Form 2 Geography
Internal Land Forming/endogenetic Processes
-Processes operating in the interior of the earth resulting in the
formation of natural physical features or landforms.
They are caused by earth movements.
Examples of these processes are folding, faulting and Vulcanicity.
Formation of land forms by internal land forming processes is
determined by:
• Nature and age of earth materials
• Type of movement involved
• Intensity and scale of movement involved
Crustal Earth Movements
- Displacement of the earth’s crustal rocks.
They are brought about by tectonic forces which originate and
operate in the interior of the earth e.g. tensional forces (which
operate along horizontal plane moving away from each other),
compressional forces (which operate along horizontal plane moving
towards each other), shear forces (which move past each other with
unequal strength) and gravitational forces (which attracts things to
the earths centre).
Earth movements are of 2 types:
1. Horizontal/lateral/orogenic movements
2. Vertical/epeirogenic movements
Horizontal Earth Movements
- Movements which act along a horizontal plane within crustal rocks.
They are caused by tensional and compressional and shear forces.
Effects
They cause:
• Strain and stretching of crustal rocks due to stretching caused by
tensional forces which cause formation of cracks or faults.
• Squeezing and shortening of crustal by compressional forces rocks
which cause them which also cause formation of faults.
• Crustal rocks to shear by slipping past each other or by dividing
into layers which is caused by shear forces.
Results of Horizontal Earth Movements
- Results in the formation of the following features:
1. Faults
2. Rift valleys
3. fold mountains
4. Escarpments
5. Basins
6. Tilt blocks
7. Block mountains
Vertical Earth Movements
-Movements which occur along the earth’s radius or towards the
earth’s surface or towards its centre.
Effects
Causes:
• Subsiding/sinking/downwarping or pulling of crustal rocks
downwards.
• Uplifting/upwarping or pushing of crustal rocks upwards
• Tilting of crustal rocks or shearing in vertical direction due to
grater uplift on one side.
Results of Vertical Earth Movements
1. Raised cliffs
2. Tilt blocks
3. Rift valleys
4. Fault scarps/escarpments
5. Plateaus
6. basins
Causes of Earth Movements
(a) Magma movement within the earths crust.
(b) Gravitational force
(c) Convectional currents in the mantle
(d) Isostatic adjustment
Magma Movement within the Earths Crust
• When magma moves with force pushing crustal rocks horizontally
or vertically.
• When magma moves from reservoir and leaves empty spaces onto
which crustal rocks are pulled inwards.
Gravitational Force
- When the attractive force of the earth pulls crustal rocks into
empty spaces left after magma escaping from the reservoir.
Convectional Currents within Mantle
- When convectional currents in magma in mantle drug crustal rocks
by friction.
Horizontal movement of currents cause horizontal movements while
vertical cause vertical movements.
Isostatic Adjustment
-Rising of continental masses to restore the upset state of balance
between sial and sima layers. -Isostacy is the state of balance
between sial and sima layers.
It can be disturbed by erosion on continents and melting of
continental ice sheets.
The reduced weight causes continental masses to rise.
Theories Explaining the Earths Movements
A theory is reasoned ideas intended to explain facts or ideas.
There are 2 theories which explain the earth’s movements namely
the Continental Drift Theory and the Plate tectonics theory.
i)Theory of Continental Drift
Its proponent was A. Wegener.
It explains the origin of 6 continents.
It states:
• The earth was a single sialic land mass called Pangaea surrounded
by a huge ocean called Panthalasa whose floor was a mass of sima.
• Pangaea broke into two parts called Laurasia (N. Hemisphere)
which lay around equator and Gondwanaland (S. Hemisphere) which
lay around south pole which were separated by a narrow ocean
called Tethys (the present Mediterranean Sea).
• Laurasia broke into Laurentian Shield and Fennoscandia (Europe,
Asia and N. America) and moved northwards to their present
positions.
• Gondwanaland broke into Africa, Australia, S. America and
Antarctica and India subcontinent.
• Africa and India drifted northwards.
Evidences Supporting the Theory
1. Fitting of western coast of Africa and S. America into a jigsaw.
2. Discovery of coal 40◦N and 55◦N which was formed by burying of
tropical vegetation.
3. Considerable displacement of rocks along some faults e.g. along
the Great Glen Fault of Scotland.
4. Cape and Buenos Aires folds resemble one another by having east
west trend.
5. Red sea shores show evidence of having undergone lateral
displacement an indication that it was formed by movement of the
earth’s crust.
6. Evidence of ancient Glaciation to the south of equator in Africa in
Madagascar and India where there is presence of ancient glacial
deposits suggesting these areas were once around south pole.
ii)Plate Tectonics Theory
It states that:
• The earths crust is made of blocks called plates.
7 Large Ones
1. Eurasian plate
2. Australian plate
3. Africa plate
4. Antarctic plate
5. N. American plate
6. S. American plate
7. Pacific plate
Smaller Ones
1. Indian
2. Arabian
3. Caribbean
4. Cocos
5. Somali plates
6. Juan de Fuca
7. Nazca
8. Philippine
9. Scotia
• These plates are two types : tectonic plates:
1. Oceanic plates which form major areas of the ocean floor
including coastal lowland.
2. Continental plates which form the bulk of the continental land
mass.
• The plates float on molten mantle layer called Asthenosphere.
• The plates move relative to each other due to convectional
currents in the mantle.
• They move away from each other forming extension or
constructive boundary called so because magma fills the space
between.
• They move towards each other forming compressional or
destructive boundary called so because materials between are
crushed.
The movements of those two types of plates have the
following effects:
1. When two oceanic plates meet
• There is subduction and the ocean floor is pulled inwards forming
a trench e.g. Java Trench .Subduction is the passing of edge of one
plate beneath the edge of another.
• Sediments on the sea floor in the region of subduction are
compressed to form Fold Mountains.
1. When an oceanic plate meets a continental plate the edge of the
oceanic plate slides beneath the continental plate in a movement
called subduction.
• Sediments on the sea floor in the region of subduction are
compressed to form Fold Mountains.
• Fold Mountains are also formed at the edge of the continent when
the sial layer is compressed.
• The edge of the oceanic plate bends into the mantle forming a
trench.
Significance of Plate Movements
1. Are sources of earthquakes and Vulcanicity.
2. Causes formation of land forms such as Fold Mountains and ocean
trenches.
3. Spectacular landscapes formed are a tourist attraction.
4. Eruption of magma can result in formation of valuable minerals.
Folding
-Process in which crustal rocks are distorted by compressional forces
by being caused to bend upwards and downwards.
It occurs on fairly young sedimentary rocks.
Parts of a Fold
