left many of their fields
unplanted. In 1932 the Great Plains experienced a severe drought. The
unplanted soil turned to dust. Much of the Plains became a Dust Bowl. The
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

winds blew the dry soil, blackening the sky for hundreds of miles. As the
drought continued, the number of dust storms increased. Many families
packed their belongings into old cars or trucks and headed west to California,
to find better opportunities. There most remained homeless and in poverty.
5. Why did many farmers in the Great Plains leave their land in the 1930s and head west?

• Escaping the Depression (page 537)

Americans turned to entertainment to escape their situation, if only for a lit-
tle while. Many went to the movies. Most often, Americans would see people
on the screen who were happier and richer than they were. Comedies provided

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Study Guide
Chapter 17, Section 2 (continued)

people with a way to escape their daily fears. Many European actors, such as
Marlene Dietrich and Greta Garbo, became superstars. Americans also
enjoyed cartoons. Walt Disney produced the first feature-length animated film.
Even films that focused on the serious side of life were generally optimistic.
Americans also listened to the radio. They listened to the news broadcasts.
They also enjoyed different kinds of programs. One of the most popular
heroes on the radio shows was the Lone Ranger. Short daytime dramas were
also popular and provided people with escapes. Some of these dramas were
sponsored by the makers of laundry soaps and were nicknamed soap operas.
Talking about the lives of radio characters provided Americans with a com-
mon ground.
6. What part did movies and radio shows play in Americans’ lives during the Great
Depression?

• The Depression in Art (page 538)

Art and literature in the 1930s showed what life was like in the Depression.

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Painters such as Grant Wood showed traditional American values, particularly
those of rural Americans in the Midwest and the South.
Novelists such as John Steinbeck wrote about the lives of people in the
Depression. In The Grapes of Wrath, Steinbeck told the story of an Oklahoma
farm family who fled the Dust Bowl to find a better life in California.
Some writers during the Depression influenced literary style. In a technique
known as stream of consciousness, William Faulkner showed what his charac-
ters were thinking and feeling even before they spoke.
Magazines became popular during the Depression. Magazine photographers
traveled throughout the nation taking pictures of life around them. Many of
these photographs were printed in magazines, which became very successful.
7. What was the subject of John Steinbeck’s The Grapes of Wrath?

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Study Guide
Chapter 17, Section 3
For use with textbook pages 542–546

HOOVER RESPONDS
KEY TERMS AND NAMES
public works government-financed building projects (page 543)
Reconstruction Finance Corporation organization set up by Congress to make loans to
businesses (page 544)
relief money that went directly to people in poverty (page 544)
foreclosed taken possession of by creditors (page 545)
Bonus Army a group of World War I veterans who marched on Washington to demand the pay-
ment of bonuses that Congress promised (page 545)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

For what issues have groups of people in the United States held demonstra-
tions or protests in recent years? What issues do you think are important
enough to demonstrate for?
The last section described how the Great Depression affected Americans.
This section explains how President Hoover attempted to end the Depression.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Use the chart below to help you take notes. During the 1930s, the govern-
ment proposed several programs to help end the Depression. Explain what
each listed program was designed to do.

Programs How They Attempted to End

the Depression
public works 1.

National Credit Corporation 2.

Reconstruction Finance Corporation 3.

Emergency Relief and Construction Act 4.

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Chapter 17, Section 3 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• Promoting Recovery (page 542)
Although President Hoover tried to persuade Americans that things would
improve quickly, he was very worried about the economy. He held conferences
with the heads of banks and other businesses, government officials, and labor.
At first Hoover received a pledge from business to keep factories open and
to stop cutting wages. However, by 1931 they did not keep their pledges.
Hoover then tried to increase public works, which are government-financed
building projects. He hoped that the jobs these government projects would
create would make up for the construction jobs lost in private business. The
jobs made up for only a small part of the jobs that were lost in the private sec-
tor. The only way the public works would have created many new jobs would
have been to increase government spending for the public works projects. If
the government raised taxes to get the money, it would take money away
from consumers and it would hurt the struggling businesses. If the govern-
ment kept taxes low and spent more money than it collected in taxes, it would
have to borrow the money it needed from banks. This would leave less money
for businesses and consumers who needed loans. Hoover believed that this
deficit spending would delay an economic recovery.
In the 1930 congressional elections, Americans blamed the Republican Party
for the economic problems. As a result, the Republicans lost their majority in
the House of Representatives and narrowly held on to it in the Senate.
5. Why did President Hoover propose the creation of public works projects?

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

• Pumping Money Into the Economy (page 544)

Hoover wanted to make sure that banks could make loans to businesses so
that they could start producing and rehire workers. He tried to persuade the
Federal Reserve Board to put more money into circulation, but the board
refused. Hoover then set up the National Credit Corporation (NCC) in 1931.
This was a voluntary lending organization. Hoover persuaded a number of
New York bankers to contribute to the organization to create a pool of money.
Troubled banks could draw from this pool so they could continue lending
money in their communities. The contributions made to the pool were not
enough to help the nation.

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Study Guide
Chapter 17, Section 3 (continued)

By 1932 Hoover decided that the only way to provide money for borrowers
was for the government to lend it. He asked Congress to set up the
Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC) to make loans to banks, railroads,
and farming institutions. The RFC made millions of dollars worth of loans.
However, it did not loan enough money to meet the needs. As a result, the
economy continued to decline.
Hoover did not want the government to participate in relief—money that
went directly to poor families. He believed that that was the job of state and
local governments. These governments, however, were running out of money.
By 1932 Congress passed the Emergency Relief and Construction Act, which
provided loans to states for direct relief. This program was also too late to
stop the continuing decline of the economy.
6. What was the purpose of the National Credit Corporation?

• In an Angry Mood (page 544)

By 1931 Americans were getting increasingly upset about the bad economy.
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

In December 1932, crowds began to form rallies and “hunger marches.” One
such group marched in Washington, D.C., demanding that the government
feed the hungry and tax the wealthy.
Farmers also protested. Farm prices sank so low that most farmers could
not pay their mortgages. Between 1930 and 1934, creditors foreclosed on
almost one million farms. They took over the farms and forced the families off
the farms. Some farmers began to destroy their crops, hoping that reducing
the supply of crops would help raise prices.
To thank American soldiers for serving in World War I, Congress set up a
$1,000 bonus for each veteran to be distributed in 1945. However, in 1931
Congress debated a bill that would authorize early payment of the bonuses.
By 1932 the veterans, many of whom were homeless, were in need of the
bonuses. About 1,000 veterans, named the Bonus Army, set off on a march to
Washington to lobby Congress to pass the bill. They lived in Hoovervilles
around the capital. The number of veterans grew in a few weeks to almost
15,000. President Hoover refused to meet with them. The Senate voted the
new bonus bill down. Many veterans began to leave to return home. Some of
the marchers, however, stayed on since they had no jobs. Some moved to
unoccupied buildings.

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Study Guide
Chapter 17, Section 3 (continued)

President Hoover ordered the police to clear the buildings. One police offi-
cer panicked and fired into a crowd. Two veterans were killed. The
government of Washington, D.C., then called in the army. The soldiers were
told to enforce the order to clear the veterans from the buildings. The soldiers
used tear gas on the veterans and burned down their shacks. The press cov-
ered these events, and the pictures upset the public. These images and the
Depression affected Americans’ opinion of President Hoover.
7. Why did veterans march on Washington, D.C., in 1932?

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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Study Guide
Chapter 18, Section 1
For use with textbook pages 552–555

ROOSEVELT TAKES OFFICE

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
New Deal President Franklin Roosevelt’s programs for ending the Depression (page 553)
polio a paralyzing disease (page 554)
gold standard a situation in which one ounce of gold equaled a set number of dollars
(page 555)
bank holiday the closing of banks before bank runs could put them out of business
(page 555)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

What do you know about President Franklin Roosevelt? What do you think
he is most known for?
In this section, you will learn about the characteristics of Franklin
Roosevelt. You will also learn why the banking situation worsened during the
early 1930s.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the diagram below to help you take notes. Franklin Delano Roosevelt’s
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

background prepared him for becoming the president. List the aspects of
Roosevelt’s background and positions that he held that led to his election as
president.

2.

1.

3.
Aspects of
Roosevelt’s
Background
6.

4.
5.

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Study Guide
Chapter 18, Section 1 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• Roosevelt’s Rise to Power (page 552)
In the 1932 presidential election, many voters were against President
Hoover, who was the Republican nominee. Democrats chose New York
Governor Franklin Delano Roosevelt. Roosevelt’s programs for ending the
Depression became known as the New Deal.
Franklin Roosevelt was a distant cousin of President Theodore Roosevelt.
He was born into a wealthy New York family. He was educated at Harvard
University and Columbia Law School. After leaving law school, Roosevelt
went into politics. He started as a senator in the New York legislature. He was
the assistant secretary of the navy under President Wilson. He ran as the vice-
presidential candidate in the 1920 election, which he lost. A year later,
Roosevelt came down with polio, a paralyzing disease. While recovering from
the disease, Roosevelt depended on his wife Eleanor to keep his name in the
forefront in the New York Democratic Party. By the mid-1920s, Roosevelt
returned to politics and became governor of New York. His policies made him
a very popular governor. He cut taxes for farmers. He reduced rates charged
by public utilities. In 1931 Roosevelt convinced the New York legislature to
create an agency that would help unemployed New Yorkers. Roosevelt’s pop-
ularity led to his nomination for president in the 1932 election. Roosevelt’s
optimism gave Americans hope during hard times. He was elected in
November 1932.
7. What policies made Franklin Roosevelt a popular New York governor?

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

• Roosevelt Is Inaugurated (page 554)

Between Roosevelt’s election and his inauguration, unemployment contin-
ued to rise. Bank runs increased. Some of the bank runs happened because
people were afraid that Roosevelt would get rid of the gold standard and
lower the value of the dollar to fight the Depression. At that time, one ounce
of gold was equal to a set number of dollars. To lower the value of the dollar,
the United States would have to stop exchanging dollars for gold. Investors
who had deposits in American banks decided to take their money out of the
banks and exchange it for gold before it lost its value. By March 1933, more
than 4,000 banks had collapsed. In 38 states, governors declared bank holidays.

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Study Guide
Chapter 18, Section 1 (continued)

They closed the remaining banks before people could make a run on them
and put them out of business.
8. Why did many states declare bank holidays in 1933?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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Study Guide
Chapter 18, Section 2
For use with textbook pages 556–562

THE FIRST NEW DEAL

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
Hundred Days the time between March 9 and June 16, 1933, when Congress passed 15 laws to
deal with the nation’s economy (page 556)
fireside chats radio talks that President Roosevelt held with the American people to let them
know what he hoped to accomplish (page 558)
Securities and Exchange Commission a government agency set up to regulate the stock market
and prevent fraud (page 558)
Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation provided government insurance for bank deposits up to
a certain amount (page 558)
Agricultural Adjustment Administration the agency that administered Roosevelt’s farm
program (page 559)
Civilian Conservation Corps a New Deal relief program (page 561)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

What do you think was the most important thing President Roosevelt had
to do to help end the Depression? Why do you think so?
The last section described the background of President Franklin Roosevelt.

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

This section discusses the programs he initiated in his first 100 days in office.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the diagram below to help you take notes. Congress passed several
laws and set up programs to help various aspects of the U.S. economy.
Identify the laws and programs that were to help each of the areas listed in
the diagram.

New Deal

Banks and Stock Farms and Spending and

Market Industry Debt Relief Relief Programs

1. 4. 6. 8.

2. 5. 7. 9.

3.

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Study Guide
Chapter 18, Section 2 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• The Hundred Days Begins (page 556)
Once Roosevelt came into office, he began sending bill after bill to
Congress. Between March 9 and June 16, 1933, which came to be known as the
Hundred Days, Congress passed 15 major laws to deal with the economy. All
these programs became known as the First New Deal.
Roosevelt was willing to experiment and try several approaches to solve the
economic problems. He asked for advice from people from a variety of back-
grounds. He chose advisers who disagreed with each other so that he could
hear several different viewpoints. Roosevelt alone made the final decision.
Roosevelt’s advisers made up three major groups. One group favored the
policies of Theodore Roosevelt. They believed that government and business
should work together to manage the economy. A second group distrusted big
business. They blamed business leaders for causing the Depression. They
wanted the government to run important parts of the economy. A third group
supported President Wilson’s policies. They believed that large trusts were to
blame for the Depression. They also believed that the government had to
bring back competition to the economy. These advisers wanted Roosevelt to
break up big companies to allow competition.
10. What did the advisers who blamed business leaders for causing the Depression want the
government to do?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

• Fixing the Banks and the Stock Market (page 557)

President Roosevelt realized that one of the first things he had to do was
restore people’s confidence in the banks. He declared a national bank holiday
and then called a special session of Congress. On the day that Congress met,
the House of Representatives passed the Emergency Banking Relief Act. The
Senate approved it the same evening and Roosevelt signed it into law. It said
that federal officials would check the nation’s banks and give licenses to those
that were financially sound.
On March 12, President Roosevelt addressed the American public by radio.
This was the first of many fireside chats. He used them to let the American
people know what he was trying to accomplish. In his first chat, Roosevelt
told the people that it would be safe for them to put their money back into the
banks. The next day there were more bank deposits than bank withdrawals.
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Study Guide
Chapter 18, Section 2 (continued)

Roosevelt’s advisers pushed for regulations for the banks and the stock
market. Roosevelt agreed and supported the Securities Act of 1933 and the
Glass-Steagall Banking Act. The Securities Act required that companies that
sold stocks and bonds had to provide complete and truthful information to
their investors. The next year, Congress set up the Securities and Exchange
Commission. The agency was to regulate the stock market and prevent fraud.
The Glass-Steagall Act separated commercial banking from investment
banking. Commercial banks handle everyday transactions, such as taking
deposits and cashing checks. Under the Glass-Steagall Act, these banks could
not risk depositors’ money by speculating on the stock market. The act also
created the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC). It provided govern-
ment insurance on bank deposits up to a certain amount.
11. How did President Roosevelt communicate with the American people about what he was
trying to accomplish?

• Managing Farms and Industry (page 559)

President Roosevelt believed that farmers and businesses were suffering
because prices were too low and production was too high. Several of
Roosevelt’s advisers wanted to set up federal agencies to manage the economy.
Farmers had been hurt badly by the Depression. To help them, Roosevelt
announced plans for a new farm program. He asked Congress to pass the

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Agricultural Adjustment Act. It was based on the idea that prices for farm
products were low because farmers grew too much food. Under this act, the
government would pay farmers not to grow certain crops and certain live-
stock. This program was administered by the Agricultural Adjustment
Administration (AAA).
Over the next two years, farmers took out millions of acres of land from
production. They received more than $1 billion in support payments. The pro-
gram reached its goal. Surpluses fell by 1936, and food prices rose. Farm
income also rose. However, not all farmers benefited. The large commercial
farmers who grew one crop benefited more than small farmers who grew sev-
eral crops. In addition, thousands of poor tenant farmers became homeless
when landlords took fields out of production.
In June 1933, Roosevelt and Congress enacted the National Industrial
Recovery Act (NIRA). The law suspended antitrust laws. It allowed business,
labor, and government to cooperate in setting up voluntary rules for each
industry. The rules were known as codes of fair competition. They set prices,
set up minimum wages, and limited factories to two shifts per day. This was
done to spread production to as many firms as possible. Some codes short-
ened hours in the hope of creating more jobs. Another code guaranteed

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Study Guide
Chapter 18, Section 2 (continued)

workers the right to form unions. The National Recovery Administration

(NRA) ran the program. Those business owners who signed code agreements
received signs displaying the NRA’s symbol. People were urged to buy goods
only from companies that displayed the signs.
The NRA had few successes. Small companies complained that large com-
panies wrote codes that favored themselves. Many companies disliked price
fixing, which limited competition. Employers disliked the idea of workers’
rights to form unions. The codes were also difficult to enforce, and many com-
panies ignored them. Industrial production actually fell after the organization
was set up. The Supreme Court ruled that the NRA was unconstitutional in
1935. However, public support for it was lost before that.
12. What were the effects of the Agricultural Adjustment Act?

• Providing Debt Relief (page 560)

Some people believed that debt was standing in the way of an economic
recovery. Income was falling, so people had to use much of their money to
pay their debts. They had little left over to buy goods. Many people cut back
on their spending in order to pay their mortgages. As a result, President
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Roosevelt introduced several programs to help Americans with their debts.

Roosevelt asked Congress to set up the Home Owners’ Loan Corporation
(HOLC). It bought the mortgages from many homeowners who were behind
in their payments. It then restructured the payments with lower interest rates.
The HOLC only helped those people who still had jobs. It foreclosed on the
property of those who did not have jobs and could no longer pay their mort-
gages. However, the HOLC did help refinance one out of every five
mortgages on private homes in the United States.
Congress also set up the Farm Credit Administration (FCA) to help farmers
refinance their mortgages. The loans helped many farmers keep their land.
However, giving loans to poor farmers meant that little money was left to
loan to more efficient businesses in the economy.
13. What programs did Congress set up to help Americans pay their debts?

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Study Guide
Chapter 18, Section 2 (continued)

• Spending and Relief Programs (page 560)

Although some of Roosevelt’s advisers believed that low prices and debt
caused the Great Depression, others believed that the major cause was not
buying enough to get the economy going. These advisers believed that the
best way to get out of the Depression was to find a way to provide money for
people. To do this, Roosevelt asked Congress to set up government agencies
that would organize work programs for the unemployed.
One such relief program was the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC). Starting
in 1933, it employed young men 18 to 25 years of age to work under the
supervision of the national forestry service. They planted trees, fought fires,
and built reservoirs. Men lived in camps near their work areas and earned
about $30 a month. By the time the CCC closed down in 1942, it had provided
outdoor work to about three million men.
Congress set up the Federal Emergency Relief Administration (FERA). This
agency provided federal money to state and local agencies to pay for their
relief projects. The Public Works Administration (PWA), set up in June 1933,
was a federal relief agency. To put the many unemployed construction work-
ers back to work, the PWA set up a series of construction projects. The projects
included building and improving highways, dams, sewer systems, and water-
works. The PWA did not hire workers directly. Instead, it gave contracts to
construction companies. The PWA did insist that contractors hire African
Americans, thereby breaking down racial barriers in the construction industry.
The Civil Works Administration (CWA) hired workers directly and put
them on the federal government’s payroll. In the winter of 1933, the CWA had

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

employed four million people. They built airports, roads, schools, and play-
grounds. The CWA spent nearly $1 billion in just five months. Although the
CWA helped many people get through the winter, President Roosevelt was con-
cerned about how quickly it spent money. He did not want people to get used
to the federal government providing them with jobs. As a result, he ordered
the CWA to shut down and to fire the four million workers it had hired.
The programs of the New Deal did not restore the economy. However, they
did inspire Americans with hope and restored their faith in the country.
14. How did the PWA hire workers?

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Study Guide
Chapter 18, Section 3
For use with textbook pages 564–569

THE SECOND NEW DEAL

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
deficit spending borrowing money to pay for programs (page 565)
American Liberty League organization established to oppose the New Deal (page 565)
Works Progress Administration a federal agency set up for work relief and to increase
employment (page 566)
National Labor Relations Board an agency formed by the National Labor Relations Act to organ-
ize factory elections by secret ballot to determine whether workers wanted a union (page 567)
binding arbitration a process in a dispute in which a neutral party would listen to both sides
and decide the issues (page 567)
sit-down strike a protest action in which workers stopped working but refused to leave the
factory (page 568)
Social Security Act a law that provided security for the elderly and for unemployed workers
(page 569)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

When you get your paycheck, some of the money you earn has been taken
out for income tax. An additional amount has been removed for Social
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Security. President Roosevelt initiated the Social Security program. The last
section discussed the programs set up under the First New Deal. This section
discusses President Roosevelt’s programs in the Second New Deal.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the diagram below to help you take notes. In 1935 President Roosevelt
set up the Second New Deal—a series of new programs to help the economy
recover. In the diagram, list the laws and programs in the Second New Deal
and explain the purpose of each.

2.

1. Second New Deal

3.

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Study Guide
Chapter 18, Section 3 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• Challenges to the New Deal (page 564)
After his first two years in office, Roosevelt had not been able to end the
Depression. Opposition to his policies began to grow. People from both the
right and the left of the political spectrum opposed them. The right opposed
them because Roosevelt had begun deficit spending to pay for his programs.
He ended the balanced budget and began borrowing money to pay for his
programs. In 1934 anti-New Deal politicians and business leaders joined
together to form the American Liberty League. They organized to oppose the
New Deal.
Challenges also came from the left, where people believed that Roosevelt
had not gone far enough. They wanted the government to be involved even
more in shifting wealth from the rich to middle-income and poor Americans.
One of Roosevelt’s biggest opponents was Huey Long, a senator from
Louisiana. As governor of Louisiana, he had fought for the poor. He estab-
lished a reputation for attacking the rich. Long’s popularity increased. Many
people believed that if Long ran for president, he would win several million
votes. This would be enough to give Republicans the win.
Another New Deal opponent from the left was Father Charles Coughlin, a
Catholic priest in Detroit. He called for huge taxes on the wealthy. He estab-
lished an organization that supported Huey Long.
Dr. Francis Townsend was also an opponent from the left. He proposed that
the federal government pay every citizen over age 60 a pension of $200 per
month. Those who received the pension would have to spend their entire pen-

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

sion check each month. Townsend believed the plan would increase spending,
remove people from the labor force, and free up jobs for the unemployed.
Townsend’s plan had many supporters, particularly the elderly. If his support-
ers joined the supporters of Long and Coughlin, there was a possibility that
they would draw enough votes away from Roosevelt to stop him from being
re-elected in 1936.
4. Why did the left oppose President Roosevelt’s policies?

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Study Guide
Chapter 18, Section 3 (continued)

• Launching the Second New Deal (page 566)

President Roosevelt knew that he might lose political support from both the
left and the right. He also knew that the New Deal had not improved the
nation’s economy. As a result, in 1935 he began a series of programs called the
Second New Deal, which he hoped would provide an economic recovery.
In January 1935, Roosevelt asked Congress for funds to provide work relief
and to increase jobs. Much of the money would be given to the Works Progress
Administration (WPA), a new federal agency. Under the WPA, 8.5 million
workers built miles of highways, roads, public buildings, and parks. The WPA
also provided jobs to artists and writers. They created murals and sculptures
to decorate the walls and halls of public buildings. Musicians set up city
symphonies.
Because of opposition to Roosevelt’s programs, the bill that created the
WPA did not pass in Congress until April 1935. Then in May 1935, the
Supreme Court struck down the National Industrial Recovery Act. It ruled
that the NIRA codes were unconstitutional. The President now knew that he
had to introduce a new set of programs to get the voters’ support. He called
congressional leaders to the White House and told them they could not go
home until Congress passed his new programs.
5. Why did the Supreme Court strike down the National Industrial Recovery Act?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

• The Rise of Industrial Unions (page 567)

When the Supreme Court ruled against the NIRA, it also struck down the
part of the law that protected the right to form unions. President Roosevelt
and others knew that the labor vote was important in the 1936 election. They
also believed that unions could help end the Depression. They believed that
higher union wages would let workers spend more money and that this
would help the economy. Opponents believed that high wages forced compa-
nies to charge higher prices and to hire fewer workers.
In July 1935, Congress passed the National Labor Relations Act, also called
the Wagner Act. It guaranteed workers the right to form unions and to collec-
tive bargaining. The law set up the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB). It
organized factory elections by secret ballot to determine whether workers
wanted a union. It also certified successful unions. The law set up a way that
dissatisfied union members could take their complaints to binding arbitration.

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Study Guide
Chapter 18, Section 3 (continued)

In this process, a neutral party would listen to both sides and decide the
issues.
By the mid-1930s, union activity increased. The United Mine Workers union
began working with other unions to organize workers in industries where
there were no unions. They formed the Committee for Industrial Organization
(CIO) in 1935. The union set out to organize industrial unions. These unions
included all workers in a particular industry—both skilled and unskilled. The
CIO started by focusing on the steel and automobile industries, where work-
ers were not yet organized.
When two union men were demoted at a General Motors (GM) plant in
Cleveland, Ohio, 135 workers sat down and started a strike. They stopped
working but refused to leave the factory. Then four days later the workers in
the Flint, Michigan, plant started their own sit-down strike. Workers at other
GM plants also went on strike.
Violence broke out in Flint between the police and striking workers. In the
end, however, the company gave in and recognized the CIO’s United Auto
Workers (UAW). The UAW became one of the most powerful unions in the
nation.
The United States Steel Corporation did not want to have the same experi-
ences that GM had. It recognized the CIO’s United Steelworkers of America.
The union won a 40-hour workweek and a 10-percent pay raise.
By 1939 total union membership tripled. In 1938 the CIO changed its name
to the Congress of Industrial Organizations. It became a federation of indus-
trial unions.

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

6. What kind of union was the Committee for Industrial Organization?

• The Social Security Act (page 569)

In August 1935, Congress passed the Social Security Act. Its goal was to pro-
vide some security for the elderly and for unemployed workers. Under this
act, workers received benefits because they paid premiums. It also provided
welfare payments to other needy people. The main part of Social Security was
the monthly retirement benefit. People collected this benefit when they
stopped working at age 65. Another part of Social Security was unemploy-
ment insurance, in which unemployed workers would receive a temporary
income while looking for new jobs.

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Study Guide
Chapter 18, Section 3 (continued)

Although Social Security helped many people, it left out farm and domestic
workers. About 65 percent of all African American workers in the 1930s fell
into these two groups of workers. However, Social Security set the principle
that the federal government should be responsible for people who, through
no fault of their own, were unable to work.
7. What was the goal of the Social Security Act?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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Study Guide
Chapter 18, Section 4
For use with textbook pages 572–577

THE NEW DEAL COALITION

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
Frances Perkins the Secretary of Labor under President Roosevelt, the first woman appointed to
a cabinet post (page 573)
court-packing Roosevelt’s plan to add justices to the Supreme Court (page 574)
Henry Morgenthau Secretary of the Treasury under President Roosevelt (page 574)
John Maynard Keynes influential British economist (page 575)
broker state a government whose role includes mediating between competing groups
(page 577)
safety net safeguards and relief programs that protected Americans against economic disasters
(page 577)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

How does the government today influence the nation’s economy? What
other areas is the government involved in?
The last section described the programs of the Second New Deal. This sec-
tion describes how the New Deal affected Americans.

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII
Use the chart below to help you take notes. Fewer New Deal programs
were established during Roosevelt’s second term. Describe the purpose of
each of the programs listed in the chart.

National Housing Act 1.

Farm Security Administration 2.

Fair Labor Standards Act 3.

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Study Guide
Chapter 18, Section 4 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• Roosevelt’s Second Term (page 572)
By 1936 most African American voters had switched their support to the
Democratic Party because of the New Deal. African Americans and women
had made some gains during the New Deal. Roosevelt appointed a number of
African Americans to positions in his administration. He also tried to make
sure that relief programs included African Americans. Roosevelt appointed
the first woman to a cabinet position. Frances Perkins became the Secretary of
Labor. Roosevelt also appointed many women to lower-level jobs in the fed-
eral government.
In the 1936 election, the Republicans nominated Kansas Governor Alfred
Landon. His campaign attacked the New Deal as violating the basic ideals of
the American system. However, the New Deal was very popular with
Americans. Roosevelt won the election by a landslide.
The Supreme Court saw some of the new Deal’s programs as unconstitu-
tional. It declared the Agricultural Adjustment Act unconstitutional in 1936.
Other programs seemed likely to be struck down as well. Roosevelt was upset
that a few justices might block his programs. He decided to change the bal-
ance of the Supreme Court. He sent a bill to Congress to increase the number
of justices. If any justice had served for 10 years and did not retire within 6
months after reaching 70, the president could name an additional justice to
the Court. This would allow Roosevelt to appoint as many as six new justices.
This was referred to as the court-packing plan. Roosevelt’s plan made it look
as if he was trying to interfere with the separation of powers and with the
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Supreme Court’s independence.

The issue split the Democratic Party. Southern Democrats feared that the
plan would put justices on the Court who would overturn segregation.
African Americans feared that a future president might pack the Court with
justices who were against civil rights. Many Americans believed the plan
would make the president too powerful.
Roosevelt’s actions did seem to force the Supreme Court to back down. It
upheld the Wagner Act and the Social Security Act as constitutional. The
Senate quietly killed the court-packing bill. However, the plan hurt
Roosevelt’s reputation. It also encouraged conservative Democrats in
Congress to work with Republicans to oppose further New Deal policies.
Roosevelt experienced another setback in late 1937, when unemployment
dramatically increased. Roosevelt decided that although unemployment was
high, it was time to balance the budget. He was concerned about too much
debt, so he ordered the WPA and the PWA to be cut considerably. However,
he cut spending just as the first Social Security payments removed $2 billion
from the economy. As a result, the economy declined. By the end of 1937, two
million people had been thrown out of work.

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Chapter 18, Section 4 (continued)

The recession led to a debate among Roosevelt’s advisers about what to do.
Secretary of the Treasury Henry Morgenthau wanted to balance the budget and
cut spending. However, Harry Hopkins, the head of the WPA, and Harold
Ickes, the head of the PWA, disagreed with Morgenthau. They wanted more
government spending. They pointed to Keynesianism—a theory proposed by
British economist John Maynard Keynes. This theory said that during a reces-
sion the government should spend heavily, even go into debt, in order to
jump-start the economy. According to Keynesianism, Roosevelt did the wrong
thing when he cut back programs in 1937. Many critics, however, said that the
recession proved that people were becoming too dependent on government
spending. Roosevelt was worried that they might be right. However, in 1938
he decided to ask Congress to provide more funds for the PWA and WPA.
4. What did supporters of Keynesianism believe President Roosevelt should do to stop the
recession in 1937?

• The Last New Deal Reforms (page 575)

In his second term, President Roosevelt wanted to provide better housing
for the poor. In 1937 the National Housing Act set up the United States

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Housing Authority. It received $500 million to subsidize loans for builders to
buy blocks of slums and build low-cost housing.
Many tenant farmers were hurt when farmers were paid to take land out of
production to increase food prices. Many tenant farmers left farming. To stop
this, Congress set up the Farm Security Administration. It gave loans to ten-
ants so they could buy farms.
The Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 provided more protection for work-
ers. It also abolished child labor and set up a 40-hour workweek to come into
effect within three years.
In the congressional election of 1938, Republicans won many seats in
Congress. Together with conservative Democrats, they began blocking New
Deal legislation. By 1939 the New Deal era had ended.
5. How did the congressional elections of 1938 affect New Deal legislation?

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Chapter 18, Section 4 (continued)

• The Legacy of the New Deal (page 576)

The New Deal resulted in business leaders, farmers, workers, and con-
sumers all looking to government to protect their interests. The Supreme
Court helped the government to take on this role through two rulings. The
rulings increased federal power over the economy. It allowed the government
to mediate between competing groups. As a mediator, the New Deal set up
what is called a broker state, or working out conflicts among different inter-
ests. It is a role that has continued to today.
The biggest change brought about by the New Deal was the Americans’
view of government. The New Deal programs had created a kind of safety net
for average Americans. Safeguards and relief programs protected them
against economic disasters. By the time Roosevelt’s administration ended,
most Americans believed that the government had a duty to keep the safety
net.
6. How did Supreme Court rulings affect the federal government?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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Study Guide
Chapter 19, Section 1
For use with textbook pages 584–588

AMERICA AND THE WORLD

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
Benito Mussolini Fascist dictator of Italy (page 585)
fascism a kind of aggressive nationalism (page 585)
Vladimir Lenin leader of the Bolshevik Party in Russia (page 585)
Joseph Stalin dictator of the Soviet Union (page 585)
Adolf Hitler Nazi leader of Germany (page 585)
Manchuria province in northern China (page 586)
Neutrality Act of 1935 law that made it illegal for Americans to sell arms to any country at war
(page 587)
internationalism the idea that trade between nations creates prosperity and helps to prevent
war (page 588)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

What decision did the Treaty of Versailles, which ended World War I, make
regarding the treatment of Germany? How do you think the decision affected
Germany?
In this section, you will learn about the rise of dictatorships in Europe and

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Asia. You will also learn why Americans supported isolationism in the 1930s.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the diagram below to help you take notes. Dictatorships were estab-
lished in several countries after World War I. List the countries and the
dictators in the diagram.

1. 3.
2. 4.

Dictators After
World War I

5.
6.

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Chapter 19, Section 1 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• The Rise of Dictators (page 584)
The terms of the peace treaty that ended World War I and the economic
depression contributed to the rise of dictatorships in Europe and Asia. In Italy,
Benito Mussolini founded Italy’s Fascist Party. Fascism was a kind of aggressive
nationalism. Fascists believed that the nation was more important than the
individual. They believed that to be strong, a nation needed a strong govern-
ment led by a dictator to impose order on society. Fascists also believed that a
nation became strong by expanding its territory and building up its military.
Fascists were anti-Communist. Many Europeans feared that Communists
were trying to bring down their governments. Fascists played on these fears.
Mussolini marched on Rome in 1922. He claimed that he was coming to
defend Italy against a Communist revolution. Conservative leaders of the
Italian parliament persuaded the king to appoint Mussolini as the premier
and head of the government. Once Mussolini took over, he quickly set up a
dictatorship. He was supported by business leaders, landowners, and the
Roman Catholic Church.
After the Russian Revolution began in 1917, the Bolshevik Party, led by
Vladimir Lenin, set up Communist governments throughout the Russian
empire. They renamed these territories the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics
(USSR). To control these territories, the Communists set up a one-party rule.
They suppressed individual rights. They punished those who opposed them.
Joseph Stalin became the Soviet leader by 1926, two years after Lenin died.
Stalin started industrialization in the Soviet Union. He also caused the death
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

of 8 to 10 million people who opposed the Communist policies.

In Germany, Adolf Hitler opposed communism. He admired Mussolini. He
hated the Allies for their treatment of Germany after World War I. Germany’s
condition after the war led to the start of many new political parties. One such
party was the National Socialist German Workers’ Party, or the Nazi Party.
The party was anti-Communist and nationalistic. Hitler was one of the first
members of the party.
Hitler wrote his autobiography, entitled Mein Kampf, in which he called for
the unification of all Germans under one government. He claimed that certain
Germans, especially blond, blue-eyed ones, were part of a “master race”
called Aryans. He believed these Germans needed more living space.
Therefore, he wanted Germany to expand east into Poland and Russia. Hitler
believed that the people of Eastern Europe were part of an inferior race.
Hitler’s prejudice was especially directed toward Jews. He believed that they
were responsible for many of the world’s, including Germany’s, problems.
Hitler worked to have Nazis elected to Germany’s parliament. Many
Germans voted for Nazis, hoping that they might lead them out of the Great
Depression that struck Germany. By 1932 the Nazis were the largest party in

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Chapter 19, Section 1 (continued)

the German Parliament. Many German leaders supported Hitler and his
nationalism. In 1933 they appointed him chancellor, or prime minister. After
Hitler took office, he called for new elections. He ordered the police to crack
down on the Communist Party and to intimidate voters. After the elections,
the Nazi-dominated Parliament gave Hitler the powers of a dictator. Hitler
then became president, which gave him control of the army.
In Japan, the economy was suffering. Japan had to import nearly all the
resources it needed to make goods. The country did not make enough money
from its exports to pay for the imports it needed. The Depression made the
situation even worse. Many military leaders blamed the poor economy on the
corrupt politicians. They believed that the only way for Japan to get the
resources it needed was to seize territory. They looked to Manchuria, a
province in northern China, which was rich in resources. A group of military
officers decided to act alone and invade Manchuria. The prime minister of
Japan wanted to end the invasion, but he was assassinated by Japanese offi-
cers. The Japanese military was now in control.
7. What situations in Germany and Japan led to the rise of dictatorships there?

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

• America Turns to Neutrality (page 587)
After World War I, many Americans supported isolationism. They believed
that the United States should stay out of international commitments that
could bring the United States into a war. Support for isolationism became
even stronger when many European nations announced that they could not
repay money that they had borrowed during World War I. Then several books
appeared, arguing that the arms manufacturers had tricked the United States
into entering World War I. In 1934 Senator Gerald P. Nye of North Dakota had
held hearings to find out how involved the United States was. The Nye
Committee investigated the huge profits that arms factories had made during
the war. This gave the impression that these manufacturers did influence the
United States to go to war. In response, Congress passed the Neutrality Act of
1935, which made it illegal for Americans to sell arms to any country at war.
The Spanish Civil War started in 1936. It was a conflict between the
Communist government there and a group of Fascist rebels. The Soviet Union
helped the Spanish government. Germany and Italy helped the Fascist rebels.
In the same year, Germany and Italy signed an agreement to cooperate on

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Chapter 19, Section 1 (continued)

several international issues. This relationship was referred to as the Rome-

Berlin Axis. Japan joined Germany and Italy. The three nations became known
as the Axis Powers.
The United States passed the Neutrality Act of 1937. It continued to ban the
sale of arms. It also required that countries at war buy nonmilitary supplies
on a “cash-and-carry” basis. Countries that needed supplies had to send their
own ships to pick up the supplies, and they had to pay cash. The United
States wanted to avoid a situation that had helped bring it into World War I.
President Roosevelt knew that ending the Depression was his first priority.
However, he was not an isolationist. Instead, he supported internationalism.
This was the belief that trade between nations creates prosperity and helps to
prevent war. Roosevelt knew that isolationism was too strong to resist, how-
ever, so he did not veto the Neutrality Acts.
In July 1937, Japan launched a full-scale attack on China. Roosevelt decided
to help the Chinese. Because neither China nor Japan had actually declared
war, Roosevelt claimed that the Neutrality Act of 1937 did not apply. He
ordered the sale of weapons to China. Yet Americans still wanted nothing to
do with another war.
8. Why did President Roosevelt not veto the Neutrality Acts?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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Study Guide
Chapter 19, Section 2
For use with textbook pages 589–594

WORLD WAR II BEGINS

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
Anschluss the unification of Austria and Germany (page 590)
appeasement giving concessions in exchange for peace (page 590)
blitzkrieg lightning war (page 591)
Maginot Line a line of bunkers and fortifications built by the French along the German border
(page 592)
Winston Churchill prime minister of Great Britain (page 593)
Battle of Britain an all-out German air attack against the British Royal Air Force (page 594)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

Why do you think many Americans wanted the United States to follow a
policy of isolationism? Do you think that was possible when dictators came to
power in several countries of the world? Why or why not?
The last section described the rise of dictatorships in Europe and Asia after
World War I. This section discusses the events that led to the beginning of
World War II.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Use the diagram below to help you take notes. Adolf Hitler made continu-
ous demands for territory. Britain and France met some of the demands in an
effort to avoid war. In the diagram, list Hitler’s demands in the order in which
they occurred, starting in 1937.

Hitler’s Demands

1.

2.

3.

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Chapter 19, Section 2 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• “Peace in Our Time” (page 589)
European leaders did not try to stop Hitler. They thought that if they gave
in to his demands, they would be able to avoid another war. They also
thought that Hitler’s idea that all German-speaking regions of Europe be
united with Germany was reasonable. They also believed that if the Nazis
received more territory, they would be more interested in peace.
Hitler wanted Austria and Czechoslovakia. He believed these territories
would provide Germany with food and soldiers. Hitler threatened to invade
Austria unless Austrian Nazis were given important government posts. The
Austrian chancellor decided to put the possibility of Austrian unification with
Germany to a vote. Hitler feared the results, so he sent troops into Austria and
announced the Anschluss, or unification, of Austria and Germany.
Hitler then announced that he wanted an area of Czechoslovakia that had
many German-speaking people. Unlike Austria, which had a common culture
and language with Germany, people in Czechoslovakia spoke many different
languages. It was also allied with the Soviet Union and France. The Czechs
resisted Germany’s demands for a portion of their nation. To help stop
another war, in September 1938, Britain, France, Italy, and Germany sent rep-
resentatives to a meeting in Munich, Germany, to decide what to do about
Czechoslovakia. At the meeting, Britain and France agreed to Hitler’s
demands. This policy became known as appeasement, or giving concessions in
exchange for peace. They believed that if they gave Hitler what he wanted,
war could be avoided. Germany violated the agreement in March 1939, when
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

German troops marched into Czechoslovakia.

Hitler then demanded Poland. The British and French knew that appease-
ment had failed. In May 1939, Hitler ordered the German army to prepare to
invade Poland. He then began negotiations with the USSR, because he did not
want to have to fight the Soviets if he was going to have to fight Britain and
France. In August 1939, Germany and the USSR signed the nonaggression
pact. Britain and France believed that Hitler made the deal with the USSR to
free himself to fight a war against them and Poland. They did not know that
the nonaggression pact included a deal between Germany and the USSR to
divide Poland between them.
4. Why did Britain and France agree to a policy of appeasement toward Hitler?

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Chapter 19, Section 2 (continued)

• The War Begins (page 591)

Germany invaded Poland on September 1, 1939. It invaded Poland from the
west, and the Soviets invaded it from the east. Hitler assumed that Britain and
France would use appeasement toward him as they did before. However, on
September 3, Britain and France declared war on Germany. World War II had
started.
The Germans used a new type of warfare called blitzkrieg, or lightning war.
This type of warfare used large numbers of tanks to break through and encir-
cle enemy positions. In addition, waves of aircraft bombed enemy positions.
Blitzkrieg depended on radios to coordinate tanks and aircraft. The Polish
army was not able to defend itself against the German attack. By October 5,
1939, the Polish army had been defeated.
Countries in western Europe were waiting for the Germans to attack. After
World War I, France had built a line of concrete bunkers and fortifications
called the Maginot Line along the German border. Rather than attacking the
Germans, the French waited behind the Maginot Line for the Germans to
arrive.
After invading Poland, Germany attacked Norway and Denmark on
April 9, 1940, and controlled both nations within a month. Hitler then turned
his attention on France. He decided to go around the Maginot Line by starting
a blitzkrieg against Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg. The British
and French forces moved north into Belgium. The Germans, however, sent
their troops through the mountains in Luxembourg and eastern Belgium. The
French did not think the Germans could get their tanks through the moun-

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

tains. As a result, they left few troops to defend that area. The Germans easily
got through and moved west across northern France to the English Channel.
The British and French forces could not move into France quickly enough.
They were stuck in Belgium.
After the Allied troops were trapped in Belgium, Germans moved toward
the English Channel. The Germans had captured all but one port, Dunkirk, in
northern France near Belgium. As German forces moved close to Dunkirk,
Hitler surprisingly ordered them to stop. This gave the British time to evacu-
ate. About 850 ships headed to Dunkirk from England. By June 4, about
338,000 British and French troops had been evacuated. However, most of the
British army’s equipment remained at Dunkirk. This meant that it would
almost be impossible to stop Hitler if he invaded Britain.
On June 22, 1940, France surrendered to Hitler. Germany then installed a
puppet government in the town of Vichy, France, to govern France. The
Germans believed it would be easy to take Britain.

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Chapter 19, Section 2 (continued)

5. Why did the evacuation at Dunkirk make it almost impossible for Britain to defend itself
against Hitler?

• Britain Remains Defiant (page 593)

Hitler expected Britain to surrender just as France did. For British prime
minister Winston Churchill, surrender was not an option. When Hitler realized
that Britain would not surrender, he prepared to invade. Getting across the
English Channel was a problem for Germany, however. Germany had few
transport ships, so it would first have to defeat the British air force. In June
1940, the German air force, called the Luftwaffe, began to attack British ships in
the English Channel. Then in August, Germany started an all-out air attack to
destroy the British Royal Air Force. This battle lasted into October and became
known as the Battle of Britain.
On August 23, German airplanes bombed London. This attack on civilians
angered the British, who responded by bombing Berlin. Hitler responded by
stopping the attacks on British military targets and concentrating them on
London itself. Hitler wanted to terrorize the British people into surrendering.
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

The British people did not do so and hid in the subways when the bombers
appeared.
The British Royal Air Force was greatly outnumbered, but it had an advan-
tage. It had developed the use of radar. As a result, the British were able to
detect incoming German planes and to intercept them. They inflicted more
damage on the Germans than they endured. On October 12, 1940, Hitler can-
celed his plans to invade Britain.
6. What helped Britain prevent a German invasion?

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Study Guide
Chapter 19, Section 3
For use with textbook pages 595–600

THE HOLOCAUST
KEY TERMS AND NAMES
Holocaust the mass killing of Jews and other civilians carried out by the Nazi government
before and during World War II (page 595)
Shoah the Hebrew term for Holocaust, meaning “catastrophe” (page 596)
Nuremberg Laws German laws that took citizenship away from Jewish Germans and banned
marriage between Jews and Germans (page 596)
Wannsee Conference a meeting held by Nazi leaders to determine the “final solution of the
Jewish question” (page 599)
concentration camps detention centers set up by Nazis to which Jews were taken (page 599)
extermination camps places attached to concentration camps in which Jews were executed in
massive gas chambers (page 599)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

What is the Holocaust? Have you seen movies or read books about the
Holocaust? What was the focus of the movie or the book?
The last section described the events that led to the beginning of World War
II. This section discusses Germany’s treatment of the Jews and the Holocaust.

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII
Use the chart below to help you take notes. Historians have considered sev-
eral factors that could have led to an event such as the Holocaust to occur. List
these factors in the chart.

Factors That Contributed to the Holocaust

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

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Chapter 19, Section 3 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• Nazi Persecution of the Jews (page 595)
Millions of Jews suffered terrible persecutions before and during World
War II. During the Holocaust, the catastrophe that devastated Europe’s Jews,
the Nazis killed nearly 6 million Jews. They also killed millions of other peo-
ple from groups that they considered inferior. The Hebrew term for the
Holocaust is Shoah, meaning “catastrophe.” It is often used specifically to
refer to the Nazi campaign to exterminate the Jews during World War II.
In Germany, the Nazis executed the racial policies that Hitler had outlined
in his book Mein Kampf. The Nazis persecuted anyone who opposed them, as
well as disabled people, Gypsies, homosexuals, and Slavic peoples. However,
their hatred focused most on the Jews. In September 1935, the Nazis set up the
Nuremberg Laws. These took citizenship away from the Jewish Germans and
banned marriage between Jews and other Germans. Another law defined a
Jew as a person with at least one Jewish grandparent and did not allow Jews
to hold public office or vote. Passports of Jews were marked with a red “J” to
clearly identify them as Jewish. Jews lost their right to work as journalists,
farmers, teachers, lawyers, and doctors and from operating businesses. With
no income, life became very difficult for Jews in Germany. Many Jews chose
to stay in Germany during the early years of Nazi rule. They did not want to
give up the lives they had built there.
On November 7, 1938, a Jewish refugee shot and killed a German diplomat
in Paris. He was upset about the 10,000 Jews, including his father, being
deported from Germany to Poland and wanted revenge. Hitler retaliated by
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

staging attacks against the Jews. The night of November 9, 1938, saw anti-
Jewish violence across Germany and Austria. The night came to be called
Kristallnacht, or “night of broken glass.” It was called that because broken
glass littered the streets afterward. Many Jews were killed and hundreds were
injured. After that night, the Gestapo, the government’s secret police, arrested
at least 20,000 wealthy Jews. They let them go only if they agreed to leave
Germany and give up all their possessions.
Many Jews decided to leave Germany and flee to the United States. By 1939
about 350,000 Jews had escaped Germany. However, there was a backlog of
visa applications from Jews trying to leave Germany. As a result, millions of
Jews remained trapped in Nazi-dominated Europe.
Jewish immigration to the United States was hampered by several factors.
Nazis did not allow Jews to take more than about four dollars out of
Germany. Many countries refused to accept Jewish immigrants. The United
States was reluctant to do so because laws prohibited immigration by people
who might need financial assistance. Americans thought that this was true of
the Jews because Germans forced them to leave their money and possessions
behind. High unemployment rates in the United States made immigration

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Study Guide
Chapter 19, Section 3 (continued)

unpopular. Also, immigration quotas that set fixed quotas from each country
were in place.
7. Why was the United States reluctant to accept Jewish immigrants?

• The Final Solution (page 599)

In January 1942, Nazi leaders met at the Wannsee Conference to determine
the “final solution of the Jewish question.” The Nazis made plans to round up
Jews from throughout Nazi-controlled Europe and take them to detention
centers known as concentration camps. People in these camps would work as
slave laborers until they died of exhaustion, disease, or malnutrition. The eld-
erly, children, and the unhealthy would be sent to extermination camps, which
were attached to concentration camps, to be executed in massive gas chambers.
The Nazis built concentration camps throughout Europe. One of the largest
was Buchenwald, in Germany. Prisoners there worked 12-hour shifts as slave
laborers in nearby factories. Hundreds died every month as a result of
exhaustion and horrible living conditions. The Nazis built extermination

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

camps in several concentration camps, mostly in Poland. About 12,000 people
were sometimes gassed in a single day at Auschwitz. About 1,300,000 of the
1,600,000 people who died at Auschwitz were Jews. The others included
Poles, Gypsies, and Soviet prisoners-of-war.
People continue to debate why and how the Holocaust could have hap-
pened. Most historians believe that several factors contributed to it. The
German people felt they were harmed by the harsh treaty after World War I.
Germany faced severe economic problems. Hitler had a strong hold on
Germany. Germany did not have a strong tradition of representative govern-
ment. Germans feared Hitler’s secret police. Europe had a long history of
anti-Jewish prejudice and discrimination.
8. What was the purpose of the Wannsee Conference?

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Study Guide
Chapter 19, Section 4
For use with textbook pages 601–606

AMERICA ENTERS THE WAR

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
America First Committee an isolationist group that firmly opposed any American intervention
or aid to the Allies (page 602)
Lend-Lease Act a law that would allow the United States to lend or lease arms to any country
considered vital to the defense of the United States (page 603)
hemispheric defense zone the western half of the Atlantic which was declared part of the
Western Hemisphere and therefore neutral (page 603)
Atlantic Charter an agreement between the United States and Britain to a postwar world
of democracy, nonaggression, free trade, economic advancement and freedom of the seas
(page 603)
strategic materials materials important for fighting a war (page 605)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

Imagine that you are living in the United States in 1940. How do you think
you would have felt about the nation becoming involved in the war overseas?
Why?
The last section described Germany’s treatment of the Jews and the
Holocaust. This section discusses the events that led to the U.S. entry into
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

World War II.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the diagram below to help you take notes. President Roosevelt was
determined to help Britain while keeping the United States neutral. List these
ways in the diagram.

1.
1. 2.

Ways to Provide
Aid to Britain

4.
3. 3.
4.

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Chapter 19, Section 4 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• FDR Supports England (page 601)
After Britain and France declared war on Germany, President Roosevelt
declared the United States neutral. He wanted to help the two nations against
Hitler, however. Roosevelt asked Congress to revise the Neutrality Acts. It had
forbidden the sale of American weapons to any country at war. The revised
law did allow warring countries to buy weapons as long as they paid cash
and carried the arms away on their own ships.
In May 1940, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill began asking
President Roosevelt to give old American destroyers to Britain. Britain had
lost most of its destroyers. It needed destroyers to protect its cargo ships from
German submarines and to help prevent a German invasion of Britain.
Roosevelt agreed to do so. He sent old American destroyers in exchange for
the right to build American bases on British-controlled Newfoundland,
Bermuda, and islands in the Caribbean.
5. What did the revised Neutrality Act provide?

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

• The Isolationist Debate (page 602)
By 1940 most Americans supported offering limited aid to the Allies. Yet
there was a wide range of opinions. At one end was the Fight for Freedom
Committee. It urged the repeal of all neutrality laws and stronger action
against Germany. The Committee to defend America by Aiding the Allies
pushed for increased American aid to the Allies but not military intervention.
Roosevelt’s destroyers-for-bases deal led to the establishment of the
America First Committee. This was an isolationist group that opposed any
American intervention or aid to the Allies.
President Roosevelt decided to run for a third term as president. He
believed that at this point, a change of leadership might not be in the coun-
try’s best interest. During the 1940 campaign, Roosevelt called for a course
between neutrality and intervention. He was re-elected by a wide margin.
6. Why did President Roosevelt decide to run for a third term as president?

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Chapter 19, Section 4 (continued)

• Edging Toward War (page 603)

After he was re-elected, Roosevelt began to expand the nation’s role in the
war. He said that only Britain stood between the United States and a German
attack. By December 1940, Britain had no funds left to fight Germany.
President Roosevelt came up with a way to get around the cash-and-carry
policy, which Britain could no longer meet. The Lend-Lease Act allowed the
United States to lend or lease arms to any country that was considered vital to
the defense of the United States. As a result, the United States could send
weapons to Britain if Britain promised to return or pay rent for them after the
war. Congress passed the Lend-Lease Act. Lend-lease aid eventually included
aid to the Soviet Union as well. In June 1941, Hitler violated the Nazi-Soviet
pact and started a massive invasion of the Soviet Union. Although Churchill
detested communism, he promised to aid any nation that helped fight
Nazism. Roosevelt agreed with him.
The United States faced the problem of how to get supplies and arms to
Britain. German submarines were sinking ships in the Atlantic. Roosevelt
could not order the navy to protect British ships because the United States
was neutral. As a result, he set up the idea of a hemispheric defense zone.
Roosevelt said that the entire western half of the Atlantic was part of the
Western Hemisphere and was therefore neutral. He ordered the navy to patrol
the western Atlantic and point out the location of German submarines to the
British.
In August 1941, Roosevelt and Churchill met and agreed to the Atlantic
Charter. The leaders agreed to a postwar world of democracy, nonaggression,
free trade, economic advancement, and freedom of the seas. Then in early
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

September a German U-boat fired on the American destroyer Greer. The

destroyer had been radioing the U-boat’s position to the British. Roosevelt
ordered American ships to follow a shoot-on-sight policy toward German sub-
marines. The Germans escalated hostilities. They torpedoed two American
destroyers. One was the Reuben James. It sank, and 115 sailors died.
7. What was the Lend-Lease Act?

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Chapter 19, Section 4 (continued)

• Japan Attacks the United States (page 604)

Roosevelt’s goal between August 1939 and December 1941 was to help
Britain and its allies defeat Germany. Much of the British navy was needed in
Asia to protect British territory from an attack by the Japanese. However,
Britain had to move many of its ships from Asia to the Atlantic to defend
Britain against Germany. As a result, Roosevelt introduced policies to discour-
age the Japanese from attacking the British Empire. In July 1940, Congress
passed the Export Control Act. The law gave Roosevelt the power to restrict
the sale of strategic materials to other nations. These were materials that were
important for fighting a war. Roosevelt blocked the sale of airplane fuel and
scrap iron to Japan. This angered the Japanese, who signed an alliance with
Germany and Italy and became a member of the Axis Powers.
By July 1941, Japan had sent troops to southern Indochina. This was a
threat to the British Empire. Japan was now in a position to bomb Hong Kong
and Singapore. Roosevelt responded by freezing Japanese assets in the United
States. He reduced the amount of oil being shipped to Japan. He also sent
General Douglas MacArthur to the Philippines to build up American defenses
there. Roosevelt said the ban on oil would be lifted if Japan would leave
Indochina and make peace with China.
The Japanese government appeared to be negotiating with the United
States. The United States, however, had decoded Japanese communications
that showed Japan was preparing to go to war against the United States. On
November 27, 1941, American commanders at the Pearl Harbor naval base
received a war warning from Washington. Pearl Harbor was thought to be
too great a distance from Japan. Washington did not think that Japan would

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

launch an attack from that distance.
On December 7, 1941, Japan launched a surprise attack on Pearl Harbor.
Japan sank or damaged 21 ships of the U.S. Pacific Fleet. It also destroyed
188 airplanes, killed 2,403 Americans, and injured 1,178. The next day,
Congress voted to declare war on Japan. On December 11, Germany and
Italy both declared war on the United States.
8. What led Congress to declare war on Japan?

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Study Guide
Chapter 20, Section 1
For use with textbook pages 612–617

MOBILIZING FOR WAR

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
cost-plus type of government contract in which the government agreed to pay a company
whatever it cost to make a product plus a guaranteed percentage of the costs as profit
(page 613)
Reconstruction Finance Corporation a government agency that made loans to companies to
help cover the cost of converting to war production (page 613)
Liberty ship the basic cargo ship used during the war (page 614)
War Production Board a government agency with the authority to set priorities and production
goals and to control the distribution of raw materials and supplies (page 614)
Selective Service and Training Act a plan for the first peacetime draft in American history
(page 615)
disfranchised denied the right to vote (page 616)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

Imagine that you are living in the United States on December 7, 1941. How
do you think you would have felt about the war after the Japanese attack on
Pearl Harbor?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

In this section, you will learn how the United States mobilized its economy
to fight World War II. You will also learn what the nation did to create an
army.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the diagram below to help you take notes. Even before the attack on
Pearl Harbor, the United States government mobilized the nation for war. List
two ways it did so.

1.

Ways of
Mobilizing for War
2.

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Chapter 20, Section 1 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• Converting the Economy (page 612)
Even before the attack on Pearl Harbor, the United States had begun to
mobilize the economy. When the German blitzkrieg hit France, President
Roosevelt declared a national emergency. He announced a plan to build 50,000
warplanes a year. Roosevelt and his advisers believed that the quickest way to
mobilize the economy was to give industries motivation to move quickly.
Instead of asking companies to bid for contracts, the government signed cost-
plus contracts. The government agreed to pay a company whatever it cost to
make a product plus a guaranteed percentage of the costs as profit. Under this
system, the more a company produced and the faster it did the work, the
more money it would make. The system helped get things produced quickly.
To convince companies to switch their factories to make military goods,
Congress gave the Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC) new authority.
The government gave the agency permission to make loans to companies to
help them cover the cost of converting to war production.
3. What was the effect of the cost-plus system on production?

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

• American Industry Gets the Job Done (page 613)
By 1941 the nation’s economy was only partially mobilized. Many compa-
nies were still producing consumer goods instead of military equipment. By
the summer of 1942, however, most major industries had changed to war pro-
duction. Automobile companies began to make trucks, jeeps, and tanks. They
also made rifles, mines, helmets, and other pieces of military equipment. The
Ford Company created an assembly line to build the B-24 bomber. By the end
of the war, the company had built more than 8,600 aircraft.
Henry Kaiser’s shipyards built ships. They were best known for making
Liberty ships. These were the basic cargo ships used during the war. They
were welded rather than riveted, making them cheap and easy to build and
very hard to sink.
To make mobilization more efficient, President Roosevelt set up the War
Production Board (WPB). This agency had the authority to set priorities and
production goals. It also had the authority to control the distribution of raw
materials and supplies.

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Chapter 20, Section 1 (continued)

4. What was the advantage of making welded rather than riveted ships?

• Building an Army (page 615)

In addition to changing industries to war production, the country had to
build up its military. After France surrendered to Germany, two members of
Congress introduced the Selective Service and Training Act. This was a plan for
the first peacetime draft in American history. Congress approved the draft in
September 1940.
Draftees were sent to a reception center. There they were given a physical
exam and shots. The draftees were then given uniforms, boots, and equip-
ment. The clothing was labeled “G.I.,” which meant “Government Issue.” For
this reason, American soldiers were called “GIs.” Recruits were sent to basic
training for eight weeks. There they learned how to handle weapons, read
maps, and dig trenches. They also learned how to work as a team. Recruits
came from all over the country. Training made them a unit.
Although training promoted unity, white recruits did not train alongside
African Americans. The army was completely segregated. African Americans
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

had separate barracks, mess halls, and recreational facilities. They were organ-
ized into their own military units. White officers were in command of them.
Many military leaders did not want African American soldiers in combat.
They assigned them to construction and supply units.
Some African Americans did not want to support the war. They noted that
African Americans were segregated in the army and that lynchings continued.
They also noted that African Americans were disfranchised, or denied their
right to vote. Many African American leaders combined patriotism with
protest. A leading African American newspaper in Pittsburgh started a
“Double V” campaign. The paper argued that African Americans should join
the war effort to achieve a double victory. This would be a victory over
Hitler’s racism and a victory over racism in the United States. President
Roosevelt responded by ordering the military to begin recruiting African
Americans and to put them into combat. He also appointed Colonel Benjamin
O. Davis, the highest-ranking African American officer in the U.S. Army, to
the rank of brigadier general.

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Study Guide
Chapter 20, Section 1 (continued)

The army air force created an African American unit that trained in
Tuskegee, Alabama. The fighter pilots became known as the Tuskegee Airmen.
They were sent to the Mediterranean in April 1943, where the unit played an
important role in a battle in Italy. African Americans also performed well in
the army, receiving commendations for distinguished service. Although the
military did not end all segregation during the war, it paved the way for
President Truman’s decision to fully integrate the military in 1948.
The army enlisted women for the first time during World War II, but they
were banned from combat. Many women in the army had administrative and
clerical jobs, freeing men for combat. The army set up the Women’s Army
Corps (WAC) in 1943. The Coast Guard, the navy, and marines set up their
own women’s organizations. In addition, thousands of women served as
nurses in the army and navy.
5. How did women’s role in the military change during World War II?

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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Study Guide
Chapter 20, Section 2
For use with textbook pages 618–623

THE EARLY BATTLES

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
Chester Nimitz the commander of the United States Navy in the Pacific (page 618)
Douglas MacArthur the commander of the American and Filipino forces in the Philippines
(page 619)
James Doolittle lieutenant colonel and head of the mission to bomb Tokyo (page 619)
periphery the edges (page 621)
George Patton commander of the American forces in Morocco during the American invasion of
North Africa (page 622)
convoy system a system in which cargo ships traveled in groups and were escorted by navy
warships (page 622)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

Have you ever seen a movie about World War II? What was the movie
about? How did it portray conditions during the war?
The last section described the ways that the United States mobilized for
war. This section discusses the early battles of World War II.
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the chart below to help you take notes. Several battles occurred in the
early years of World War II. Explain the result of each of the battles listed in
the chart.

Battle Result

Battle at Bataan Peninsula 1.

Battle of Midway 2.

Allied invasion of North Africa 3.

Battle of Stalingrad 4.

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Study Guide
Chapter 20, Section 2 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• Holding the Line Against Japan (page 618)
Although the United States fleet at Pearl Harbor was badly damaged by the
Japanese, American aircraft carriers were not. They were on a mission in the
Pacific. Admiral Chester Nimitz, the commander of the United States Navy in
the Pacific, was determined to use the carriers. However, after Pearl Harbor
Nimitz could do little to stop Japanese advances into Southeast Asia. The
Japanese attacked American airfields in the Philippines and landed troops in
the islands.
The American and Filipino forces defending the Philippines were outnum-
bered. General Douglas MacArthur, their commander, decided to retreat to the
Bataan Peninsula. They held off the Japanese for more than three months.
However, a lack of supplies and disease took its toll. In April 1942, the
defenders surrendered. By May the Philippines fell to the Japanese.
President Roosevelt wanted to bomb Tokyo. However, American planes
could reach Tokyo only if an aircraft carrier brought them close enough.
Japanese ships in the Pacific stopped carriers from getting close enough to
launch their short-range bombers. In 1942 a military planner suggested using
long-range B-25 bombers that could be launched from farther away. Although
the B-25s could be launched from a carrier, they could not land on the car-
rier’s short deck. As a result, after attacking Japan they would have to land in
China.
President Roosevelt put Lieutenant Colonel James Doolittle in command of
the mission. B-25s were loaded onto an aircraft carrier. On April 18, 1942,

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

American bombs fell on Japan for the first time. Japanese leaders were horri-
fied and changed their strategy. The commander of the Japanese fleet wanted
to attack Midway Island. This was the last American base in the North Pacific
west of Hawaii. He believed that attacking the base would bring the
American fleet into battle. Then the Japanese fleet would destroy it. Japan also
planned to attack New Guinea and cut American supply lines to Australia.
The Japanese believed that launching two different attacks would work
because they thought the United States would not know what Japan was
doing. Japan did not know that the United States used a team of code break-
ers, based in Hawaii, who had already broken the Japanese Navy’s secret code
for conducting operations. The decoded messages alerted the United States
that Japan would attack New Guinea. The United States sent two carriers to
cut off the Japanese. Both sides started all-out air strikes against each other.
The American attacks prevented the Japanese from landing in New Guinea.
The American supply lines to Australia stayed open.
The code breakers also learned of the plan to attack Midway. Admiral
Nimitz decided to ambush the Japanese fleet. He ordered carriers to move
near Midway. When the Japanese aircraft flew near Midway, they were met

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Study Guide
Chapter 20, Section 2 (continued)

with antiaircraft fire. Thirty-eight Japanese planes were shot down. As the
Japanese were preparing a second wave of attacks on Midway, American air-
craft attacked Japanese carriers. The American attacks greatly damaged the
Japanese navy. The Japanese commander ordered the ships to retreat.
The Battle of Midway was a turning point in the war. The Japanese had lost
four of its largest carriers. The Americans had stopped the Japanese advance
in the Pacific. However, the battle killed 362 Americans and more than 3,000
Japanese.
5. How were Americans able to know about Japanese plans against the United States in the
Pacific?

• Turning Back the German Army (page 621)

President Roosevelt wanted to get American troops into battle in Europe.
British Prime Minister Churchill did not believe that the United States and
Britain were ready for a full-scale invasion of Europe. He wanted to attack the
periphery, or edges, of the German empire. Roosevelt agreed with Churchill
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

and ordered the invasion of Morocco and Algeria. These were French territo-
ries indirectly under German control. This invasion gave the American army
some experience and it did not involve a large number of troops. It also
placed American troops in North Africa, where they could help the British
fight Germans in Egypt. Egypt was important to Britain because of the Suez
Canal. Most of Britain’s empire used the canal to get supplies to Britain.
The American invasion of North Africa began on November 8, 1942, under
the command of General Dwight D. Eisenhower. The German forces were
under the command of General Erwin Rommel. The American forces in
Morocco, led by General George Patton, quickly seized Casablanca. American
forces in Algeria seized two cities there. British forces headed into Libya.
When American forces advanced into western Tunisia, they fought the
Germany army for the first time. The Americans were outfought. They suf-
fered around 7,000 casualties. Eisenhower fired the general who led the attack
and placed Patton in command. The American and British forces finally
pushed the Germans back. In May 1943, the German forces in North Africa
surrendered.

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Study Guide
Chapter 20, Section 2 (continued)

The war against German submarines in the Atlantic Ocean increased.

German submarines entered American coastal waters after Germany declared
war on the United States. By August 1942, German submarines had sunk 360
American cargo ships. Because of the loss, the U.S. Navy decided to set up a
convoy system. Under this system, cargo ships traveled in groups and were
escorted by navy warships.
The German submarines sank more than 1.2 million tons of shipping in
May and June 1942. At the same time, the United States and Britain built more
than 1.1 million tons of new shipping. Soon, the United States was building
more ships than German submarines managed to sink. American airplanes
and warships also began to use new technology, such as radar and sonar, to
pinpoint and attack submarines. Eventually the technology took its toll on
German submarines. The Battle of the Atlantic turned in favor of the Allies.
Before the tide turned against Germany in the Atlantic, Hitler was confi-
dent that he would win the war. He decided to knock the Soviet Union out of
the war. Hitler believed that the only way to defeat the Soviet Union was to
destroy its economy. He ordered the German army to capture oil fields, indus-
tries, and farmlands. Stalingrad was the key city to attack. If Germany could
capture Stalingrad, it would cut off the Soviets from the resources they
needed to fight in the war. Soviet forces succeeded in surrounding Stalingrad
and trapping thousands of German troops. When the battle ended, about
91,000 Germans surrendered. The Battle of Stalingrad was a major turning
point in the war. It put the Germans on the defensive.
6. Why was the Battle of Stalingrad a turning point in the war?

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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Study Guide
Chapter 20, Section 3
For use with textbook pages 625–630

LIFE ON THE HOME FRONT

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
Rosie the Riveter the symbol of the campaign to hire women (page 626)
A. Philip Randolph the head of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, a major union for
African American railroad workers (page 626)
Sunbelt a new industrial region, located in southern California and the Deep South (page 627)
zoot suit an overstuffed jacket that had wide lapels and reached to the knees and included
baggy, pleated pants (page 628)
rationing limiting the availability of an item (page 629)
victory garden a garden planted to produce more food for the war effort (page 630)
E bond government bond used to raise money for the cost of war (page 630)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

During World War II, some local governments banned a certain style of
dressing. Do you think a government should have the right to do that in cer-
tain circumstances? Why do you think so?
The last section discussed the early battles of World War II. This section
describes the effect of the war on the home front.
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the diagram below to help you take notes. During World War II, the
American people supported the war effort at home. Describe how they did so.

1. 2.

Ways Americans
Supported the War Effort
at Home

3.

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Study Guide
Chapter 20, Section 3 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• Women and Minorities Gain Ground (page 625)
World War II changed American society at home. Before the war, most
Americans believed married women should not work outside the home.
However, the labor shortage during the war forced factories to hire married
women to do the jobs that traditionally were done by men. “Rosie the Riveter”
was the great symbol of the campaign to hire women. Images of Rosie
appeared on posters and in newspaper ads. Although most women left the
factories after the war, their work permanently changed American attitudes
about women in the workplace.
Many factories were willing to hire women but they did not want to hire
African Americans. A. Philip Randolph, the head of the Brotherhood of
Sleeping Car Porters—a major union for African American railroad workers—
decided to do something. He told President Roosevelt that he was going to
organize a march on Washington. Roosevelt responded by issuing an order
saying that discrimination in hiring workers in defense industries would not
be tolerated. Roosevelt created the Fair Employment Practices Commission to
enforce the order. This was the first civil rights agency set up by the federal
government since Reconstruction.
To help farmers in the Southwest overcome the labor shortage, the govern-
ment started the Bracero Program in 1942. It arranged for Mexican farm-
workers to help in the harvest. Migrant farmworkers became important to
farming in the Southwest.

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

4. What was the purpose of the Fair Employment Practices Commission?

• A Nation on the Move (page 627)

Many Americans moved during the war to places that had jobs. Many
headed west and south. Southern California and cities in the Deep South
made up a new industrial region, the Sunbelt. This region led the way in man-
ufacturing and urbanization in the United States.
Cities that had war industries had to deal with the problem of providing
houses to the thousands of new workers. The federal government gave $1.2
billion to build public housing and schools during the war. About two million
people lived in government-built housing during the war.

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Study Guide
Chapter 20, Section 3 (continued)

During World War II, African Americans arrived in cities in the North and
West in search of jobs. They were often met with intolerance that sometimes
led to violence. The worst racial violence occurred in Detroit in June 1943. By
the time it ended, 25 African Americans and 9 whites had been killed.
Wartime prejudice was evident in other areas of American society. In Los
Angeles, racism against Mexican Americans and the fear of juvenile crime
became linked because of the zoot suit. This was an overstuffed jacket that
had wide lapels and reached to the knees. It also included baggy, pleated
pants. Those who wore zoot suits often wore wide-brimmed hats and a long
key chain. Many Americans considered the zoot suit unpatriotic. To save fab-
ric for the war, many men wore a suit that had no vest or cuffs and included a
short jacket with narrow lapels.
Many Mexican American teenagers in California wore the zoot suit. In June
1943, rumors spread that zoot suiters had attacked several sailors. Soldiers
and sailors responded by attacking Mexican American teenagers in their
neighborhoods in Los Angeles. The police did not stop the attacks, and the
violence continued for days. The city of Los Angeles responded by banning
zoot suits.
Hostility toward Mexican Americans did not stop them from joining the
war effort. About 500,000 Hispanic Americans served in the American armed
forces during the war.
After the attack on Pearl Harbor, many Americans turned their anger
against Japanese Americans. Some attacked Japanese American businesses
and homes. Some newspapers printed rumors about Japanese spies in the
Japanese American community. Many people, including members of
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Congress, demanded that people of Japanese ancestry be removed from the

West Coast. They believed that Japanese Americans would not remain loyal to
the United States. No Japanese American was ever tried for spying. Japanese
Americans served in the war. However, President Roosevelt signed an order
that allowed the War Department to declare any part of the United States a
military zone. The department declared most of the West Coast a military
zone. People of Japanese ancestry were relocated to 10 internment camps.
Some Japanese Americans protested the relocation. Fred Korematsu claimed
that his rights were violated. He took his case to the Supreme Court. In
December 1944, the Court ruled that the relocation was constitutional because
it was based on military urgency, not on race. Afterward, the Court ruled that
loyal American citizens could not be held against their will. In early 1945, the
government began releasing the Japanese Americans from the camps.
5. How did racism and discrimination affect Japanese Americans during World War II?

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Study Guide
Chapter 20, Section 3 (continued)

• Daily Life in Wartime America (page 629)

President Roosevelt worried that mobilizing the economy might result in
inflation. Wages and prices began to rise quickly during the war because of
the demand for workers and raw materials. To stabilize this, Roosevelt set up
the Office of Price Administration (OPA) and the Office of Economic
Stabilization (OES). The agencies regulated wages and the price of products.
They managed to keep inflation under control.
The War Labor Board tried to prevent labor strikes. Most unions pledged
not to strike. The War Labor Board settled over 17,000 disputes by the end of
the war.
The demand for raw materials and supplies created shortages. The OPA
began rationing, or limiting the availability of, many consumer products to
make sure that there were enough supplies for the military. Items such as
meat and sugar were rationed. Households were given a book of ration
coupons each month. When people bought foods, they also had to give
enough coupon points to cover their purchases.
Americans volunteered to plant victory gardens to produce more food for
the war effort. Land such as backyards, schoolyards, city parks, and empty
lots were used for these gardens.
The government organized scrap drives for materials that were important
to the war effort. These materials included spare rubber, tin, aluminum, and
steel. They also included oils and fats, which were needed to make explosives.
The war cost more than $300 billion. To raise money, the government raised
taxes, but the taxes covered less than half of the cost. The government issued

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

bonds to raise the rest of the money. When Americans bought bonds, they
were loaning money to the government. The government promised that the
bonds could be cashed in at a future date for the price of the bond plus inter-
est. The most common bonds were E bonds. Americans bought nearly $50
billion worth of war bonds. Banks and other financial institutions bought
about $100 billion worth of bonds.
6. Why did the OPA introduce rationing during World War II?

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Study Guide
Chapter 20, Section 4
For use with textbook pages 631–637

PUSHING THE AXIS BACK

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
Casablanca Conference a meeting between Roosevelt and Churchill in which they agreed to
increase the bombing of Germany and to invade Sicily (page 632)
Operation Overlord the code name for the planned invasion of France (page 633)
D-Day the day the invasion of France began (page 634)
Omar Bradley the commander of the American forces at Utah and Omaha Beaches in Normandy
(page 634)
amphtrac an amphibious tractor (page 636)
Guadalcanal an island in the southwest Pacific and the first to be invaded by MacArthur’s
troops in the plan to defeat Japan (page 636)
kamikaze type of attacks in which Japanese pilots would deliberately crash their planes into
American ships (page 637)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

Do you know anyone who fought in or lived through World War II? What
are their recollections about the battles fought during the war? How did they
get information about the war?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

The last section described the ways the war changed American society and
the efforts of Americans on the home front. This section discusses how the
Allied forces pushed back the Germans and the Japanese.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the chart below to help you take notes. The Allies fought the Axis in
Europe and in the Pacific. List the results of the battles that are listed in the
chart.

Location of Battle Outcome

Sicily 1.

Normandy 2.

Leyte Gulf 3.

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Study Guide
Chapter 20, Section 4 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• Striking Back at the Third Reich (page 631)
To win the war, the Allies had to land their troops in Europe and on islands
in the Pacific. To plan this, President Roosevelt met with Prime Minister
Winston Churchill at the Casablanca Conference in Morocco. At this meeting,
the two leaders decided to increase the bombing of Germany. The Allies also
agreed to attack the Axis in Sicily. Churchill believed that the Italians would
quit the war if Italy were invaded.
The Allies increased the bombing of Germany. Between January 1943 and
May 1945, the air forces of Britain and the United States dropped about 53,000
tons of explosives on Germany every month. The bombing did not destroy
German morale, but it created an oil shortage, destroyed the railroad system,
and destroyed many German aircraft factories. Germany’s air force could not
replace the planes they lost. This allowed the Allies to have total control of the
air.
General Eisenhower was in charge of the invasion of Sicily. The invasion
started on July 10, 1943. After the British and American troops came ashore,
American tanks pushed through enemy lines and captured the western half of
the island. The troops continued to move eastward and northward. By
August 18, the Germans had left the island. The defeat of the Germans in
Sicily caused the king of Italy to arrest Mussolini and to begin negotiating
with the Allies for Italy’s surrender. Hitler responded by taking control of
northern Italy and putting Mussolini back in power.
To stop Allied advances, the Germans took up positions in some Italian

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

towns. It took the Allies five months to break through the enemy lines.
Fighting in Italy continued until May 2, 1945, causing more than 300,000
Allied casualties.
Roosevelt and Churchill met with Stalin in Tehran, Iran, in late 1943. The
leaders reached several agreements. Stalin promised to attack the Germans
when the Allies invaded France. They agreed that Germany would be broken
up after the war. Stalin promised that after Germany was beaten, the Soviet
Union would help the United States defeat Japan. Stalin also agreed to sup-
port an international organization to keep peace after the war.
4. What agreements were reached at the conference in Tehran?

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Study Guide
Chapter 20, Section 4 (continued)

• Landing in France (page 633)

Roosevelt met with Churchill in Egypt to continue to plan the invasion of
France. The code name for the invasion was Operation Overlord. Roosevelt
selected General Eisenhower to be the commander of the invasion.
The Germans knew about the plans to invade France, so Hitler had fortified
the coast. Hitler did not know when or where the invasion would take place,
however. The Germans guessed that the Allies would land in Pas-de-Calais,
an area of France closest to Britain. To make the Germans think they were
right, the Allies placed inflated rubber tanks and dummy landing craft along
the coast across from Calais. The Germans were fooled. The Allies actually
planned to land in Normandy.
By the spring of 1944, the invasion was ready to begin. It had to begin at
night to hide the ships carrying the men and equipment across the English
Channel. The invasion could take place in certain weather conditions. The
best opportunity for invasion was June 5 to June 7, 1944. Eisenhower chose
June 6, 1944. The date became known as D-Day. About 7,000 ships sailed for
Normandy. About 23,000 paratroopers were dropped inland. Fighter-bombers
dropped bombs up and down the coast. The beaches were given different
code names. The landing on Utah Beach went smoothly, but Omaha Beach
was a different story. The German attack was intense. General Omar Bradley,
the commander of the American forces landing at Utah and Omaha, began to
make plans to evacuate. American troops then began to knock out the
German defenses. By the end of the day, more than 58,000 American troops
then had landed at Omaha and Utah. The invasion was successful.
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

5. Why did the invasion of France have to begin at night?

• Driving the Japanese Back (page 635)

At the same time that plans were in progress for the invasion of France, the
United States was developing a plan to defeat Japan. It was a two-part plan.
Admiral Nimitz would command the Pacific Fleet and would move through
the central Pacific, hopping from one island to the next, closer and closer to
Japan. The island-hopping plan started in the fall of 1943. The geography of
the Pacific caused a problem, however. Many of the islands were coral reef
atolls. This meant that the water over the coral reef was not always deep

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Chapter 20, Section 4 (continued)

enough, and many ships ran aground. The troops had to wade in water, mak-
ing them easy targets for the Japanese. Many were killed. One vehicle was
able to cross the reef and deliver the troops to the beaches. It was the LVT,
which was a boat with tank tracks. This amphibious tractor, or amphtrac, as it
was nicknamed, had been invented in the late 1930s to rescue people in
Florida swamps. The navy decided to buy about 200 of them in 1941.
The amphtracs were used in the attack on the Marshall Islands, where
Americans suffered fewer casualties. The navy then attacked the Mariana
Islands and captured them by August 1944.
The second part of the plan to defeat Japan called for General MacArthur’s
troops to start their campaign in the southwest Pacific. It began with the inva-
sion of Guadalcanal. MacArthur then captured the Japanese base on the north
coast of New Guinea. To take back the Philippines, the United States put
together a huge invasion force. In October 1944, about 700 ships with more
than 160,000 troops sailed for Leyte Gulf in the Philippines. They began to
land on the eastern side of the Philippines. The Japanese sent four aircraft car-
riers toward the Philippines from the north to stop the invasion. They secretly
sent another fleet to the west. The American carriers headed north to stop the
Japanese. The Japanese ships in the west raced through the Philippine Islands
into Leyte Gulf and ambushed the American ships that were still there. The
Battle of Leyte Gulf was the largest naval battle in history. It was the first time
that the Japanese used kamikaze attacks. These were attacks in which pilots
would deliberately crash their planes into American ships. They killed them-
selves but also inflicted huge damages. Just as the situation for the Americans
looked hopeless, the Japanese commander ordered a retreat, because he

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

believed that more American ships were on the way.
The campaign to take back the Philippines was long and difficult.
MacArthur’s troops did not capture Manila until March 1945. The city was
left in ruins and more than 100,000 Filipino civilians were dead.
6. How did the geography of the Pacific affect American plans to defeat Japan?

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Chapter 20, Section 5
For use with textbook pages 640–648

THE WAR ENDS

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
hedgerows dirt walls, several feet thick and covered with shrubbery (page 641)
Battle of the Bulge German attack on Allied forces in Antwerp, Belgium (page 641)
V-E Day May 8, 1945, “Victory in Europe” day; the day after Germany surrendered (page 642)
Harry S Truman the vice president who became president after Franklin Roosevelt’s death
(page 642)
Curtis LeMay commander of the B-29s based in the Mariana Islands (page 644)
napalm a kind of jellied gasoline (page 644)
Manhattan Project the code name for the program to build an atomic bomb (page 645)
V-J Day August 15, 1945, the day Japan surrendered (page 647)
United Nations an international political organization (page 647)
charter a constitution (page 647)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

What is the United Nations? Do you think the United Nations serves a nec-
essary purpose? Why or why not?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

The last section described how the Allies pushed back the German and
Japanese forces. This section discusses the strategies the Allies used to defeat
Germany and Japan.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the diagram below to help you take notes. Several events occurred dur-
ing 1945—the last year of World War II. List the event that occurred on the
date shown in each box.

1945
February 19

1.

April 1

2.

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Chapter 20, Section 5 (continued)

April 12

3.

April 25

4.

May 8

5.

August 6

6.

August 9

7.

August 15

8.

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

READ TO LEARNII
• The Third Reich Collapses (page 640)
The Allies knew that to defeat the Germans, they would need to move out
of Normandy, liberate France, and conquer Germany. D-Day was a success,
but it was just the beginning. The Germans surrounded many fields in
Normandy with hedgerows, or dirt walls that were several feet thick and cov-
ered in shrubbery. They helped Germans defend their positions. On July 25,
1944, American bombers blew a hole in the German lines. This allowed
American tanks to roll through the gap. The Allies then liberated Paris on
August 25, and three weeks later American troops were within 20 miles of the
German border.
Hitler decided to cut off Allied supplies that were coming through the port
of Antwerp, Belgium. The Germans caught the American defenders by sur-
prise. As Germans moved west, their lines bulged outward, so the attack
became known as the Battle of the Bulge. Germans decided to capture the
town of Bastogne, where several roads met. American troops quickly moved

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Chapter 20, Section 5 (continued)

to the town before Germany did. The Germans surrounded the town and
demanded that the Americans surrender. The Americans refused. General
Eisenhower then ordered General Patton to rescue the surrounded Americans.
Patton hit the German lines, and Allied aircraft hit German fuel depots. The
German troops were forced to stop. The United States had won the Battle of
the Bulge. The Germans, who suffered 100,000 casualties, began to withdraw.
They had very little left to prevent the Allies from entering Germany.
At the same time the Allies fought to liberate France, the Soviets attacked
German troops in Russia. The Soviet troops had driven the Germans out of
Russia and kept pushing them west. By February 1945, Soviet troops were
only 35 miles from Berlin. As the Soviets crossed Germany’s eastern border,
American forces attacked the western border. On May 7, 1945, Germany sur-
rendered unconditionally. The next day, May 8, was proclaimed V-E Day, for
“Victory in Europe.”
9. What was the importance of the Allied victory at the Battle of the Bulge?

• Japan is Defeated (page 642)

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

On April 12, 1945, President Roosevelt died after suffering a stroke. Vice
President Harry S Truman became president. Truman had the responsibility of
ending the war with Japan. In November 1944, Tokyo was bombed for the
first time since 1942. The United States used B-29 bombers that traveled from
the American bases in the Mariana Islands. The B-29s kept missing their tar-
gets because Japan was too far away. By the time the bombers reached Japan,
they did not have enough fuel to fix their navigational errors. American plan-
ners decided that they needed to capture an island closer to Japan, where the
bombers could refuel. They decided to invade Iwo Jima.
Iwo Jima was located halfway between Japan and the Mariana Islands.
Although the location was perfect, the geography of the island was rugged.
Also, the Japanese had built a network of concrete bunkers that were con-
nected by miles of tunnels. The U.S. Marines landed on Iwo Jima on
February 19, 1945. The Japanese began firing on them. More than 6,800
marines were killed before the island was captured.
As American engineers were preparing airfields in Iwo Jima, General Curtis
LeMay, commander of the B-29s in the Marianas, decided to change plans. To
help the B-29s hit their targets, he ordered them to drop bombs filled with

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Chapter 20, Section 5 (continued)

napalm, a kind of jellied gasoline. The bombs would not just explode, but they
would also set fires. Even if the bombs missed their targets, the fire would
spread to the targets. Using firebombs was controversial because they killed
civilians. Yet LeMay believed it was the only way to destroy Japan’s war pro-
duction quickly. By the end of June 1945, six of Japan’s most important
industrial cities had been firebombed. Half of their urban area was destroyed.
Despite the firebombings, Japan was not ready to surrender. American lead-
ers believed that Japan would not surrender until Japan had been invaded. To
do so, the United States needed a base near Japan to store supplies and build
up troops. It chose Okinawa, located 350 miles from Japan. American troops
landed on Okinawa on April 1, 1945. The Japanese positioned themselves on
the island’s rugged mountains. American troops had to fight their way up the
mountains as the Japanese fired on them. More than 12,000 Americans died
during the fighting. On June 22, 1945, the troops finally captured Okinawa.
After Okinawa was captured, the Japanese emperor urged the government
to surrender. Many Japanese leaders were willing to do so but only with the
condition that the emperor would stay in power. Americans opposed that
because they blamed the emperor for the war. President Truman did not want
to go against public opinion. He also knew that the United States had a new
weapon that it could use to force unconditional surrender.
In 1941 a scientific committee set up by President Roosevelt met with
British scientists who were working on an atomic bomb. The research con-
vinced Roosevelt to begin a program to build an atomic bomb. The program
was code-named the Manhattan Project. In 1942 two physicists—Leo Szilard
and Enrico Fermi—built the world’s first nuclear reactor at the University of

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Chicago. General Leslie R. Groves, the head of the Manhattan Project, organ-
ized a group of engineers and scientists to build an atomic bomb at a secret
laboratory in Los Alamos, New Mexico. On July 16, 1945, they detonated the
world’s first atomic bomb.
American officials debated how to use the bomb. Some opposed it because
it would kill civilians. Some wanted to warn the Japanese about the bomb and
to tell them that they could keep the emperor if they surrendered. Truman’s
advisers told him that the United States would experience huge casualties if
the United States invaded Japan. Truman believed that he should use every
weapon available to save American lives.
Truman ordered the military to drop the atomic bomb. On August 6, 1945, a
bomber named the Enola Gay dropped an atomic bomb on Hiroshima, an
important industrial city. The bomb destroyed about 63 percent of the city. It
killed between 80,000 and 120,000 people instantly, and thousands more died
later. Then on August 9, the Soviet Union declared war on Japan. On the same
day, the United States dropped an atomic bomb on Nagasaki. Between 35,000
and 74,000 people were killed. Japan surrendered on August 15, V-J Day.
World War II had ended.

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Chapter 20, Section 5 (continued)

10. Why did President Truman decide to use the atomic bomb against Japan?

• Building a New World (page 647)

Even before the war ended, President Roosevelt wanted to ensure that a
world war would not happen again. In 1944 he took part in a meeting at
Dumbarton Oaks Estate in Washington, D.C., with delegates from 39 countries
to discuss a new international political organization, which was to be called
the United Nations (UN). On April 25, 1945, representatives from 50 countries
met in San Francisco to organize the United Nations. The United Nations
would have a General Assembly, where every nation would have one vote. It
would have a Security Council with 11 member. Five members would be per-
manent: Britain, France, China, the Soviet Union, and the United States. The
five members would have veto power. The members at the San Francisco
meeting also designed the charter, or constitution, of the United Nations. The
General Assembly was given the power to vote on resolutions and to choose
the non-permanent members of the Security Council. The Security Council
was responsible for international peace and security.
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

In August 1945, the United States, Britain, France, and the Soviet Union cre-
ated the International Military Tribunal (IMT). At the Nuremberg trials, the
IMT tried German leaders suspected of committing war crimes. Many of these
leaders were executed. Several Japanese leaders were also tried and executed.
11. Why did President Roosevelt want to establish an international organization?

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Study Guide
Chapter 21, Section 1
For use with textbook pages 654–658

ORIGINS OF THE COLD WAR

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
Cold War a period of confrontation and competition between the United States and the Soviet
Union (page 654)
Potsdam location of conference between the United States and the Soviet Union regarding
Germany (page 657)
satellite nations the Communist countries of Eastern Europe that had to remain friendly to the
Soviet Union (page 658)
iron curtain the separation of the Communist nations of Eastern Europe from the West
(page 658)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

What was the Cold War? What have you heard about it and why did it
end?
In this section, you will learn why tensions between the Soviet Union and
the United States increased after World War II. You will also learn about
Stalin’s foreign policy after the war.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Use the diagram below to help you take notes. The Yalta and Potsdam
Conferences were held to determine the postwar world. List the decisions of
the two conferences in the diagram.
1.

Decisions at Yalta 2.
Conference
3.

4.

Decisions at Potsdam
Conference
5.

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Chapter 21, Section 1 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• A Clash of Interests (page 654)
After World War II, the relations between the United States and the Soviet
Union became more and more strained. This led to an era of confrontation
and competition that lasted from 1946 to 1990. It was known as the Cold War.
The tensions existed because the two countries had different goals. The Soviet
Union was concerned about its security because Germany had invaded it
twice in 30 years. The Soviet Union wanted to keep Germany weak to make
sure it did not invade again. The Soviet Union wanted to control the countries
between it and Germany. The Soviets also believed that communism was a
superior system that would eventually replace capitalism. They wanted com-
munism to spread to other nations. Believing that capitalism would try to
destroy communism, Soviet leaders became suspicious of capitalist nations.
The United States focused on economic problems. President Roosevelt and
his advisers believed that economic growth was important to keeping peace
in the world. They believed that world trade would lead to economic prosper-
ity. The American leaders wanted to promote democracy throughout the
world. They believed that democratic nations were more stable and less likely
to go to war. They also believed that the free enterprise system was necessary
for economic growth.
6. Why were Soviet leaders suspicious of capitalist nations?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

• The Yalta Conference (page 655)

In February 1945, before the war was finally over, Roosevelt, Churchill, and
Stalin met at Yalta, a resort in the Soviet Union, to plan the postwar world.
The first issue was Poland. When Germany invaded Poland in 1939, the
Polish government leaders had fled to Britain. When the Soviet Union liber-
ated Poland from German control, they wanted Polish Communists to set up
a new government. As a result, two governments—Communist and non-
Communist—claimed the right to govern Poland. Churchill and Roosevelt
wanted the Poles to choose their own government. Stalin, however, believed
that Poland should be Communist to make the Soviet Union more secure
against Germany. Churchill and Roosevelt compromised by recognizing the
Polish government that the Soviets set up. Stalin agreed to include members

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Study Guide
Chapter 21, Section 1 (continued)

of the old Polish government and to allow free elections in Poland as soon as
possible.
Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin agreed to issue the Declaration of Liberated
Europe. It declared the right of all people to choose the kind of government
they wanted to live under. The meeting then focused on Germany. The three
leaders agreed to divide Germany into four zones, with Great Britain, the
United States, the Soviet Union, and France each controlling one zone. The
four countries would also divide the city of Berlin. Stalin wanted Germany to
pay heavy reparations. Roosevelt insisted that reparations should be based on
Germany’s ability to pay. He also argued that Germany pay reparations with
trade goods and products instead of cash. The Allies would be allowed to take
machinery and other equipment from Germany as reparations. The question
of German reparations would contribute to tensions between the United
States and the Soviet Union.
Two weeks after the meeting at Yalta, the Soviet Union pressured Romania
into installing a Communist government. The United States accused the
Soviet Union of going against the Declaration of Liberated Europe. The Soviet
Union also did not allow free elections to be held in Poland. President
Roosevelt informed the Soviets that their actions were not acceptable. Eleven
days later, President Roosevelt died, and Harry S Truman became president.
7. What was the Declaration of Liberated Europe?

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

• Truman Takes Control (page 657)
Truman was suspicious of Stalin. He was also strongly anticommunist. He
did not want to appease Stalin. He demanded that Stalin hold free elections as
he promised at Yalta. Truman finally met Stalin in July 1945, at a conference at
Potsdam, which was located near Berlin. They met to work out a deal on
Germany. Truman and his advisers believed that unless Germany’s economy
was revived, the rest of Europe would never recover. Truman also believed
that if Germany’s economy stayed weak, the country might turn to commu-
nism. Stalin and his advisers wanted reparations from Germany. They
believed that Germany had devastated the Soviet Union and should pay.
To solve the problem of reparations, Truman suggested that the Soviet
Union take its reparations from its zone. The Soviets opposed this because
their zone was mostly agricultural and could not provide the reparations the

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Study Guide
Chapter 21, Section 1 (continued)

Soviets needed. Truman responded by offering Stalin a small amount of

German industrial equipment from the other zones. He also accepted the new
German-Polish border the Soviets had set up. Stalin did not like Truman’s
proposal. He suspected that the Americans were trying to limit reparations to
keep the Soviet Union weak. In the end, the Soviet Union had no choice but to
accept the deal. However, the Potsdam conference was another event that
increased tensions between the Soviet Union and the United States.
The Soviets refused to commit to uphold the Declaration of Liberated
Europe. Pro-Soviet Communist governments would eventually be established
in Poland, Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia. These countries
of Eastern Europe came to be called satellite nations. They had their own gov-
ernments and were not under the direct control of the Soviet Union. However,
they had to remain Communist and friendly to the Soviet Union. Churchill
called the Communist takeover in Eastern Europe the creation of the iron cur-
tain, separating the Communist nations of Eastern Europe from the West.
8. Why did President Truman not want to place harsh reparations on Germany?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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Study Guide
Chapter 21, Section 2
For use with textbook pages 659–665

THE EARLY COLD WAR YEARS

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
George Kennan American diplomat who explained Soviet goals (page 660)
containment the policy of keeping communism within its present territory through the use of
diplomatic, economic, and military actions (page 660)
Marshall Plan an economic recovery plan in which the United States provided aid to European
nations to rebuild their economies (page 661)
NATO a military alliance made up of the United States, Canada, and several Western European
nations (page 662)
limited war a war fought to achieve a limited objective such as containing communism
(page 665)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

Do you think communism is a threat to the United States today? Why or
why not?
The last section described the growing tensions between the Soviet Union
and the United States. This section discusses how the United States attempted
to contain communism.

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII
Use the diagram below to help you take notes. The Soviet Union and the
United States responded to various events during the Cold War. List their
responses to the events listed in the diagram.

Event Soviet Response

Germany divided into 1.
West Germany and
East Germany 2.

U.S. Response
3.
Event
Korean War 4.

5.

6.

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Chapter 21, Section 2 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• Containing Communism (page 659)
Both Britain and the United States urged the Soviet Union to hold free elec-
tions in Eastern Europe. The Soviets refused to do so. The United States asked
the American Embassy in Moscow to explain Soviet behavior. Diplomat
George Kennan explained his views of Soviet goals. He believed that
Communists were in a historical struggle against capitalism and that it was
impossible to reach any permanent settlement with them. Kennan believed
that the Soviet system had several economic and political weaknesses. He
believed that if the United States could keep the Soviets from increasing their
power, then eventually the Soviet system would fall apart. Kennan’s sugges-
tions led to the rise of the policy of containment. The policy called for keeping
communism within its present territory through the use of diplomatic, eco-
nomic, and military actions.
A crisis in Iran seemed to show that Kennan’s ideas were right. During
World War II, the United States had put troops into southern Iran while Soviet
troops were in northern Iran to ensure a supply line from the Persian Gulf.
After the war, the Soviet Union did not withdraw as promised. Instead, Stalin
demanded access to Iran’s oil supplies. The Soviets also helped Communists
in northern Iran set up a separate government. The United States demanded
that the Soviet Union withdraw. The pressure worked, and the Soviet Union
withdrew.
Stalin then turned to Turkey. The Soviet Union wanted to control the straits
of the Dardanelles, which was an important route from Black Sea ports to the
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Mediterranean. It demanded that Turkey share control of this route with the
Soviet Union. The United States saw this as a way for the Soviet Union to con-
trol the Middle East. The United States sent aircraft carriers into the eastern
Mediterranean. In the meantime, Britain tried to help Greece in its fight
against Communists there. However, helping Greece was too much for
Britain’s economy. As a result, in March 1947, Truman went before Congress
to ask for funds to fight the Soviets in Turkey and in Greece. His speech
became known as the Truman Doctrine. It pledged that the United States
would fight communism worldwide.
The European economy was in ruins after the war. In June 1947, Secretary
of State George C. Marshall set up the Marshall Plan, which would give
European nations American aid to rebuild their economies. Marshall offered
the aid to all nations that planned a recovery program. The Soviet Union and
its satellite nations rejected the offer. The Soviet Union developed its own eco-
nomic program. The Marshall Plan put billions of dollars worth of supplies
and food into Western Europe. It weakened the appeal of communism there.
It also opened new markets for trade.

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Study Guide
Chapter 21, Section 2 (continued)

7. What was the purpose of the Marshall Plan?

• The Berlin Crisis (page 661)

The dispute between the Soviet Union and the United States over Germany
almost led to war. By 1948 the United States believed that the Soviets were
trying to undermine Germany’s economy. As a result, the United States, Great
Britain, and France announced that they were combining their zones in
Germany and allowing the Germans to have their own government. They also
combined their zones in Berlin and made West Berlin a part of the new
German nation. It was called the Federal Republic of Germany and became
known as West Germany. The Soviet zone became known as East Germany.
The Soviets were angry. They cut all road and rail traffic to West Berlin.
They also set up a blockade of the city. They wanted to force the Americans to
change Germany’s status. President Truman had to keep West Berlin going
without pushing the Soviets to war. As a result, he ordered the Berlin airlift.
Cargo planes supplied the people in Berlin with food and other supplies. The
airlift continued for eleven months. Stalin finally lifted the blockade.

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

The blockade convinced many Americans that the Soviets were trying to
conquer other nations. They began supporting the idea of America becoming
part of a military alliance with Western Europe. An agreement had been
reached that created NATO, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. It was
made up of 12 countries, including the United States. The members agreed to
help any member who was attacked. A few years later, NATO allowed West
Germany to join the alliance. The Soviets responded by setting up its own
alliance in Eastern Europe, which became known as the Warsaw Pact.
8. How did the Soviet Union respond to the establishment of West Germany and West Berlin?

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Chapter 21, Section 2 (continued)

• The Cold War Spreads to East Asia (page 662)

The Cold War eventually spread to Asia. In China, Mao Zedong had led
Communist forces against Chiang Kai-shek’s Nationalist government since
the 1920s. The two sides stopped the conflict during World War II in order to
stop Japanese occupation. After World War II ended, the two groups resumed
their fighting. To stop the spread of communism in Asia, the United States
sent Chiang money. However, the Communists captured Beijing, the Chinese
capital, and moved southward. The United States discontinued aid to the
Chinese Nationalists, who left mainland China for the island of Taiwan. In
1949 the Communists set up the People’s Republic of China.
In the same year, the Soviet Union announced that it had tested its first
atomic weapon. In 1950 it signed a treaty of alliance with China. Western
nations feared that China and the Soviet Union would support Communist
revolutions in other parts of the world. The United States set up formal rela-
tions with the Nationalists in Taiwan. It helped keep Communist China out of
the United Nations.
The United States changed is policy toward Japan. After World War II,
General Douglas MacArthur took charge of occupied Japan. He wanted to
introduce democracy there. The United States encouraged economic recovery
in Japan. It saw Japan as a way to defend Asia against communism.
9. Why did the United States change its policy toward Japan after World War II?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

• The Korean War (page 663)

After the war, the Allies divided Korea at the 38th parallel. The Soviets con-
trolled the north, and the United States controlled the south. A Communist
government was set up in the north, and an American-backed government
was set up in the south. The Soviets gave military aid to North Korea, which
built up a huge army. This army invaded South Korea on June 25, 1950.
President Truman saw the invasion of South Korea as a test of the contain-
ment policy. He asked the United Nations for troops to help the American
troops. General MacArthur led the American troops. In September 1950,
MacArthur ordered an invasion that took the North Korean troops by sur-
prise. Within weeks, they retreated back across the 38th parallel. The
Communist Chinese saw the UN troops as a threat and ordered them to

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Chapter 21, Section 2 (continued)

retreat. Their warnings were ignored and they started a massive attack. They
were able to drive the UN forces back across the 38th parallel.
General MacArthur wanted to expand the war into China. He criticized
President Truman for wanting a limited war, a war fought to achieve a limited
objective such as containing communism. President Truman fired MacArthur.
He chose General Matthew Ridgway to replace him. By mid-1951, the Korean
War had settled into small bloody battles. An armistice was not signed until
July 1953. More than 35,000 Americans died in the war.
After the Korean War, the United States began a military buildup. Until
then, the United States believed that it had to focus on Europe to contain com-
munism. Now it also focused militarily on Asia. Defense agreements were
signed with Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, the Philippines, and Australia. The
United States also began providing aid to the French forces fighting
Communists in Vietnam.
10. How did the Korean War change the United States’s view of containment?

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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Study Guide
Chapter 21, Section 3
For use with textbook pages 668–674

THE COLD WAR AND AMERICAN SOCIETY

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
subversion an effort to secretly weaken a society and overthrow its government (page 669)
loyalty review program a screening process of federal employees set up by President Truman in
1947 (page 669)
Alger Hiss a government official accused of being a Communist spy (page 669)
perjury lying under oath (page 670)
McCarran Act a law passed by Congress that required Communist organizations to provide the
government with their records (page 672)
McCarthyism Senator McCarthy’s method of destroying reputations with weak evidence and
unfounded charges of Communist activity (page 672)
censure formal disapproval (page 673)
fallout the radiation left over after a nuclear blast (page 674)
fallout shelter shelter built to protect against fallout (page 674)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

Does your school conduct practice drills for what to do in certain emergen-
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

cies? What are the emergencies for which you have these drills?
The last section explained the steps the United States took to contain com-
munism abroad. This section describes how the fear of communism affected
Americans at home.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the diagram below to help you take notes. In the United States, peo-
ple’s fear of communism resulted in the Red Scare. In the diagram, list the
government’s responses to the Red Scare.

1. 2.

Response to
Red Scare
5. 3.

4.

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Study Guide
Chapter 21, Section 3 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• A New Red Scare (page 668)
During the 1950s, people in the United States began to fear that the
Communists were trying to take over the world. This fear, the Red Scare,
began in September 1945, when a clerk working in the Soviet Embassy in
Canada defected. He had documents that showed that the Soviet Union was
trying to infiltrate organizations and government agencies in Canada and the
United States. The Soviet Union was trying to find information about the
atomic bomb.
The search for spies soon turned into a general fear of a Communist
takeover of the government. In 1947 President Truman set up a loyalty review
program to screen all federal employees. This action seemed to contribute to a
greater fear that Communists had infiltrated the government. More than 6
million federal employees were screened for their loyalty. People became sus-
pects simply for reading certain books or belonging to various groups.
Thousands were subject to intense FBI investigations.
J. Edgar Hoover, the FBI Director, wanted to go further than screening fed-
eral employees. He went before the House Un-American Activities Committee
(HUAC) to urge the committee to hold public hearings on Communist sub-
version. FBI agents were sent to infiltrate groups suspected of subversion.
They also wiretapped thousands of telephones.
In 1948 Whittaker Chambers, a Time magazine editor, testified before
HUAC that several government officials, including Alger Hiss, had been
Communists or spies at that time. Chambers claimed that Hiss, who had

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

served in President Roosevelt’s administration, had given him secrets from
the State Department. Hiss denied being a member of the Communist Party,
and he denied knowing Chambers. The committee continued hearings to
determine who was lying. Hiss admitted that he had met Chambers in the
1930s. He then sued Chambers, claiming that his accusations were unfounded.
To defend himself, Chambers showed copies of secret documents that he had
hidden. He believed the documents proved that he was telling the truth. A
jury agreed with him. It convicted Hiss of perjury, or lying under oath.
Another spy case had to do with accusations that American Communists
had sold secrets of the atomic bomb to the Soviet Union. Many people
believed that the Soviet Union could not have developed an atomic bomb in
1949 without this help. In 1950 testimony by a British scientist that he sent
information to the Soviet Union led the FBI to arrest Julius and Ethel
Rosenberg, who were members of the Communist Party, and to charge them
with passing on atomic secrets. Although the Rosenbergs denied the charges,
they were condemned to death and executed in June 1953. Their guilt was
debated by many Americans. Future investigation and documents, however,
provided strong evidence that they were guilty.

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Chapter 21, Section 3 (continued)

The Red Scare spread beyond the federal government. State and local gov-
ernments, universities, businesses, and unions began looking for Communists.
Some universities required their faculty members to take loyalty oaths. The
Taft-Hartley Act required that union leaders take loyalty oaths.
6. Why did President Truman set up the loyalty review program?

• “A Conspiracy So Immense” (page 671)

After the Soviet Union tested an atomic bomb in 1949 and China fell to
communism, many Americans feared that the United States was losing the
Cold War. Many believed that Communists had infiltrated the government and
were unnoticed. Then in February 1950, Wisconsin Senator Joseph R. McCarthy
made a statement that he had a list of 205 Communists in the State Department.
McCarthy never actually produced the list, but he accused many politicians
and military officials of being Communists or leaning toward communism.
In 1950 the United States passed the McCarran Act. The law required all
Communist organizations to provide the government with their records. It
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

also required that in a national emergency, Communists and Communist sym-

pathizers could be arrested. Truman did not believe that people should be
punished for their beliefs, so he vetoed the bill. Congress overrode it.
In 1952 McCarthy became chairman of the Senate subcommittee on investi-
gations. He used his position to force government officials to testify about
so-called Communist influences. McCarthy turned the investigation into a
witch hunt. His investigations were based on weak evidence and irrational
fears. His method of destroying reputations with unfounded charges became
known as McCarthyism. McCarthy would badger witnesses and then refuse to
accept their answers. His methods left a sense of suspicion about the witness
that was often interpreted as guilt.
In 1954 McCarthy began targeting the United States Army. The army’s own
investigation found no spies. McCarthy then brought his investigation to the
television. Millions of Americans watched as McCarthy bullied witnesses. His
popularity began to decrease. Finally, people began to challenge McCarthy
and his methods. In 1954 the Senate passed a vote for censure, or formal dis-
approval, against McCarthy. McCarthy’s influence was gone, and he faded
from public view.

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Chapter 21, Section 3 (continued)

7. What led many Americans in 1949 to believe the United States was losing the Cold War and
that Communist infiltration was the reason for it?

• Life During the Early Cold War (page 673)

The fear of communism dominated everyday life in the United States in the
1950s. Americans were upset when the Soviet Union tested the more powerful
hydrogen bomb. They got ready for a surprise Soviet attack. They set up spe-
cial areas as bomb shelters. Students practiced bomb drills, although experts
warned that these measures would not have protected people from nuclear
radiation. They pointed out that in a nuclear bomb blast, many people would
die not only from the blast itself but also from fallout, or the radiation left
over after a blast. To protect themselves, some people built fallout shelters in
their yards. They stocked these shelters with food.
The fear of communism influenced American movies and fiction. Many
movies focused on FBI activities in espionage cases. Novels described the
effects of nuclear war.

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

8. How did Americans in the 1950s get ready for a surprise Soviet attack?

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Study Guide
Chapter 21, Section 4
For use with textbook pages 675–680

EISENHOWER’S POLICIES
KEY TERMS AND NAMES
massive retaliation the policy of threatening Communist states with nuclear war if the state
tried to take territory by force (page 676)
Sputnik developed by the Soviet Union, the first artificial satellite to orbit the earth (page 677)
brinkmanship the willingness to go to the brink of war to force the other side to back down
(page 677)
covert hidden (page 679)
Central Intelligence Agency an agency that conducted covert operations (page 679)
developing nation nation with a primarily agricultural economy (page 679)
military-industrial complex the relationship between the military establishment and the
defense industry (page 680)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

What do you think of when you hear the term CIA? What does the CIA do?
Do you think the CIA is important in today’s world? Why?
The last section described American reaction to the threat of communism.
This section discusses President Eisenhower’s plans to contain communism.
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the diagram below to help you take notes. President Eisenhower used
the policy of brinkmanship in dealing with Cold War conflicts. List three ways
he used this policy.

1. 2.

Eisenhower‘s
Use of
Brinkmanship

3.

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Chapter 21, Section 4 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• Eisenhower’s “New Look” (page 675)
In the 1952 presidential election, the Democrats nominated Adlai
Stevenson, the governor of Illinois. The Republicans nominated General
Dwight D. Eisenhower. Americans wanted a leader who they believed would
lead the nation through the Cold War. Eisenhower won in a landslide.
Eisenhower believed that both a strong military and a strong economy were
essential to win the Cold War. He also believed that preparing for a large-scale
conventional war would cost too much money. Therefore, he believed that
instead of a large-scale army, the United States had to be prepared to use
atomic weapons.
Eisenhower believed that the United States could not contain communism
through a series of small wars, such as the Korean War. He believed that it
had to prevent such wars from happening in the first place. The best way to
do this was to threaten to use nuclear weapons if a Communist state tried to
take a territory by force. This policy became known as massive retaliation. It
allowed Eisenhower to cut military spending by billions of dollars. He cut
back the army but increased the nation’s nuclear weapons.
The new policy required new technology. The Air Force developed huge
bombers that could fly across the continent and drop nuclear bombs any-
where in the world. Eisenhower also began to develop intercontinental
ballistic missiles (ICBMs) that could deliver bombs anywhere in the world. He
also began developing submarines that could launch nuclear missiles.
On October 4, 1957, the Soviets launched Sputnik, the first artificial satellite

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

to orbit the earth. Many Americans saw that as a sign that the United States
was falling behind the Soviet Union in missile technology and in scientific
research. In response, Congress set up the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA). The agency conducted research in rocket and space
technology. Congress also passed the National Defense Education Act
(NDEA). It provided money for education and training in science, math, and
foreign languages.
4. What did President Eisenhower believe was necessary to win the Cold War?

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Study Guide
Chapter 21, Section 4 (continued)

• Brinkmanship In Action (page 677)

Eisenhower supported the policy of brinkmanship, the willingness to go to
the brink of war to force the other side to back down. Some thought the policy
was too dangerous. However, Eisenhower used the threat of nuclear war to
try to end the Korean War. He believed that the war was costing too many
lives. So he threatened China with a nuclear attack. The threat seemed to
work, because in July 1953, an armistice was signed. The line between the two
sides became the border between North Korea and South Korea. A demilita-
rized zone (DMZ) separated them.
After the Korean War ended, problems arose over Taiwan. In 1954 China
threatened to take two islands from Taiwan. Eisenhower asked Congress to
authorize the use of force to defend Taiwan. He then warned the Chinese that
if they invaded Taiwan, they would be confronted by American naval forces.
Eisenhower also hinted that a nuclear attack was also possible. China backed
down.
In 1955 problems developed in the Middle East. Eisenhower wanted to pre-
vent Arab nations from siding with the Soviet Union. He offered Egypt
financial help to build a dam on the Nile River. Egypt accepted the offer.
Congress, however, did not agree to provide financial aid because Egypt had
bought weapons from Communist Czechoslovakia. A week later, Egypt
gained control of the Suez Canal from the Anglo-French company that con-
trolled it. Egypt wanted to use the profits from the canal to pay for the dam.
In response, in October 1956, British and French troops invaded Egypt. The
action upset President Eisenhower. The conflict became worse when the
Soviet Union threatened to attack France and Britain and to send troops to
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

help Egypt. Again, Eisenhower threatened a nuclear attack. Britain and France
called off the invasion. Other Arab nations soon began accepting Soviet aid.
5. How did President Eisenhower use brinkmanship to end the conflict in Korea?

• Fighting Communism Covertly (page 679)

President Eisenhower knew that brinkmanship would not work all the
time. He knew it would not work to prevent Communists from starting revo-
lutions within countries. To prevent revolutions, Eisenhower used covert, or
hidden, operations that were run by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA).

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Study Guide
Chapter 21, Section 4 (continued)

Many of these operations took place in developing nations, or nations with

economies that depended primarily on agriculture. Many of these nations
blamed American capitalism for their problems, and they looked to the Soviet
Union as a model to industrialize their economy. American leaders feared that
these countries would side with the Soviet Union or stage a Communist revo-
lution. To prevent this, President Eisenhower offered financial aid to some of
these nations. In nations where the Communist threat was stronger, the CIA
used covert operations to overthrow anti-American leaders. They then
replaced them with pro-American leaders.
Covert operations worked in Iran. There the prime minister was ready to
make an oil deal with the Soviet Union. He moved against the pro-American
Shah of Iran, who was forced to leave Iran. CIA agents organized street riots
in Iran and arranged a coup to oust the prime minister and to return the Shah
to power.
Covert operations also worked in Guatemala. The president of Guatemala
had won the election with the support of the Soviet Union. His reform pro-
gram took over large estates, including one owned by an America-owned
company. Guatemala received weapons from Communist Czechoslovakia.
The CIA then armed and trained the Guatemalan opposition. The CIA-trained
forces then invaded Guatemala, and the pro-Communist president left office.
Sometimes covert operations did not work. After Stalin died, Nikita
Khrushchev became the Soviet leader. He delivered a secret speech to Soviet
leaders in which he attacked Stalin’s policies. The CIA obtained a copy of the
speech and had it broadcasted in Eastern Europe. In June 1956, riots started in
Eastern Europe. A full-scale uprising developed in Hungary. Soviet troops

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

moved into Budapest, the capital, and crushed the uprising.
6. In what two countries were covert operations successful in preventing Communist
revolutions?

• Continuing Tensions (page 680)

In 1958 Khrushchev demanded that the United States, Great Britain, and
France remove their troops from West Germany. The United States rejected the
demands and threatened to use military force if the Soviets threatened Berlin.
The Soviets backed down. To try to improve relations, Eisenhower asked
Khrushchev to visit the United States. The two leaders met and agreed to hold

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Study Guide
Chapter 21, Section 4 (continued)

a meeting in Paris in 1960. However, shortly before the meeting was to begin,
the Soviet Union shot down an American U-2 spy plane. Khrushchev
responded by breaking off the meeting.
President Eisenhower left office in January 1961. He delivered a farewell
address to the nation. In it, he pointed out the new relationship that had
developed between the military and the defense industry. He warned
Americans against the influence of this military-industrial complex.
7. Why did Khrushchev break off the Paris meeting with President Eisenhower scheduled in
1960?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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Study Guide
Chapter 22, Section 1
For use with textbook pages 686–691

TRUMAN AND EISENHOWER

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
GI Bill a bill that provided loans to veterans to help them start businesses, buy homes, and
attend college (page 687)
closed shop the practice of forcing business owners to hire only union members (page 687)
right-to-work laws laws which outlawed union shops (page 687)
union shop shops in which new workers were required to join the union (page 687)
featherbedding the practice of limiting work output in order to create more jobs (page 687)
“Do-Nothing Congress” the name President Truman gave to the Republican Congress
(page 688)
Fair Deal the name given to President Truman’s programs (page 688)
dynamic conservatism the policy of balancing economic conservatism with some activism
(page 689)
Federal Highway Act law that provided funding for the building of interstate highways
(page 690)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

What kinds of roadways does your community have? How important are
they to you, your family, and your community?
In this section, you will learn about President Truman’s domestic policy.
You will also learn about President Eisenhower’s domestic policy.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the diagram below to help you take notes. President Eisenhower’s poli-
cies regarding the role of the federal government were conservative, but he
also believed in activism. Describe the ways President Eisenhower showed
conservatism and the ways he showed activism.

Ways of Showing Conservatism Ways of Showing Activism

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

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Study Guide
Chapter 22, Section 1 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• Return to a Peacetime Economy (page 686)
After the war ended, the United States economy continued to grow.
Consumer spending helped this growth. Americans, who lived with shortages
throughout the war, were eager to buy the luxury goods that they had
wanted. The economy also got a boost from the Servicemen’s Readjustment
Act, which was popularly called the GI Bill. It provided loans to veterans to
help them buy homes, start businesses, or go to college.
The large demand for goods led to higher prices. This led to growing infla-
tion. As the cost of living increased, so did labor unrests. Strikes occurred in
the automobile, steel, and mining industries.
The labor unrests and inflation caused many people to call for a change in
leadership. In the 1946 congressional elections, Republicans took control of
both houses of Congress. The new Congress set out to decrease the power of
unions. They proposed the Taft-Hartley Act. It outlawed the closed shop, or
the practice of forcing business owners to hire only union members. The law
allowed the states to pass right-to-work laws, which outlawed union shops, or
shops in which new workers were required to join the union. The law also
prohibited featherbedding, or the practice of limiting work output in order to
create more jobs. President Truman vetoed the bill. Congress overrode the
veto and passed the Taft-Hartley Act in 1947. Labor leaders were upset, saying
that the law had done away with many of the gains that unions had made
since 1933.
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

7. Why did Congress pass the Taft-Hartley Act?

• Truman’s Domestic Program (page 687)

Although Republicans controlled Congress, President Truman continued to
work to push his programs through Congress. He wanted to expand Social
Security benefits, increase the minimum wage, set up long-range environmen-
tal and public works, and set up a system of national health insurance.
Truman also asked Congress to pass a civil rights bill that would protect
African Americans’ right to vote and make lynching a federal crime. He
issued an executive order that banned discrimination in federal employment.
It also ended segregation in the armed forces. However, many of Truman’s

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Study Guide
Chapter 22, Section 1 (continued)

suggested programs were shut down by a coalition of Republicans and

Southern Democrats in Congress.
Many people did not think that President Truman would win the 1948 elec-
tion. The Democratic Party itself was divided over whom to nominate.
Southern Democrats formed a new party and nominated Strom Thurmond.
The liberal members of the Democratic Party formed a new Progressive Party
and nominated Henry A. Wallace. The Republican nominee was the popular
New York Governor Thomas Dewey. Most newspaper writers believed that
Dewey would win by a landslide.
Truman believed he could win. He waged an energetic campaign, traveling
more than 20,000 miles. He blamed the Republican Congress, referring to it as
the “Do-Nothing Congress,” for refusing to pass his programs. His claims were
not exactly true. Congress did pass many parts of his foreign-policy programs,
such as the Marshall Plan. However, these programs did not affect Americans
directly, and his “do-nothing” claims seemed to stick. Truman won by a nar-
row margin in a surprising victory. In addition, the Democrats had regained
control of both houses of Congress.
Truman continued to work for passage of his programs. He said that all
Americans had the right to expect a fair deal from the government. The Fair
Deal became the name of Truman’s programs. Congress passed some aspects
of the Fair Deal. It increased the minimum wage and approved an expansion
of Social Security benefits. Congress also passed the National Housing Act,
which provided funding for the building of low-income housing. Congress
refused to pass national health insurance or civil rights laws.

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

8. What were the results of the 1948 election?

• The Eisenhower Years (page 689)

Harry Truman did not run for re-election in 1952. The Republicans nomi-
nated General Dwight Eisenhower for president and Richard Nixon for vice
president. The Democrats nominated Illinois governor Adlai Stevenson.
Eisenhower won in a landslide. The Republicans had a majority in the House,
while the Senate was evenly divided between Democrats and Republicans.
President Eisenhower’s political beliefs fell between conservative and lib-
eral. He believed in dynamic conservatism, which meant balancing economic
conservatism with some activism.
Eisenhower’s conservatism showed itself in several ways. He appointed
several business leaders to his cabinet. Following their advice, Eisenhower
ended government price and rent controls. Many conservatives had viewed
these controls as unnecessary federal control over business. Eisenhower cut
government aid to public housing. He limited the federal government’s aid to

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Study Guide
Chapter 22, Section 1 (continued)

businesses by abolishing the Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC),

which had lent money to banks and other large businesses. He cut the amount
of money allocated for the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA), another
Depression-era agency.
Eisenhower showed his activist side. To provide more travel routes for the
rapidly increasing number of cars, Eisenhower asked Congress to pass the
Federal Highway Act. This was the largest public works program in American
history. The act called for the building of more than 40,000 miles of interstate
highway. He also authorized the building of the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence
Seaway. It connected the Great Lakes with the Atlantic Ocean.
Although Eisenhower wanted to limit the federal government’s role in the
economy, he did agree to extend the Social Security system. He also extended
unemployment compensation and increased the minimum wage.
9. What was the purpose of the Federal Highway Act?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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Study Guide
Chapter 22, Section 2
For use with textbook pages 692–697

THE AFFLUENT SOCIETY

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
John Kenneth Galbraith economist who published The Affluent Society (page 692)
white-collar kind of jobs that do not involve physical labor in industry (page 693)
blue-collar kind of jobs that involve physical labor (page 693)
multinational corporations large corporations that expanded overseas (page 693)
franchise a business in which a person owns and runs one or several stores of a chain operation
(page 693)
David Riesman sociologist who wrote The Lonely Crowd (page 693)
Levittown one of the earliest suburbs in the United States (page 694)
baby boom the time between 1945 and 1961, when more than 65 million children were born
(page 694)
Jonas Salk research scientist who developed a vaccine that prevented polio (page 696)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

How do you decide what brand of clothes or other products to buy? How
does advertising affect your choices?

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

The last section described the domestic policies of Presidents Truman and
Eisenhower. This section discusses the effects of the nation’s economic boom
on Americans.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the diagram below to help you take notes. Several technological
changes occurred in the United States in the 1950s. Identify these advances in
the diagram.

1. 2.

Technological
Advances in 1950s 3.

5.

4.

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Study Guide
Chapter 22, Section 2 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• American Abundance (page 692)
In 1958 economist John Kenneth Galbraith published The Affluent Society. In
it he claimed that the economic prosperity that the nation was experiencing
was a new phenomenon. He believed that the United States had created an
economy of abundance. New business techniques and improved technology
helped the nation make an abundance of goods and services for its people.
This allowed the people to have a higher standard of living than they ever
thought possible.
Galbraith’s observation seemed to be true. Between 1940 and 1960, income
tripled for many Americans. They produced more than they could use. More
people than ever before owned their own homes. Fewer farmers and laborers
were needed to provide food and goods. As a result, more Americans were
working in white-collar jobs, such as those in sales and management. In 1956
white-collar workers outnumbered blue-collar workers, or those who perform
physical labor in industry.
Many white-collar workers worked for large corporations. Some of these
corporations expanded overseas. These multinational corporations were
located closer to raw materials and a cheaper labor pool. This made the com-
panies more competitive. The number of franchises increased in the 1950s.
These are businesses in which a person owns and runs one or several stores of
a chain operation. The owners of franchises demanded that their franchises
have the same look and style.
Many corporate leaders also expected their employees to conform. They
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

generally did not want their employees to be independent thinkers.

Sociologist David Riesman criticized this approach. In his 1950 book, The Lonely
Crowd, he argued that the individual who judged himself on the basis of his
own values was now becoming an individual who was more concerned with
winning the approval of the corporation or the community.
In the 1950s, part of fitting in included owning the same new products as
everyone else. Having more income available to them, Americans bought lux-
ury items such as swimming pools, refrigerators, and air conditioners.
Advertising became more sophisticated in the 1950s. It became a major
industry. Many manufacturers used new techniques to sell their products. The
purpose of advertising was to influence Americans to choose among brands
of goods that were basically the same. The advertisers aimed their ads on peo-
ple who had money to spend. Most of these people lived in the growing
suburbs. One of the earliest of these new suburbs was Levittown, New York.
The suburbs included hundreds of mass-produced, similar-looking homes.
Thousands of people rushed to buy the inexpensive homes.

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Study Guide
Chapter 22, Section 2 (continued)

Most new homes in the 1950s were built in the suburbs. The number of
people living in suburbs doubled. Unlike city life, life in the suburbs provided
people with access to the countryside. Being able to afford a house was easier
in the 1950s. This was due to the low-interest loans offered by the GI Bill. In
addition, the government offered tax deductions for home mortgage interest
payments and property taxes. For many Americans, the suburbs symbolized
the American dream. However, some critics viewed all the identical-looking
communities as a sign of conformity.
6. Why did housing become more affordable in the 1950s?

• The 1950s Family (page 694)

In the 1950s, the American family was changing. The birthrate increased
greatly after World War II. The time between 1945 and 1961, when more than
65 million children were born, was known as the baby boom. There were sev-
eral causes for the baby boom. Couples who postponed marriage during
World War II and the Korean War could now marry and begin their families.
The government encouraged having children by offering GI benefits for home

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

purchases. Advertising sang the praises of pregnancy and large families.
During the 1950s, many women focused on establishing families and stay-
ing home to care for them. This discouraged many women from getting jobs.
Magazine ads encouraged women to stay at home. However, despite the push
for women to only be homemakers, the number of women who had jobs out-
side the home increased during the 1950s.
7. What factors contributed to the baby boom?

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Study Guide
Chapter 22, Section 2 (continued)

• Technological Breakthroughs (page 695)

Several important scientific advances occurred in the 1950s. American
physicists developed the transistor. The device made it possible to miniaturize
radios and calculators. In 1946 scientists also developed one of the nation’s
earliest computers to make military calculations. Several years later, a newer
model was developed. This computer handled business data. The computer
allowed people to work more quickly and efficiently. This provided
Americans in the 1950s with more free time for leisure activities.
Medical advances included antibiotics to fight infections and new drugs to
fight cancer, diabetes, and heart disease. New surgical techniques were also
developed. Polio, however, continued to puzzle researchers. In the 1940s and
1950s a powerful polio epidemic swept the United States. The disease particu-
larly targeted the young, causing crippling and death. In 1952 58,000 cases of
polio were reported. Then Jonas Salk developed an injectable vaccine that pre-
vented polio. In 1955 the vaccine became available to the public. The number
of polio cases dropped dramatically. Albert Sabin then developed an oral vac-
cine for polio. In the following years, the threat of polio almost completely
disappeared.
After the Soviet Union launched Sputnik, the United States hurried to catch
up. On January 31, 1958, the United States launched its own satellite. At the
same time, engineers were building smoother and faster commercial planes.
8. What was the effect of Jonas Salk’s polio vaccine?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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Study Guide
Chapter 22, Section 3
For use with textbook pages 698–703

POPULAR CULTURE OF THE 1950S

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
Ed Sullivan host of a variety show (page 699)
Alan Freed a radio disc jockey who introduced African American rhythm and blues records to
white radio stations (page 701)
Elvis Presley the first rock ’n’ roll hero (page 701)
generation gap a cultural separation between children and their parents (page 702)
Jack Kerouac a beat writer (page 702)
Little Richard African American rock ’n’ roll singer (page 702)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

Are television and movies important parts of your leisure activities? What
kinds of television programs and movies do you enjoy the most? Why?
The last section discussed the ways Americans were affected by the eco-
nomic boom. This section describes popular culture in the United States in the
1950s.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Use the cause-and-effect diagram below to help you take notes. Rock ’n’
roll had an impact on American society in the 1950s. List its effects in the
diagram.

Cause Effects
1.

Rock' n' Roll

2.

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Study Guide
Chapter 22, Section 3 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• The New Mass Media (page 698)
By the end of the 1950s, the television was a popular household item. By
1957 there were about 40 million television sets in use. By the late 1950s, tele-
vision was an important source of information. Television advertising led to a
growing market for new products. Television programs included comedy,
action and adventure, and variety-style entertainment. Many early television
comedy shows were based on old radio shows. Americans enjoyed action
shows such as The Lone Ranger and Dragnet. Variety shows such as Ed
Sullivan’s Toast of the Town and quiz shows such as The $64,000 Question were
popular. In 1956 Charles Van Doren, a contestant on the quiz show Twenty-One,
won $129,000 during his time on the show. People soon found out, however,
that Van Doren, like many other contestants, received the answers to ques-
tions in advance. Van Doren admitted his role to a congressional committee in
1959. Many quiz shows left the air after the scandal.
The film business suffered in the 1950s with the growing popularity of tele-
vision. Hollywood tried to make films more exciting. Movies such as The Ten
Commandments and Around the World in 80 Days were shown on large screens.
Although these kinds of movies were expensive to make, they made up their
cost by attracting many people and making large profits. Most films, like most
television shows, conformed with the times. Very few showed strong-minded
women. African Americans were usually shown in stereotypical roles such as
servants or sidekicks to white heroes.
Television also took away radio listeners. As a result, the radio industry had
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

to find ways to draw listeners. Many radios began to broadcast recorded

music, news, and talk shows. They also presented shows for specific audi-
ences. As a result of these changes, radio stations survived and prospered.
3. What types of programs did television show in the 1950s?

• The New Youth Culture (page 701)

In the 1950s, some of the nation’s youth rebelled against middle-class sub-
urban values, particularly conformity. They turned to new and unconven-
tional styles of music and literature. In 1951 a white disc jockey named Alan
Freed introduced African American rhythm and blues records to white radio

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Study Guide
Chapter 22, Section 3 (continued)

stations. Soon white artists began making music that was based on African
American rhythms and sounds. This form of music was rock ’n’ roll. It became
wildly popular with the nation’s teenagers. Teens bought the latest hits from
such as artists as Buddy Holly and Chuck Berry. Elvis Presley became the first
rock ’n’ roll hero. By 1956 Presley had a record deal, a movie contract, and
public appearances on several television shows.
Many parents viewed rock ’n’ roll music as loud and dangerous. The music
was banned in some communities. However, the music united teens in their
own world. It helped to create a generation gap, or cultural separation
between children and their parents.
In the 1950s, a group of white artists who called themselves the beats
focused on a values gap in the United States. They lived unconventional lives
away from a culture they hated. Beat poets, writers, and artists criticized the
conformity of American life and the emptiness of popular culture. Jack
Kerouac published On the Road in 1957. Although shocking to some, the book
became a classic in modern American literature.
4. What contributed to a generation gap in the 1950s?

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

• African American Entertainers (page 702)
During the 1950s, African American entertainers tried to find acceptance.
Television tended to shut them out. African American rock ’n’ roll singers
such as Little Richard had more luck in gaining acceptance. In the late 1950s,
African American women’s groups also became popular. At the same time
that African American entertainers attempted to gain acceptance, the African
American community attempted to gain equality and opportunities.
5. What did African American entertainers try to do in the 1950s?

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Study Guide
Chapter 22, Section 4
For use with textbook pages 706–710

THE OTHER SIDE OF AMERICAN LIFE

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
poverty line a figure the government set to reflect the minimum income required to support a
family (page 706)
Michael Harrington author who wrote The Other America, which reported on poverty in the
United States (page 707)
urban renewal type of program that tried to eliminate poverty by tearing down slums and
building high-rise buildings for poor residents (page 707)
Bracero program a program that brought millions of Mexicans to the United States to help fill
the nation’s farm labor needs (page 708)
termination policy government plan that withdrew all official recognition of the Native
American groups as legal entities and made them subject to the same laws as white citizens
(page 708)
juvenile delinquency antisocial or criminal behavior of young people (page 709)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

Do you think poverty is a problem in the United States today? Do you
think it is a problem in other countries? What things do you think contribute
to poverty?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

The last section described popular culture in the United States in the 1950s.
This section discusses the reasons many groups in the United States lived in
poverty in the 1950s.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the chart below to help you take notes. Many groups of people in the
United States did not enjoy economic prosperity. Identify these groups in the
chart below.

Groups Living in Poverty in the 1950s

1.

2.

3.

4.

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Study Guide
Chapter 22, Section 4 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• Poverty Amidst Prosperity (page 706)
Although many Americans benefited from the economic boom in the 1950s,
about 30 million Americans still lived below the poverty line by 1959. This is a
figure the government set to reflect the minimum income required to support
a family. Most Americans assumed that everyone in the nation was prosper-
ous. However, writer Michael Harrington wrote a book in 1962 that reported
on poverty in the United States. His book, The Other America, showed
Americans the rundown communities of the country.
The poor in the United States included many different groups. Poverty was
most obvious in the nation’s urban centers. As white people moved to the
suburbs, the inner cities became home to poorer minority groups. Sometimes
government efforts to help made things worse. For example, during the 1950s,
urban renewal programs tried to eliminate poverty by tearing down slums
and building new high-rise buildings for poor residents. These high-rises
resulted in crowded conditions and violence. The government also ended up
encouraging residents to remain in poverty by evicting them from the projects
as soon as they earned any money.
Many residents of the inner cities were African Americans. This was due in
part to the northward migration of about 3 million African Americans
between 1940 and 1960. Many moved to northern cities to find jobs and to
escape racial intimidation. Life was not much better in northern cities, how-
ever. Fewer and fewer jobs became available as many factories moved to the
suburbs. Racial discrimination in schools, housing, and in hiring in the North

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

kept African Americans in the inner cities poor. Poverty and racial discrimina-
tion also deprived African Americans of other things, such as proper medical
care. Several African American groups, such as the NAACP, pushed for
greater equality and economic opportunity for African Americans. They had
few successes.
Hispanics in the United States also faced poverty. In the 1940s and the 1950s,
nearly 5 million Mexicans immigrated to the United States to help fill the
nation’s farm labor needs through the Bracero program. Those who worked on
large farms throughout the country worked long hours for little pay in horrible
conditions. Away from the farms, many Mexican families lived in small shacks.
By the mid-1900s, Native Americans made up the poorest group in the
nation. After World War II, the United States government started a program to
bring Native Americans into mainstream society, whether they wanted to or
not. Under a plan known as the termination policy, the federal government
withdrew all official recognition of the Native American groups as legal enti-
ties and made them subject to the same laws as white citizens. The govern-
ment also helped move Native Americans off the reservations to cities such as
Minneapolis. The termination policy deepened the poverty of many Native
Americans.

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Study Guide
Chapter 22, Section 4 (continued)

Poverty was not limited to minorities. It also affected white families of

Appalachia. During the 1950s, about a million people left Appalachia to start
a better life in the cities. They left behind the elderly and other residents.
Many people in Appalachia were suffering from poor nutrition. The region
had few doctors. Schooling in Appalachia was considered worse than that in
the inner cities.
5. What was the result of urban renewal programs?

• Juvenile Delinquency (page 709)

Another problem facing the nation was juvenile delinquency, or antisocial or
criminal behavior of young people. Juvenile crime rose by 45 percent between
1948 and 1953. Car thefts by juveniles increased. In addition, more young peo-
ple belonged to street gangs and committed muggings and even murder.
Experts blamed juvenile delinquency on a number of things. They blamed it
on factors such as poverty, television, racism, and a rising divorce rate. Some
critics claimed that young people were rebelling against conformity. Some
blamed a lack of discipline. Delinquency existed across class and racial lines.
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Although most teens were not involved in crime or drugs, the public tended
to stereotype all young people as juvenile delinquents.
Many parents in the 1950s were concerned over the educational system in
the United States. With many baby boomers becoming school age in the 1950s,
the number of children in school increased by 13 million. School districts had
to build new school buildings and hire new teachers. However, there were
shortages of both. The launch of Sputnik by the Soviet Union made many
Americans believe that schools lacked technical education. As a result, efforts
were made to improve math and science education in schools.
6. What caused concerns about the educational system in the United States in the 1950s?

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Study Guide
Chapter 23, Section 1
For use with textbook pages 718–723

THE NEW FRONTIER

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
missile gap the United States’s lag behind the Soviet Union in weaponry (page 719)
New Frontier President Kennedy’s domestic programs (page 720)
Earl Warren Chief Justice of the United States, starting in the Eisenhower administration
(page 721)
reapportionment the way in which states draw up political districts based on changes in
population (page 721)
due process the idea that the law may not treat individuals unfairly or unreasonably and that
courts must follow proper procedures when trying cases (page 722)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

Have you seen police detective shows on television? What do police officers
do when they arrest a suspect? Why do they do that?
In this section, you will learn about President Kennedy’s economic policies.
You will also learn why Congress did not support many of Kennedy’s domes-
tic programs.

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII
Use the chart below to help you take notes. The Supreme Court in the early
1960s helped to determine national policy through several of its rulings.
Describe the Court decision in each of the rulings listed in the chart.

Court Case Court Ruling

Reynolds v. Sims 1.

Mapp v. Ohio 2.

Gideon v. Wainwright 3.

Escobedo v. Illinois 4.

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Study Guide
Chapter 23, Section 1 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• The Election of 1960 (page 718)
Television played an important part in the 1960 presidential election. This
was the first election in which a majority of voters used television as a voting
tool. The Democrats nominated John F. Kennedy, and the Republicans nomi-
nated Richard M. Nixon. Both parties spent money on television ads.
The main issues in the campaign were the economy and the Cold War. The
candidates had few differences regarding these issues. Kennedy believed that
the Soviets were a serious threat to the United States. He was concerned about
a possible “missile gap,” in which the United States lagged behind the Soviet
Union in weaponry. Nixon argued that the United States was on the right
track. He warned that enacting the Democrats’ policies would increase infla-
tion. Kennedy faced a religious issue. The United States had never had a
Catholic president. Kennedy faced the issue by pointing out that in the United
States, separation of church and state was absolute.
The four televised presidential debates influenced the outcome of the cam-
paign. Kennedy won by a narrow margin.
5. How did television affect the 1960 presidential election?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

• The Kennedy Mystique (page 719)

President Kennedy was very popular with the American people. His looks,
glamorous wife Jacqueline, and their children led to constant coverage by the
media. Newspeople followed the family everywhere. Kennedy used the
media well. He was the first to have his press conferences televised. He also
inspired many of his staff.
6. How did Americans react to President Kennedy?

• Success and Setback on the Domestic Front (page 720)

President Kennedy was not popular with all Americans. Congress also was
less taken with him. After Kennedy became president, he sent a legislative
package to Congress. His domestic programs became known as the New
Frontier. Kennedy wanted to increase aid to education, provide health insurance

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Study Guide
Chapter 23, Section 1 (continued)

to the elderly, and create a Department of Urban Affairs. Convincing Congress

to pass the legislation was not easy.
Kennedy was not able to push through many of his domestic programs.
Because Kennedy had won by such a narrow margin, he was not helpful in get-
ting many Democrats elected to Congress. As a result, lawmakers found it easy
to look out for their own interests instead of considering the interests of the
president. Republicans and conservative Southern Democrats believed that the
New Frontier was too costly. They also opposed an increase of federal power.
Although Kennedy was unsuccessful in getting Congress to pass many of
his programs, he was successful in passing some economic programs. The
American economy had slowed by the end of the 1950s. Unemployment was
high and the growth rate of the gross national product was low. To boost the
economy, Kennedy pushed Roosevelt’s strategy of deficit spending. Kennedy
convinced Congress to spend more on defense and space exploration. This
spending did create more jobs and stimulate the economy. Kennedy also
wanted to boost the economy by increasing business production. His adminis-
tration also asked businesses to keep prices down and to hold down pay
increases.
Labor unions in the steel industry agreed to lower their demands for wage
increases. In 1962, however, several steel companies raised prices. The presi-
dent threatened to buy cheaper steel from foreign companies. The steel
companies backed down and cut their prices.
To get the economy moving, Kennedy followed supply-side ideas. He
pushed for a cut in tax rates, hoping this would give businesses more money

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

to expand and create new jobs. Congress defeated the tax cut because many
members feared it would cause inflation. Kennedy did get Congress to
increase the minimum wage. He provided about $400 million to distressed
areas. A Housing Act created a home-building and slum clearance program.
A number of women held important positions in Kennedy’s administration.
In 1961 Kennedy created a Presidential Commission on the Status of Women.
It called for federal action against gender discrimination and the right of
women to equally paid employment. Kennedy issued an executive order that
ended gender discrimination in the federal civil service. In 1963 he signed the
Equal Pay Act for women.
7. Why did many members of Congress oppose the programs of the New Frontier?

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Study Guide
Chapter 23, Section 1 (continued)

• Warren Court Reforms (page 721)

In 1953 President Eisenhower nominated Earl Warren to be the Chief Justice
of the United States. The Warren Court was an active one, helping shape
national policy by taking a stand on several issues. An important decision of
the Warren Court had to do with reapportionment, or the way in which states
draw up political districts based on changes in population. By 1960 more peo-
ple lived in urban rather than rural areas. Many states had not changed their
electoral districts to match this change, however. For example, in Tennessee a
rural district with about 2,300 voters had one representative in the state legis-
lature, while a city district with about 133 times more voters had only seven
representatives. Some people in Tennessee decided to challenge this system in
the courts. The case eventually reached the Supreme Court. In Reynolds v.
Sims, the Supreme Court ruled that the current apportionment system in
many states was not constitutional. The ruling required that state legislatures
reapportion their electoral districts so that citizens’ votes would have equal
weight. This decision shifted political power throughout the country from
rural, often conservative, areas to urban, often more liberal, areas.
The Supreme Court began to use the Fourteenth Amendment to apply the
Bill of Rights to the states. The Bill of Rights originally applied to the federal
government. Many states had their own bill of rights. The Fourteenth
Amendment said that no state could deprive an individual of rights with due
process. This means that the law may not treat individuals unfairly or unrea-
sonably and that courts must follow proper procedures and rules when trying
cases. Due process makes sure that all people are treated the same by the
courts. In several cases, the Supreme Court ruled that using due process
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

meant that the federal bill of rights applied to the states.

In Mapp v. Ohio, the Supreme Court ruled that state courts could not use
evidence that was obtained illegally. In Gideon v. Wainwright, it ruled that a
defendant in a state court had the right to a lawyer, regardless of his ability to
pay. In Escobedo v. Illinois, the Court ruled that a suspect has to have access to
a lawyer and had to be informed of the right to remain silent before being ques-
tioned by the police. In Miranda v. Arizona, the justices ruled that authorities had
to give suspects a four-part warning that included their right to remain silent
and their right to a lawyer. These warnings are known as the Miranda rights.
The rulings received mixed reactions. Some believed the Court favored crimi-
nals, whereas others believed the rulings promoted the rights of all citizens.
The Supreme Court also ruled on the relationship between church and
state. In Engel v. Vitale, the Court ruled that states could not require prayers to
be said in state public schools. In Abington School District v. Schempp, state-
mandated Bible readings in public schools were not disallowed.
8. What effect did the Warren Court have on the United States?

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Study Guide
Chapter 23, Section 2
For use with textbook pages 724–729

JFK AND THE COLD WAR

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
flexible response the policy of allowing conventional troops and weapons to be used against
Communist movements (page 725)
Peace Corps an organization that sent young Americans to perform humanitarian services in
less developed nations (page 725)
space race vying for dominance of space to increase competitive positions on Earth (page 725)
Berlin Wall a wall built by the Soviet Union through Berlin to keep Germans from leaving East
Germany into West Berlin (page 727)
Warren Commission a commission headed by Chief Justice Warren that concluded that Oswald
was the lone assassin of President Kennedy (page 729)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

Have you heard of the Peace Corps? What do you think is the purpose of
the Peace Corps? Would you be interested in joining it? Why or why not?
The last section described President Kennedy’s domestic programs. This
section discusses the ways President Kennedy dealt with Cold War challenges.

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII
Use the diagram below to help you take notes. President Kennedy faced sev-
eral crises that were the result of the Cold War. List these crises in the diagram.

1. 2.

Crises of the
Cold War

3.

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Study Guide
Chapter 23, Section 2 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• Kennedy Confronts Global Challenges (page 724)
Kennedy believed that Eisenhower depended too much on nuclear weapons,
which could only be used in extreme situations. Kennedy wanted to allow for
a flexible response, in which conventional troops and weapons could be used
against Communist movements. To do this, Kennedy supported the Special
Forces. This was a small army unit that was created to deal with guerrilla
warfare.
Kennedy wanted to improve relations in Latin America. Many governments
in Latin America were controlled by a wealthy few, whereas most of the peo-
ple lived in poverty. In some of these countries, left-wing movements tried to
overthrow their governments. The United States generally supported the
existing governments in order to prevent the Communist movements from
being successful. Poor Latin Americans resented the United States.
To improve relations between Latin America and the United States,
President Kennedy proposed an Alliance for Progress. This was a series of
cooperative aid projects with Latin American governments. The United States
promised $20 billion to help Latin American countries set up better schools,
housing, health care, and fairer land distribution. Some countries benefited
from the aid. In other countries, the government leaders used the money to
keep themselves in power.
President Kennedy also set up the Peace Corps to help fight poverty in less
developed nations. It was an organization that sent young Americans to do
humanitarian services in less developed nations. Volunteers were trained and
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

then spent two years in a nation that had requested help. Their work included
building roads, training medical technicians, and laying out sewage systems.
The Peace Corps is still active today.
In 1961, the Soviet Union was the first nation to successfully launch a human
being into orbit around the earth. Kennedy worried that Soviet space successes
would affect the outcome of the Cold War. Both nations started a space race, the
vying for dominance of space to increase their competitive positions on Earth.
Kennedy challenged the U.S. government and the nation’s industry to safely
land a human on the moon. The challenge was met in July 1969, demonstrating
America’s technological superiority.
4. What was the purpose of the Alliance for Progress?

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Study Guide
Chapter 23, Section 2 (continued)

• Crises of the Cold War (page 726)

President Kennedy faced several crises in the Cold War. The first one
started in Cuba. Fidel Castro had overthrown the Cuban dictator in 1959. He
immediately established ties with the Soviet Union. He took over foreign-
owned businesses, many of which were American. The Communists were
now very close to the United States. The United States was concerned that the
Communists would set up a base in Cuba from which to spread their beliefs
throughout the Western Hemisphere. President Eisenhower authorized the
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) to train and arm Cuban exiles and to
invade the island. The United States hoped that the invasion would start an
uprising in Cuba against Castro.
Shortly after Kennedy became president, Kennedy’s advisers approved the
invasion plan. On April 17, 1961, armed Cuban exiles landed at the Bay of
Pigs, on the south coast of Cuba. The invasion failed. It showed that the
United States had tried to overthrow a neighbor’s government. It made the
United States look weak.
Shortly after the failed invasion, Kennedy faced another problem. Kennedy
met with Soviet leader Khrushchev in Austria in June 1961. Khrushchev
wanted to keep the Germans from moving out of Communist East Germany
into West Berlin. He wanted Western countries to recognize East Germany. He
also wanted the United States, Britain, and France to leave Berlin. Kennedy
refused. Khrushchev responded by building the Berlin Wall. It stopped move-
ment between the Soviet part of the city and the rest of the city. Guards along
the wall shot at many of those trying to escape from the East.

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

The most frightening crisis happened in 1962, and it dealt with Cuba. The
United States had learned that Soviet technicians and equipment had arrived
in Cuba. They also learned that a military buildup was in progress. On
October 22, 1962, President Kennedy told the American people that photos
taken by spy planes showed that the Soviet Union had placed long-range mis-
siles in Cuba. These posed a serious threat to the United States. Kennedy
ordered a naval blockade to stop the Soviet Union from delivering more mis-
siles. He warned that if the Soviet Union launched missiles on the United
States, he would respond against the Soviet Union. However, work on the
missile sites continued.
The leaders of the two countries started secret negotiations. They reached
an agreement on October 18. Kennedy agreed not to invade Cuba and to
remove U.S. missiles from Turkey. The Soviet Union agreed to remove their
missiles from Cuba.
The Cuban missile crisis brought the world close to nuclear war. It made
both the Soviet Union and the United States face the consequences of a
nuclear war. As a result, both countries worked to lessen tensions. They
agreed to a treaty to ban the testing of nuclear weapons in the atmosphere.

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Study Guide
Chapter 23, Section 2 (continued)

5. What were the results of the Cuban missile crisis?

• The Death of a President (page 728)

On November 22, 1963, President Kennedy and his wife traveled to Texas
to make some political appearances. As the presidential motorcade rode
through Dallas, President Kennedy was shot. He was pronounced dead at a
local hospital. Lee Harvey Oswald, the man accused of killing Kennedy, was
shot to death two days later while in police custody. In 1964 the Warren
Commission, a national commission headed by Chief Justice Warren, con-
cluded that Oswald acted alone. However, theories about a conspiracy to kill
the president have continued.
The United States and the world mourned the loss of President Kennedy.
Although he served as president for only about 1,000 days, he left a lasting
impression on most Americans.
6. What did the Warren Commission conclude?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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Study Guide
Chapter 23, Section 3
For use with textbook pages 732–738

THE GREAT SOCIETY

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
consensus general agreement (page 734)
war on poverty a program announced by President Johnson to fight poverty in the United
States (page 734)
VISTA a Great Society program in which young people were put to work in poor school districts
(page 735)
Great Society the domestic programs and goals of President Johnson’s administration (page 735)
Medicare a government health insurance program for the elderly (page 736)
Medicaid a government health care program that financed health care for people on welfare
(page 736)
Head Start an education program directed at disadvantaged preschool children (page 736)
Robert Weaver the head of the Department of Housing and Urban Development and the first
African American to hold a cabinet position (page 737)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

Do you think poverty is a problem in the United States today? How, if at
all, do you think the government should help reduce poverty? Why do you

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

think so?
The last section described the events in foreign affairs during the Kennedy
administration. This section discusses the domestic programs of President
Johnson.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the chart below to help you take notes. President Johnson’s Great
Society set up several new programs. Describe what each of the listed pro-
grams provides.

Program What It Does

Medicare 1.

Medicaid 2.

Project Head Start 3.

VISTA 4.

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Study Guide
Chapter 23, Section 3 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• Johnson Takes the Reins (page 732)
Michael Harrington’s book, The Other America, showed that many
Americans lived in poverty in the United States. As a result, both President
Kennedy and Kennedy’s successor, President Lyndon Johnson, made the elim-
ination of poverty a major goal.
After President Kennedy’s death, President Johnson knew that he had to
reassure the nation that he could hold it together. He went before Congress
and urged the nation to move on.
Johnson’s leadership style was quite different from that of President
Kennedy. He had developed his style through long years of public service. He
had 26 years in Congress, serving in both the House and the Senate. He had
also served as vice president. He had a reputation as a person who got things
done. He did favors, bargained, and threatened. He always tried to find con-
sensus, or general agreement.
President Johnson pushed a number of Kennedy’s programs through
Congress. He won passage of a major civil rights bill and an anti-poverty pro-
gram. Johnson had known poverty firsthand. He believed that a government
should try to improve its citizens’ lives. In his State of the Union address to
Congress in 1964, Johnson announced that he was declaring a “war on poverty
in America.” Congress set up the Office of Economic Opportunity (OEO),
which worked to create jobs and fight poverty.
The Great Society also set up programs that were aimed at creating jobs
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

and strengthening education. VISTA (Volunteers in Service to America) was a

kind of domestic Peace Corps. The program put young people to work in
poor school districts.
In the 1964 election, President Johnson’s Republican opponent was Barry
Goldwater, a senator from Arizona. Johnson won in a landslide.
5. What was the war on poverty?

• The Great Society (page 735)

President Johnson began working on the Great Society. This was Johnson’s
plan for domestic programs. During his administration, the civil rights move-
ment had achieved many of its goals through the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The
Voting Rights Act of 1965 ensured African Americans the right to vote.

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Study Guide
Chapter 23, Section 3 (continued)

Johnson’s goals were achieved for a variety of reasons. The civil rights
movement had brought the concerns of African Americans to the forefront.
The economy was strong, so people did not see why poverty could not be
greatly reduced.
More than 60 of Johnson’s programs were passed between 1965 and 1968.
Among these were Medicare and Medicaid. Medicare was a health insurance
program for the elderly. Medicaid financed health care for people on welfare.
Great Society programs also supported education. The Elementary and
Secondary Education Act of 1965 provided millions of dollars to public and
private schools for books and special education materials. Project Head Start
was an education program directed at disadvantaged preschool children.
Johnson also wanted to help the nation’s deteriorating inner cities. He
urged Congress to pass legislation to address this problem. One law created a
new cabinet agency, the Department of Housing and Urban Development. It
was headed by Robert Weaver, the first African American to serve in a cabinet.
Other laws provided federal funding to many cities for programs such as
transportation, health care, and housing. Still other laws provided billions of
dollars to build houses for low- and middle-income people.
One law passed during the Great Society affected the makeup of the
American population. The Immigration Reform Act of 1965 kept a strict limit
on the number of immigrants admitted to the United States each year.
However, it eliminated the national origins system, which gave preference to
immigrants from northern Europe. The new law allowed immigrants from all
parts of Europe, and Asia and Africa.

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

6. How did the Immigration Reform Act of 1965 change the makeup of the American population?

• Legacy of the Great Society (page 737)

The Great Society programs had improved the lives of many Americans,
but people have debated the Great Society’s success. The programs had been
established quickly. Some of them did not work as well as people had hoped.
The programs were often difficult to evaluate. Some criticized Great Society
programs because they believed that the federal government had become too
involved in people’s lives. The programs sometimes lacked funds. The pro-
grams were expensive, and when money was needed for the Vietnam War,
many of these programs suffered.

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Study Guide
Chapter 23, Section 3 (continued)

Some Great Society programs remain today. They include Medicare,

Medicaid, and Project Head Start. They also include two cabinet agencies—
the Department of Transportation and the Department of Housing and Urban
Development (HUD).
The Great Society also produced questions. They included questions about
how the government can help disadvantaged citizens and how much the gov-
ernment should help a society without interfering with private efforts.
7. What Great Society programs continue today?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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Study Guide
Chapter 24, Section 1
For use with textbook pages 746–752

THE MOVEMENT BEGINS

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
separate-but-equal doctrine that said laws segregating African Americans were allowed as long
as equal facilities were provided for them (page 747)
de facto segregation segregation by custom and tradition (page 747)
NAACP the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (page 747)
sit-ins form of protest in which protesters refused to leave segregated places (page 748)
Thurgood Marshall chief counsel of the NAACP, who worked to end segregation in public
schools (page 748)
Linda Brown student who was denied admission to her school in Topeka, Kansas, and who sued
the school board (page 748)
Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. leader of the Montgomery Improvement Association and president of
the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (page 749)
Southern Christian Leadership Conference organization set up to eliminate segregation from
American society (page 750)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

What do the words segregation and integration mean? How were they an

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

issue in United States history? Are they an issue today?
In this section, you will learn how the civil rights movement began. You will
also learn how the federal government’s role in enforcing civil rights changed.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the chart below to help you take notes. Several African American
organizations worked to ensure civil rights for African Americans. Describe
the work of each of these organizations.

Organization Work of Organization

NAACP 1.

CORE 2.

SCLC 3.

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Study Guide
Chapter 24, Section 1 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• The Origins of the Movement (page 746)
On December 1, 1955, Rosa Parks boarded a bus in Montgomery, Alabama,
on her way home from work. Buses there at that time reserved the front sec-
tion for whites and the back section for African Americans. Parks took a seat
right behind the white section. When she was asked to give up her seat to a
white man who was standing, she refused. She was arrested. She challenged
bus segregation in court. After her arrest, African Americans in Montgomery
started a boycott of the bus system. In the next few years, boycotts and
protests started across the nation. African Americans had decided it was time
to demand equal rights.
The Supreme Court’s 1896 decision in Plessy v. Ferguson set up a separate-
but-equal policy. Laws that segregated African Americans were allowed as
long as equal facilities were provided for them. After this decision, laws segre-
gating African Americans became common. These Jim Crow laws segregated
buses, schools, and restaurants. Signs saying “Whites Only” or “Colored”
appeared on entrances to many places. Jim Crow laws were common in the
South, but segregation also existed in other places. Areas that did not have
segregation laws, such as in many places in the North, often had de facto seg-
regation, or segregation by custom and tradition.
Since 1909, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored
People (NAACP) had supported court cases that had to do with overturning
segregation. It was successful in some cases. In addition to these successes,
African Americans began experiencing more political power. Before World
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

War I, most African Americans lived in the South, where they were not
allowed to vote. Through the Great Migration, many African Americans
arrived in Northern cities, where they were allowed to vote. Northern politi-
cians began seeking their vote and listening to their concerns. During the
Great Depression, many African Americans voted for President Franklin
Roosevelt. Their votes made the Democratic Party in the North stronger. Their
votes also forced the Democratic Party to pay attention to civil rights.
African Americans began using their political power to demand more
rights. In 1942 James Farmer and George Houser started the Congress of
Racial Equality (CORE). Members of the organization began using sit-ins, a
form of protest. They used the sit-in strategy to integrate restaurants. If the
restaurants would not serve them, they sat down and refused to leave.
Through sit-ins, CORE successfully integrated many restaurants and other
public facilities in several Northern cities.

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Study Guide
Chapter 24, Section 1 (continued)

4. How did CORE successfully integrate many public facilities in some Northern cities?

• The Civil Rights Movement Begins (page 748)

The chief counsel of the NAACP from 1939 to 1961 was African American
attorney Thurgood Marshall. He focused his attention on desegregating public
schools. In 1954 the Supreme Court heard cases regarding segregation in
schools. One case involved Linda Brown. She was a young African American
girl who was denied admission to her neighborhood school in Topeka,
Kansas, because of her race. Together with the NAACP, her parents sued the
Topeka school board. In May 1954, the Supreme Court ruled in the case of
Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas, that segregation in public schools
was unconstitutional. It also ruled that segregation violated the equal protec-
tion clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. This decision reversed the decision
in Plessy v. Ferguson. The Brown v. Board of Education ruling signaled to African
Americans that it was time to challenge other forms of segregation. The ruling
made many white Southerners more determined to defend segregation. Many
resisted the Supreme Court’s ruling and kept their schools segregated for

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

many more years.
It was during the conflict over the Brown v. Board of Education case that Rosa
Parks decided to challenge the segregation of the bus system in Montgomery.
African Americans supported the decision by boycotting the buses. The boy-
cott was a success. Several African American leaders formed the Montgomery
Improvement Association to negotiate with city leaders to end segregation.
They elected the young minister Martin Luther King, Jr., to lead the organiza-
tion. A powerful speaker, King believed that the way to end segregation and
racism was through nonviolent passive resistance. This approach was based
on the philosophy of the Indian leader Mohandas Gandhi. He had used non-
violent resistance in his struggle against British rule in India. Both Gandhi and
King urged followers to disobey unjust laws.
African Americans in Montgomery continued their boycott for more than
a year. Rosa Parks’s lawsuit led to a Supreme Court ruling in 1956. The
Court ruled that Alabama’s laws requiring segregation on buses were
unconstitutional.

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Study Guide
Chapter 24, Section 1 (continued)

5. What technique did Martin Luther King, Jr., believe would be most effective in ending
segregation?

• African American Churches (page 750)

Martin Luther King, Jr., was not the only minister to take part in the
Montgomery boycott. Many of the leaders were African American ministers.
African American churches in Montgomery were important to the success of
the boycott. The churches were used for planning and protest meetings. The
churches also organized many volunteers for specific civil rights campaigns.
Led by King, African American ministers set up the Southern Christian
Leadership Conference (SCLC) in 1957. The organization worked to do away
with segregation in American society and to encourage African Americans to
register to vote. Martin Luther King, Jr., became the SCLC’s first president.
The organization challenged segregation of public transportation, housing,
and public accommodations.
6. What did the Southern Christian Leadership Conference work toward?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

• Eisenhower and Civil Rights (page 751)

Although President Eisenhower personally opposed segregation, he dis-
agreed with those who wanted to end it through protests and court rulings.
He believed that segregation should end gradually. With the nation involved
in the Cold War, Eisenhower feared that challenging white Southerners on
segregation would divide the nation at a time when the nation needed to pull
together.
Although Eisenhower believed the Supreme Court decision in Brown v.
Board of Education was wrong, he believed the federal government had the
duty to uphold the decision. In September 1957, the Little Rock, Arkansas,

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Study Guide
Chapter 24, Section 1 (continued)

school board won a court order to admit nine African American students to
Central High, a school with 2,000 white students. The governor of Arkansas
ordered troops from the Arkansas National Guard to prevent the African
American students from entering the school. A mob of white people joined the
troops to prevent the students from entering the school. Eisenhower could not
allow the governor to challenge the federal government. The governor
removed the National Guard troops, but he did not take action to stop the
mob of whites. They came close to capturing the terrified black students.
Eisenhower became impatient with the mob violence. He ordered the United
States Army to send troops to Little Rock. The troops encircled the school. A
few hours later, the African American students arrived in an army station
wagon and walked into the school. The troops stayed at the school for the rest
of the school year.
In the same year that the Little Rock violence took place, Congress passed
the Civil Rights Act of 1957. It was intended to protect the right of African
Americans to vote. It was an important step in involving the federal govern-
ment into the civil rights debate. The law created a civil rights division within
the Department of Justice. It also created the United States Commission on
Civil Rights to investigate instances in which the right to vote was denied.
7. Why did President Eisenhower send the United States Army to Little Rock, Arkansas,
in 1957?

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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Study Guide
Chapter 24, Section 2
For use with textbook pages 753–760

CHALLENGING SEGREGATION
KEY TERMS AND NAMES
Jesse Jackson student leader in the sit-in movement to end segregation (page 754)
Ella Baker executive director of the SCLC, who urged African American students to start their
own organization (page 754)
Freedom Riders teams of African Americans and white Americans who traveled through the
South to draw attention to the South’s refusal to integrate bus terminals (page 755)
filibuster a tactic in which senators take turns speaking and refuse to stop the debate and
allow a bill to come to a vote (page 758)
cloture a motion which cuts off debate and forces a vote (page 758)
Civil Rights Act of 1964 law that made segregation illegal in most public places (page 759)
poll tax a fee that had to be paid in order to vote (page 759)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

What do you think of when you hear the words civil rights? What are your
civil rights? How are they protected?
The last section discussed the beginnings of the civil rights movement. This
section discusses the expansion of the movement.
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the diagram below to help you take notes. President Kennedy
attempted to support the civil rights movement in several ways. Describe
these ways in the diagram.

1. 2.

Kennedy’s Attempts
to Support Civil
Rights

3.

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Study Guide
Chapter 24, Section 2 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• The Sit-In Movement (page 753)
The sit-in strategies to end segregation spread to several cities. Many
African American college students joined the sit-in movement. Students like
Jesse Jackson saw the sit-in as a way for students to take things into their own
hands. At first, the leaders of the NAACP and the SCLC were concerned
about the sit-ins. They feared that the students might not remain nonviolent if
they were provoked. The students did remain peaceful, despite being
punched, kicked, and beaten by bystanders. The students’ behavior attracted
the nation’s attention.
4. What group of people did the sit-in movement draw?

• SNCC (page 754)

As the sit-ins spread, student leaders realized that they needed to create an
organization of their own. Ella Baker, the executive director of the SCLC,

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

invited student leaders to a convention in Raleigh, North Carolina, where she
urged them to start their own organization instead of joining SCLC or the
NAACP. The students established the Student Nonviolent Coordinating
Committee (SNCC). Marion Barry, a student leader who later served as the
mayor of Washington, D.C., became SNCC’s first chairperson. Although most
of the SNCC members were African American college students, many whites
also joined.
The SNCC was instrumental in desegregating public facilities in many com-
munities. The organization realized that the civil rights movement focused on
urban areas. As a result, members of SNCC began working to register African
American voters in the rural areas of the Deep South. Three members who
attempted to register African Americans in Mississippi were murdered by
local officials there.
One SNCC organizer, a former sharecropper named Fannie Lou Hamer,
had been evicted from her farm after registering to vote. She was arrested in
Mississippi for urging other African Americans to register, and she was beaten
by the police. She then helped organize the Mississippi Freedom Democratic
Party. She challenged the legality of the segregated Democratic Party at the
1964 Democratic National Convention.

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Study Guide
Chapter 24, Section 2 (continued)

5. Where did the SNCC focus its efforts?

• The Freedom Riders (page 754)

In 1961 James Farmer, the leader of CORE, asked groups of African
Americans and white Americans to travel into the South to draw attention to
the South’s segregation of bus terminals. These groups became known as
Freedom Riders. When buses carrying Freedom Riders arrived at various cities
in the South, white mobs attacked them. In Birmingham, Freedom Riders
leaving the bus were viciously beaten by a gang of young men. Later evidence
showed that the head of police in Birmingham had contacted the local Ku
Klux Klan and had told them he wanted the Freedom Riders beaten. The vio-
lence in Alabama shocked many Americans. President John F. Kennedy, who
took office four months before the violence took place, decided he had to do
something to get the violence under control.
6. What was the goal of the Freedom Riders?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

• John F. Kennedy and Civil Rights (page 755)

In his campaign, John Kennedy promised to support the civil rights move-
ment if he was elected president. African Americans overwhelmingly voted
for him. At first, Kennedy was as cautious as Eisenhower on civil rights. He
knew he needed the support of Southern senators to get some other programs
he wanted passed. However, Kennedy did name about 40 African Americans
to high-level positions in the federal government. He appointed Thurgood
Marshall to an Appeals Court in New York. This position was one level below
the United States Supreme Court. Kennedy also set up the Committee on
Equal Employment Opportunity (CEEO). Its purpose was to stop the federal
government from discriminating against African Americans when hiring and
promoting people.

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Study Guide
Chapter 24, Section 2 (continued)

President Kennedy was reluctant to challenge Southern Democrats in

Congress. He allowed the Justice Department, which was led by his brother
Robert F. Kennedy, to support the civil rights movement. Robert Kennedy
helped African Americans register to vote by having the Justice Department
file lawsuits throughout the South.
After the Freedom Riders were attacked in Alabama, Kennedy urged them
to stop the rides. They refused to do so and planned to head into Mississippi
on their next trip. To stop the violence, President Kennedy made a deal with a
senator from Mississippi. Kennedy told the senator that if he used his influ-
ence to prevent violence, he would not object if the Mississippi police arrested
the Freedom Riders. The senator kept the deal. The cost of bailing the
Freedom Riders out of jail used up most of CORE’s funds. Thurgood Marshall
offered money from the NAACP’s Legal Defense Fund to keep the rides going.
When President Kennedy realized that the Freedom Riders were still active,
he ordered the Interstate Commerce Commission to tighten its regulations
against segregated bus terminals. Robert Kennedy ordered the Justice
Department to take legal action against Southern cities that continued to seg-
regate bus terminals. All these actions were successful. By late 1962,
segregation on interstate travel had come to an end.
At the same time that the Freedom Riders were trying to desegregate bus
terminals, people continued to work to integrate public schools. In early 1961,
African American James Meredith applied to the University of Mississippi. At
that time, the university had avoided obeying the Supreme Court ruling that
ended segregated education. In September 1962, Meredith tried to register at
the university. He was blocked from entering by the governor of Mississippi.

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

President Kennedy sent 500 federal marshals to escort Meredith. A white mob
attacked the campus and a riot started. The fighting continued throughout the
night. Many marshals were wounded. Kennedy then ordered the Army to
send troops to the campus. For the rest of the school year, Meredith attended
classes at the university under federal guard.
Martin Luther King, Jr., and other civil rights leaders were frustrated over
the events in Mississippi. They were disappointed that the president did not
push for a new civil rights law. When the Cuban missile crisis began in October
1962, foreign policy took priority over civil rights issues. King observed that
the federal government intervened in civil rights issues only when violence
occurred. As a result, King ordered demonstrations in Birmingham, Alabama,
knowing that it would likely lead to violence. He believed that it was the only
way to get Kennedy to actively support civil rights.
Shortly after the protests in Birmingham began, King was arrested. After he
was released, the protests grew again. The local authorities ordered the police
to use clubs, police dogs, and high-pressure fire hoses on the demonstrators.
Millions of Americans watched the violence on television. President Kennedy
was worried that the government was losing control, so he ordered his aides
to prepare a new civil rights bill.

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Study Guide
Chapter 24, Section 2 (continued)

7. Why was President Kennedy cautious about pushing for civil rights?

• The Civil Rights Act of 1964 (page 757)

In June 1963, Alabama governor George Wallace stood in front of the
University of Alabama’s admissions office to stop two African Americans
from enrolling. Federal marshals ordered him to move. President Kennedy
took that opportunity to present his civil rights bill.
Martin Luther King, Jr., realized that Kennedy would have a difficult time
pushing his civil rights bill through Congress. He decided to support a mas-
sive march on Washington. On August 28, 1963, more than 200,000 demon-
strators gathered peacefully at the nation’s capital. Dr. King delivered his
powerful “I Have a Dream” speech, in which he presented his dream of free-
dom and equality for all Americans. The march on Washington had built
support for Kennedy’s civil rights bill. However, opponents in Congress con-
tinued to do what they could to slow the bill down. The bill would have an
especially difficult time passing in the Senate. Senators are allowed to speak
for as long as they like when a bill is being debated. The Senate is not allowed
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

to vote on a bill until all the senators have finished speaking. A filibuster is
when a small group of senators take turns speaking and refuse to stop the
debate and allow a bill to come to a vote. Today a filibuster can be stopped if
at least three-fifths of the senators vote for cloture, a motion which cuts off
debate and forces a vote.
African Americans became even more worried that the civil rights bill
would never pass when President Kennedy was assassinated in November
1963. President Johnson, however, committed himself to getting Kennedy’s civil
rights bill passed. On July 2, 1964, President Johnson signed the Civil Rights
Act of 1964 into law. The law gave Congress the power to outlaw segregation in
most public places. It gave citizens equal access to facilities such as restaurants,
parks, and theaters. The law gave the attorney general more power to bring
lawsuits to force schools to desegregate. It also set up the Equal Employment
Opportunity Commission (EEOC). This agency was set up to oversee the ban
on job discrimination by race, religion, gender, and national origin.

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Study Guide
Chapter 24, Section 2 (continued)

8. Why did Martin Luther King, Jr., support a march on Washington?

• The Struggle for Voting Rights (page 759)

The Civil Rights Act of 1964 did little to guarantee the right to vote. The
Twenty-fourth Amendment, ratified in 1964, helped somewhat by abolishing
poll taxes, or fees paid in order to vote in national elections. The SNCC and
SCLC increased their voter registration drives in the South. Those that tried to
register African American voters were often attacked and beaten. Some were
murdered. Civil rights leaders, including Martin Luther King, Jr., decided that
a new law was necessary to protect African American voting rights. They
decided to start their campaign in Selma, Alabama. The sheriff of that city pre-
vented African Americans from registering to vote by deputizing and arming
many white citizens. They terrorized and attacked the demonstrators.
Approximately 2,000 African Americans were arrested by Selma’s sheriff.
To keep the pressure on the president and Congress to act, Dr. King and
other SNCC activists organized a march from Selma to Montgomery. It began
on March 7, 1965. As protesters approached the bridge that led out of Selma,
the sheriff ordered them to break up. While the marchers knelt in prayer, state

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

troopers and the deputized citizens rushed the demonstrators. The attack left
more than 70 African Americans hospitalized and many more injured. The
nation was shocked as it saw the brutality on television. President Johnson
was furious. He came before Congress to present a new voting rights law.
In August 1965, Congress passed the Voting Rights Act of 1965. It ordered
federal examiners to register qualified voters. It got rid of discriminatory prac-
tices such as literacy tests. By the end of 1965, almost 250,000 new African
American voters had registered to vote. The number of African American
elected officials in the South also increased. With the passage of the Voting
Rights Act, the civil rights movement had achieved its two goals. Segregation
had been banned, and laws were in place to prevent discrimination and pro-
tect voting rights.
9. What was the purpose of the march from Selma to Montgomery?

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Study Guide
Chapter 24, Section 3
For use with textbook pages 761–766

NEW ISSUES
KEY TERMS AND NAMES
racism prejudice or discrimination toward someone because of his or her race (page 762)
Chicago Movement a plan by Martin Luther King, Jr., and other civil rights leaders to improve
the economic conditions of African Americans in Chicago’s poor neighborhoods (page 763)
Richard Daley the mayor of Chicago (page 763)
black power a movement that called for African American control of the social, political, and
economic direction of the struggle for equality and stressed pride in the African American cul-
tural group (page 764)
Stokely Carmichael the leader of the SNCC in 1966 (page 764)
Malcolm X the most visible spokesperson of the Black Power movement (page 764)
Black Panthers a militant African American group that preached black power, black nationalism,
and economic self-sufficiency (page 765)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

Do you think the civil rights movement is active today? What kinds of
issues do you think still need to be addressed? Why do you think so?
The last section described the political gains made by the civil rights move-
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

ment. This section discusses the efforts of the civil rights movement to gain
economic equality for African Americans.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the diagram below to help you take notes. African Americans faced
many economic problems even after civil rights laws had been passed. In the
diagram, list those problems and describe the Kerner Commission and its
results.

Problems Facing Urban

African Americans
Kerner Commission Results of Kerner
1.
Appointed to: Commission:
2.
6. 7.
3.

4.

5.

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Study Guide
Chapter 24, Section 3 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• Problems Facing Urban African Americans (page 761)
Although several civil rights laws had been passed by the 1960s, racism, or
prejudice or discrimination toward someone because of his or her race, was
still common in the United States. In 1965 the majority of African Americans
lived in large cities. Many had moved from the South to cities in the North
and West, where they faced the same prejudice and discrimination that they
did in the South. Many whites refused to live with African Americans in the
same neighborhoods. Landlords refused to rent to African Americans. Those
African Americans who moved into cities were often trapped by poverty in
the inner city. Whites moved to the suburbs. Many African Americans found
themselves in low-paying jobs. In 1965 only 15 percent of African Americans
held professional or clerical jobs, compared to 44 percent of whites. Half of all
African American families lived in poverty.
Poor neighborhoods in the nation’s cities were dirty and overcrowded. Crime
rates were high. These kinds of problems existed in all poor neighborhoods. A
greater proportion of African Americans lived in poverty, so a greater percent-
age of their neighborhoods faced these problems. The African Americans who
lived in poverty were aware of the gains made by the civil rights movement.
They were also aware that the gains did not address their problems, which
were social and economic. Their anger at the situation erupted into violence.
A race riot broke out in Watts, an African American neighborhood in Los
Angeles. Allegations of police brutality had started the riots, which lasted six
days. Thousands of National Guard troops and law officers were needed to

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

bring back order. Rioters burned and looted entire neighborhoods. Thirty-four
people were killed and hundreds were injured.
Race riots broke out in other cities. The worst riot occurred in Detroit in
1967. The United States Army had to send in tanks and armed soldiers to
bring an end to the riot. More than 1,300 buildings were damaged.
President Johnson appointed the National Advisory Commission on Civil
Disorders to study the causes of the riots. Governor Otto Kerner of Illinois
headed the Commission. The Kerner Commission studied the problem. It
agreed with what many African American leaders had been saying for years.
The Commission blamed white society and white racism for most of the prob-
lems in the inner city. The Commission recommended that two million new
jobs and six million new housing units be created in the inner city. However,
at the time, the United States was spending massive amounts of money on the
Vietnam War. As a result, the report of the Kerner Commission produced no
changes for African Americans.

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Study Guide
Chapter 24, Section 3 (continued)

8. On what did the Kerner Commission blame the problems of the inner city?

• The Shift to Economic Rights (page 763)

By the mid-1960s, some African American leaders were critical of Martin
Luther King’s nonviolent strategies. They believed the strategies were not suc-
cessful in improving the economic positions of African Americans. As a result,
Dr. King began to focus on economic issues. In 1965 Dr. King was invited to
Chicago by a group of community organizations that worked to improve con-
ditions for the poor in Chicago. To call attention to the poor housing
conditions that many African Americans faced, Dr. King and his wife moved
into a slum apartment. He hoped to work with local leaders to improve eco-
nomic conditions for African Americans in poor neighborhoods. The so-called
Chicago Movement was unsuccessful.
When Dr. King led a march through a Chicago suburb to demonstrate the
need for open housing, he was met with angry white mobs like those he met
in the South. Mayor Richard Daley ordered the police to protect the marchers.
He then met with Dr. King and suggested a program to clean up the slums.
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Under the plan, mortgages and rental property would be available to every-
one regardless of race. However, very little changed.
9. Why were some civil rights leaders critical of King’s nonviolent strategies?

• Black Power (page 764)

Dr. King’s failure in Chicago seemed to show many African Americans that
nonviolence could not change their economic problems. Many young African
Americans living in poverty in urban areas began to turn away from King’s
movement. They turned to more aggressive forms of protest. African
Americans began to place less emphasis on interracial cooperation. Many

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Study Guide
Chapter 24, Section 3 (continued)

young African Americans called for black power. A few believed that the term
meant that self-defense, even violence, were acceptable when defending one’s
freedom. Most African Americans, including Stokely Carmichael, the leader of
the SNCC in 1966, believed black power meant that African Americans should
control the social, political, and economic directions of the struggle for equal-
ity. Black power stressed pride in African American culture. It rejected cultural
assimilation, or the philosophy of incorporating different racial or cultural
groups into the dominant society. Black power was very popular in the poor
urban neighborhoods where many African Americans lived.
By the early 1960s, a man named Malcolm X became the symbol of black
power. As a young man, Malcolm X was convicted of burglary and sent to
prison. There he began to educate himself and joined the Nation of Islam, or
Black Muslims. The group was led by Elijah Muhammad. The Black Muslims
did not hold the same beliefs as Muslims. The Black Muslims believed that
African Americans should separate themselves from whites and form their
own communities.
The Black Muslims viewed themselves as a nation. They tried to make
themselves self-sufficient. They ran their own businesses and published their
own newspaper. Malcolm X was a dynamic speaker. He gained national atten-
tion for the Nation of Islam.
By 1964 Malcolm X had broken with the Black Muslims. He was upset with
the scandals involving the Nation of Islam’s leader. Malcolm X visited the
Muslim holy city in Saudi Arabia. There he saw many different races worship-
ping together. He started to believe that an integrated society was possible.
After he left the Nation of Islam, Malcolm X continued to criticize the organi-

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

zation and Elijah Muhammad. In February 1965, members of the Nation of
Islam killed Malcolm X while he was giving a speech in New York. Malcolm
X’s speeches pointed out to African Americans that although they were vic-
tims in the past, they did not have to continue being victimized. He
encouraged African Americans to believe in their ability to make their own
way in the world.
Malcolm X’s ideas continued to influence a new generation of militant
African American leaders. One group, the Black Panthers, preached black power,
black nationalism and economic self-sufficiency. The Black Panthers believed
a revolution was necessary. They urged African Americans to arm themselves
and confront white society to force whites to grant them equal rights.

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Study Guide
Chapter 24, Section 3 (continued)

10. What did the Black Muslims believe African Americans should do regarding white society?

• The Assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr. (page 765)

By the late 1960s, the civil rights movement was divided into competing
organizations that were at odds with one another. The call by some African
Americans for violent action angered some white supporters of the civil rights
movement.
In 1968 Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., went to Memphis, Tennessee, to support
a strike of African American sanitation workers. On April 4, 1968, King was
assassinated as he stood on his hotel balcony. The assassination touched off
riots in more than 100 cities. After Dr. King’s death, Congress passed the Civil
Rights Act of 1968. The law banned discrimination in the sale and rental of
housing. After Dr. King’s death, the civil rights movement continued but
lacked the vision that Dr. King had given it.
11. What happened to the civil rights movement by the late 1960s?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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Study Guide
Chapter 25, Section 1
For use with textbook pages 772–775

THE UNITED STATES FOCUSES ON VIETNAM

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
Ho Chi Minh Vietnam leader of the nationalism movement (page 773)
domino theory the belief that if Vietnam fell to communism, so would the other Southeast
Asian nations (page 774)
guerrillas irregular troops who usually blend into the civilian population and are often difficult
for regular armies to fight (page 774)
Dien Bien Phu the location of the battle that forced France to withdraw from Indochina
(page 774)
Ngo Dinh Diem the leader of the government of South Vietnam (page 775)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

Where is Vietnam located? What do you know about the country? From
where did your information about the nation come?
In this section, you will learn about the nationalist movement in Vietnam.
You will also learn why the United States became involved in Vietnam.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Use the diagram below to help you take notes. The Geneva Accords negoti-
ated the end of the conflict between France and Vietnam. List the results of
the negotiations in the diagram.

1. 2.

Geneva
Accords

3.

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Study Guide
Chapter 25, Section 1 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• Early American Involvement in Vietnam (page 772)
Vietnam had often been ruled by foreign powers. China controlled it off
and on for hundreds of years. From the late 1800s until World War II, France
ruled Vietnam and neighboring Laos and Cambodia. This region became
known as French Indochina. Japan took power in Vietnam during World War II.
By the early 1900s, nationalism spread through Vietnam. Several political
parties pushed for independence from France. One of the leaders of the move-
ment was Ho Chi Minh. In 1930 he helped start the Indochinese Communist
Party and worked to overthrow French rule. In 1941, after Japan had taken
control of Vietnam, Ho organized a nationalist group called the Vietminh. The
group’s goal was to get rid of the Japanese forces. The United States sent mili-
tary aid to the Vietminh.
When Japan was defeated in August 1945, it gave up control of Indochina.
Ho announced that Vietnam was an independent nation. France, however, did
not want to see Vietnam independent. It wanted to regain its colonial empire
in Southeast Asia. France sent troops to Vietnam in 1946 and drove the
Vietminh’s forces into hiding in the countryside. By 1949 France had set up a
new government in Vietnam. The Vietminh fought against the French and
slowly increased their control over large areas of the countryside. As fighting
increased, France asked the United States for help.
The request put the United States in a difficult position. The United States
had opposed colonialism. It urged the Dutch to give up their holdings in
Indonesia. It supported the British decision to grant India independence.
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

However, the conflict over Vietnam also included the issue of communism.
The United States did not think that France should control Vietnam. At the
same time, it did not want Vietnam to be Communist.
President Truman decided to help France for two reasons: the fall of China
to communism and the Korean War. President Eisenhower continued to sup-
port the French against the Vietminh. Eisenhower defended the U.S. policy in
Vietnam by stressing the domino theory. This was a belief that if Vietnam fell
to communism, the other Southeast nations would also.
4. How did President Eisenhower defend the U.S. policy in Vietnam?

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Study Guide
Chapter 25, Section 1 (continued)

• The Vietminh Drive Out the French (page 774)

The Vietminh military tactics frustrated the French. The Vietminh used the
tactics of guerrillas, or irregular troops who usually blend into the civilian
population and are often difficult for regular armies to fight.
In 1954 French troops occupied the Vietnamese town of Dien Bien Phu. They
hoped to interfere with the Vietminh’s supply lines. Soon after, a large
Vietminh force surrounded the town and began bombarding it. On May 7,
1954, the French forces at Dien Bien Phu fell to the Vietminh. The French
decided to withdraw from Indochina.
Negotiations to end the conflict took place in Geneva, Switzerland. The
Geneva Accords temporarily divided Vietnam into North Vietnam and South
Vietnam. Ho Chi Minh and the Vietminh controlled North Vietnam. A pro-
Western regime controlled South Vietnam. Elections were to be held in 1956 to
reunite the country under a single government.
The United States stepped in to support the new government in South
Vietnam. Its leader was Ngo Dinh Diem, who was anti-Communist. When the
time came to hold elections in 1956, Diem refused. Eisenhower supported
Diem, and the United States increased military and economic aid to South
Vietnam. Tensions between the North and South increased.
5. What was the significance of the battle of Dien Bien Phu?

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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Study Guide
Chapter 25, Section 2
For use with textbook pages 776–781

GOING TO WAR IN VIETNAM

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
Vietcong a new guerrilla army organized by Ho Chi Minh and his followers (page 777)
Gulf of Tonkin Resolution a Congressional resolution that allowed President Johnson to use
force to defend American troops in Vietnam (page 779)
napalm a jellied gasoline that explodes on contact (page 780)
Agent Orange a chemical that strips leaves from trees and shrubs (page 780)
Ho Chi Minh trail a network of paths, on which North Vietnam sent arms and supplies
(page 781)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

Have you seen any movies or read any books about the Vietnam War? How
did the movie or book depict it? What conditions did American troops face
there?
The last section described the French involvement in Vietnam. This section
discusses how the United States became militarily involved in Vietnam.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Use the cause-and-effect diagram below to help you take notes. Identify the
causes or the effects of the events listed.

Cause Effect

1. The power of the Vietcong

2.
increased.

Congress passes the Gulf of

3.
Tonkin Resolution.

President Johnson refuses to

invade North Vietnam for 4.
fear of China’s involvement.

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Chapter 25, Section 2 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• American Involvement Deepens (page 776)
After Diem refused to hold national elections, Ho Chi Minh began an
armed struggle to reunify the nation. He and his followers organized a new
guerrilla army, which became known as the Vietcong. After fighting began
between the Vietcong and South Vietnam’s forces, President Eisenhower
increased American aid and sent military advisers to train South Vietnam’s
army. However, the Vietcong’s power increased. This was partly due to the
fact that many Vietnamese were against Diem’s government. It was also due
to the Vietcong’s use of terror. The Vietcong had killed thousands of govern-
ment officials and gained control of much of the countryside. Diem looked
increasingly to the United States for help.
President Kennedy continued to support South Vietnam, seeing it as an
important part of fighting communism. He increased military aid and sent
more advisers. The United States believed that the Vietcong were so popular
because Diem’s government was corrupt and unpopular. They urged him to
introduce more democratic reforms. He introduced some, but they had little
effect. Diem, a Catholic, was also unpopular because he discriminated against
Buddhism, which was one of the most practiced religions in Vietnam. When
he banned traditional religious flags for Buddha’s birthday, Buddhists
protested. Diem’s police killed 9 people and injured 14 others. In one of the
demonstrations, a Buddhist monk set himself on fire. The photograph of this
appeared on television and in newspapers around the world. It clearly
showed the opposition to Diem.

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

When Henry Cabot Lodge arrived in Vietnam as American ambassador in
August 1963, he found out that several Vietnamese generals were plotting to
overthrow Diem. Lodge told them that the United States was sympathetic to
their cause. The generals overthrew Diem and executed him. Although Diem
was unpopular, he was a good administrator. After his death, the government
became even more unstable. This forced the United States to become even
more involved as it tried to prop up the weak South Vietnamese government.
Shortly after Diem’s death, President Kennedy was assassinated. The conflict
in Vietnam fell to President Johnson.
5. Why did the Vietcong’s power increase?

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Study Guide
Chapter 25, Section 2 (continued)

• Johnson and Vietnam (page 778)

President Johnson was determined to stop South Vietnam from becoming
Communist. Johnson also knew that many Republicans blamed the
Democrats for losing China to communism. As a result, he did not want to be
blamed for losing Vietnam to communism.
On August 2, 1964, President Johnson announced that North Vietnamese
torpedo boats had fired on two American destroyers in the Gulf of Tonkin. He
insisted that the attack was unprovoked. He ordered American aircraft to
attack North Vietnamese ships. Johnson did not reveal that American war-
ships had been helping South Vietnam in spying and raids on North Vietnam.
Johnson asked Congress for authorization to use force to defend American
forces. On August 7, 1964, Congress passed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution. It
essentially handed over war powers to the president. Shortly afterward, the
Vietcong began to attack American bases where U.S. advisers were stationed.
In February 1965, after one Vietcong attack in which 7 Americans were killed
and more than 100 were wounded, President Johnson ordered American air-
craft to strike North Vietnam. Most Americans approved of Johnson’s actions.
His advisers, including Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara and National
Security Adviser McGeorge Bundy, also approved. Some, however, warned
that if the United States got too involved in Vietnam, it might be difficult to
get out.
In March 1965, Johnson increased American involvement. He switched
from using individual air strikes to a bombing campaign, which was named
Operation Rolling Thunder. Johnson also ordered the first combat troops into
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Vietnam. They fought alongside the South Vietnamese troops against the
Vietcong.
6. How did American involvement in Vietnam change after March 1965?

• A Bloody Stalemate Emerges (page 779)

By 1966 more than 300,000 American soldiers were fighting in Vietnam.
Americans believed that with such a large fighting force, the United States
was destined to win. Not having this kind of power, the Vietcong used
ambushes and hit-and-run tactics. The Vietcong also blended into the popula-
tion in the cities and countryside and then vanished. To counter these tactics,

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Study Guide
Chapter 25, Section 2 (continued)

American troops tried to find enemy troops and bomb their positions. They
hoped to destroy their supply lines and force them out in the open.
American troops also wanted to get rid of the Vietcong’s ability to hide in
the thick jungles by destroying the landscape. American planes dropped
napalm, a jellied gasoline that explodes on contact. They also used Agent
Orange, a chemical that strips leaves from trees and shrubs. The chemical
destroyed farmland and forests.
American military leaders believed that continuous bombing and killing of
many Vietcong would destroy the enemy’s morale and make them surrender.
However, the guerrillas had no intention of surrendering. Although the
Vietcong were made up of many South Vietnamese, North Vietnam supported
them with arms and advisers. Later, North Vietnam began sending its own
army to South Vietnam. They sent the supplies by a network of paths that
went through Cambodia and Laos. The paths bypassed the border between
North Vietnam and South Vietnam. The network was known as the Ho Chi
Minh trail. North Vietnam received its supplies from the Soviet Union and
China. President Johnson refused to order an invasion of North Vietnam
because he feared an attack would bring China into the war. This policy made
it difficult to win the war. Instead of conquering enemy troops, American
troops followed a strategy of defeating the enemy forces by slowly wearing
them down.
Although American planes killed as many as 220,000 Vietnamese between
1965 and 1967, the Vietcong showed no signs of surrendering. American casu-
alties also increased, with more than 6,700 American soldiers killed by the end
of 1966.

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

7. Why did President Johnson refuse to order an invasion of North Vietnam?

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Study Guide
Chapter 25, Section 3
For use with textbook pages 784–789

VIETNAM DIVIDES THE NATION

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
William Westmoreland American commander in South Vietnam (page 785)
credibility gap a lack of belief in government reports regarding the Vietnam War (page 785)
teach-in an informal discussion held between college faculty and students about issues relating
to the war and the reasons for opposing it (page 785)
doves those who wanted the United States to withdraw from the Vietnam War (page 787)
hawks those who wanted the United States to stay and fight (page 787)
Tet offensive a surprise attack in January 1968, by the Vietcong and the North Vietnamese of all
American airbases in South Vietnam and most of the nation’s major cities (page 787)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

Imagine that you are an American living in the United States during the
Vietnam War. Would you have supported or opposed the war? Why?
The last section described the U.S. military involvement in Vietnam. This
section discusses how the Vietnam War led to a division between supporters
and opponents of the war.
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the diagram below to help you take notes. The year 1968 was a very crit-
ical year in the nation’s history. Identify the events of that year in the diagram.

1.

6. 2.

Events of
1968

5. 3.

4.

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Study Guide
Chapter 25, Section 3 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• A Growing Credibility Gap (page 784)
Opposition to the Vietnam War grew in the United States in the late 1960s.
One of the main reasons for the increased opposition was that many
Americans were suspicious of the government’s truthfulness about the war. In
1967 General William Westmoreland, the American commander in South
Vietnam, reported that the United States was near victory. However, daily
media accounts, particularly on television, showed images of wounded and
dead Americans. These images made Americans doubt the optimistic govern-
ment reports. Many Americans believed a credibility gap had developed.
Congress also grew uncertain about the war. The Senate Foreign Relations
committee held hearings on Vietnam. The committee called in Secretary of
State Dean Rusk and other presidential advisers to explain the war program.
7. What led to a credibility gap in the United States in the late 1960s?

• An Antiwar Movement Emerges (page 785)

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

As more Americans died in Vietnam, many people, especially college stu-
dents, began to protest against the war. In March 1965, a group of college
teachers and students at the University of Michigan joined together in a teach-
in. This was an informal discussion about the issues surrounding the war and
their reasons for opposing it. Soon teach-ins were being held in other college
campuses.
People opposed the war for different reasons. Some believed that it was a
civil war that did not have anything to do with the United States. Others
believed South Vietnam was a corrupt democracy, and supporting it was
immoral. Some protesters believed the United States had an unfair draft sys-
tem. At the beginning of the war, college students were able to postpone
military service until after they graduated. A young person from a low-
income family was more likely to serve in the war because he could not afford
college. As a result, minorities made up a large percentage of the soldiers in
Vietnam. The high number of African Americans and poor Americans dying
in Vietnam angered African American leaders. In April 1967, Martin Luther
King, Jr., publicly condemned the war.

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Study Guide
Chapter 25, Section 3 (continued)

As the war continued, more people were drafted. Many draftees refused to
go. Some fled the country, moving to Canada or other nations. Others stayed
and went to prison rather than fight in a war they opposed. In 1969 the gov-
ernment issued a lottery system for the draft. Only those who had low lottery
numbers were drafted.
Demonstrators against the war were not only college students. In October
1967, a rally at the Lincoln Memorial drew tens of thousands of protesters.
Although the antiwar protesters were a vocal group, a majority of people in
early 1968 supported President Johnson’s determination to keep fighting. The
nation seemed to be divided into two groups. Those who wanted the United
States to withdraw from Vietnam were known as doves. Those who wanted
the United States to stay and fight became known as hawks.
8. Why did minorities make up a large percentage of the soldiers in Vietnam?

• 1968: The Pivotal Year (page 787)

On January 30, 1968, the Vietcong and North Vietnamese launched a huge
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

surprise attack during the Tet, the Vietnamese New Year. It was called the Tet
offensive. The guerrilla fighters attacked all American airbases in South
Vietnam and most of the nation’s major cities. After about a month of fighting,
the American and South Vietnamese soldiers fended off the enemy troops,
who suffered heavy losses.
However, the North Vietnamese scored a major political victory. Americans
were shocked that the North Vietnamese, who were supposedly near defeat,
could launch such a huge attack. General Westmoreland called for additional
troops. This seemed to indicate to Americans that the United States could not
win the war. In addition, the media criticized the military effort. The media
also indicated that the United States could not win the war.
After the Tet offensive, President Johnson’s approval rating fell drastically.
As a result, in March 1968, Johnson announced that he would not run for
re-election in 1968. Even before his announcement, Democrats began looking
for an alternative candidate to nominate. Eugene McCarthy, a dove, announ-
ced his candidacy in November 1967. Senator Robert Kennedy also
announced his candidacy.

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Study Guide
Chapter 25, Section 3 (continued)

In April 1968, Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., was shot and killed. This led to
riots in several major cities. Then in June 1968, Senator Robert Kennedy was
shot and killed just after winning California’s Democratic primary. Violence
continued in 1968 with a clash between police and protesters at the
Democratic National Convention in Chicago. Protesters demanded that the
Democrats adopt an antiwar platform.
The delegates to the convention chose Hubert Humphrey, President
Johnson’s vice president, as their presidential nominee. At the same time, the
protesters and police began fighting in a park near the convention hall. A riot
broke out on the streets of downtown Chicago.
The violence associated with the Democratic Party worked to the benefit of
the Republican presidential candidate, Richard Nixon. It also encouraged a
third candidate, Governor George Wallace of Alabama, to run as an independ-
ent. Nixon promised to unify the nation and to restore law and order. He also
announced that he had a plan to end the Vietnam War. Nixon defeated
Humphrey by a slim margin.
9. Why did President Johnson not run for re-election in 1968?

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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Study Guide
Chapter 25, Section 4
For use with textbook pages 790–794

THE WAR WINDS DOWN

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
Henry Kissinger special assistant for national security affairs under President Nixon (page 790)
linkage the policy of improving relations with the Soviet Union and China to persuade them to
reduce their assistance to North Vietnam (page 790)
Vietnamization a plan for a gradual withdrawal of American troops and for the South
Vietnamese army to take over more of the fighting in Vietnam (page 791)
Pentagon Papers documents that revealed that various administrations had deceived Congress
and the people about the situation in Vietnam (page 792)
War Powers Act a law that required the president to inform Congress of any troop commitment
within 48 hours and to withdraw the troops in 60 days unless Congress approved the troop
commitment (page 794)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

What memories do your parents or grandparents have of the Vietnam War?
How do they think the war affected the country?
The last section described the division in the United States over the
Vietnam War. This section discusses the events that led to the withdrawal of
the United States from Vietnam.
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the diagram below to help you take notes. List the effects of the war on
South Vietnam and on the United States in the diagram.

4.
1. 3.

Effects Effects on 5.
on South the United
Vietnam States

2. 7. 6.

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Study Guide
Chapter 25, Section 4 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• Nixon Moves to End the War (page 790)
President Nixon appointed Henry Kissinger as special assistant for national
security affairs. Kissinger was given authority to use diplomacy to end U.S.
involvement in the Vietnam War. Kissinger started a policy called linkage,
which meant improving relations with the Soviet Union and China to per-
suade them to cut back their assistance to North Vietnam. Kissinger also
resumed negotiations with North Vietnam. In August 1969, he started secret
talks with Le Duc Tho, a North Vietnamese negotiator. The talks went on for
four years. In the meantime, President Nixon began cutting back on the num-
ber of troops in Vietnam. He set up a plan called Vietnamization. It called for a
gradual withdrawal of American troops and for the South Vietnamese army to
take over more of the fighting. Nixon did not view the troop withdrawal as
surrender. He wanted to keep America’s strength in Vietnam during negotia-
tions. To do this, Nixon increased air strikes against North Vietnam. He also
ordered the bombing of the Vietcong in Cambodia.
8. Why did Henry Kissinger set up the policy of linkage?

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

• Turmoil at Home Continues (page 791)
Protests and violence continued in the United States after Nixon became
president. In November 1969, the American media reported that in the spring
of 1968, an American platoon under the command of Lieutenant William
Calley had massacred more than 200 unarmed South Vietnamese civilians in
My Lai. Most of the victims were old men, women, and children. Calley went
to prison for his role. The My Lai massacre increased the feelings among
many Americans that the war was brutal and senseless.
In April 1970, Nixon announced that American troops had invaded
Cambodia to destroy Vietcong military bases there. Many Americans viewed
this action as enlarging the war. More protests occurred. At Kent State
University in May 1970, Ohio National Guard soldiers fired on students with-
out an order to do so. They killed four students. Two African American
students were killed ten days later at a demonstration at Jackson State College
in Mississippi.
Members of Congress were upset with the president for not notifying them
of his plan to invade Cambodia. In December 1970, Congress repealed the
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Study Guide
Chapter 25, Section 4 (continued)

Gulf of Tonkin Resolution. Then in 1971, Daniel Ellsberg, a former Defense

Department worker, leaked the Pentagon Papers to the New York Times. The
documents showed that many government officials during the Johnson
administration had privately questioned the war while publicly defending it.
The documents also showed how various administrations deceived Congress,
the media, and the public about the situation in Vietnam. They showed that
the government had not been honest with the American people.
9. How did Congress respond to Nixon’s invasion of Cambodia?

• The United States Pulls Out of Vietnam (page 792)

By 1971 a majority of Americans wanted to end the Vietnam War. In
October 1972, Henry Kissinger announced that peace was near. In the 1972
presidential election, the Democrats nominated Senator George McGovern, a
critic of the war. However, many Americans were tired of protesters and
elected Nixon in a landslide.
Soon after the presidential election, in mid-December 1972, peace talks
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

broke down. South Vietnam refused to agree to any plan in which North
Vietnamese troops were left in South Vietnam. The next day Nixon began
massive bombing raids to force North Vietnam to return to negotiations. They
finally agreed. South Vietnam gave in to U.S. pressure and allowed North
Viet-namese troops to remain in the South. On January 27, 1973, an agreement
was signed to end the war. The United States agreed to withdraw its troops.
Both sides agreed to an exchange of prisoners of war. The United States’s
direct involvement in Vietnam had ended.
In March 1975, shortly after the United States pulled out the last of its
troops, North Vietnam started a full-scale invasion of South Vietnam. South
Vietnam asked the United States for help. President Nixon had promised such
help during the negotiations. However, he had resigned following the
Watergate scandal. President Ford asked Congress for funds to help South
Vietnam, but Congress refused to do so. On April 30, 1975, North Vietnam
captured Saigon, the capital of South Vietnam. It united Vietnam under
Communist rule and renamed Saigon Ho Chi Minh City.

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Study Guide
Chapter 25, Section 4 (continued)

10. What happened after the United States troops left Vietnam?

• The Legacy of Vietnam (page 793)

The Vietnam War left lasting effects on the United States. It had cost more
than $170 billion. It resulted in the deaths of about 58,000 Americans and in
the injuries of more than 300,000. In Vietnam, about one million North and
South Vietnamese had died. The war had a psychological impact on many
American soldiers. Many Americans considered the war a defeat. As a result,
the sacrifices made by many veterans were left unrecognized. There were few
welcome-home parades for American soldiers. The war continued for many
American families whose relatives were prisoners of war or missing in action.
In 1973 Congress passed the War Powers Act. This was an attempt to set lim-
its on the power of the president. The law required the president to inform
Congress of any commitment of troops within 48 hours. It also required the
president to withdraw troops in 60 to 90 days unless Congress approved the
troop commitment.

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

After the Vietnam War, many Americans became more reluctant to involve
the United States in the affairs of other nations. The Vietnam War also
increased Americans’ cynicism about their government. Many believed that
the government had misled them.
11. How were the veterans of the Vietnam War often treated on their return home?

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Study Guide
Chapter 26, Section 1
For use with textbook pages 800–805

THE STUDENT MOVEMENT AND THE COUNTERCULTURE

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
Port Huron Statement declaration by the Students for a Democratic Society that called for citi-
zens to stop accepting a country run by big corporations and big government (page 801)
Tom Hayden author of the Port Huron Statement (page 801)
counterculture youth who adopted alternative ways of life (page 802)
communes group living arrangements in which members shared everything and worked
together (page 803)
Haight-Ashbury district a popular hippie destination in San Francisco (page 803)
Jimi Hendrix musician who was a master at the electrically amplified guitar (page 805)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

What image comes to mind when you hear the word “hippie”? From where
have these images come?
In this section, you will learn about the youth movement in the United
States. You will also learn how the youth movement affected the nation’s
culture.
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the diagram below to help you take notes. The counterculture affected
American society in several ways. Describe these ways in the diagram.

1. 2.

Effects of
Counterculture

3.

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Study Guide
Chapter 26, Section 1 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• The Growth of the Youth Movement (page 800)
The 1960s saw the rise of a youth movement. The movement challenged
American politics and society. Although the nation enjoyed economic prosper-
ity in the 1950s, this prosperity did not affect everyone. The writers and artists
of the “beat” movement criticized American society. The nuclear arms race
made many young people in the United States uneasy about the future. This
unease led many young people to become involved in social causes, such as
the civil rights movement.
Because of the baby boom, the early 1960s saw an increase in the number of
young people enrolled in college. The economic boom of the 1950s allowed
more families to be able to afford college. Young people in college were able to
meet and bond with others who shared their feelings and concerns. As a
result, protest movements were loudest on college campuses.
A group of college students was concerned about the injustices that it saw
in the nation’s politics and society. The members of this group believed that a
few wealthy people controlled politics. One organization of this group was
the Students for a Democratic Society (SDS). It set its views in a 1962 declara-
tion known as the Port Huron Statement, written largely by Tom Hayden. He
was the editor of the University of Michigan’s student newspaper. The decla-
ration called for an end to apathy and for citizens to stop accepting a country
that was run by big corporations and big government. SDS groups protested
the Vietnam War. They also focused on issues such as poverty and racism.
Another group of activists were the members of the Free Speech Movement.

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

The movement started in 1964 after the University of California at Berkeley
decided to restrict students’ rights to distribute literature and to recruit people
for political causes on campus. As on other campuses, students at Berkeley
were often taught by graduate students. Many professors were too busy with
research to meet with students. Administrators made rules that were not easy
to obey. Students felt isolated and found a purpose in the Free Speech
Movement. A struggle between school administrators and students led to a
sit-in at the administration building. The California governor sent in 600 police
officers who arrested more than 700 protesters. The arrests triggered larger
protests. Much of the faculty supported the Free Speech Movement, which led
the administration to give in to the students’ demands. The Supreme Court
upheld the students’ rights to freedom of speech and assembly.
4. Why did colleges see an increased enrollment in the early 1960s?

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Study Guide
Chapter 26, Section 1 (continued)

• The Counterculture (page 802)

In the 1960s, thousands of mostly white middle- and upper-class youths
created an alternative lifestyle. They became known as the counterculture.
They were commonly called “hippies.” The hippies rebelled against the domi-
nant culture in the United States. They rejected the traditional middle-class
values. The counterculture had an ideal of a society that was freer and full of
love and empathy. As the movement grew larger, however, the newcomers
did not understand the original ideas of the counterculture. For these people,
what mattered were the outward signs such as long hair, shabby jeans, and
the use of drugs.
Many hippies left home and lived together with other young people in
communes. These were group living arrangements in which members shared
everything and worked together. A popular hippie destination in the mid-
1960s was the Haight-Ashbury district in San Francisco.
Many members of the counterculture looked to various beliefs ranging
from astrology to Eastern religions and new forms of Christianity. Some reli-
gious groups centered around authoritarian leaders who controlled the lives
of the group members. Parents accused religious sects of using mind-control
techniques on their children. Two such new religious groups in the 1960s were
the Unification Church and the Hare Krishna movement.
The counterculture began to deteriorate after a few years. Many young peo-
ple of the counterculture gradually returned to mainstream society.
5. What did members of the counterculture rebel against?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

• Impact of the Counterculture (page 803)

The counterculture did change American life. It changed the fashion indus-
try, which took its cues from the young men and women. Clothing became
more colorful and more comfortable. Ethnic clothing became popular. Beads
imitated Native American costumes. Tie-dyed shirts borrowed techniques
from India and Africa. Longer hair on men and more individual clothes for
both men and women became generally accepted. Clothing of the countercul-
ture soon became mainstream.

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Study Guide
Chapter 26, Section 1 (continued)

During the 1960s, there was less distinction between traditional art and
popular art, or pop art. The subject of pop art came from parts of the popular
culture, such as photographs and advertisements.
Counterculture music became part of the mainstream. The Beatles were one
of the most famous of the counterculture musicians. They inspired many
other rock ’n’ roll groups both in Great Britain and in the United States. The
lyrics of much of the counterculture music spoke to the fears of the young
people and to the widening gap between them and their parents. Electrically
amplified instruments changed the sound of the new music. A master of the
new guitar sound was Jimi Hendrix. Thousands of people got together to cele-
brate the new music at rock festivals such as Woodstock, in New York, and
Altamont, in California. The style of dancing had also changed. People
danced individually without a partner and were surrounded by other people
who danced alone.
6. How did the counterculture change fashion in the United States?

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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Study Guide
Chapter 26, Section 2
For use with textbook pages 806–810

THE FEMINIST MOVEMENT

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
feminism the belief that men and women should be equal politically, economically, and socially
(page 807)
Equal Pay Act a law that outlawed paying men more than women for the same job (page 807)
Equal Employment Opportunity Commission federal agency in charge of administering the new
legislation for women (page 808)
Betty Friedan writer who wrote The Feminine Mystique (page 808)
National Organization for Women the national women’s organization started in the mid-1960s
(page 808)
Title IX part of a law that prohibited federally funded schools from discriminating against girls
and young women in all aspects of their operations (page 809)
Phyllis Schlafly an outspoken opponent of the Equal Rights Amendment (page 810)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

What issues do you think women face today? How do you think these
issues are being addressed?
The last section described the effect of the youth movement in the United
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

States. This section discusses the achievements of the women’s movement in

the United States.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the chart below to help you take notes. The women’s movement in the
1960s addressed several issues. Identify these issues in the chart.

Issues Addressed by the Women’s Movement

1.

2.

3.

4.

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Study Guide
Chapter 26, Section 2 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• A Weakened Women’s Movement (page 806)
By the early 1960s, many women in the United States became dissatisfied
with their roles as homemakers. Those women who worked outside the home
recognized that they received lower pay and fewer opportunities than men.
The situation led to the start of a new feminist movement in the 1960s. Since
the adoption of the Nineteenth Amendment in 1920, feminism, or the belief
that men and women should be equal politically, economically, and socially,
had been an issue. Soon after the Nineteenth Amendment was passed, the
women’s movement split into two groups. One group was the League of
Women Voters. It worked to promote laws to protect women and children,
such as limiting the hours they could work. Another group was the National
Woman’s Party (NWP). This group opposed protective laws for women.
Instead, the NWP persuaded some members of Congress to introduce the first
Equal Rights Amendment. The amendment was to forbid federal, state, and
local laws from discriminating on the basis of gender. However, Congress
ignored the proposed amendment.
During World War II, women became an important part of the nation’s
workforce. When the war ended, many women lost their jobs to the men who
returned home. However, many women gradually reentered the labor force.
By 1960 they made up almost 40 percent of the nation’s workforce.
5. What situation led to the development of a new feminist movement in the 1960s?

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

• The Women’s Movement Reawakens (page 807)

By the 1960s, many women were resentful of being discriminated against
because of gender. This was particularly true in the workforce, where women
worked at lower-paying jobs. Women also had a better understanding of their
unequal status from their work in the civil rights and antiwar movements.
Very often women in these movements were not part of any policy decisions.
This awareness led to a new feminist movement across the United States. It
was part of the 1960s pursuit for rights.

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Study Guide
Chapter 26, Section 2 (continued)

The women’s movement came to life as a result of the mass protest of ordi-
nary women and the President’s Commission on the Status of Women.
President Kennedy appointed the commission to study the status of women in
the United States. The commission’s report pointed to the problems of women
in the workplace. It helped put together a network of feminist activists who
lobbied Congress for women’s laws. In 1963 they won the passage of the
Equal Pay Act. The law outlawed paying men more than women for the same
job. Congress also added a measure to the 1964 Civil Rights Act. It was called
Title VII and it outlawed job discrimination by private employers on the basis
of race, religion, national origin, and gender. The Equal Employment
Opportunity Commission (EEOC) was a federal agency set up to administer
these laws. However, even this commission still held on to the belief that jobs
should be distinguished by gender.
Many people date the start of the new women’s movement from the publi-
cation in 1963 of The Feminine Mystique by Betty Friedan. Friedan had
interviewed women who had graduated with her from college and found that
many of them felt unfulfilled, despite having everything they could want in
life. The book became a bestseller and allowed many women to share their
feelings and build a base for a nationwide movement.
In June 1966, Friedan and others began considering the need for women to
form a national organization. This led to the start of the National Organization
for Women (NOW). The organization demanded greater educational opportu-
nities for women. It focused on helping women in the workplace. They fought
against the practice of paying women less than men for the same work. The
organization pushed for the passage of the Equal Rights Amendment. It also
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

published its own magazine, Ms. The editor of the magazine was Gloria
Steinem, one of the leading figures of NOW.
6. What do many people date as the start of the new women’s movement in the United States
in the mid-1960s?

• Successes and Failures (page 808)

A major accomplishment of the women’s movement was gaining greater
equality for women in education. Leaders of the movement pushed lawmak-
ers to pass federal laws banning discrimination in education. In 1972 Congress
passed a collection of laws known as the Educational Amendments. One part

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Study Guide
Chapter 26, Section 2 (continued)

of these laws was Title IX. It prohibited federally funded schools from discrim-
inating against girls and young women in all aspects of their operations.
An important goal for many women was the repeal of laws against abor-
tion. Until 1973, the right to regulate abortion was given to the states. In that
year, the Supreme Court ruled in Roe v. Wade that state governments could not
regulate abortion during the first three months of pregnancy. This was inter-
preted as being within a woman’s constitutional right to privacy. The decision
led to the rise of the right-to-life movement. Members of this movement con-
sidered abortion an absolute wrong and wanted it to be banned.
In 1972 Congress passed the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA). Under this
amendment, protection against discrimination on the basis of gender would
become part of the Constitution if 38 states ratified it. Opposition to the ERA
had been growing. Many people saw it as a threat to traditional values. Some
women opposed it because they feared that it would take away the legal
rights of wives. A vocal opponent of the ERA was Phyllis Schlafly. She organ-
ized the nationwide Stop-ERA campaign. She argued that the ERA would take
away many of the rights that women already had, such as alimony after a
divorce. The ERA failed to be ratified by three votes, and it finally failed in
1982.
7. What was the significance of Title IX?

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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Study Guide
Chapter 26, Section 3
For use with textbook pages 812–817

NEW APPROACHES TO CIVIL RIGHTS

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
affirmative action a policy that called for companies and institutions doing business with the
federal government to actively recruit African American employees (page 813)
Allan Bakke student who challenged the affirmative action policy (page 813)
busing the transporting of children to schools outside their neighborhoods to gain greater
racial balance (page 814)
Jesse Jackson a civil rights activist and founder of People United to Save Humanity (PUSH).
(page 814)
Congressional Black Caucus an organization of African American members of Congress to more
clearly represent the legislative concerns of African Americans (page 815)
César Chávez civil rights activist and organizer of a group that fought for the rights of
farmworkers (page 815)
La Raza Unida Hispanic American political party formed in Texas in 1969 (page 815)
bilingualism the practice of teaching immigrant students in their own language while they also
learned English (page 815)
American Indian Movement a militant Native American group (page 816)
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

What methods do groups in the United States today use to urge the govern-
ment to address issues that are important to them? What methods do you
think are most effective? Why?
The last section discussed the achievements of the women’s movement in
the United States. This section discusses the ways that minority groups sought
to increase their civil rights.

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Study Guide
Chapter 26, Section 3 (continued)

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the diagram below to help you take notes. In the late 1960s and 1970s,
minority groups formed organizations to increase their civil rights. Describe
the work of each of the organizations listed in the diagram.

Work of Minority Organizations

Congressional United Farm La Raza Unida American Indian

Black Caucus Workers Movement
1. 2. 3. 4.

READ TO LEARNII
• Fighting for Greater Opportunity (page 812)
By the late 1960s, laws banned racial discrimination. However, most
African Americans saw little improvement in their daily lives. Getting good
jobs and a good education was difficult. As a result, civil rights leaders began
focusing on these issues. They looked to affirmative action. It called for com-
panies and institutions doing business with the federal government to
actively recruit African American employees. This would be enforced through

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

federal laws and with the hope that this would lead to improved social and
economic conditions for African Americans. In Atlanta, Mayor Maynard
Jackson, an African American, opened bidding for the expansion of the city’s
airport more widely to minority companies. As a result, small and minority
companies made up 25 percent of all airport construction work.
Critics of affirmative action called it “reverse discrimination.” In 1974 an
application to the University of California Medical School by a white appli-
cant named Allan Bakke was turned down. Bakke found out that slots had
been set aside for minorities, some of whom had scored lower than Bakke on
their exams. He sued the school, arguing that the school discriminated against
him because of his race. In 1978 the Supreme Court ruled that the university
did violate Bakke’s rights. However, it also ruled that schools could use racial
criteria for admission as long as they did not use fixed quotas.
Civil rights leaders also worked for educational improvements. Even after
the Supreme Court ruling in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas,
many schools in the 1960s remained segregated. Since children normally went
to neighborhood schools, segregation in the schools reflected the racial segre-
gation of neighborhoods. As a result, a number of local governments started a

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Study Guide
Chapter 26, Section 3 (continued)

policy known as busing, or transporting children to schools outside their

neighborhoods to gain greater racial balance. The Supreme Court ruled that
busing was constitutional. Many whites, however, opposed busing. Many
took their children out of public schools. By 1976 African Americans and other
minorities made up the majority of Boston’s public school students.
African Americans found new political leaders. One leader was Jesse
Jackson. Jackson was an activist during the civil rights movement. He contin-
ued working to improve the economic and political situation of African
Americans. He founded People United to Save Humanity (PUSH). The organ-
ization’s goal was to register voters, develop African American businesses,
and improve educational opportunities.
African Americans gained influence in Congress. In 1971 African American
members of Congress formed the Congressional Black Caucus. It was organized
to better represent the legislative concerns of African Americans. It promoted
African American interests in areas such as health care and economics.
5. What was the purpose of busing?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

• Hispanic Americans Organize (page 815)

Hispanics in the 1960s also worked to gain greater rights. Hispanics came
to the United States from different places and for different reasons. Hispanics,
like other immigrant groups, experienced prejudice and a lack of access to
proper housing and employment. Encouraged by the civil rights movement,
they began to organize a protest movement.
Hispanics began working to win rights for farmworkers. Most Mexican
American farmworkers earned little money and had few benefits. In the early
1960s, César Chávez and Dolores Huerta organized two groups that fought for
the rights of farmworkers. They staged successful protests and a nationwide
boycott against California grape growers. In 1966 Chávez and Huerta merged
their organizations into the United Farm Workers (UFW). They continued
their boycott until 1970, when the grape growers agreed to a contract to raise
wages and improve working conditions.
Hispanic Americans also became more politically active. In 1969 a new
political party called La Raza Unida was organized. The group mobilized
Mexican American voters to support programs that called for job-training pro-
grams and greater access to financial institutions. Another issue that both

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Study Guide
Chapter 26, Section 3 (continued)

Hispanic students and political leaders worked for was bilingualism. This is
the practice of teaching immigrant students in their own language while they
also learned English. Congress responded by passing the Bilingual Education
Act in 1968. Some American voters opposed bilingual education because they
believed that it made it more difficult for a child to adjust to American cul-
ture. The U.S. Supreme Court ruled in favor of bilingualism in 1974.
6. For what did César Chávez work?

• Native Americans Raise Their Voices (page 816)

Native Americans suffered many injustices. Their unemployment rate was
10 times the national rate. Unemployment was especially high on reservation
lands. More than half of Native Americans lived on these lands. Life
expectancy for Native Americans was about seven years below the national
average. In the late 1960s and 1970s, many Native Americans began to organ-
ize to improve these conditions.

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Native Americans called for better economic opportunities on reservations.
Many wanted greater independence from the mainstream society in the
United States. In 1968 Congress passed the Indian Civil Rights Act. The law
guaranteed Native Americans on reservations the protection of the Bill of
Rights. It also recognized local reservation law. Some Native Americans
believed the government was not doing enough. They formed more militant
groups such as the American Indian Movement (AIM). In February 1973, mem-
bers of AIM occupied the town of Wounded Knee, where federal troops had
killed around 150 Sioux in 1890. The AIM members demanded changes in the
way the reservations were run. They also wanted the government to honor its
treaty obligations to Native Americans. A clash occurred between the Native
Americans and the FBI. Two Native Americans were killed and several people
were wounded. The takeover ended a short time later.
The Native American movement did have some successes. In 1975
Congress passed the Indian Self-Determination and Educational Assistance
Act. The law increased funds for Native American education. It increased the
role of Native Americans in administering federal programs. By working
through the courts, Native Americans won a number of land and water rights

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Study Guide
Chapter 26, Section 3 (continued)

that they worked for. They have also developed businesses on reservations,
which are operated under the laws of the reservation.
7. What did the Indian Civil Rights Act provide?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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Study Guide
Chapter 26, Section 4
For use with textbook pages 819–823

SAVING THE EARTH

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
Rachel Carson author who wrote against the dangers of pesticides in Silent Spring (page 820)
smog fog made heavier and darker by smoke and chemical fumes (page 820)
Environmental Protection Agency a government agency established to set and enforce pollu-
tion standards (page 821)
fossil fuels coal, oil, and natural gas (page 822)
Three Mile Island a nuclear facility outside Harrisburg, Pennsylvania (page 822)
Ralph Nader the leading figure in the consumer protection movement (page 823)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

What steps does your local government take to protect your community’s
environment? What actions do you and your family take?
The last section described the ways that minority groups sought to increase
their civil rights. This section discusses the beginnings of the environmental
movement and the consumer movement.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Use the cause-and-effect diagram below to help you take notes. Several
incidents in the 1960s and 1970s had a great effect on the nation’s environ-
ment. List the effects in the diagram.
Cause Effect

Rachel Carson wrote

1.
Silent Spring.

Congress passed several pieces

2.
of environmental legislation.

The Three Mile Island

3.
accident occurred.

Ralph Nader wrote Unsafe at

4.
Any Speed.

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Study Guide
Chapter 26, Section 4 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• The Beginnings of Environmentalism (page 819)
In the 1960s and 1970s, many Americans began to look more closely at the
effects of industrialism on the environment. They were alarmed at what they
found. The United States seemed to have little concern for the environment.
Pesticides had damaged a wide range of wildlife. Pollution had damaged the
air and the water. Nuclear energy was used more and more. In her book Silent
Spring, Rachel Carson wrote of the danger in the increasing use of pesticides,
particularly DDT. She wrote that although pesticides killed insect populations,
they also killed birds, fish, and other animals. Carson’s book became one of
the most powerful books of the 1960s. Many Americans took Carson’s warn-
ings seriously. They began to focus on environmental issues.
5. What effect did Rachel Carson’s book have on many Americans?

• The Environmental Movement (page 820)

By the late 1960s, environmental problems existed in every region of the
nation. Acres of forestland were being cut down in the Northwest. Smog, or fog
made heavier and darker by smoke and chemical fumes, covered many cities.
Pollution and garbage had caused the death of nearly all the fish in Lake Erie.
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Many people believed it was time to take action to protect the environment.
The environmental movement began officially in April 1970. That month
the nation held the first Earth Day. It was a day devoted to addressing envi-
ronmental issues. Millions of Americans participated in some way to show
environmental awareness. After Earth Day, many people formed local envi-
ronmental groups. Organizations such as the Sierra Club and the Wilderness
Society became well-known. The federal government soon became involved
with environmental issues. In 1970 the Environmental Protection Agency was
established. Its job was to set and enforce pollution standards. The agency
also coordinated anti-pollution activities with state and local governments.
The Clean Air Act set up air emissions standards for factories and automo-
biles. The Clean Water Act limited the amount of pollutants that could be
discharged into the nation’s lakes and rivers. The Endangered Species Act set
up measures for saving threatened animal species. Eventually, these laws
improved the condition of the nation’s environment.
In the 1970s, people living in the Love Canal—a housing development near
Niagara Falls, New York—noticed a high rate of health problems in their com-
munity. The problems included nerve damage, blood diseases, and cancer.
The people learned that their community was located on top of an old toxic

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Study Guide
Chapter 26, Section 4 (continued)

waste dump. The hazardous materials in the dump had leaked into the
ground. The people of Love Canal demanded that the government address
the problem. After they made the problem known to the entire nation, the
state relocated about 200 families. In 1980 President Carter declared the Love
Canal a federal disaster area. He moved the 600 remaining families to new
locations. The Love Canal residents sued the company that created the dump-
site. They settled the case for $20 million. The site was cleaned up and homes
above the dumping ground were burned.
During the 1970s, many Americans were concerned over the growth of
nuclear power. Those who supported the use of nuclear power claimed it was
a cleaner and less expensive alternative to fossil fuels, such as coal, oil, or nat-
ural gas. Those who opposed the use of nuclear power warned of the risks
that nuclear energy posed, particularly if radiation was accidentally released
into the air. On March 28, 1979, one of the reactors at the Three Mile Island
nuclear facility outside Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, overheated. Later, low lev-
els of radiation escaped from the reactor. Nearby residents were evacuated.
Others left on their own. Citizens staged protests. The reactor was closed
down and the leak was sealed. The Three Mile Island accident left many peo-
ple doubtful about the safety of nuclear energy. The doubts continue today.
6. What effect did the accident at Three Mile Island have on Americans?

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

• The Consumer Movement (page 822)
Many Americans in the 1960s and 1970s began questioning the quality and
safety of many new technological products. Some people began to demand
government involvement in setting up a consumer policy to ensure product
safety and accurate information about products that consumers were buying.
The most famous personality in the new consumer movement was Ralph
Nader. In the 1960s, he began noticing a high number of deaths from automo-
bile accidents. He researched the problem and presented his findings in a
book titled Unsafe at Any Speed. The book charged that car manufacturers put
style and cost ahead of safety. Nader’s work helped to get Congress to pass
the National Traffic and Motor Vehicle Safety Act in 1966. The law set manda-
tory standards and established a system for notifying car owners about
defects. Carmakers had to incorporate safety standards into their car designs.
Nader was also successful in getting laws passed that regulated products such
as dangerous toys and unsafe meat and poultry.
7. How did Congress respond to Ralph Nader’s findings regarding automobile safety?

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Study Guide
Chapter 27, Section 1
For use with textbook pages 832–837

THE NIXON ADMINISTRATION

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
Southern strategy the effort by President Nixon to win more Southerners to the Republican
Party (page 834)
revenue sharing bills that granted federal funds to state and local agencies to use as they saw
fit (page 834)
impound refuse to release (page 835)
Henry Kissinger national security adviser under President Nixon (page 835)
détente the relaxation of tensions between the United States and its two major Communist
rivals (page 836)
summit high-level diplomatic meeting (page 837)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

What kinds of problems did the United States face at the end of President
Johnson’s administration? Which problem do you think would be the most
important one for the next president to address?
In this section, you will learn about President Nixon’s domestic policy. You
will also learn about his foreign policy.
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the diagram below to help you take notes. President Nixon’s foreign
policy was one of détente. List some of the results of détente in the diagram.

1. 2.

Results of
Détente

3. 4.

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Study Guide
Chapter 27, Section 1 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• Appealing to Middle America (page 832)
In the late 1960s, many Americans longed for the violence in the nation to
stop. The Republican candidate for president in 1968, Richard Nixon,
appealed to these Americans. Nixon promised peace in Vietnam, law and
order, and a return to more conservative values. Hubert Humphrey was the
Democratic presidential candidate. George Wallace was the third-party candi-
date. Nixon won the election.
An important reason for Nixon’s victory was the support he received in the
South. Nixon gained support by promising several things. He promised to
appoint only conservatives to the federal courts and to appoint a Southerner
to the Supreme Court. He promised to oppose court-ordered busing and to
choose a vice presidential candidate acceptable to the South. Nixon chose
Spiro Agnew, who was from Maryland. Nixon’s promises paid off. On elec-
tion day, Nixon carried several southern states. After his victory, Nixon set out
to bring more Southerners to the Republican Party. This effort became known
as the Southern strategy. Nixon made good on his promises and took steps to
slow desegregation.
Nixon set out to deliver on his promise to restore law and order. He tar-
geted the antiwar protesters. Nixon also went against the Supreme Court
rulings that expanded the rights of accused criminals. He openly criticized the
rulings and Chief Justice Earl Warren. When Warren resigned after Nixon took
office, Nixon replaced him with a conservative judge, Warren Burger. The
Burger Court did not reverse the rulings on the rights of criminal suspects,

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

but it did refuse to expand those rights.
Nixon’s domestic policies became known as New Federalism. It called for
getting rid of several federal programs and giving more control to state and
local governments. Nixon claimed that this would give the government agen-
cies that were closest to the people the opportunity to address problems.
Under New Federalism, Congress passed revenue sharing bills, which granted
federal money to state and local agencies. Although revenue sharing was sup-
posed to give state and local governments more power, it actually increased
federal power. States came to depend on federal funds, but the federal gov-
ernment could impose conditions on the states. Unless states met these
conditions, the funds would be cut off.
Nixon tried to increase the power of the executive branch. If Congress set
aside money for programs he opposed, Nixon impounded, or refused to
release the funds.
President Nixon wanted to reform the nation’s welfare system. Both
Republicans and Democrats criticized the program. Many argued that the pro-
gram was set up in such a way that it was better for poor people to apply for
benefits rather than taking low-paying jobs. To replace this program, in 1969

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Study Guide
Chapter 27, Section 1 (continued)

Nixon proposed the Family Assistance Plan. It gave needy families $1,600 per
year. That amount could be supplemented by outside earnings. The House of
Representatives approved the plan in 1970. However, it was defeated in the
Senate.
5. What did President Nixon do to keep his promise of restoring law and order?

• Nixon’s Foreign Policy (page 835)

President Nixon was more interested in foreign affairs than in domestic
ones. He chose Henry Kissinger as his national security adviser. He took the
lead in helping Nixon shape his foreign policy.
Both Nixon and Kissinger believed that the United States would have to
gradually withdraw from Vietnam. Both believed that the nation’s policy
against communism was too rigid and worked against the interest of the
United States. They wanted to contain communism, but they believed that
negotiation was a better way to achieve the goal. As a result, they began
friendlier relations with China and the Soviet Union.
Kissinger and Nixon developed an approach called détente, or relaxation of
tensions between the United States and its two major Communist rivals—
China and the Soviet Union. Nixon claimed that the United States had to
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

build a better relationship with the two countries in the interests of world
peace.
In 1972 Nixon made a historic visit to China. Leaders of both nations
agreed to set up more normal relations between their countries. Nixon
believed that relaxing tensions with China would encourage the Soviet Union
to do so. Shortly after negotiations with China took place, the Soviets pro-
posed a summit, or high-level diplomatic meeting, to be held between the
United States and the Soviet Union. During the summit, the two countries
signed the first Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty, or SALT I. This was a plan to
limit nuclear arms. The two nations also agreed to increase trade and to
exchange scientific information.
6. What was the purpose of SALT I?

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Study Guide
Chapter 27, Section 2
For use with textbook pages 838–842

THE WATERGATE SCANDAL

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
Sam J. Ervin a senator and head of the Senate’s Select Committee on Presidential Campaign
Activities (page 840)
John Dean the counsel to President Nixon, who testified that Nixon played an active role in the
Watergate cover-up (page 840)
executive privilege the principle that White House conversations should remain confidential to
protect national security (page 841)
impeach official charges of presidential misconduct (page 841)
Federal Campaign Act Amendments A law that limited campaign contributions and set up an
independent agency to administer stricter election laws (page 842)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

What does the term Watergate mean to you? Whom did the Watergate scan-
dal involve? How do you know about the Watergate scandal?
The last section discussed the domestic and foreign policies of President
Nixon. This section discusses the events that led to the Watergate scandal and
the effects of the scandal.

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII
Use the cause-and-effect diagram below to help you take notes. The
Watergate crisis affected Congress and the American people. List these effects
in the diagram.

Cause Effects
1.

Watergate 2.
Crisis
3.

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Study Guide
Chapter 27, Section 2 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• The Roots of Watergate (page 838)
President Nixon’s administration became involved in what became known
as Watergate. It was an attempt by members of Nixon’s administration to
cover up its involvement in the break-in at the Democratic National
Committee (DNC) headquarters at the Watergate apartment-office complex.
Although the scandal began with the burglary, many experts believe that the
scandal was due in large part to the character of Richard Nixon. He had suf-
fered several political defeats during his career and had to fight hard to win
the presidential election in 1968. Over the years, he had grown defensive and
secretive. Nixon became president when the United States was still in turmoil
over the Vietnam War. He viewed protesters as people out to bring down his
administration. He even developed an “enemies list” of people he considered
a threat to his presidency.
Nixon was expected to win the 1972 presidential election. His approval
rating was high, particularly for his foreign policy in China and the Soviet
Union. However, the Vietnam War was continuing. Nixon and his advisers
also remembered that he won the 1968 election by a slim margin. As a result,
his team tried to gain an edge in every way they could. This included spying
on the opposition, spreading rumors, and stealing information from the
Democratic Party’s headquarters. Five Nixon supporters broke into the party’s
office. As the burglars were at work on June 17, 1972, a security guard found a
piece of tape holding a door lock. He took the tape off, but when he returned
he found that it had been replaced. He called the police, who arrested the men.
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

One of the burglars, James McCord, was a member of the Committee for
the Re-election of the President (CRP). As questions came up about the White
House connection to the burglary, the cover-up began. Members of the admin-
istration destroyed documents and gave false testimony to investigators.
Although President Nixon may not have ordered the break-in, he did order
the cover-up. Members of the administration asked the CIA to stop the FBI
from asking about the source of the money paid to the burglars. They argued
that such an investigation would threaten national security. At the same time,
the White House denied any involvement in the break-in. Most Americans
believed the denial and re-elected Nixon in the November 1972 election. He
won by one of the largest margins in history.
4. Why did members of Nixon’s administration order a break-in into the Democratic Party’s
headquarters?

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Study Guide
Chapter 27, Section 2 (continued)

• The Cover-Up Unravels (page 840)

The Watergate burglars went on trial in 1973. James McCord agreed to
cooperate with the grand jury investigation and with the Senate’s Select
Committee on Presidential Campaign Activities. Senator Sam J. Ervin headed
the committee. Many confessions came forward after McCord’s testimony.
A major confession came from John Dean, the counsel to the president. In
June 1973, Dean testified that former Attorney General John Mitchell had
ordered the Watergate break-in and that Nixon had played an active role in
covering it up. The Nixon administration denied the charges. The committee
then tried to determine who was telling the truth. Then on July 16, White
House aide Alexander Butterfield testified that Nixon had ordered a taping
system installed in the White House to record conversations. The committee
believed that the tapes would tell them what they needed to know.
Everyone wanted the tapes. However, President Nixon claimed executive
privilege. This is the principle that White House conversations should remain
confidential to protect national security. He refused to give up the tapes.
Archibald Cox, a special prosecutor appointed by the president to handle the
Watergate cases, took Nixon to court in October 1973, to force him to give up
the tapes. Nixon ordered Attorney General Elliot Richardson to fire Cox. He
refused to do so and resigned in protest. Finally, Solicitor General Robert Bork
fired Cox. The incident damaged Nixon’s reputation with the public.
Also in the fall of 1973, Vice President Spiro Agnew was forced to resign
because he had taken bribes from state contractors while he was governor of
Maryland and while he was serving in Washington. Gerald Ford, the

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Republican leader of the House of Representatives, became the new vice
president.
President Nixon appointed a new special prosecutor, Leon Jaworski, who
also wanted the president’s tapes. In April 1974, Nixon released edited notes
of the tapes that he believed proved his innocence. However, investigators did
not believe so and wanted the unedited tapes. In July the Supreme Court
ruled that the president had to turn over the tapes themselves, not just the
transcripts.
A few days later, the House Judiciary Committee voted to impeach Nixon,
or officially charge him with presidential misconduct. The committee charged
that Nixon had obstructed justice in the Watergate cover-up. The next step
was for the entire House of Representatives to vote whether or not to
impeach.
Investigators also found evidence against the president. One of the tapes
showed that on June 23, 1972, just a few days after the burglary, Nixon had
ordered the CIA to stop the FBI’s investigation of the break-in. Nixon’s
impeachment and conviction by the Senate now seemed certain. As a result,
on August 9, 1974, Nixon resigned his office. Gerald Ford became president.

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Study Guide
Chapter 27, Section 2 (continued)

5. Why was John Dean’s testimony in the Watergate investigation significant?

• The Impact of Watergate (page 842)

After the Watergate crisis, Congress passed a number of laws to limit the
power of the executive branch and to get a greater balance of power in gov-
ernment. The Federal Campaign Act Amendments limited campaign
contributions, and it set up an independent agency to administer stricter elec-
tion laws. The Ethics in Government Act required that high government
officials in all three branches of government provide financial disclosures.
Watergate made many Americans distrust their public officials. Other
Americans saw Watergate as proof that no person in the United States is
above the law.
6. Why did Congress pass several laws after the Watergate crisis?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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Study Guide
Chapter 27, Section 3
For use with textbook pages 843–849

FORD AND CARTER

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
inflation a rise in the cost of goods (page 844)
embargo a stoppage of shipping (page 844)
stagflation a combination of rising prices and economic stagnation (page 844)
Helsinki Accords agreement signed in 1975 between the United States and the leaders of NATO
and the Warsaw Pact (page 846)
Department of Energy an executive department set up to deal with the nation’s energy
problems (page 847)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

What are the major sources of energy in the United States today? Do you
think conserving energy is an issue today? What steps do you and your fam-
ily take to conserve energy?
The last section discussed the Watergate scandal. This section discusses the
administrations of Presidents Ford and Carter.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Use the chart below to help you take notes. Both President Ford and
President Carter faced foreign policy issues. List these issues in the chart.

Foreign Policy Issues Under Foreign Policy Issues Under

President Ford President Carter
1. 3.

2. 4.

5.

6.

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Study Guide
Chapter 27, Section 3 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• The Economic Crisis of the 1970s (page 843)
The United States had enjoyed a strong economy during the 1950s and
1960s. This was due in large part because the United States had easy access to
raw materials and had a strong manufacturing industry at home. These condi-
tions had changed in the 1970s.
The economic problems had started under President Johnson. During the
Vietnam War, he increased government deficit spending to pay for the war
and to set up Great Society programs. This led to inflation, or a rise in the cost
of goods. The rising cost of raw materials was another cause of inflation.
The rising cost of oil greatly affected the nation’s economy. The United
States became dependent on imports from the Middle East and Africa. In the
early 1970s, the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)
decided to use oil as an economic and political weapon. In 1973 a war went
on between Israel and its Arab neighbors. U.S. support of Israel made
American relations with the Arab nations tense. OPEC decided that its mem-
bers would embargo, or stop shipping, oil to countries that supported Israel.
This included the United States. OPEC also raised the price of oil by 70 per-
cent and then by 130 percent. As a result, the United States had its first fuel
shortage since World War II.
OPEC ended the embargo a few months after it began. However, oil prices
continued to rise. The rapid increase in prices rapidly increased inflation.
Americans were paying high prices for gasoline and home heating. As a
result, they had little money to spend on other goods. The economy then went
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

into a recession.
By the 1970s, the United States manufacturing industry faced international
competition. Many manufacturing plants in the United States were not as new
as those in Japan and Europe. These changes forced many factories to close
and many people to be unemployed. In the early 1970s, Nixon faced a new
economic problem called stagflation. This was a combination of rising prices
and economic stagnation. Many economists did not think that inflation and
recession could exist at the same time. As a result, they did not know what
economic policies the government should set up.
Nixon decided to focus on controlling inflation. The government cut spend-
ing and raised taxes. However, Congress and the American people opposed
the idea of a tax hike. Nixon then tried to get the Federal Reserve to raise
interest rates. He hoped that this would reduce consumer spending and possi-
bly curb inflation. This plan failed. Nixon then placed a 90-day freeze on all
wages and prices. This plan also failed. When Nixon resigned, the inflation
rate remained high and the unemployment rate was increasing.

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Study Guide
Chapter 27, Section 3 (continued)

7. Why was it difficult for economists to set up a policy to deal with stagflation?

• Ford Takes Over (page 845)

President Ford attempted to restore American faith in its government lead-
ers. He granted a full pardon to Richard Nixon, hoping to bring that chapter
of the nation’s history to an end. He believed that doing so was in the public
interest. Nixon’s pardon was severely criticized. Ford’s popularity plunged
soon after the pardon.
By 1975 the economy of the United States was the worst it had been since
the Great Depression. Unemployment was at nearly nine percent. Ford
pushed for voluntary controls of wages and prices to help stop inflation. His
plan became known as WIN—Whip Inflation Now. The plan, however, failed.
Ford then tried reducing government spending and establishing higher inter-
est rates to curb inflation. This plan also failed. At the same time that Ford
was trying to improve the economy, he also tried to balance the budget and
keep taxes low.
Ford continued Nixon’s foreign policy. Kissinger remained the secretary of
state and continued the policy of détente. In 1975 Ford and the leaders of
NATO and the Warsaw Pact signed the Helsinki Accords. They agreed to recog-
nize the borders of Eastern Europe set up at the end of World War II. The

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Soviets promised to uphold basic human rights. Ford also faced problems in
Southeast Asia. Cambodia seized the Mayaguez, an American cargo ship trav-
eling near its shores. Cambodia said that the ship had been on an
intelligence-gathering mission. Ford sent U.S. Marines to get the ship back.
In 1976 Americans were unsure of the future. Rising inflation and unem-
ployment forced many Americans to change their lifestyle. The United States
also faced instability in foreign affairs. As the 1976 presidential election
approached, Americans hoped for a leader who could meet these challenges.
The Republicans nominated Gerald Ford. He ran against the Democratic can-
didate Jimmy Carter. Carter’s image as a moral and upstanding person
attracted many voters. Carter won the election by a narrow margin.
8. What was the public reaction to President Ford’s pardon of Richard Nixon?

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Study Guide
Chapter 27, Section 3 (continued)

• Carter Battles the Economic Crisis (page 846)

Carter decided to deal with the economy by increasing government spend-
ing and cutting taxes. When inflation rose in 1978, he changed his mind. He
tried to lower inflation by reducing the money supply and raising interest
rates. His plans, however, were unsuccessful.
Carter believed that the nation’s most serious problem was its dependence
on foreign oil. He proposed a national energy program to conserve oil and to
push for the use of coal and renewable energy sources such as solar power.
He also wanted Congress to create the Department of Energy. Carter also
asked Americans to reduce the amount of energy they used. Many people
ignored the request.
Many business leaders wanted President Carter to deregulate the oil indus-
try. These regulations limited the oil companies from passing on OPEC price
increases to American consumers. As a result, oil companies had a difficult
time making a profit. They then did not have enough money to invest in new
oil wells at home. These regulations and increased OPEC oil prices con-
tributed to the energy crisis on the 1970s. Carter agreed on deregulation, but
he insisted on a profit tax so that oil companies would not overcharge con-
sumers. The profit tax, however, did not free up money to find new sources of
oil. Carter’s plan to solve the energy problem did not work.
Many people have suggested that President Carter’s lack of leadership and
his inability to work with Congress caused his difficulties in solving the
nation’s economic problems. Carter reached out to Congress, so Congress
blocked many of his energy proposals. Carter also did not develop a theme
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

for his administration. By 1979 Carter’s popularity had dropped.

9. What did President Carter believe was the nation’s most serious problem?

• Carter’s Foreign Policy (page 847)

President Carter’s foreign policy was more clearly defined than his domes-
tic policy. He believed that the United States had to be honest and truthful in
dealing with other nations. In Latin America, Carter moved to give control of
the Panama Canal to the Panamanians on December 31, 1999. Carter pointed
to the Soviet Union as being a violator of human rights. He spoke against the
Soviet practice of imprisoning people who protested against the government.

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Study Guide
Chapter 27, Section 3 (continued)

When the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan in December 1979, Carter placed
an embargo on the sale of grain to the Soviet Union. He also led a boycott of
the 1980 Summer Olympic Games, which were held in Moscow. Under Carter,
détente practically came to an end.
Carter’s greatest success in foreign affairs had to do with the Middle East.
In 1978 Carter helped set up a peace treaty between Israel and Egypt known
as the Camp David Accords. It was signed in 1979 and marked the first step
in achieving peace in the region. A few months after the treaty, Carter faced
conflict in Iran. The United States had supported Iran’s ruler, the Shah,
because Iran was a major oil supplier. Iran was also a buffer against Soviet
expansion in the Middle East. However, the Shah was unpopular with
Iranians. He was repressive and tried to introduce Western ways that went
against traditional Islamic ways. In January 1979, Iranian protesters forced the
Shah to leave. They declared an Islamic republic, headed by religious leader
Ayatollah Khomeini. The new government distrusted the United States
because of its support of the Shah. In November 1979, revolutionaries seized
the American embassy in Tehran and held 52 American hostages.
President Carter tried unsuccessfully to negotiate for the hostages’ release.
In April 1980, he approved a daring military rescue mission, which failed and
resulted in the death of eight American servicemen. The hostage crisis contin-
ued into the fall. Carter’s failure to gain the release of the hostages contrib-
uted to his loss to Ronald Reagan in the 1980 presidential election.
Negotiations for the hostage release continued until Carter’s last day in office.
After 444 days in captivity, the hostages were released on January 20, 1981, the
day of Reagan’s inauguration.

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

10. What was President Carter’s greatest success in foreign affairs?

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Study Guide
Chapter 27, Section 4
For use with textbook pages 850–854

THE “ME” DECADE: LIFE IN THE 1970S

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
New Age movement secular movement of the 1970s (page 851)
gurus mystical leaders (page 851)
transcendental meditation a religious movement started by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi that
suggested daily meditation and the silent repetition of spiritual mantras (page 851)
All in the Family a situation comedy of the 1970s that confronted uncomfortable social issues
(page 852)
disco dance music with a loud and persistent beat that became popular in the 1970s (page 853)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

What kind of music is popular today? Who are your favorite musical
groups? What makes them your favorites?
The last section discussed the domestic and foreign policies of Presidents
Ford and Carter. This section discusses the cultural changes in the United
States in the 1970s.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Use the diagram below to help you take notes. Several fads became popular
during the 1970s. List these fads in the diagram.

2.

1. 3.

Fads of the
1970s

5. 4.

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Study Guide
Chapter 27, Section 4 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• The Search for Fulfillment (page 850)
Most Americans in the 1970s believed that the United States would move
beyond the Watergate scandal and the effects of the Vietnam War. Americans
found ways to cope with the tense times. Writer Tom Wolfe named the 1970s
the “me decade.” He was referring to the idea that many Americans looked
inward. They became self-absorbed and looked for greater individual
satisfaction.
Some young people moved away from their parents’ traditional religions.
They looked for fulfillment in secular movements and activities that made up
the New Age movement. Followers of this movement believed that people
were responsible for and capable of things such as self-healing. They believed
that spirituality could be found in common practices, not just in traditional
churchgoing. They tried activities such as yoga to gain spiritual awareness.
Many Americans who were dissatisfied with traditional religions joined
new religions, which were often referred to as cults. Some new wave religions
started in Asia and focused on the teachings of gurus, or mystical leaders. A
well-known guru was Maharishi Mahesh Yogi. He moved from India to the
United States, where he led a religious movement known as transcendental
meditation. It preached daily meditation. Followers believed that if all people
on Earth converted to transcendental meditation, the world would enjoy peace.
The search for fulfillment affected American families. By the 1970s, more
women had joined the workforce. Women aged 25 to 34 had the largest
annual percentage growth in the number of people joining the workforce

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

between 1970 and 1980. These changes led to changes in family life.
Americans were having smaller families. Parents and children were spending
less time together. The divorce rate doubled.
6. Why did Tom Wolfe call the 1970s the “me decade”?

• Cultural Trends in the 1970s (page 852)

Popular entertainment reflected the changes taking place in the 1970s. The
subjects of television programs had changed. The Mary Tyler Moore Show, for
example, was a situation comedy that focused on an unmarried woman with

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Study Guide
Chapter 27, Section 4 (continued)

a meaningful career. All in the Family took risks by addressing uncomfortable

social issues, such as racism. The program featured a bigoted Archie Bunker,
who argued with his liberal family members and neighbors about various
social issues. It provided viewers with a way to examine their own feelings
about issues such as racism. Other innovative programs included Good Times.
This program focused on an African American family struggling to raise their
children in a low-income housing development in Chicago.
The hard-driving rock of the 1960s moved to a softer sound in the 1970s.
Music became less political. The 1970s saw the rise of disco music.
Discotheques, which played dance music with a loud and persistent beat,
attracted many fans. Disco music reflected the “me generation.” It allowed the
people dancing to be more important than the actual music. Disco music
reached its peak after the 1977 movie Saturday Night Fever. The soundtrack
from the movie sold millions of copies and led to the increase of disco open-
ings throughout the country.
In addition to disco, other fads swept the nation in the 1970s. Many
Americans began wearing T-shirts with personalized messages. Teens enjoyed
skateboarding. Drivers began using citizen band (“CB”) radios in their vehi-
cles. This radio system allowed drivers to communicate with each other over
a two-way frequency. Drivers adopted their own CB name and talked to each
other using CB code words. Fitness was another trend in the 1970s. Americans
turned to exercise to improve the way they felt and looked. Aerobics became
popular because it provided a way to stay fit while having fun and interacting
with others. Running also became a popular way to stay fit.
7. How did television programs change during the 1970s?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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Study Guide
Chapter 28, Section 1
For use with textbook pages 860–864

THE NEW CONSERVATISM

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
liberal a person who believes in government intervention in economic matters but not in social
ones (page 861)
conservative a person who believes that government should not interfere in the nation’s econ-
omy and that religious commitment could best address issues of morality (page 861)
William F. Buckley a conservative whose magazine helped to revive conservative ideas in the
United States (page 861)
Sunbelt the South and West (page 862)
Billy Graham Protestant minister who helped build a religious revival in the United States
(page 864)
televangelists Christian evangelicals who reached a nationwide audience through television
(page 864)
Moral Majority a conservative movement started by evangelist Jerry Falwell (page 864)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

What do you think of when you hear the terms liberal and conservative? Do
you consider yourself a liberal or a conservative? Why?

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

In this section, you will learn about the conservative shift in the United
States in the 1980s. You will also learn about the effect of population shifts on
the nation.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the chart below to help you take notes. Conservatives and liberals had
different views. List these views in the chart.

Liberal Views Conservative Views

1. 5.

2. 6.

3. 7.

4. 8.

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Study Guide
Chapter 28, Section 1 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• Conservatism and Liberalism (page 860)
Liberal politics dominated the United States for much of the 1900s.
Conservative ideas gained strength during the 1980s. People who call them-
selves liberals believe that the government should regulate the economy and
help disadvantaged people. Liberals do not believe the government should
make any attempts to regulate social behavior. They believe that economic
inequality is the basis of most social problems.
Conservatives distrust the power of the government. They believe that gov-
ernment regulation of the economy weakens the economy. Conservatives
believe that most social problems result from issues of morality. They believe
that these issues are best solved through commitment to a religious faith.
9. How do liberal and conservative views regarding the government’s role in the economy differ?

• Conservatism Revives (page 861)

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Conservative ideas gained support after World War II for two main reasons.
First, some Americans believed that the government’s role in the economy
was leading the United States toward communism. The second reason had to
do with the fact that many Americans viewed the Cold War in religious terms.
Communism rejected religion and stressed material things. To Americans with
a deep religious faith, the struggle against communism was a struggle
between good and evil. As a result, many Americans turned away from liber-
alism, which stressed economic welfare. These Americans began to turn to
conservatism.
A conservative named William F. Buckley founded a new conservative maga-
zine called National Review. It helped to renew conservative ideas in the United
States. Conservatives began to push their ideas and demand a greater role in
the decision making of the Republican Party. By 1964 the conservative move-
ment became influential enough in the Republican Party to get conservative
Barry Goldwater nominated for president.

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Study Guide
Chapter 28, Section 1 (continued)

10. What was the effect of William F. Buckley’s magazine National Review?

• Conservatism Gains Support (page 862)

The events of the 1960s and 1970s convinced many Americans to support
conservatism. In the 1950s and early 1960s, conservative Americans generally
split their votes between Republicans and Democrats. The South and West
were generally more conservative than other parts of the country. Southern
conservatives generally voted for Democrats, while Western conservatives
generally voted for Republicans. This meant that whichever party won the
heavily-populated liberal Northeast vote, would win the election.
During World War II, many Americans moved south and west to get jobs in
the war factories. The movement to the South and West, which was known as
the Sunbelt, continued after the war. Americans who moved to the Sunbelt
began looking at government differently than people living in the Northeast.
Industry in the Northeast began to decline. As a result, the region had
many unemployed people and congested and polluted cities. Many
Americans in the region looked to the federal government to help them solve

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

their problems. Americans who lived in the Sunbelt opposed taxes and federal
regulations that might interfere with growth in the region. In the 1964 presi-
dential election, many Southerners began to agree with Goldwater that the
federal government was becoming too strong. For the first time since Recon-
struction, many Southerners voted Republican. That showed the Republican
Party that the way to get Southern votes was to support conservative policies.
Americans living in the West also opposed the environmental regulations of
the federal government that limited ranching or controlled water use. By 1980
the population of the Sunbelt was greater than that of the Northeast. This
gave the conservative regions of the country more influence in shaping policy.
During the 1960s and 1970s, many Americans moved to the suburbs to
escape the chaos of the cities. However, their lifestyle there was in danger. The
rising inflation had caused the buying power of middle-class Americans to
decrease. Many Americans resented the high taxes they had to pay for Great
Society programs while their economic conditions worsened. Anti-tax move-
ments sprang up all over the country. Many middle-class Americans began to
believe the conservative argument that the government had become too big.

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Study Guide
Chapter 28, Section 1 (continued)

Some Americans were attracted to conservatism because they were afraid

that Americans had lost touch with traditional values. The Supreme Court rul-
ing in Roe v. Wade, which established abortion as a constitutional right, upset
many conservative Americans. The feminist movement upset conservatives,
who saw the movement as an attack on the traditional family. Religious con-
servatives included people from many different faiths. However, the largest
group belonged to evangelical Protestant Christians. Evangelicals believe that
they are saved from their sins through conversion, which they refer to as
being “born again.”
A religious revival began in the United States after World War II. Protestant
ministers such as Billy Graham built huge followings. By the late 1970s, many
Americans described themselves as “born again.” Evangelicals owned news-
papers, magazines, and television networks. Ministers known as televangelists
were able to reach large audiences throughout the nation through television.
Jerry Falwell, a televangelist, founded a movement that he called the “Moral
Majority.” The Moral Majority set up a network of ministers to register new
voters to back conservative candidates. By 1980 the movement had formed a
conservative coalition of voters.
11. How were televangelists able to reach large audiences to spread their conservative ideas?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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Study Guide
Chapter 28, Section 2
For use with textbook pages 865–871

THE REAGAN YEARS

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
supply-side economics the economic idea that cutting taxes would boost businesses and provide
more money for consumers to spend (page 867)
Reaganomics the term given to President Reagan’s approach to solving the nation’s economic
problems (page 867)
budget deficit the amount by which expenditures exceed income (page 867)
Sandra Day O’Connor the first woman on the Supreme Court (page 868)
William Rehnquist conservative Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, appointed by President
Reagan (page 868)
Geraldine Ferraro Democratic vice-presidential candidate in the 1984 election and the first
woman to run for vice president for a major party (page 868)
contras anti-Sandinista guerrilla forces in Nicaragua (page 870)
Iran-Contra scandal an illegal operation in which profits from arm sales to Iran were diverted to
the contras in Nicaragua (page 870)
Oliver North major figure in the Iran-Contra scandal (page 870)
Mikhail Gorbachev leader of the Soviet Union starting in 1985 (page 870)

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII
What are today’s concerns about the nation’s economy? How are these con-
cerns affecting the American people?
The last section described the conservative shift in the United States. This
section discusses the administration of Ronald Reagan.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the diagram below to help you take notes. President Reagan’s foreign
policy became known as the Reagan Doctrine. It called for the United States to
support guerrilla groups who were fighting to overthrow Communist or pro-
Soviet governments. Describe the instances in which the Reagan Doctrine was
applied.

1. Examples of Reagan 2.
Doctrine

3.

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Study Guide
Chapter 28, Section 2 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• The Road to the White House (page 865)
Ronald Reagan started out as an actor. For 25 years, he made more than 50
movies. In 1947 Reagan became president of the Screen Actors Guild, which
was the actors’ union. As the head of the union, he testified about commu-
nism in Hollywood before the House Un-American Activities Committee. In
1954 Reagan became the host of a television program called General Electric.
He was also a motivational speaker for the company. He traveled across the
country speaking to workers and managers. As he did so, he became more
and more conservative. He heard stories from Americans about high taxes
and how government regulations made it impossible for them to get ahead.
In 1964 Barry Goldwater asked Reagan to speak on behalf of Goldwater’s
presidential campaign. Reagan’s speech impressed several wealthy people
from California. They convinced Reagan to run for governor of California,
and he won. In 1980 he was the Republican candidate for president. Reagan
promised to cut taxes and increase defense spending. He called for a constitu-
tional amendment banning abortion. His position on issues won the support
of conservatives. Reagan won the election. The Republicans also gained con-
trol of the Senate.
4. What did Ronald Reagan call for in his presidential campaign?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

• Reagan’s Domestic Policies (page 867)

Reagan’s first priority was the nation’s economy. The economy was experi-
encing high unemployment and high inflation at the same time. Economists
were puzzled about this because the two things were not supposed to occur at
the same time. Economists offered two different ideas for fixing the economy.
One group believed that the biggest problem was inflation, caused by too
much money in circulation. They believed that raising interest rates was the
solution. Another group of economists supported supply-side economics. They
believed that the economy was weak because taxes were too high. They
believed that cutting taxes would help businesses use the extra money to
make new investments. They believed that this would allow businesses to
grow and create new jobs. This would in turn result in more goods for con-
sumers, who would have more money to spend.

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Study Guide
Chapter 28, Section 2 (continued)

Reagan decided to combine the ideas of the two groups of economists. He

urged the Federal Reserve to raise interest rates and he asked Congress to
pass a tax cut. Critics called this economic approach Reaganomics, or “trickle
down economics.” Cutting tax rates would increase the budget deficit, the
amount by which expenditures exceed income. To control the deficit, Reagan
suggested cuts for social programs, such as welfare benefits. Although
Congress fought the cuts, they eventually passed them. Reagan realized that
he would never get Congress to cut spending enough to balance the budget.
As a result, he decided that cutting taxes and building up the military were
more important than balancing the budget.
Reagan believed that government regulations were another cause for the
nation’s economic problems. After becoming president, he eliminated price
controls for oil and gasoline, and energy prices fell. Other deregulation fol-
lowed. It included deregulating the airline industry, which led to lower fares.
Reagan’s Secretary of the Interior, James Watt, angered environmentalists
when he increased the amount of public land that corporations could use for
oil drilling, mining, and logging.
The economy began to recover in 1983. The median income of American
families rose by 15 percent by 1989. Millions of new businesses and new jobs
were created. The unemployment rate had fallen to about 5.5 percent.
President Reagan applied his conservative ideas to the judicial branch. He
wanted judges on the Supreme Court who followed the original intent of the
Constitution. He nominated Sandra Day O’Connor to be the first woman on the
Supreme Court. In 1986 Reagan chose conservative William Rehnquist to be the
Chief Justice. He also nominated other conservative justices.

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

The growing economy made Reagan very popular at the time of the 1984
presidential election. Democrats nominated former vice president Walter
Mondale as their presidential candidate. He chose Representative Geraldine
Ferraro as his running mate. She was the first woman to run for vice president
for a major party. Reagan won in a landslide.
5. What did President Reagan do to control the increasing budget deficit?

• Reagan Builds Up the Military (page 868)

Reagan did not follow containment or détente in his foreign policy. He
viewed the Soviet Union as evil and he believed that the United States should
not negotiate with it. Reagan believed that the United States had to use

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Study Guide
Chapter 28, Section 2 (continued)

strength in dealing with the Soviet Union. As a result, he started a huge mili-
tary buildup. This buildup increased the federal budget deficit even more.
Reagan had hoped that as the economy grew, there would be an increase in
the amount of taxes collected. Although the amount of taxes the government
collected did rise, it was not enough. Congress was not willing to cut other
programs. Reagan’s defense spending pushed the annual budget deficit from
$80 billion to over $200 billion.
6. Why did Reagan start a huge military buildup in the 1980s?

• The Reagan Doctrine (page 869)

In addition to building up the military, Reagan believed that the United
States should support guerrilla groups who were fighting to overthrow
Communist or pro-Soviet governments. This policy became known as the
Reagan Doctrine. In December 1979, the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan to
support a Soviet-backed government. The Soviets fought a large Afghan
resistance movement. The United States sent money to assist the resistance.
The Soviets found themselves trapped in Afghanistan, just as the United
States was in Vietnam. The war became unpopular with the Soviets. The
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Soviet Union agreed to withdraw in 1988.

In Nicaragua, rebels known as the Sandinistas had overthrown a pro-
American dictator. They set up a socialist government, and accepted Soviet
aid. The Reagan administration began secretly arming anti-Sandinista forces
known as the contras.
When Congress learned of this, it banned future arming of the contras.
Individuals in Reagan’s administration, however, continued to illegally sup-
port them. These officials secretly sold weapons to Iran in exchange for the
release of American hostages being held in the Middle East. The profits from
the arms sales were then sent to the contras. News of the Iran-Contra scandal
broke in November 1986. A major figure in the scandal was Marine Colonel
Oliver North. He was an aide to the National Security Council. North and
other officials testified before Congress that they had covered up the illegal
actions. President Reagan had approved the sale of arms to Iran. However, the
congressional investigation determined that Reagan did not know about the
profits from the sales being sent to the contras.

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Study Guide
Chapter 28, Section 2 (continued)

7. What was the Reagan Doctrine?

• New Approaches to Arms Control (page 870)

President Reagan decided to position nuclear missiles in Western Europe to
counter Soviet missiles in Eastern Europe. This action resulted in thousands of
protesters pushing for a stop to the positioning of new nuclear missiles.
Reagan agreed to remove American missiles if the Soviet Union agreed to
remove its missiles. Reagan also suggested Strategic Arms Reduction talks
(START) to reduce the number of missiles on both sides. The Soviets refused
and walked out of the talks.
Reagan disagreed with the idea that as long as both the United States and
the Soviet Union could both destroy each other with nuclear weapons, they
would be afraid to use them. He believed that such an idea was immoral
because it depended on the threat to kill many people. Also, there was no way
to defend the United States if that kind of war did begin. In March 1983,
Reagan proposed the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI). This plan called for
developing weapons that could destroy incoming missiles.
In 1985 Mikhail Gorbachev became the leader of the Soviet Union. He agreed

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

to resume arms control talks. He did not think that the Soviet Union’s econ-
omy could afford an arms race with the United States. Although at first the
two leaders disagreed on many issues, by 1987 Reagan was convinced that
Gorbachev wanted to reform the Soviet Union and end the arms race. The
two leaders signed the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty. It
called for the destruction of nuclear weapons. The treaty marked the begin-
ning of the end of the Cold War. Gorbachev introduced economic and political
reforms in the Soviet Union that led to the end of communism in Eastern
Europe and in the Soviet Union.
8. What were the provisions of the INF Treaty and why was it important?

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Study Guide
Chapter 28, Section 3
For use with textbook pages 874–879

LIFE IN THE 1980S

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
yuppies young urban professionals (page 875)
AIDS acquired immune deficiency syndrome, a disease that weakens the immune system
(page 876)
Sierra Club an environmental group (page 877)
American Association of Retired Persons (AARP) the major organization of older Americans
(page 878)
space shuttle a reusable spacecraft (page 878)
space stations orbiting platforms where continuous observation of the universe could take
place (page 879)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

What kind of space exploration is the United States doing today? Do you
think space exploration is important? Why or why not?
The last section discussed the domestic and foreign policies of President
Reagan. This section discusses the reasons for renewed activism in the United
States in the 1980s.
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the diagram below to help you take notes. The United States dealt with
several social problems in the 1980s. Identify these problems in the diagram.

Social Problems

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

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Chapter 28, Section 3 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• A Decade of Indulgence (page 874)
The media portrayed the 1980s as a decade focused on wealth. After the
economy revived, news stories described many young brokers and investors
making multimillion-dollar deals as the value of real estate and stocks soared.
The young moneymakers were referred to by journalists as yuppies, from
“young urban professionals.” Many worked in law or finance. They rewarded
themselves by buying luxury items and eating in upscale restaurants.
The economic growth and focus on gaining wealth was partly caused by
the baby boom. By the 1980s, most baby boomers had begun building careers.
Many focused on acquiring goods and getting ahead in their jobs. Because
there were so many baby boomers, their concerns helped to shape the culture.
The strong economic growth in the 1980s mostly benefited middle- and
upper-class Americans. By the mid-1990s, the top 5 percent of Americans
earned more than 21 percent of the nation’s income.
6. What did many baby boomers focus on in the 1980s?

• A Retail Revolution (page 875)

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

The 1970s and 1980s also featured a new approach to selling products to
consumers. Discount retailing began in the 1960s and focused on selling large
quantities of goods at very low prices. By 1985, this style of retailing gen-
erated annual sales of nearly $70 billion. While Wal-Mart was the most suc-
cessful discount retailer, other franchises such as Home Depot and Best Buy
successfully copied the same model.
7. What was the main component of the new style of retailing that grew successful in the
1980s?

• Technology and the Media (page 875)

In the 1980s, the news and entertainment industry also transformed.
“Superstations” like Ted Turner’s WTBS sold low-cost sports and entertain-
ment programs via satellite to cable companies throughout the nation. Similar
networks, such as Robert Johnson’s Black Entertainment Television (BET),

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Study Guide
Chapter 28, Section 3 (continued)

appeared and helped spread cable television across the country. In 1980,
Turner founded the Cable News Network (CNN)—the first 24-hour all-news
station in the nation.
8. What characterized the new “superstations” of the 1980s?

• A Society Under Stress (page 876)

The United States continued to deal with many social problems in the
1980s. Drug abuse made many city neighborhoods violent and dangerous.
Drug use spread from cities to small towns and rural areas. Alcohol abuse,
particularly by teenagers, was a serious problem. Young people were
involved in thousands of alcohol-related accidents. In 1980 Mothers Against
Drunk Driving (MADD), a grassroots organization, was established to find
solutions to underage drinking and drunk driving. In 1984 Congress cut
highway funds to any state that did not raise the legal drinking age to 21. All
states complied.
In 1981 researchers identified a disease that made young healthy men get
sick and die. The disease was called AIDS, or “acquired immune deficiency
syndrome.” It weakens the immune system. HIV is the virus that causes
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

AIDS. It is spread through body fluids. In the United States, AIDS was first
seen among homosexual men, but it began to spread to heterosexual men and
women. Some got it from blood transfusions. Some were drug users who
shared needles with infected blood. Others were infected by sexual partners.
9. What was the purpose of MADD?

• Social Activism (page 877)

AIDS focused in on the gay and lesbian community in the United States.
Some homosexuals had been involved in defending their civil rights since the
1960s. On June 1969, New York City police raided a Greenwich Village night-
club called the Stonewall Inn. The police often raided the club and the clients
because of their sexuality. The gay and lesbian onlookers in the club became

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Study Guide
Chapter 28, Section 3 (continued)

frustrated with the police actions, and a public disturbance developed. The
Stonewall riot was the beginning of the Gay Liberation Movement. The move-
ment tried to increase public awareness of homosexuality.
Social activism continued to be important in the United States in the 1980s.
Many Americans became concerned about the environment. Some joined
environmental groups such as the Sierra Club. The environmental movement
that began in the 1970s continued to grow in the 1980s. Environmental groups
campaigned against nuclear power plants. They also campaigned to protect
fragile wetlands. Communities started recycling programs. Activists became
concerned about the ozone layer and rain forests.
In the 1980s, many singers and other entertainers took up social causes.
Bruce Springsteen gave concerts to benefit food banks and the homeless. In
1984 Irish musician Bob Geldof organized musicians in England to put on
benefit concerts to help starving people in Ethiopia. The theme song “We Are
the World” was a best-seller. Country singer Willie Nelson organized benefit
concerts to help American farmers going through hard times.
Senior citizens became activists in the 1980s. With new medical technology,
more Americans were living to an older age. Older Americans became more
active in politics. They opposed cuts in Social Security or Medicare. Because
they voted in large numbers, they were an influential group. Their major
organization was the American Association of Retired Persons (AARP), which
was founded in 1958.
10. Why were older Americans an influential group in the 1980s?

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

• A New Era in Space (page 878)

New technology led to an increased interest in space exploration. After the
moon landings in the 1970s, the National Aeronautics and Space Administra-
tion (NASA) concentrated on the space shuttle. This spacecraft looked like a
huge airplane. It was reusable, going into space and then returning to Earth.
The shuttle Columbia made its first flight in April 1981. In 1983 Sally Ride
became the first American woman in space. Female astronauts became more
common. In January 1986, Christa McAuliffe, a teacher, joined six others on
the Challenger. As millions of Americans watched, the shuttle lifted into space
and then exploded, killing everyone on board. Defective seals were blamed
for the accident.

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Chapter 28, Section 3 (continued)

Despite the Challenger disaster, shuttle flights continued. Some of the shut-
tles carried satellites into orbit to gather scientific data. NASA also sent probes
into space for further research. The probes sent back pictures of Jupiter,
Saturn, and Neptune. The long-range goal of the shuttles was to set up space
stations. These were orbiting platforms where continuous observation of the
universe could take place. The goal was to set up a place where people could
conduct research for a long period of time. The U.S. Skylab was launched in
May 1973. In 1986 the Soviet Union launched the space station Mir. Since
1986, sixteen nations, including Russia, have participated in creating this
space station.
11. What was the purpose of establishing space stations?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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Study Guide
Chapter 28, Section 4
For use with textbook pages 881–886

THE END OF THE COLD WAR

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
perestroika a restructuring (page 882)
glasnost openness (page 882)
Boris Yeltsin president of Russia (page 883)
Tiananmen Square location of demonstrations for democracy in Beijing, China (page 883)
Saddam Hussein dictator of Iraq (page 884)
downsizing the practice by factories of laying off workers and managers in order to become
more efficient (page 885)
capital gains tax the tax paid by businesses and investors when they sell stocks or real estate for
a profit (page 886)
H. Ross Perot businessman and independent candidate for president in the 1992 election
(page 886)
grassroots movement groups of people organizing at the local level (page 886)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

What issues were important in the most recent presidential election? What

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

issues do you think will be important for candidates in the next election? Why
do you think so?
The last section discussed the increased social activism in the United States
in the 1980s. This section discusses the administration of President George
Bush.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Use the diagram below to help you take notes. During his presidency, Bush
faced the task of improving the nation’s economy. List the ways he attempted
to do so.

1.

Steps to Improve
the Economy
2.

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Chapter 28, Section 4 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• George Bush Takes Office (page 881)
When President Reagan left office in 1988, most Americans wanted a con-
tinuation of Reagan’s domestic policies. When George Bush accepted the
Republican Party’s nomination, he promised the Americans that he would not
impose any new taxes. The Democrats wanted to regain the White House by
promising to help working-class Americans, minorities, and the poor. Jesse
Jackson ran for nomination. He finished second in the primaries and was the
first African American to make a serious run for nomination. The Democrats’
nominee was Massachusetts Governor Michael Dukakis. The Republicans pic-
tured him as too liberal and not tough on crime. Bush won the election, but
Democrats kept control of Congress.
3. Who did George Bush defeat in the 1988 presidential election?

• The Cold War Ends (page 882)

President Bush continued Reagan’s policies with the Soviet leader Gorbachev.
To save the Soviet economy, Gorbachev set up perestroika, or restructuring, of
the economy. He allowed some private businesses and profit-making. Another
part of Gorbachev’s plan was glasnost, or openness. It allowed more freedom
of speech and religion. It allowed people to discuss politics openly.
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

The idea of glasnost spread to Eastern Europe. Demonstrations took place in

several Eastern European cities. Democratically elected governments began
replacing Communist governments in Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia,
Romania, and Bulgaria. In November 1989, the gates at the Berlin Wall were
opened. Many East Berliners began streaming through the gates. A few days
later, the wall was leveled. A year later, East and West Germany had reunited.
Gorbachev faced criticism from opponents at home. In August 1991, some
Communist officials started a coup, an overthrow of the government.
Gorbachev was arrested and troops were sent into Moscow. There, Boris
Yeltsin, the Russian president, defied the leaders of the coup. The coup even-
tually collapsed and Gorbachev returned to Moscow. After the coup, all 15
Soviet republics declared their independence from the Soviet Union. In
December 1991, Gorbachev announced the end of the Soviet Union. Most of
the former Soviet republics joined in a federation called the Commonwealth
of Independent States.
4. What was the result of glasnost?

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Chapter 28, Section 4 (continued)

• The “New World Order” (page 883)

After the Cold War ended, President Bush had to redefine American foreign
policy. His first crisis occurred in China, where Communist leaders were
determined to stay in power. Although the Chinese government had relaxed
some controls on the economy, it continued to forbid protests and political
speech. In May 1989, Chinese students and workers held protests for democ-
racy. The government crushed their protests in Tiananmen Square in Beijing,
China. Many demonstrators were killed and thousands were arrested. Some
were sentenced to death. The United States and other countries reduced their
contacts with China. The World Bank suspended loans.
A crisis also developed in Panama. In 1978, the United States had agreed to
give Panama control of the canal by the year 2000, so it wanted to be sure that
Panama’s government was stable and pro-American. Panama’s dictator,
Manuel Noriega, had stopped cooperating with the United States. He aided
drug traffickers and cracked down on opponents. In December 1989, Bush
ordered American troops to invade Panama. Noriega was sent to the United
States to stand trial on drug charges. U.S. troops then helped the Panamanians
hold elections and set up a new government.
In addition to all these problems, President Bush also faced a crisis in the
Middle East. In August 1990, Saddam Hussein, Iraq’s dictator, ordered the
invasion of Kuwait, an oil-rich country. American officials believed that this
was Iraq’s first step to capture Saudi Arabia and its oil reserves. President
Bush persuaded other nations to join in a coalition to stop Hussein. The
United Nations set a deadline for Iraq to withdraw or face the use of force.
Iraq refused. On January 16, 1991, the coalition forces launched Operation

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Desert Storm. After about six weeks of bombing, the coalition began a ground
attack. Just about 100 hours after the ground war began, President Bush
declared victory. Iraq accepted the coalition’s cease-fire terms, and Kuwait
was liberated.
5. What action led to Operation Desert Storm?

• Domestic Challenges (page 885)

In addition to handling crises in foreign affairs, President Bush had to
address domestic issues. He faced a growing deficit and a recession. The
recession was partly caused by an end to the Cold War. With the threat from
the Soviet Union ending, the United States began reducing its armed forces
and canceling orders for military equipment. This caused defense factories to
lay off thousands of workers.

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Chapter 28, Section 4 (continued)

Other kinds of companies also began downsizing, or laying off workers and
managers to become more efficient. In addition to the recession, the nation
faced a huge debt. Americans had borrowed heavily during the 1980s. By the
end of the 1980s, they had to stop spending and pay off their debts. The federal
government faced a deficit, which meant that it had to borrow money to pay
for some of its programs. The government had to pay interest on the debt, and
that money could not be used to fund programs or to jumpstart the economy.
Bush tried to improve the economy. He suggested a cut in the capital gains
tax. This was a tax paid by businesses and investors when they sell stocks or
real estate for a profit. Bush thought that cutting this tax would help busi-
nesses to expand. Democrats believed it was a tax break for the rich and
defeated the idea in Congress. Bush knew that the federal deficit was hurting
the economy. He had to break his campaign promise of no new taxes. He
made a deal with Congress, agreeing to a tax increase in exchange for cuts in
spending. Many voters blamed him for increasing taxes and cutting programs.
President Bush and Congress did cooperate on other laws. One law was the
Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), which Bush signed in 1990. The law
forbade discrimination in workplaces and public places against people who
were physically or mentally challenged. The law resulted in access ramps
being added in buildings and wheelchair lifts being installed on city buses.
6. Why did President Bush suggest a cut in the capital gains tax?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

• The 1992 Election (page 886)

Bush was the Republican nominee in the 1992 presidential election. He
blamed the Democrats’ control of Congress for the gridlock that seemed to
take over the national government. The Democrats nominated Arkansas gov-
ernor Bill Clinton. He promised to cut taxes and spending and to reform the
nation’s health care and welfare programs. Many Americans did not like
either of the two candidates. This helped businessman H. Ross Perot to run as
an independent candidate and to present a strong challenge to the other can-
didates. A grassroots movement, which are groups of people organizing at the
local level, placed Perot on the ballot in all 50 states.
Bill Clinton won the election. The Democrats kept control of Congress. Clinton
was the first person from the baby boom generation to become president.
7. What did Bill Clinton promise as the Democratic nominee for president in 1992?

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Study Guide
Chapter 29, Section 1
For use with textbook pages 892–895

THE TECHNOLOGICAL REVOLUTION

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
ENIAC Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer, the first electronic digital computer
(page 892)
integrated circuit a complete electronic circuit on a single chip of the element silicon (page 893)
Silicon Valley the area south of San Francisco where many electronics companies are located
(page 893)
microprocessor a single chip that combined several integrated circuits containing both memory
and computing functions (page 893)
Bill Gates co-founded Microsoft to design PC software (page 893)
software the instructions used to program computers to perform desired tasks (page 893)
telecommute to do a job via computer without having to go to the office (page 893)
Internet a global information system that operated commercially rather than through the
government (page 894)
biotechnology the managing of biological systems to improve human life (page 894)
James Watson American molecular biologist who helped decipher the structure of DNA
(page 895)
Francis Crick British molecular biologist who helped decipher the structure of DNA (page 895)

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

DNA deoxyribonucleic acid, the genetic material in cells that determines all forms of life
(page 895)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

Think of the ways that you use the computer. How important is it to your
daily life? How important is the Internet to your daily life?
In this section, you will learn about the development of the computer and
how it revolutionized science, medicine, and communications.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Computers changed life in the U.S. List how they affected biotechnology.

1.

2.

How Computers 3.
Affected Biotechnology
4.

5.

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Chapter 29, Section 1 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• The Rise of the Compact Computer (page 892)
ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) was the world’s first
electronic digital computer. It went into operation in February 1946. This com-
puter was large and weighed over 30 tons. In 1959 several young scientists
and engineers designed the first integrated circuit. This was a complete elec-
tronic circuit on a single chip of the element silicon. It made computers easier
to make. Other electronics companies started nearby in the area south of San
Francisco, which was nicknamed Silicon Valley. In 1968 scientist Robert Noyce
and colleague Gordon Moore started Intel, for “Integrated Electronics.” This
company revolutionized computers by combining several integrated circuits
that contained both memory and computing functions on a single chip. These
chips, called microprocessors, reduced the size of computers. They also
increased their speed.
Stephen Wozniak and Steven Jobs used the microprocessor technology to
build a small computer for personal use. In 1976 they founded Apple
Computer and built their first machine, called Apple I. The next year they
introduced the Apple II. This was the first practical and affordable computer
for personal use. It sold well. In 1981 International Business Machines (IBM)
introduced its own compact machine. It called it the “Personal Computer”
(PC). Apple responded in 1984 with the Macintosh.
Bill Gates co-founded Microsoft to design PC software, or the instructions
used to program computers to perform desired tasks. In 1980 IBM hired
Microsoft to develop an operating system for its new PC. It became MS-DOS
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

(Microsoft Disk Operating System). Microsoft also introduced the “Windows”

operating system in 1985. It allowed PCs to use the on-screen graphic icons
that Apple had made popular with the Macintosh. Computers soon became
essential in every kind of business—from large corporations to neighborhood
shops. By the late 1990s, many workers used a home computer and electronic
mail to telecommute, or do their jobs via computer without having to go to
the office. Wireless handheld devices and laptop computers have made com-
puter use more convenient. Now, Internet access and its use are more
widespread.
6. What was the significance of the development of Apple II?

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Chapter 29, Section 1 (continued)

• The Telecommunications Revolution (page 893)

In the 1970s, the government began to deregulate telecommunications. This
led to competition in both the telephone and television industries. In 1996
Congress passed the Telecommunications Act. The law allowed telephone
companies to compete with each other and to send television signals. This led
to the development of new technologies, such as cellular phones.
7. How did deregulation affect telecommunications?

• The Rise of the Internet (page 894)

Digital electronics made a new world communications system possible. It
started with a computer networking system that the U.S. Defense Depart-
ment’s Advanced Research Project Agency set up in 1969. This system linked
government agencies, defense contractors, and scientists at various universi-
ties, and they communicated through electronic mail. In 1985 the National
Science foundation funded several supercomputer centers across the country.
This set the stage for the Internet, a global information system that operated

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

commercially rather than through the government. Internet use quickly took
off. Between 1997 and 2000, Internet use increased almost 300 percent.
The Internet also started a “dot.com” economy. This name comes from the
practice of using a business name as a World Wide Web address, followed by
“.com.” Many companies made millions of dollars for stock investors.
Internet-related stocks helped fuel the economy of the 1990s. However, the
stocks of these companies dropped drastically in 2000.
8. How did the Internet get its start?

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Chapter 29, Section 1 (continued)

• Breakthroughs in Biotechnology (page 894)

Computers helped scientists involved in biotechnology, the managing of
biological systems to improve human life. Biotechnology helped researchers
develop new medicines, genetically engineered plants, and industrial chemi-
cals. The first steps toward biotechnology happened in 1953. American
molecular biologist James Watson and his British colleague Francis Crick
decoded the structure of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). DNA is the genetic
material in cells that determines all forms of life. The work had a great impact.
Being able to read the message of DNA improved medical research. It helped
law enforcement by establishing that DNA was unquestionable in identifying
a person. Research in biotechnology assisted in genetic engineering for plants,
animals, and humans.
In 1990 scientists began using supercomputers to develop the Human
Genome Project at the National Institutes of Health (NIH). NIH put all of the
data from the Human Genome Project on the Internet to make it available to
scientists all over the world. The project published its first map of the human
genome in February 2001. Medical research has grown more sophisticated and
today many people debate the issues of human cloning and stem cell research.
9. How has the ability to read DNA improved medical research?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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Study Guide
Chapter 29, Section 2
For use with textbook pages 896–901

THE CLINTON YEARS

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
AmeriCorps a program that put students to work improving low-income housing, teaching chil-
dren to read, and cleaning up the environment (page 897)
Contract with America a program proposed by congressional Republicans that called for
several changes, including lowering taxes, welfare reform, and a balanced budget amendment
(page 898)
Kenneth Starr an independent counsel appointed to investigate President Clinton in the
Whitewater scandal (page 900)
perjury lying under oath (page 900)
ethnic cleansing the brutal expulsion of an ethnic group from a geographic area (page 900)
Dayton Accords a peace plan set up to stop the fighting in Bosnia (page 900)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

What foreign affairs is the United States involved in today? How is the
president handling these affairs?
The last section discussed the impact of computers on different aspects of
American life. This section discusses the administration of President Clinton.

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII
Use the diagram below to help you take notes. President Clinton faced sev-
eral foreign policy issues during his administration. List the areas of foreign
policy issues in the diagram.

1. 2.

Areas of Foreign
Policy Issues

3.

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Study Guide
Chapter 29, Section 2 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• Clinton’s Agenda (page 896)
When President Bill Clinton took office, he focused on domestic issues. He
focused first on the economy. Clinton believed that the problem with the
economy was the huge federal deficit, which forced the government to bor-
row huge amounts of money to pay for its programs. This helped drive up the
interest rates. Clinton believed that it was important to lower interest rates.
He believed that this would help businesses borrow more money to expand. It
would also help consumers to borrow money for mortgages and other items.
He hoped that this would help economic growth.
Clinton believed that one way to bring down interest rates was to reduce
the federal deficit. He sent a deficit reduction plan to Congress. However,
reducing spending would involve cutting entitlement programs, such as
Social Security and Medicare. This would be difficult to do because many
Americans depend on these programs. As a result, Clinton decided to raise
taxes, even though he promised to cut them during the campaign. His plan
called for tax increases on middle- and upper-income people. The tax
increases were unpopular. A revised plan narrowly passed Congress.
Another part of Clinton’s domestic program was the health care system.
Millions of Americans did not have health insurance. Clinton appointed a task
force, headed by his wife, Hillary Rodham Clinton, to develop a plan that
guaranteed health benefits for all Americans. The plan that was developed
put too much of the burden of payment on employers. Small businesses, the
insurance industry, and doctors opposed the plan. Many members of
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Congress opposed the plan. As a result, the plan never came to a vote.
Clinton was successful in having the Family Medical Leave Act passed. The
law gave workers up to 12 weeks per year of unpaid family leave for the birth
or adoption of a child or for the illness of a family member. Clinton was also
successful in getting Congress to create the AmeriCorps program. It put stu-
dents to work improving low-income housing, teaching children to read, and
cleaning up the environment.
In his campaign, Clinton promised to get tough on crime. He was success-
ful in getting Congress to pass the Brady Bill, a gun-control law. Clinton also
introduced an anticrime bill, which would provide states with extra funds to
build new prisons and to put 100,000 more police officers on the streets.
4. How did Clinton fulfill his promise to get tough on crime?

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Study Guide
Chapter 29, Section 2 (continued)

• The Republicans Gain Control of Congress (page 898)

Although he experienced some successes, by 1994 Clinton was very unpop-
ular. He had raised taxes after promising to reduce them and he did not fix
health care. Republicans in Congress, led by Newt Gingrich, created the
Contract with America. The program called for several changes, including low-
ering taxes, welfare reform, and a balanced budget amendment. The
Republicans won huge victories in the 1994 Congressional elections. They had
a majority in both houses of Congress. The House of Representatives passed
most of the Contract with America. However, the Senate defeated several
parts of the Contract, and the President vetoed others.
In 1995 Republicans in Congress clashed with the president over the new
federal budget. Clinton had vetoed several Republican budget proposals. He
claimed that they cut into social programs too much. The Republicans
believed that if they stood firm, the president would back down and approve
the budget. If he did not, the entire federal government would shut down for
lack of funds. Clinton refused to budge, and the government did shut down.
Clinton’s stand against the Republicans regained much of the support he had
lost in 1994. The Republicans realized that they would have to work with the
president. They eventually reached an agreement to pass the budget.
Before the 1996 presidential election, the president and Congress worked
together to pass some new laws. In August, Congress passed the Health
Insurance Portability Act. It improved coverage for people who changed jobs,
and it lowered discrimination against people with preexisting illnesses.
Congress also passed the Welfare Reform Act. It limited people to no more
than two consecutive years on welfare and required them to work to get wel-

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

fare benefits.
5. Why was President Clinton unpopular by the 1994 Congressional elections?

• The 1996 Election (page 898)

In the 1996 presidential election, President Clinton was very popular. The
nation was experiencing an economic boom, crime rates fell, and the number
of people on unemployment declined. The Republicans nominated Senator
Bob Dole as their presidential candidate to run against Clinton. H. Ross Perot
also ran as a candidate for the Reform Party, which he had created. Clinton
won the election, but the Republicans kept control of Congress.

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Study Guide
Chapter 29, Section 2 (continued)

6. What were the results of the 1996 elections?

• Clinton’s Second Term (page 899)

The economy continued to expand during Clinton’s second term. The presi-
dent and Congress continued to work to shrink the deficit. In 1997, for the
first time in 24 years, the president was able to present a balanced budget to
Congress. By 1998 the government began to run a surplus—it collected more
money than it spent.
Clinton’s domestic policy focused on the nation’s children. He asked
Congress to pass a $500 per child tax credit. He signed the Adoption and Safe
Families Act and asked Congress to ban cigarette ads aimed at children.
Clinton signed the Children’s Health Insurance Program. This was a plan to
provide health insurance for children whose parents could not afford it. To
help students, the president asked for a tax credit, an increase in student
grants, and an expansion of the Head Start program.
By 1998 Clinton became involved in a serious scandal. It began in his first
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

term. He was accused of setting up illegal loans for an Arkansas real estate
company, called Whitewater Development, while he was governor of
Arkansas. Kenneth Starr, a former federal judge, was appointed by a three-
judge panel to become an independent counsel to investigate the president.
Then in early 1998, a new scandal became known. It involved a personal rela-
tionship between the president and a White House intern. Some evidence
showed that the president had committed perjury, or had lied under oath,
about the relationship. The three-judge panel directed Starr to investigate this
scandal. Starr determined that Clinton had obstructed justice and committed
perjury. He sent his report to the Judiciary Committee of the House of
Representatives.
The House began impeachment hearings after the 1998 elections. On
December 19, 1998, the House passed two articles of impeachment. The case
went to the Senate for trial. On February 12, 1999, the Senate voted that
Clinton was not guilty. However, Clinton’s reputation had suffered.

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Study Guide
Chapter 29, Section 2 (continued)

7. Why was President Clinton investigated by independent counsel Kenneth Starr?

• Clinton’s Foreign Policy (page 900)

Although the Cold War had ended, President Clinton had to deal with sev-
eral regional conflicts. In Haiti, Jean-Bertrand Aristide, the democratically
elected president, was overthrown by military leaders. Aristide sought refuge
in the United States. The new rulers in Haiti used violence to keep down the
opposition. Clinton urged the United Nations to set a trade embargo on Haiti.
This caused severe economic hardships in the country. As a result, thousands of
Haitian refugees fled Haiti to the United States. Clinton ordered an invasion of
Haiti, but former president Jimmy Carter convinced Haiti’s rulers to step down.
After communism collapsed in Eastern Europe, Yugoslavia, which was
made up of many different ethnic groups, split apart. A civil war started in
Bosnia, one of the former republics of Yugoslavia. The war involved Orthodox
Christian Serbs, Catholic Croatians, and Bosnian Muslims. The Serbs began
ethnic cleansing. This is the brutal expulsion of an ethnic group from a geo-
graphic area. In some cases, the Serbs killed the Muslims instead of moving

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

them.
The United States convinced the NATO allies that military action was nec-
essary. NATO warplanes attacked the Serbs and forced them to negotiate.
Clinton arranged peace talks in Dayton, Ohio. The participants signed a peace
plan known as the Dayton Accords. NATO troops were sent to Bosnia to
enforce the plan.
Another war started in 1998 in the Serbian province of Kosovo. Two ethnic
groups lived in Kosovo—Serbs and Albanians. Many Albanians wanted
Kosovo to separate from Serbia. Serbian leader Slobodan Milosevic ordered a
crackdown. The Albanians fought back. President Clinton again asked NATO
to use force to stop the conflict. They began bombing Serbia. The bombing
convinced Serbia to pull its troops out of Kosovo.
After the Persian Gulf War, President Saddam Hussein remained in power.
He continued to make threats against his neighbors. In 1996 Iraq attacked the
Kurds, an ethnic group whose homeland is in northern Iraq. The United
States responded by firing missiles at Iraqi military targets.

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Study Guide
Chapter 29, Section 2 (continued)

Conflicts continued between Israel and Palestine. In 1993 Israeli Prime

Minister Yitzhak Rabin and Yasir Arafat, the leader of the Palestine Liberation
Organization, reached an agreement. The PLO recognized Israel’s right to
exist. Israel recognized the PLO as the representative of the Palestinians.
President Clinton then invited the two leaders to the White House where they
signed the Declaration of Principles. This was a plan for creating a Palestinian
government. Opposition to the plan existed on both sides. In 1998 President
Clinton met with Israeli and Palestinian leaders to work out details for the
withdrawal of Israeli troops from the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. The
agreement, however, could not solve the problem of Jerusalem, which both
sides claimed. Talks between the two sides in 2000 also failed. Then in October
of that year, violence broke out between Palestinians and Israeli soldiers.
President Clinton left office with a mixed legacy. He had balanced the
budget and had overseen the greatest period of economic growth in U.S. his-
tory. Clinton’s impeachment, however, tarnished his successes. It also divided
the nation and increased the gap between liberals and conservatives.
8. Why did President Clinton ask the United Nations to set up an embargo against Haiti?
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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Study Guide
Chapter 29, Section 3
For use with textbook pages 902–905

AN INTERDEPENDENT WORLD
KEY TERMS AND NAMES
trade deficit the situation in which Americans bought more from foreign nations than
American industries sold abroad (page 903)
North American Free Trade Agreement the agreement that joined Canada, the United States,
and Mexico in a free-trade zone (page 903)
euro a common currency for member nations of the European Union (page 903)
nuclear proliferation the spread of nuclear weapons to new nations (page 905)
global warming an increase in average world temperatures over time (page 905)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

What do you think is the most important issue facing the world today?
Why do you think so?
The last section discussed the administration of President Clinton. This sec-
tion discusses the interdependence of the world’s nations regarding the
economy, health, and the environment.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Use the chart below to help you take notes. The world faced several envi-
ronmental concerns in the late 1990s. List and describe those issues in the
chart.

Environmental Concerns

1.

2.

3.

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Study Guide
Chapter 29, Section 3 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• The New Global Economy (page 902)
By the end of the 1900s, the United States had become involved in many
global issues. Computer technology and the Internet made a global economy
possible. By the early 1970s, a serious trade deficit had resulted. Americans
bought more from foreign nations than American industries sold abroad.
Some people believed that the United States needed free trade because
Americans benefited from buying imports. They believed that buying imports
would keep consumer prices, inflation, and interest rates low. Those who
wanted to limit trade believed it was necessary to prevent the United States
from losing industrial jobs and manufacturing to lesser-developed nations.
One way to increase international trade was to set up regional trade pacts.
In 1994 the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) joined Canada, the
United States, and Mexico in a free-trade zone. Some Americans were con-
cerned that industrial jobs would go to Mexico, where labor costs were lower.
However, unemployment rates in the United States fell after the signing of
NAFTA, and wages rose.
Other trade blocs developed in other parts of the world. The European
Union (EU) was set up to promote economic and political cooperation among
many European nations. The EU set up a common bank and the euro, a com-
mon currency for member nations.
The Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) set up a Pacific trade com-
munity, which was the fastest-growing region in the world. Although APEC
began as a way to promote cooperation and lower trade barriers, differences
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

among its members prevented them from acting together.

The World Trade Organization (WTO) was important in promoting world
trade. It administered international trade agreements. It also helped settle
trade disputes.
China played an important part in world trade. It provided a huge market
for American goods. However, many Americans were concerned about
China’s record on human rights. Despite the concerns, President Clinton
believed that regularizing trade with China would help bring the nation into
the world community. Clinton urged Congress to pass a bill to give China
permanent normal trade relation status. Some groups opposed this. Labor
unions were worried about inexpensive Chinese goods flooding U.S. markets.
Conservatives opposed China’s military ambitions. Environmentalists worried
about pollution from Chinese factories. Despite the opposition, the bill passed
in late 2000. In 2001 China joined the WTO.
4. What was the purpose of the World Trade Organization?

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Study Guide
Chapter 29, Section 3 (continued)

• Issues of Global Concern (page 904)

After the end of the Cold War, only a few nations had nuclear weapons.
When Russia agreed to reduce its nuclear weapons, concerns arose about
some of the weapons being lost, stolen, or sold in the black market. The
United States provided funds for Russia to help it reduce its nuclear weapons.
Congress also took measures to reduce the threat of nuclear proliferation, or
the spread of nuclear weapons to new nations. Congress passed laws that cut
aid and imposed sanctions on nations that wanted to get nuclear weapons.
The 2002 Treaty of Moscow aimed to reduce the U.S. and Russia’s nuclear
weapons. The U.S. and the EU demanded that Iran and North Korea undergo
close scrutiny to ensure their nuclear energy programs do not lead to the pro-
duction of nuclear weapons.
In the 1980s, scientists found out that chemicals called chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs) could use up the earth’s atmosphere of ozone. This is a gas in the
atmosphere that protects life on Earth from the cancer-causing ultraviolet rays
of the sun. CFCs were used in air conditioners and refrigerators. Many people
wanted the making of CFCs to be stopped. In 1987 the United States and
other nations agreed to phase out the making of CFCs and other chemicals
that might be weakening the ozone layer.
In the early 1990s, scientists found evidence of global warming, or an
increase in average world temperatures over time. This rise in temperature
could lead to more droughts and other types of extreme weather. Many
experts believe that carbon dioxide emissions from factories and power plants
caused global warming. Others disagree. Some even question whether global
warming even exists. The global warming issue is controversial because the

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

cost of controlling emissions would fall on industries. These costs would
eventually be passed on to consumers. Developing nations that are beginning
to industrialize would be hurt the most.
In 1997 thirty-eight nations and the EU signed the Kyoto Protocol. The
nations promised to reduce emissions, although very few nations put it into
effect. President Clinton did not present the Kyoto Protocol to the Senate
because most senators opposed it. In 2001 President George W. Bush with-
drew the United States from the treaty. He believed that it had flaws.
5. Why did President Bush withdraw the United States from the Kyoto Protocol?

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Study Guide
Chapter 29, Section 4
For use with textbook pages 906–909

AMERICA ENTERS A NEW CENTURY

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
Al Gore the Democratic nominee for president in 2000 (page 907)
George W. Bush the Republican nominee for president in 2000 (page 907)
Ralph Nader consumer advocate who was the presidential nominee of the Green Party in 2000
(page 907)
chad the piece of cardboard punched out of a ballot (page 908)
strategic defense a military program to develop missiles and other devices that can shoot down
nuclear missiles before they hit the United States (page 909)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

How important do you think it is for citizens to vote in elections? Are you
looking forward to voting in local and national elections? Why or why not?
The last section discussed the common issues facing the nations of the
world. This section discusses the controversies surrounding the 2000 presi-
dential election and President Bush’s first days in office.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Use the chart below to help you take notes. President Bush suggested pro-
grams for the nation’s economy, education, and the military. List his proposals
in the chart.

Categories Bush’s Proposals

Economy 1.

Education 2.

Military 3.

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Study Guide
Chapter 29, Section 4 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• A New President for a New Century (page 906)
In the 2000 presidential election, the Democrats nominated Vice President
Al Gore. The Republicans nominated Texas Governor George W. Bush. In the
campaign, both candidates fought for independent voters. The campaign
focused on what to do with the surplus tax revenues. Both candidates agreed
that Social Security needed reform, but they disagreed on how the reform
should come about. Both promised to cut taxes, but Bush promised a larger
tax cut. Both men promised to improve education and to set up programs to
help senior citizens pay for their prescription drugs.
The state of the economy helped Gore. However, some voters were con-
cerned about what they believed was a decline in the moral values of the
nation’s leaders. Bush promised to restore moral leadership.
Consumer advocate Ralph Nader became a presidential candidate for the
Green Party. Nader claimed that both Bush and Gore received campaign
funds from large companies and that they would not support policies that
favored American workers and the environment.
The election was one of the closest in American history. Gore won the pop-
ular vote. However, to win the presidency, candidates have to win a majority
of the electoral votes. The election came down to the Florida vote. Both candi-
dates needed the state’s 25 electoral votes to win. The vote in Florida was so
close that state law required a recount of the ballots using vote-counting
machines. Thousands of ballots, however, had been thrown out because the
counting machines could not detect a vote for president. As a result, Gore

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

asked for a hand recount of ballots in the Florida counties that voted strongly
Democratic. A battle began over the manual recounts. Most Florida ballots
required voters to punch a hole. The piece of cardboard punched out is called
a chad. Vote counters had a problem figuring how to count a ballot when the
chad was still attached. On some ballots the chad was still in place and the
voter had left only a dimple on the surface of the ballot. Vote counters had to
look at the ballot and determine what the voter had intended. Different coun-
ties, however, used different standards to determine it.
Under Florida law, state officials had to certify the results of the election by
a certain date. When it became clear that the count would not be finished on
time, Gore went to court to postpone the deadline, and the Florida Supreme
Court agreed to do so and set a new deadline. Bush then asked the United
States Supreme Court to intervene to determine if the Florida Supreme Court
acted unconstitutionally. While both sides prepared their case, the hand
counts continued. Even with additional time, some counties were not able to
meet the new deadline. On November 26, Florida officials certified Bush the
winner, by 537 votes.
Gore’s lawyers went back to court and argued that thousands of votes were
still not counted. The Florida Supreme Court ordered all Florida counties to

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Study Guide
Chapter 29, Section 4 (continued)

begin another hand recount of ballots that the counting machines rejected.
The United States Supreme Court ruled that all recounts should stop until it
made its ruling.
On December 12, 2000, in Bush v. Gore, the United States Supreme Court
ruled 7–2 that the hand counts violated the equal protection clause of the
Constitution. The Court argued that because vote counters used different
standards, the recount was not treating all voters equally. The Court ruled that
there was not enough time for a manual recount before the electoral votes had
to be cast. The ruling left Bush the certified winner.
4. What argument did the Supreme Court use to stop the hand recounts?

• Bush Becomes President (page 909)

Bush became the 43rd president of the United States. His first priority was
to cut taxes. During the campaign, the economy began to slow. Some compa-
nies went out of business and many other businesses laid off workers.
Congress passed a $1.35 trillion tax cut. The plan introduced tax cuts over a
10-year period. However, it also gave taxpayers an immediate rebate. By mid-
2001, Americans began receiving tax rebate checks. Bush hoped the rebates
would put about $40 billion into the economy to prevent a recession.
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Bush’s plan for improving public schools included giving annual standard-
ized tests and allowing parents to use federal funds for private schools.
Congress did not support the use of federal funds for private schools. It did
support the idea of states being required to annually test reading and math.
Bush focused on a Medicare reform bill that added prescription drug bene-
fits. The bill was passed in November 2003.
Congress reacted to a number of corporate scandals. The government made
regulations and penalties stronger.
Bush called for a review of the nation’s military. He wanted to increase mili-
tary spending. He also wanted to set up new programs. He favored a program
known as strategic defense. Its purpose was to develop missiles and other
devices that can shoot down nuclear missiles before they hit the United States.
5. Which of President Bush’s education plans was supported by Congress?

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Study Guide
Chapter 29, Section 5
For use with textbook pages 911–917

THE WAR ON TERRORISM

KEY TERMS AND NAMES
terrorism the use of violence by nongovernmental groups against civilians to achieve a political
goal (page 912)
state-sponsored terrorism terrorism secretly supported by a government (page 913)
Osama bin Laden leader of the terrorist organization al-Qaeda (page 913)
al-Qaeda a terrorist organization founded by Osama bin Laden (page 913)
anthrax type of bacteria that can become lethal (page 916)

DRAWING FROM EXPERIENCEII

How did the terrorist attacks on the United States affect daily life in the
nation? How did the attacks affect your community?
The last section discussed the 2000 presidential election and President
Bush’s programs to improve the economy, education, and the military. This
section discusses the terrorist attacks on the United States and the nation’s
response to the attacks.

ORGANIZING YOUR THOUGHTSII

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Use the diagram below to help you take notes. The United States govern-
ment quickly responded to the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001. List the
ways it responded in the diagram.

1.

7.
2.

U.S. Response to
Terrorist Attacks
6. 3.

5. 4.

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Study Guide
Chapter 29, Section 5 (continued)

READ TO LEARNII
• September 11, 2001 (page 911)
On September 11, 2001, hijackers slammed two passenger jets into the
World Trade Center in New York City. Hijackers crashed a third jet into the
Pentagon in Washington, D.C. Hijackers also took over a fourth plane, but
some of the passengers resisted them, causing the plane to crash in western
Pennsylvania. Thousands of people were killed. These attacks were acts of
terrorism. This is the use of violence by nongovernmental groups against civil-
ians to achieve a political goal. Terrorist acts are done to fill people with fear
and to get their governments to change their policies.
8. What is the purpose of terrorist acts?

• Middle East Terrorism and the United States (page 912)

Most terrorist acts on Americans have been carried out by Middle Eastern
groups. The reason for this traces back to the 1920s when oil became impor-
tant to the American economy. The United States invested heavily in the oil
industry in the Middle East. The industry brought great wealth to the ruling
families in some Middle Eastern kingdoms. Most of the people, however,
remained poor. Some of these people became angry with the United States for
supporting the wealthy families. In addition, the growth of the oil industry
led to increased contact with Western society and its values. Many devout
Muslims feared that their traditional values and beliefs were being weakened
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

by this contact.
New movements developed throughout the Middle East that called for a
strict interpretation of the Quran, which is the Muslim holy book. These
movements wanted to overthrow governments in the Middle East that were
pro-Western. They wanted to set up a pure Islamic society. Muslims who sup-
ported these movements are known as fundamentalist militants. The vast
majority of Muslims believe terrorism is against the beliefs of their faith.
Militants, however, began using terrorism to achieve their goals.
Many people in the Middle East were also angry about American support of
Israel. In 1947 the UN divided British-controlled Palestine into two territories.
One part became Israel. The other part was to be a Palestinian state, but fight-
ing between Israel and the Arab states left this territory under the control of
Israel, Jordan, and Egypt. The Palestinians wanted their own nation. They
began raids and guerrilla attacks against Israel. The United States gave Israel
military and economic aid. As a result, Muslim militants began targeting the
United States. In the 1970s, several Middle Eastern nations realized that instead
of going to war with Israel and the United States, they could fight the two
nations by providing terrorist groups with money and weapons. When a gov-
ernment secretly supports terrorism, this is called state-sponsored terrorism.

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Study Guide
Chapter 29, Section 5 (continued)

9. Why did some Middle Eastern nations sponsor terrorist groups?

• A New Terrorist Threat (page 913)

In 1979 the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan. Muslims from across the
Middle East came to assist Afghanistan in its fight. One of these people was
Osama bin Laden. He was a member of one of the wealthiest families in Saudi
Arabia. He used his money to help Afghan resistance. He also founded an
organization called al-Qaeda, which recruited Muslims to fight in Afghanistan
and channeled money and supplies to the nation.
After fighting in Afghanistan, bin Laden believed that superpowers could
be defeated. He also believed that Western society had contaminated Muslim
society. He was angry when Saudi Arabia allowed American troops on its soil
after Iraq invaded Kuwait. He changed al-Qaeda into a terrorist organization
and started attacks against Americans. Bin Laden began operating from
Afghanistan, which came under the control of Muslim fundamentalists
known as the Taliban. He devoted himself and al-Qaeda to driving Americans
and other non-Muslims out of the Middle East. He called on Muslims to kill
Americans anywhere in the world. Truck bombs exploded soon after in the
American embassies in Tanzania and Kenya in Africa.
President Clinton responded to the attacks by ordering cruise missiles to
attack terrorist camps in Afghanistan and Sudan. The attacks destroyed the
camps but missed bin Laden. He continued to target Americans. In October
2000, al-Qaeda terrorists crashed a boat loaded with explosives into the

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

American warship USS Cole, which was docked in the Middle Eastern country
of Yemen.
10. What did bin Laden and al-Qaeda dedicate themselves to do?

• America Unites (page 913)

The American people responded quickly to the terrorist attacks of
September 11, 2001. Money, blood, and supplies were donated. Across the
nation, flags were flown to show unity and resolve.
The government also responded quickly. The armed forces were put on
high alert. Security at airports was increased, and the FBI began a massive
investigation. President Bush declared a national emergency. Congress voted
to authorize the use of force to fight the terrorists. Intelligence sources and FBI
investigations determined that the attack was the work of bin Laden and al-
Qaeda terrorists.

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Study Guide
Chapter 29, Section 5 (continued)

President Bush issued an ultimatum to the Taliban. He demanded that they

turn over bin Laden and his followers and to close all terrorist camps in
Afghanistan. He announced that the United States would not tolerate coun-
tries that helped or harbored terrorists. President Bush also warned
Americans that the war would not end quickly.
11. What ultimatum did President Bush issue to the Taliban?

• A New War Begins (page 914)

Several challenges faced the United States as it began its war against terrorism.
The president asked Congress to create the Department of Homeland Security.
Its job would be to merge the dozens of federal agencies and departments
working to prevent terrorism.
In late October 2001, Congress drafted a new antiterrorist law, known as the
USA Patriot Act, that permitted secret searches and allowed authorities to
obtain a single nationwide search warrant. The law also made it easier to
wiretap suspects, and it allowed authorities to track Internet communications
and seize voice mail.
A new threat to the United States arose when the mail showed traces of
anthrax. This is a type of bacteria that can become lethal if left untreated.
Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Several occurrences of anthrax were found, but no suspects were publicly

recognized.
On October 7, 2001, the United States launched the first military operations
of the war on terrorism. Warplanes began bombing targets in Afghanistan.
The U.S. also began sending military aid to Afghan groups known as the
Northern Alliance, who had fought the Taliban for several years. President
Bush warned that other countries and groups might threaten the world by
using nuclear, chemical, or biological weapons. These weapons of mass
destruction could kill many thousands of people all at once.
12. What did the new antiterrorist law allow the federal government to do?

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Study Guide
Chapter 29, Section 5 (continued)

• Confronting Iraq (page 916)

President Bush considered Iraq an immediate threat in developing and dis-
tributing weapons of mass destruction. Iraq’s dictator, Saddam Hussein, had
used chemical weapons in the 1980s. After the Gulf War, UN inspectors had
found evidence that Iraq had biological weapons and was working on a
nuclear bomb. In the summer of 2002, President Bush increased pressure on
Iraq for a regime change, asking the United Nations to demand that Iraq give
up its weapons of mass destruction.
While the UN was still debating the issue, in mid-October Congress author-
ized the use of force against Iraq. With the midterm elections coming up soon,
many Democrats in Congress now wanted to turn to the poor economy. The
president managed to keep the focus on national security issues. In 2002 the
Republicans picked up seats in the House and kept control of the Senate. Soon
after the elections, the UN approved a new resolution that set a deadline for
Iraq to readmit weapons inspectors.
Weapons inspectors returned to Iraq. The Bush administration believed that
the Iraqis were still hiding weapons, but other Americans thought the inspec-
tors should be given more time. The Bush administration pushed for a war
resolution in the UN Security Council. Although France and Russia refused to
back it, the United States and Great Britain prepared for war. About 30 other
countries supported the war, but many antiwar protests took place around the
world.
On March 20, 2003, the U.S.-led coalition forces attacked Iraq and quickly
seized control. On May 1 President Bush declared that the major combat was

Copyright © by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

over. However, the fighting and controversy continued. During the first six
months of the occupation of Iraq, Americans found no evidence of weapons of
mass destruction, but bombings, sniper attacks, and battles plagued American
troops. American deaths and expenses were mounting. President Bush began
to seek support from the UN to help stabilize and rebuild Iraq. He was sure
that democracy would succeed. The drafting of Iraq’s constitution exposed
divisions within the country. The Kurds and Shiite Muslims supported a draft
proposing a new federal structure that would decentralize Iraq’s government,
while the Sunnis believed federalism would greatly reduce their influence.
13. Why did President Bush consider Iraq to be an immediate threat?

480 The American Republic Since 1877

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Study Guide

• The 2004 Elections (page 916)

The war on terrorism and the war in Iraq dominated the 2004 election. The
Republicans nominated President Bush and Vice President Cheney for a sec-
ond term, while the Democrats nominated Massachusetts senator John Kerry
and North Carolina senator John Edwards.
President Bush pledged to continue cutting taxes and building a strong
national defense. He opposed abortion and endorsed a constitutional amend-
ment to ban same-sex marriages. His supporters saw him as someone who
operated on fixed moral and religious principles.
Kerry’s naval experience in the Vietnam War convinced him of the futility
of war and made him leery of sending American troops into combat. As a lib-
eral, he promised to strengthen Social Security and raise taxes on the wealthy
to fund health-care insurance. He differed with church leaders on many social
issues, including abortion.
On Election Day President Bush took the lead in the popular vote and the
majority in the Electoral College. His victory helped preserve the Republican
majorities in the Senate and the House of Representatives.
14. What were the major differences between Bush’s and Kerry’s platforms?
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