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NATIONAL CENTRE FOR VOCATIONAL fr-ipn,),JR,Czo
EDUCATION RESEARCH LTD.
A.C.N. 007 967 311

LIFELONG LEARNING
FOR ALL

Meeting
of the
Education Committee
at Ministerial Level,
16-17 January 1996

ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION AND DEVELOPMENT

 , .

ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC CO-OPERATION

AND DEVELOPMENT

Pursuant to Article 1 of the Convention signed in Paris on 14th December 1960, and which came into force
on 30th September 1961, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) shall promote
policies designed
to achieve the highest sustainable economic growth and employment and a rising standard of living in
Member countries, while maintaining financial stability, and thus to contribute to the development of the
world economy,
to contribute to sound economic expansion in Member as well as non-member countries in the process of
economic development, and
to contribute to the expansion of world trade on a multilateral, non-discriminatory basis in accordance
with international obligations
The original Member countries of the OECD are Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Germany,
Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland,
Turkey, the United Kingdom and the United States The following countries became Members subsequently
through accession at the dates indicated hereafter Japan (28th April 1964), Finland (28th January 1969),
Australia (7th June 1971), New Zealand (29th May 1973), Mexico (18th May 1994) and the Czech Republic
(21st December 1995). The Commission of the European Communities takes part in the work of the OECD
(Article 13 of the OECD Convention)

Pub he en francais sous le titre

APPRENDRE A TOUT AGE
Reunion du Comae de ('education au niveau ministeriel, 16-17 janvier 1996

Photo credit Hubert.

© OECD 1996
Applications for permission to reproduce or translate all or part of this
publication should be made to
Head of Publications Service, OECD
2, rue Andre-Pascal, 75775 PARIS CEDEX 16, France
 NATIONAL CENTRE FOR VOCATIONAL
EDUCATION RESEARCH LTD.
A.C.N. 007 967 311

FOREWORD

The fourth meeting of the OECD Education Committee at Ministerial level was held in Paris on 16 and
17 January 1996 around the theme of "Making Lifelong Learning a Reality for All"

This report presents the documentation prepared for the meeting It explains the nature and background of
the issues and challenges, and sets out the implications for strategic policy and reform Part I describes why
Ministers agreed to focus on how to make learning a process extending from early childhood through retire-
ment, and occurring in schools, the workplace and many other settings This builds on the broad consensus that
has emerged since their meeting in November 1990 on the importance of lifelong learning in realising a range of
educational, social and economic policy objectives Part I also describes the main policy issues addressed by
Ministers, their Communiqué highlights the conclusions, sets out policy targets and reform agendas, and
suggests further possible work for the OECD Part II analyses the main policy issues and the major trends in
OECD economies and societies the widening scope and impact of information and communication technolo-
gies, the gathering momentum of globalisation and trade liberalisation, the ageing of the population, the
growing cultural and ethnic diversity, and the changing nature of work It also suggests a number of directions
for strategic policies designed to advance the implementation of lifelong learning for all
While priorities and specific policies will necessarily vary with periodic national differences and reassess-
ments, implementation strategies will require a commitment to new system-wide goals, standards and
approaches to certification and qualification Five broad areas must be addressed revitalising early childhood
education and initial schooling to provide the foundations for lifelong learning, organising flexible and inter-
connected pathways between formal and non-formal learning and work, re-examining the roles and responsibili-
ties of governments and their partners in implementing lifelong learning, securing the knowledge-base and
necessary human and physical resources for improved policy-making and practice, and creating adequate
incentives for public and private investment in lifelong learning
This report results from a collective effort by consultants and members of the Secretariat the Education
and Training Division, the Centre for Educational Research and Innovation (CERI), the Programme on Educa-
tional Building (PEB), and the Programme on Institutional Management in Higher Education (IMHE) It was
prepared principally by Albert Tuilnman, under the direction of Abrar Hasan of the Education and Training
Division It is published on the responsibility of the Secretary-General of the OECD
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Part I

POLICY ISSUES AND STRATEGIC DIRECTIONS

Introduction 13

The issues for discussion 15

The Ministers' Communiqué 21

Part II

BACKGROUND REPORT

Acknowledgements 26

Introduction 27

Chapter I B Culture, values and pluralism in school

Transitions to learning economies and societies learning 99
C What foundations for lifelong learning? 103

A Introduction 29 D Creating "positive" learning environments 107

B Broad trends in the economy, culture E Investing in early childhood education 113
and society 29
F Early or late selection and differentiation, 117
C Trends and developments in education. G The foundations for lifelong learning policy
training and learning 40
conclusions 120
D Conclusions 70

Chapter 4
Chapter 2 Improving pathways and transitions in lifelong
Towards lifelong learning for all alms, bafflers, learning and work
strategies

A Introduction 123
A Introduction 87
B From recurrent education to lifelong learning 88 B The policy questions and issues 124

C Barriers to the implementation of lifelong C Types of pathways and transitions in lifelong

learning for all 92 learning and work 125

ID Towards strategies for lifelong learning 94 D Pathways in formal education and their links
to labour markets 133
E Conclusions 97
E Education, training and transitions
to employment 140

Chapter 3 F Education, training and work-to-work

Establishing the foundations for lifelong learning transitions 148

G The value of education and training 155

A Introduction 99 H Lifelong learning and work policy conclusions 157

 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Chapter 5 D Steering change by the use of standards 200

Managing autonomy and choice: the role E Using goals and standards policy conclusions 202
of government

Chapter 7
A Introduction 163
Strengthening educational resources
B Developments in governance and
management of education 163 A Introduction 205
C The governance and management of schools B Teachers and other key actors 205
and school systems 167
C The use of new technologies 210
D The governance and management of learning
beyond schooling D Physical settings for lifelong learning 213
178
E Government intervention in markets E Information for teaching, learning and policy-
for learning making 215
183
F Managing autonomy and choice policy
F Strengthening the resources policy
conclusions conclusions 219
184

Chapter 8
Chapter 6 How to pay for lifelong learning for all?
Using goals and standards in formal
and non -formal learning A Introduction 223
B The policy context 223
A Introduction 187 C The benefits of lifelong learning 225
B Setting education goals, and new approaches D What are the costs of lifelong learning? 231
to steering education systems 187 E What is needed to ensure sufficient resources
C Standards in the formal and non-formal for lifelong learning? 239
sectors 193 F Financing lifelong learning policy conclusions 245

Annex Evidence and key statistics 269

Bibliography 329

List of Charts

1 Components of population growth in 1 12 Population in four age groups that had

OECD regions, 1982-86, 1987-91 and 1992 30 attained at least upper secondary
2 Shares of high-technology industries in education, 1992 45
total manufacturing exports, 1970 and 1992 33 I 13 Educational attainment of women
3 Employment share of agriculture, industry compared to men for 25- to 34-year-olds
and services, 1900-90 34 and 55- to 64-year-olds, 1992 46
4 Employment shares for blue- and white- 1 14 Labour force participation rate of those
collar workers, 1981-91 35 having attained some tertiary education,
5 Annual hours worked per person per year, 1981 and 1992 47
1870-1993 36 1 15 Full-time students at all education levels
I 6 Incidence of part-time employment (men), except pre-primary, 1985 and 1992 49
1973, 1983 and 1993 38
1 16 Schooling expectancy for a 5-year-old
17 Incidence of part-time employment child, 1985 and 1994 49
(women), 1973, 1983 and 1993 38
117 Enrolment in early childhood education,
1 8 The relative size of the population aged 5
1970-92 50
to 14, 1970-2010 41
1 9 The relative size of the population aged 5
1 18 Net enrolment of 3- and 4-year-olds in
to 14 and 15 to 24, 1994 42 early childhood education, 1994 51

1 10 Population that has attained less than 119 Net rates of participation in secondary
upper secondary education, 1992 43 education for 16-year-olds, 1985 and 1994 52
1 II Change in educational attainment, 120 Net rates of participation in secondary
I
6 population aged 25 to 64, 1981-92 44 education for 17-year-olds, 1985 and 1994 52
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

121 Number of students in full-time upper 3 3 Distribution of 9-year-olds in various types

secondary education, 1985 and 1992 53 of grouping for reading instruction, 1991 118

122 Number of full-time students in tertiary 4 I Upper secondary students enrolled in

education, 1985 and 1992 54 public and private general and vocational
123 Employees who received training and its education, 1992 125

duration, 1994 55 4 2 Net full-time enrolment rates for 17-year-

olds, 1992 127
124 Sweden employees who received training
by age, 1982-94 56 4 3 Youth labour force participation and
125 United Kingdom employees of working unemployment. 1994 129
age receiving lob-related training by age 44 Enterprise tenure, 1991 132
groups, 1984-90 57
4 5 Monthly flow into unemployment, 1993 132
126 Germany (FUR) enrolments and courses
in further education and training, 1965-93 58 4 6 Type of vocational education and youth
unemployment, 1992 144
127 Germany (FTFR) evolution of enrolments
and expenditure for further education and 4 7 Active labour market programmes training
training, 1965-92 59 of unemployed adults and those at risk,
1993/94 149
128 Germany (FTFR) continuing education
expenditure, 1965-92 59 48 Participation in lob-related continuing
129 France increase in adult education
education and training by level of
education, early 1990s 151
students, hours and expenditure, 1984-93 60
130 Public education expenditure as 49 Participation in lob-related continuing
a percentage of GDP. 1970-93 61 education and training by age groups,
early 1990s 154
1 31 Educational expenditure by initial source
of funds, 1992 62 51 Percentage of respondents who thought it
was "very important" for decisions to be
132 Expenditure per student from public taken by schools themselves, 1993-94 164
sources by level of education, 1985-92 63
52 Decisions taken at school level, lower
133 Ratio of students to teaching staff by level
secondary education, 1991 170
of education, 1992 64
61 Overall difficulty of examinations
134 Graduation rates in upper secondary
comparative scale 195
education. 1992 65
135 Graduation rates in university education, 6 2 Perceived confidence in important school
66 subjects, 1993-94 196
1985 and 1992
136 United States mean scores of college- 7 I Number of teaching hours per year, by
level of public education, 1992 206
bound students on verbal and
mathematics components of the Scholastic 7 2 Staff employed in education. 1992 207
Aptitude Test (SAT), 1976-93 67
7 3 Index of computer use for instruction in
1 37 United States mean science proficiency four subjects, 1989 and 1992 212
scores, by sex and age, 1992 68
74 Expenditure on educational R&D as a
I 38 Earnings differentials by educational percentage of total expenditure on
attainment for young and older men education and of total expenditure on
in the early 1990s 69 R&D, early 1990s 218
I 39 Unemployment rate by level of education 8 1 Relative differences in earnings from work
for persons 24 to 64 years. 1992 70
by level of education. 1992 226
3 I Percentage of children with special 8 2 Unit costs per student by level of
learning needs who are enrolled in schools education, 1992 232
outside the mainstream education system.
late 1980s 107 8 3 Comparative distribution of adult literacy
and numeracy skills. 1994 238
3 2 Federal expenditure per student for Head
Start and enrolments in the programme, 8 4 Percentage of adult education and training
United States, 1975-95 116 courses that are employer-supported, 1994 241

List of Tables

1 I Foreign or immigrant population and 12 Aged dependency ratios in OECD

74 7
labour force, 1983 and 1993 73 countries, 1980-2040-
 UFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

13 International specialisation in high-wage 4 7 Unemployment rates for those leaving

and high-technology industries, 1970 and education at different levels, one year after
1992 74 leaving (based on follow-up surveys), and
14 Educational attainment in Sweden, 1930, unemployment rates for the total labour
1970 and 1994
force 143
75
48 Share of technically educated and
15 Incidence of long-term unemployment,
differences between the net wage rate of
1983. 1989, 1992 and 1993 75 technically educated and non-technically
16 Full- and part-time employment situation educated by education level 157
and individual preferences in European 5 I Policy instruments defined 166
countries, 1989 76
5 2 Decisions taken by level of governance,
17 Children under 18 years living in poverty lower secondary education, 1991 168
in the United States, 1960-92 76 5 3 Decisions taken at the school level by
18 Enrolment in public and private early decision mode, lower secondary education,
childhood and primary education, 1994 77 1991 169

19 Enrolment in upper secondary education, 54 Decisions taken at the school level by

1975-92 decision domain, public lower secondary
78
education, 1991 170
I 10 Transition characteristics from secondary 5 5 New strategic roles of governments
to tertiary education, 1994 79 characterisation of reform strategies 177
1 II Sweden average number of training days 6 I Respect for teachers and the quality of
per employee receiving training, 1986-94 80 teaching in secondary education, 1993-94 197
1 12 Public education expenditure as 7 I "Older and "newer learning resources
a percentage of gross domestic product, and tools 211
1970-92 81 72 Schools using personal computers for
1 13 Educational expenditure by initial source instruction, 1982-92 212
of funds, 1985-92 83 8 I Social rates of return to levels of
I 14 Direct public education expenditure. education in selected OECD countries,
1985-92
by gender and ISCED level, 1992 247
84
8 2 Private return to schooling in United
I 15 Unemployment rate by level of education States and United Kingdom, based on
for persons 24 to 64 years, various years 85 Mincer-type wage equations 248
31 Foreign language education in the 8 3 Private rate of return to schooling in the
European Community, 1990 102 Netherlands, based on Mincer-type wage
32 Teaching time per subject specified in the equations 251
intended curriculum in lower secondary 84 Returns to labour market programmes,
education, 1992 104 United States, 1987-89 252
3 3 Compulsory school starting and ending 85 Effectiveness of active labour market
ages, 1992 113 programmes 253

34 Transition from home to school, 1992 86 The productivity of training in high-tech

11 4
and low-tech regimes in selected
3 5 Trends in the dependence of educational manufacturing industries in Chinese Taipei,
attainment on social origin 119 1986 255
4 1 Trend in the share of vocational and 8 7 Returns to training at work for young
technical education in total upper workers, 1980s 255
secondary enrolment 126 8 8 Returns to on-the-lob training 256
4 2 Percentage of students leaving secondary 8 9 Enrolment gaps by level of education and
education without a certificate 127 age group, 1992 259
4 3 lob turnover and labour turnover, 8 10 Estimated costs of closing the enrolment
1985 and 1991 131
gaps in early childhood education, 1992 259

4 4 Summary indicators of pathways in

811 Estimated costs of closing the enrolment
gaps in lower and upper secondary
education and transitions to employment 134
education, 1992 260
4 5 Differentiation characteristics in initial 8 12 Estimated costs of closing the enrolment
education and training, 1992 136 gaps in both university and non-university
46 Differences between structures of tertiary education, 1992 261
8 education and training systems Education expenditure by function, 1992
1

139 8 13 262
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

8 14 Examples of higher education cost 8 18 Unit costs of selected labour market

functions 262 training programmes 264

8 15 Examples of higher education cost 8 19 Cost scenarios for extending lifelong

functions comparison of teaching costs for learning to the least qualified 265
different modes of instruction, Australia,
1989-90 263 8 20 Cost scenarios for extending lifelong
learning to adults with low literacy
8 16 Adults likely to be in need of basic proficiency 265
education and training numbers of
25-64 year-olds in the labour force with 8 21 Duration of adult education and training
lower secondary education or less. 1992 263 courses, 1994 265

8 17 Adults likely to be in need of basic 8 22 Evaluation of financing schemes for

education and training, 1994 264 lifelong learning 266

List of Annex Tables

A I Proportion of 0-14, 25-34 and 25-44 year- A 19 Number of full-time students in upper
olds in the population, 1960-2010 271 secondary education, 1975-92 292

A 2 Indicators of growth and dispersion of A 20 Number of full-time students in tertiary

communication technologies, education, 1975-92 293
1982 and 1992 272
A 21 Employees who received training and its
A 3 Shares of high-technology industries duration, 1994 293
in total manufacturing, 1970 and 1992 273
A 22 Sweden number of employees who
A4 Employment shares for blue- and white- received training by age, 1982-94 294
collar workers, 1981 and 1991 274
A 23 United Kingdom participation in
A 5 Annual hours worked per person per year, lob-related training by age, 1984-90 294
1870-1992 275
A 24 Denmark students in public adult
A6 Size and composition of part-time education and continuing
employment, 1973-93 276 vocational training, 1980-93 295

A7 The relative size of the population A 25 Denmark public expenditure on adult

aged 5 to 14, 1970-94 277 education and training, 1980-93 296
A8 The relative size of the population A 26 Germany (FUR) institutions, courses and
aged 5 to 14 and 15 to 24, 1994 278 enrolments in adult education, 1965-93 297
A9 The relative size of the population aged 5 A 27 Germany expenditure on education by the
to 14, forecast 1994-2010 279 federal government, the Lander and local
A 10 Population aged 25-64 that has attained a authorities according to expenditure areas,
1965-92 297
specific highest education level, 1981-92 280
A 11 Average annual change in educational A 28 France development of private sector
attainment for the population continuing training financed by public
authorities and enterprises, 1984-93 298
aged 25 to 64, 1981-92 284

A 12 Proportion of the population in four age A 29 Direct expenditure per student in pre-
groups that had attained at least upper primary education, from public sources,
1985-92 299
secondary education, 1992 285
A 13 Educational attainment of women and A 30 Direct expenditure per student in primary
men, aged 25-34 and 55-64, 1992 286 education from public sources, 1985-92 300

A 14 Labour force participation rate by level of A 31 Direct expenditure per student in

education for persons between 25 and secondary education from public sources,
64 years of age, 1981-92 287 1985-92 301

A 15 Number of full-time students in all levels A 32 Direct expenditure per student in tertiary
(except pre-primary), 1975-92 288 education from public sources, 1985-92 302

A 16 Schooling expectancy for a 5-year-old A 33 Ratio of students to teaching staff in early

child, 1985-94 289 childhood education, 1985-92 303

A 17 Net rates of participation in full-time A 34 Ratio of students to teaching staff in

secondary education, 1985 290 primary and secondary education, 1985-92 303

A 18 Net rates of participation in full-time A 35 Ratio of students to teaching staff in

secondary education, 14-23 year-olds 1994 291 tertiary education, 1985-92 304
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

A 36 Graduation rates in upper secondary A 49 Monthly flows into and out of

education, 1985-92 304 unemployment 318
A 37 Graduation rates in general upper A 50 Distribution of employment by enterprise
secondary education, 1985-92 305 tenure, 1991 319
A 38 Graduation rates in vocational and A 51 Transition systems and youth
technical upper secondary education, unemployment, 1992 320
1985-92 306
A 52 Participants in labour market training
A 39 Graduation rates in tertiary university programmes 321
education, 1985-92 307
A 53 Participation in lob-related continuing
A 40 United States mean verbal and education and training 322
mathematics proficiency scores on
Scholastic Aptitude Test, 1976-93 A 54 Participation by age in lob-related
308
continuing education and training 322
A 41 United States mean science proficiency
scores, by sex and age, 1970-92 A 55 Percentage of respondents who thought it
308
was "very important" for decisions to be
A 42 Ratios of mean annual earnings by taken by schools themselves, 1993-94 323
educational qualifications, early 1970s-90s 309
A 56 Perceived confidence in school subjects
A 43 Earnings differentials by educational and cross-curricular qualities, 1993-94 324
attainment of young and older men,
early 1970s-90s 313
A 57 Number of teaching hours per year, by
level of public education, 1992 324
A 44 Percentage of children with special
learning needs who are enrolled in schools A 58 Staff employed in education as
outside the mainstream education system, a percentage of the labour force, 1992 325
late 1980s 314 A 59 Index of computer use for instruction in
A 45 Federal budget allocations for Head Start four subjects, 1989 and 1992 325
and enrolments in the programme, A 60 Expenditure on educational R&D as
United States, 1975-95 314 a percentage of total expenditure on
A 46 Distribution of 9-year-olds in various types education and of total expenditure on R&D 326
of grouping for reading instruction 1991 315 A61 Education and earnings, 1992 327
A 47 Transitions in initial education and A 62 Unit costs per student by level of
training, 1985 and 1992 316 education, 1992 328
A 48 Youth labour force participation and A 63 Percentage of adult education and training
unemployment, 1983 and 1994 317 courses that are employer-supported, 1994 328

1 10
 Part I

POLICY ISSUES AND STRATEGIC DIRECTIONS

 INTRODUCTION

The documentation prepared for the lanu- cussion on issues of implementation, and explored
ary 1996 Meeting of the Education Committee at three broad concerns
Ministerial level consisted of two parts, the "Issues improving the foundations for lifelong learn-
for Discussion" and the "Ministers' Communiqué", ing, including the extent and quality of early
and the Background Report childhood. primary and secondary education.
Ministers met in order to discuss the possible so that all learners, young and old, obtain and
elements of broad strategies for making lifelong maintain the academic and vocational qualifi-
learning a reality for all The document, The Issues cations they need for work and further
for Discussion", which was prepared by the Secreta- learning,
riat in advance of the meeting, sets out the main facilitating pathways and progressions through
reasons why a strategy for lifelong learning is key to lifelong learning and work, particularly the
the continued development of OECD countries as transition from school to work and continuing
they move towards the 21st century education, and learning opportunities for
The large and continuing shift in employment
adults,
from manufacturing industry to services, the gather- clarifying the roles and responsibilities of all
ing momentum of globalisation, the wide diffusion of partners including governments, social part-
information and communications technologies, and ners, educational institutions, families and the
the increasing importance of knowledge and skills in learners themselves in implementing and
production and services are changing the skill profiles financing lifelong learning for all
needed for lobs The distribution of employment As a result of their discussion, Ministers agreed
opportunities is changing, with many unskilled lobs to make a commitment to pursue and implement a
disappearing With the more rapid turnover of prod- broad strategy for lifelong learning, suited to the cir-
ucts and services, and with people changing lobs cumstances of each country The details are included
more often than previously, more frequent renewal of in the official Communique, which is reproduced in
knowledge and skills is needed Along with these its entirety below
developments, confounded by factors such as the
The Communiqué identifies two areas where
ageing of populations, emerging new values and pat-
action is required, foundation learning and the path-
terns of leisure and work, and changing family rela-
ways through lifelong learning and work Ministers
tionships, there is the risk of new polarisation emerg-
agreed that educational disadvantage which is not
ing between those who participate fully in the
addressed early in life is likely to persist They there-
acquisition and use of knowledge and skills, and
fore assigned high priority to the goals of improving
those who are left on the margins Ministers accepted
access and quality in early childhood education and
lifelong learning for all as the guiding principle for
creating "tomorrow's schools" that would effectively
policy strategies that will respond directly to the need
combat failure The latter is to be achieved by ensur-
to improve the capacity of individuals, families, work-
ing more flexible curricula, introducing individualised
places and communities continuously to adapt and
learning paths, exploiting better new information
renew
technologies and the potential of new teaching and
Success in realising lifelong learning from early learning methods that foster "cross-curriculum"
childhood education to active learning in retirement skills, establishing a closer "parity of esteem"
will be an important factor in promoting employment, between vocational and academic studies and, above
economic development, democracy and social cohe- all, by ensuring not only an interest and capacity but
13
sion in the years ahead Ministers focussed their dis- continued motivation for learning in all students I
 IJFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

With respect to learning beyond initial schooling, and learners, upgrading the knowledge and skills of
Ministers agreed that large gaps in coverage still teachers and trainers, developing career guidance and
exist In seeking to close these gaps. Ministers under- counselling services, especially for adult learners, and
lined the increasing variety of settings, both formal recognising that skills and competences can be
and non-formal, in which learning takes place Hence gained outside the formal system But partnerships
the organisation and implementation of pathways are called for not only to broaden access and increase
through learning and work, in ways that allow broad participation They are also needed to create ade-
access, flexibility and mobility, were seen as responsi- quate incentives for individuals, employers and those
bilities shared between governments, both central who provide education and training, to invest more in
and local, employers, educational institutions, teach- lifelong learning, and to improve quality by delivering
ers and trainers, and individuals Ministers agreed on "value for money" Ministers are keenly aware that
the need for a more strategic role of governments, lifelong learning for all will require additional finan-
bringing together other ministerial portfolios in addi- cial resources But because lifelong learning provides
tion to education In their Communiqué, Ministers substantial economic and social returns to all part-
envisage strengthening partnerships among the many ners individuals, families, employers and the soci-
actors by establishing clear goals for the system, ety as a whole the additional .investment must be
defining performance standards for both providers mobilised by all concerned

114
 THE ISSUES FOR DISCUSSION

Education and training systems which have that everyone should be able, motivated and actively
made impressive progress over the last three decades encouraged to learn throughout life This view of
are now faced with major challenges The widening learning embraces individual and social development
reach and impact of information technologies, the of all kinds and in all settings formally, in schools,
gathering momentum of globalisation and trade vocational, tertiary and adult education institutions,
liberalisation, the ageing of the population, growing and non-formally, at home, at work and in the com-
cultural and ethnic diversity and the changing nature munity The approach is system-wide, it focuses on
of work are combining to create new opportunities in the standards of knowledge and skills needed by all,
a context in which knowledge and skills will play a regardless of age It emphasizes the need to prepare
more significant role A new focus for education and and motivate all children at an early age for learning
training policies is needed now, to develop capacities over a lifetime, and directs effort to ensure that all
to realise the potential of the "global information adults, employed and unemployed, who need to
economy" and to contribute to employment, culture, retrain or upgrade their skills, are provided with
democracy and, above all, social cohesion Such poli- opportunities to do so As such, it is geared to serve
cies will need to support the transition to "learning several objectives to foster personal development.
societies" in which equal opportunities are available including the use of time outside of work (including
to all, access is open, and all individuals are in retirement), to strengthen democratic values, to
encouraged and motivated to learn, in formal educa- cultivate community life, to maintain social cohesion,
tion as well as throughout life The public expects and and to promote innovation, productivity and eco-
demands high quality and relevant education for all nomic growth
These expectations must be seen against a back- Investment in education and training in pursuit
ground of unacceptably high levels of unemployment of lifelong learning strategies serves to address these
and heightened concerns over future employment social and economic objectives simultaneously by
prospects, marginalisation and social exclusion providing long-term benefits for the individual, the
Many young people face a difficult transition from enterprise, the economy and the society more gener-
school to work and adult life, in part because they ally For the individual, lifelong learning emphasizes
leave school without qualifications or, more gener- creativity, initiative and responsiveness attributes
ally, with neither an adequate foundation of knowl- which contribute to self-fulfilment, higher earnings
edge and skills nor a positive attitude towards learn- and employment, and to innovation and productivity
ing itself It is estimated that one-third of all adults in The skills and competence of the workforce is a major
many OECD countries have acquired only minimum factor in economic performance and success at the
standards of literacy and numeracy Opportunities enterprise level For the economy, there is a positive
and incentives for learning and re-learning continue relationship between educational attainment and
to be limited and unevenly distributed, and the economic growth Lifelong learning strategies pro-
potential for learning in non-institutional settings has mote equity by reducing barriers, so that opportuni-
been insufficiently exploited ties for learning, which are currently accessible in full
measure mainly by those who already have relatively
high levels of education, are available to and taken up
THE LIFELONG LEARNING APPROACH
by all These strategies can play an important role in
Lifelong learning offers an appropriate frame- breaking the cycle of disadvantage and margmalisa-
work for addressing these issues The new idea under- tion and so contribute to social cohesion Improve-
pinning "lifelong learning for all" goes beyond provid- ments in equity by reducing the costs of longer term
ing a second or third chance for adults and proposes remedial action can result in increased efficiency, and 15 I
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

so help to "pay" for extending lifelong learning to all where learners like to be, where they experience a
Accordingly, policies aimed at lifelong learning pro- sense of self-worth, of excitement and challenge in
vide an important condition for sustained social and learning, and of success and achievement and plea-
economic development, along with complementary sure of learning Goals and practices require rethink-
macroeconomic, labour market, social and environ- ing, as programmes need to take account of the cir-
mental policies cumstances of young children and their families and
There is now a consensus on the need for life- to recognise that solutions to difficulties must be
long learning for all The question is how the concept found in partnership with other agencies and actors,
can be applied in practice In implementing lifelong especially parents and teachers Successful schools
learning, it is important to be clear about the roles exist in all countries It is important to build upon
and responsibilities of the many actors involved strengths and the progress already made, and to
learners of all ages, parents, employers, unions, develop ways of disseminating innovations and good
teachers and trainers, voluntary and private organisa- practice
tions (profit-making and non-profit) and different At the secondary level, existing structures and
government departments at various levels A rigor- practices often limit effective responses to the diverse
ous, comprehensive and system-wide approach built aptitudes and backgrounds represented amongst stu-
on active partnerships of various kinds and at various dents and weaken their motivation to learn One con-
levels of provision, at local, regional and national sequence is that 15 to 20 per cent of young persons in
levels is needed Forging the required partnerships is many OECD countries leave school without a worth-
made more difficult by the wide range of education while qualification Reducing this proportion is an
provision which lies outside the formal responsibili- overriding priority Ways need to be found in some
ties of Education Ministries This is a challenge that countries to introduce appropriate flexibility into
must be met What, then, must OECD societies do to
practices that are at present characterised by detailed
make lifelong learning a practical reality for all')
and standardised curricula, classrooms organised by
age or grade divisions and ability tracking, fixed and
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL: THREE BROAD narrow timetables, authoritarian teaching styles and
CONCERNS assessments and rote learning Further, steps need to
be taken to link subject-based theoretical knowledge
Three inter-related sets of issues need to be
better to its practical applications and to provide suf-
addressed in order to make lifelong learning a reality
ficient opportunities for young people to envoy learn-
for all The first is to improve the foundations for
ing while developing such critical "cross-curricular"
lifelong learning, so that all learners, young and old,
skills as inter-personal and social relations, commu-
obtain the academic and vocational qualifications
nication, problem-solving and learning-to-learn This
they need for work and further learning The second is
would help to establish a closer "panty of esteem"
to facilitate pathways and progressions through life-
between vocational programmes and general aca-
long learning and work, especially the transition from
demic studies at upper secondary and tertiary levels
school to work The third is to rethink the roles and
There are many highly successful teaching strategies
responsibilities of all partners including govern-
which foster knowledge, skills and a commitment to
ments - in implementing and financing the organisa-
continued learning in young people and adults
tion of lifelong learning for all
returning to basic education These need to be further
developed and more widely applied to encourage new
Improving the foundations for lifelong learning "cultures" of learning and work in individuals, fami-
lies, institutions and communities
The quality of pre-primary and primary education
is key to all lifelong learning strategies Although "Schools of tomorrow" will need to develop and
excellent early childhood education is well estab- draw on the active participation of learners, to
lished in some countries, most need to improve address diverse learning needs and interests of all
access and raise quality, including for those with dis- ages, to emphasize cross-curricular efforts and to
abilities Educational disadvantage not addressed adapt methods and contexts of learning in the light of
early in life is likely to persist Education at this stage new possibilities opened up by wider use of informa-
must foster an interest, motivation and capacity for tion technologies and advances in pedagogy Institu-
learning in all children Schools, from early childhood tions can be opened up for use by the wider commu-
I 16 onwards, should provide learning environments nity, including extended learning opportunities for
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

adults seeking training in literacy and numeracy pathways within lifelong learning and transitions to
Strategies to develop and implement successful inno- and from work and further learning opportunities are
vation in foundation learning already include pilot rigid and restrict mobility Training opportunities at
protects, teacher development, incentives for innova- these levels are not available to all, and, more signifi-
tion, and various forms of communication among cantly, are heavily tilted in favour of the already bet-
parents, communities and local enterprises New ter-educated and trained This exacerbates the prob-
forms of accountability and governance, broadened lem of disadvantage, especially for the unemployed,
autonomy in managing resources and a wider range the low-performing, and those who are "locked-in" by
of funding sources have also been introduced Where geography or work, home or family circumstances
teachers, trainers, institutions, cities and communi- The need is both to broaden access and to develop
ties are experimenting with innovative approaches, more flexible, visible and interconnected pathways
the outcomes need to be examined, assessed and, New industry-education partnerships will be needed
where successful, extended more widely Countries to support extended and varied forms of training to
differ in the strategies used to extend successful meet labour market needs Other possible responses
innovation and sustain reform strong, centrally- include a strengthening of work-based experience in
co-ordinated efforts as in Spain and the United regular programmes and encouraging both the supply
Kingdom (England and Wales), "steering" as found in of, and demand for, learning and re-learning opportu-
some Nordic countries and the Netherlands, a sys- nities for adults seeking to upgrade their skills, paying
temic approach which fosters local development and special attention to workers in small and medium size
partnership, as envisaged in recent reform legislation enterprises and catering especially to the
in the United States, and close attention to monitor- unemployed
ing and evaluation in France
The wide range of learning environments and
These developments place new demands on diversity among client groups make it difficult to
teachers and trainers Many factors operate to limit assess and compare quality But, if information on
the incentive for them to respond to these demands,
the contents and relevance of learning opportunities
such as a lack of appropriate pedagogical skills, weak is not available, learners will be unable to exercise
links between schools, the community and local the degree of choice implied by a lifelong approach to
industry, limited scope for, and experience with, pro-
learning for all Similarly, employers and education
fessional consultation by teachers, inadequate sup- institutions may have insufficient information on
port services, and overall conditions of work, includ- which to base their decisions about recruitment,
ing remuneration Policies to increase the capacity
admission or learning needs, if the scope of provi-
and motivation of teachers and trainers to address
sion, both formal and non-formal, is not reflected in
the challenges range from new recruitment strategies,
the range of qualifications and recognised
staffing arrangements and career patterns to new
competencies
forms of support for in-service training Any strategy
mix will need to be feasible in terms of its overall Better means are needed to identify the knowl-
costs, as well as effective in improving the quality of edge, skills and competencies required and obtained
teaching and learning in all forms of lifelong learning The challenge is to
develop, and put in place, methods of assessment
and recognition which serve this purpose However,
Facilitating transitions through lifelong learning as responsibility for providing a diverse range of life-
and work long learning opportunities becomes more widely
As participation increases in a diverse range of shared, one key issue is how to develop partnerships
academic and professional education, especially at not only within formal education provision but also
the tertiary level, and the provision and application of through co-ordinated action involving Ministries and
information technology widens, the pathways fol- other actors outside education Recent initiatives in
lowed by individuals are becoming more varied and establishing novel assessment and qualifications
transitions particularly from school and initial terti- frameworks have not yet been successfully extended
ary education to work more critical This raises to all learning It will be necessary to build on the
questions about the linkages and balance between strengths of such approaches and explore their weak-
academic and professional education, and how rele- nesses and gaps in order to recognise many more
vance can be assured and high quality recognised forms of learning At the same time, in considering
Too often the links and articulations between the how to facilitate transitions to and from work and 17I
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

non-formal learning, attention needs to be given to additional resources, which cannot, in view of the
different ways of improving the capacity of individual- current constraints on public budgets, all come from
learners - many of whom are adults seeking to re- the public purse Public financing will need to be
enter learning - to make choices This will entail new used more strategically and effectively to support a
strategies for education- and work-based career gui- wider range of learning opportunities, while being
dance and counselling, and for partnerships amongst directed toward target groups, and to leverage private
education institutions and employers and public funds available under other ministerial
portfolios in favour of gaps in the provision of lifelong
Rethinking the roles and responsibilities learning Evidence is now emerging that, where bene-
of governments and partners fits are clear and incentives are in place, individuals
and the social partners may be willing to shoulder
Strategies of lifelong learning for all imply new larger investments for learning and skill acquisition
roles and responsibilities for a wider variety of actors New possibilities of harnessing more effectively this
and stakeholders - learners of various types, their willingness and ability to contribute resources should
families, teachers, social partners and governments be explored While there is some experience in coun-
There is a task for the partners in revisiting goals, tries with a wide range of policy options, each needs
curricula and teaching and learning methods, as well to be considered anew in relation to the new context
as in redefining governance and management The and against the aim of stimulating and developing a
roles of government need to be rethought at several culture of lifelong learning for all For example, learn-
levels, a wide range of alternative policy orientations ers at the tertiary level in some countries could
requires close analysis - including direct manage- assume a greater share in the form of tuition fees,
ment, control and regulation, steering and framework combining their studies with work, income-related
setting for accountability, establishing or intervening loans or increased loan-based components in student
in education and training markets, and more com- financial aid awards Similarly, in some countries, pri-
pletely realised forms of privatisation The mix of pol- vate employers could be encouraged to finance fur-
icies would go beyond a redistribution of responsibil- ther education with the leverage of tax incentives and
ities among the stakeholders and levels of decision- to provide basic learning opportunities to the unem-
making and aim to foster a consensus for lifelong ployed within the framework of employment pro-
learning among the partners and a shared commit- grammes based in part on wage subsidies Further,
ment to finance it The extent to which society-wide financing incentives can be used to "free-up"
agreement can be reached on the role of education resources through wider use of low-cost provision
and training markets is an open question Neverthe- options opened up by information technologies and
less, intermediate and local levels of government will by distance learning in general Where such initiatives
have a particular role to play in building partnerships add to the productive capacity of the economy, they
for common action might more than pay for themselves in terms of
Lifelong learning is a challenge principally for increased earnings and satisfaction for individuals,
Education Ministers, but it also involves other minis- reduced costs for employers and multiple benefits to
terial portfolios Although there is wide variation the society as a whole
among Member countries, none has the equivalent of Making lifelong learning a reality for all requires
a single "Ministry of learning" Indeed, given the
action by a large number of actors individuals, par-
breadth of lifelong learning, such a combination of ents, teachers, communities, social partners and
ministerial portfolios would probably be impossible governments at all levels They will need a well-
Learning at work and active labour market policies for developed knowledge base data, information,
the unemployed are of particular interest to Ministers research, evaluation and analyses - to support
of Employment The search for a systemic, coherent informed decision-making In an increasingly interde-
approach to lifelong learning for all requires close pendent world individual choices as well as collective
connections among the Ministries, as well as at differ- policy decisions must draw on information that goes
ent levels of governance, so that issues do not fall beyond national frontiers But expenditures on edu-
between them cation R&D are, at present, a minuscule part of OECD
The implementation of lifelong learning for all countries' total R&D effort and to be effective and
requires the cost-effective use of public resources, relevant they need to be expanded A revamped
and raises questions about the allocation of funds by knowledge base will be essential in the exercise of a
18 level and type of provision But it will also require
I
more strategic role for government, both within the
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

formal education sector where new, stronger partner- knowledge bases The OECD provides a unique forum
ships will reduce the reliance on detailed rules and for Member countries to exchange ideas and country
regulations, and in non-formal learning where provi- experiences, research and policy analyses, taking into
sion is diverse and not under the direct control of account specific country circumstances and the
Education Ministries Knowledge and understanding increasing importance of internationalisation
will be particularly needed about the outcomes of OECD's programme of data collection and develop-
education and training, including evaluation of inno- ment, research and analyses has contributed to the
vations for enhancing lifelong learning for all The understanding of the functioning and development of
effects of strategies to extend successful and cost- education systems of Member countries and their
effective innovations more widely need to be system- links with the economy and society, as has its pio-
atically assessed Education Ministers have a partic- neering work on international educational indicators,
ular responsibility for strengthening the local and and the on-going programme of country-specific and
national as well as the international and comparative cross-country education policy reviews

19 I
 THE MINISTERS' COMMUNIQUE

Lifelong learning will be essential for everyone as the skills and competences of individuals
we move into the 21st century and has to be made whether they are acquired through formal or
accessible to all, OECD Education Ministers agreed non-formal learning,
today rethink the roles and responsibilities of all
"We are all convinced of the crucial importance partners including governments who pro-
of learning throughout life for enriching personal vide opportunities for learning,
lives, fostering economic growth and maintaining create incentives for individuals, employers
social cohesion", said the Hon Simon Crean, M P, and those who provide education and training
chairman of the meeting,* "and we have agreed on to invest more in lifelong learning and to
strategies to implement it OECD societies have deliver value for money
made great strides during the 1990s, but now we need
In developing these strategies, Ministers affirm
to find more effective ways of offering every one the importance of international co-operation and the
of our citizens such an opportunity The target may value of the exchange of views and information that
be ambitious, but we cannot afford not to work
takes place in the OECD, and request the Organisa-
towards it" tion to carry out further analyses on how best to
implement lifelong learning
STRATEGIES FOR LIFELONG LEARNING
Strategies for lifelong learning need a whole- STRENGTHENING THE FOUNDATIONS
hearted commitment to new system-wide goals, stan- OF LIFELONG LEARNING
dards and approaches, adapted to the culture and Although excellent early childhood education is
circumstances of each country OECD Education Min- well-established in some OECD countries, most still
isters agreed to need to improve access, raise quality and identify
strengthen the foundations for learning ways in which pre-school programmes can operate in
throughout life, by improving access to early partnership with the families of young children
childhood education, particularly for disadvan- since educational disadvantage which is not
taged children, revitalising schools and sup- addressed early is likely to persist throughout life
porting the growth of other formal and non- Since strategies to combat deprivation at this early
formal learning arrangements, stage must extend beyond education, Ministers
promote coherent links between learning and recognise the need to develop stronger, more coher-
work, by establishing pathways and bridges ent partnerships with social service, health, housing
that will facilitate more flexible movement and employment agencies and voluntary bodies at
between education and training and work, local, regional and national levels
aimed in particular at smoothing the initial Recent years have seen a considerable expansion
transition between the two, and by improving of participation and completion rates in OECD educa-
the mechanisms for assessing and recognising tion systems The need now is to focus more intently

"Making Lifelong Learning a Reality for All", meeting of the Netherlands and Mr F d'Aubert, Secretary of State
the OECD Education Committee at Ministerial level, for Research, Ministry of National Education, Higher
16-17 January 1996 The meeting was chaired by the Education and Research, France Prior to the meeting,
Honourable S Crean, Minister for Employment, Educa- consultations took place with the Business and Industry
tion and Training. Australia The vice-chairmen were Advisory Committee and the Trade Union Advisory
21
Mr I Ritzen Minister of Education. Science and Culture. Committee 1
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

on quality, since a sizeable minority of young people They, too, should be lifelong learners, and their con-
still leave school without adequate qualifications. tinuing professional development in knowledge and
knowledge or skills This has been a major factor in understanding of both their students and their sub-
youth unemployment across OECD countries A sys- jects, teaching skills, and the use of new technologies
tem which elicits high levels of performance from all should be a priority In particular, teachers will be
students, and establishes a sound foundation on encouraged to participate more fully in curriculum
which they can build, is essential Ministers underline development and school management, and through
the important contribution parental involvement can performance incentives and support structures, to
make in establishing this foundation and supporting make the best use of their skills For their part, gov-
motivation to learn Ministers affirm their commit- ernments seek to develop strategies that will make it
ment to achieving a broadly-based and effective foun- possible to raise the professional status of teaching,
dation for lifelong learning at the primary and secon- to revitalise and renew teachers skills and to reward
dary levels - whether academic or vocational from- careers spent in high-performance teaching and
which no-one is excluded training
Ministers are concerned about education sys-
tems' capacity to change quickly, at a time when PROMOTING BETTER LINKS BETWEEN
many factors are combining to influence the shape of LEARNING AND WORK
tomorrow's schools In the future, schools should
Lifelong learning is not restricted to linear pro-
offer individualised and accredited programmes to
gression through primary, secondary and tertiary edu-
learners of all ages This means rethinking the way in
cation It increasingly takes place in a variety of for-
which much education is currently organised, with
mal and non-formal settings, but large gaps in
the objective of enhancing motivation for lifelong
coverage still exist The 15 to 20 per cent of students
learning and making it accessible to a much wider
who, in many countries, leave school with no useful
range of people including adults returning to learn.
qualifications face particular difficulties in transition
the disadvantaged and those with disabilities Rigid
structures and practices - in curricula, grading stu-
-
to work especially as high levels of unemployment
persist despite the economic recovery in almost all
dents by age, fixed and narrow timetables and
OECD countries Many adults have not been able to
emphasis on rote learning - often characterise learn-
develop an adequate base for lifelong learning Up to
ing provision in many countries Lifelong learning
one in three adults in many OECD countries have
provides the opportunity to review curriculum con-
attained only minimum standards of literacy and
tent and methods of delivery It would benefit from
numeracy they are at particular risk of long-term lob-
more supple frameworks which encourage self-
lessness As industry, commerce and services are
directed learning, and permit a more flexible
transformed by technology, many skills not only of
response to the diverse aptitudes and backgrounds of
employees, but also of managers and the self-
students Institutions in most systems need to pro-
employed are becoming obsolete There is a grow-
vide for a greater diversity of skills including learning
ing diversity of learners' needs, and current opportu-
to learn and other critical cross-curricular skills, and a
nities for updating them, especially for less-skilled
better balance needs to be achieved between theoret-
workers, are limited and unevenly distributed Path-
ical knowledge and its practical application The new
ways through learning and work with interconnecting
information technologies- including mass media and bridges which facilitate mobility are not available to
distance learning - offer opportunities for wider all Skills and competences gained outside the formal
access as well as innovative approaches to student-
system are often unrecognised and undervalued
centred teaching methods Schools are a maior social
asset and should become "community learning cen- Ministers agree to give high priority to the availa-
tres" offering a variety of programmes and learning bility of a broad range of options after compulsory

methods to a diverse range of students, and remain schooling, especially in upper secondary and the first
years of tertiary education, smoothing the transition
open for long hours throughout the year
to working life A more fluid relationship between
Ministers invite the OECD to study promising learning and work will be needed in the future, where
approaches to the "school of tomorrow" and identify an initial period of full-time education is followed by
examples of good practice for wider dissemination various combinations of work (full- or part-time),
The quality of education depends heavily on the skill, training and education available in enterprises,
122 experience and motivation of teachers and trainers schools and tertiary institutions Suitable academic
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

and vocational pathways for learners at all levels and Ministers propose that the OECD should study
ages should be created, along with more sophisti- both the roles and the responsibilities of different
cated and transparent approaches for assessing and partners in providing lifelong learning. and ways in
recognising competences It is important to continue which such partnerships at local, regional and
to build on the achievements represented by tradi- national levels could be made more effective Life-
tional forms of certification and to find ways of long learning involves ministerial portfolios other
improving their relevance to the labour market The than education Ministers undertake to deepen co-
development of career guidance and counselling, operation with their colleagues in the areas of social,
especially for adults, should be a priority labour market, economic and communications poli-
cies, in order to make sure that policies which affect
Ministers invite the OECD to identify promising
education are coherent and cost-effective
policy options by analysing country experiences in
promoting flexible and interconnected pathways for
lifelong learning, with particular reference to the tran- CREATING INCENTIVES FOR MOBILISING
sition from school to work They welcome the recent INVESTMENT
publication by the OECD and Statistics Canada of the There are substantial potential benefits from life-
first International Adult Literacy Survey, which docu- long learning, and increased investment is likely to be
ments the nature and levels of literacy and numeracy needed if these are to be realised Incentives must be
among adults, and look to the Organisation to con- found which will mobilise new resources, but how the
tinue this work, to review country programmes and to responsibility for such investments is shared will
identify policy options which address the problem depend on the traditions and circumstances of differ-
ent Member countries While some countries are pre-
RETHINKING THE ROLES AND pared to fund lifelong learning largely from the public
RESPONSIBILITIES OF PARTNERS purse, others will need to find ways of mobilising new
In a rapidly changing world, a strategy for lifelong investment if it is to be affordable Incentives are also
requires required to improve cost-effectiveness and the alloca-
learning involves many participants and a re-
thinking of roles and responsibilities Governments in tion of resources which currently does not reflect
partnership with learners, their families, public and the needs or priorities of lifelong learning as well as
private providers, teachers, and the social partners to promote better co-ordination of the many poten-
tial public and private sources of support
are best placed to set the policy framework for devel-
oping systems and networks through which individu- Even at a time of growing pressure on resources,
als learn Ministries of Education will need to adopt a governments will continue to be responsible for the
more strategic role, to set goals and targets and to adequate funding of basic education, given the very
direct policy toward gaps in provision On the basis of high social returns which result from investment at
shared responsibilities, they will aim to foster a com- this first stage They also have a responsibility to
mon commitment towards action for lifelong learning ensure, in a framework of devolution and sharing of
among the partners Particular attention should be financing at higher education levels, that there is a
paid to the changing roles and needs of teachers and fair opportunity for all to participate
trainers, since ultimately it is they who will imple- Public spending on tertiary education whether
ment the policy it takes place in universities or other educational
Consistent with this new strategic role for gov- institutions, at home through distance learning. or in
ernment. as schools and other educational institu- the workplace varies markedly from country to
tions are given new responsibilities, their capacity to country If this sector is to grow and diversify, new
exercise them must be developed through improved sources of funding will be required Ministers looked
support structures, training and evaluation The eval- at a range of options, including partnerships with
uation of learners, institutions and education systems business charging tuition fees, deferred contribution
is crucial both in securing greater effectiveness and in schemes, and changing the balance between loans
ensuring accountability for the resources used Estab- and grants to students Taking account of their differ-
lishing clear goals, defining acceptable but high stan- ent circumstances, countries will need to strike a new
dards of performance, and offering teachers and train- balance between the contributions of individuals.
ers the opportunity to improve their skills will make it employers and workers, and of society collectively
easier to focus educational change and to sustain They request the OECD to deepen its analysts of poli-
23
reforms cies which offer incentives for learners, their families, I
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

employers and other partners to mobilise larger and technical education, including training in
investments for learning, and which promote cost- enterprises, the transition from school to work,
effectiveness, equity and quality in tertiary education and the roles and responsibilities of tertiary
Ministers call upon private- and public-sector institutions, including universities, and those
employers and the social partners to respond to the institutions specialised in adult education,
demand for increased investment in human capital,
identify the benefits of Increased investment
to overcome barriers to the expansion of adult educa- in lifelong learning, its implications for educa-
tion and training and to further develop active labour tion and training policies in the effort to move
market programmes, particularly to combat marginal- towards a "learning society", and how sharing
isation and social exclusion They invite the OECD's the costs of such investments can be related
Business and Industry Advisory Committee and the
more equitably to the benefits,
Trade Union Advisory Committee to propose new
ways of urging businesses to increase their capacity deepen its analyses of how more investment
for training and the participation of their employees, for learning by all partners might be
and encouraging unions to do likewise for their mem- mobilised, how education and training provid-
bers They request the OECD to explore alternative ers might be encouraged to achieve greater
types of incentives to encourage firms to provide cost-effectiveness and to improve the quality
more quality training to meet the growing and diverse of what they offer, and how greater coherence
skill needs of the workplace might be achieved among policies, especially
in relation to active labour market policies,
LIFELONG LEARNING IN THE 2IsT CENTURY continue work on the flexibility of enterprises,
with emphasis on the connections between
Ministers reaffirm the value of international co-
new technologies, innovations and work
operation and the exchange of information and com-
organisation, and their implications for human
parative country experiences in developing national
resource development
policies especially in light of the widening reach of
information technologies and the gathering momen- Future economic prosperity, social and political
tum of globalisation They welcome the OECD's role cohesion, and the achievement of genuinely demo-
in fostering a fruitful exchange of ideas, its pioneering cratic societies with full participation all depend on
work in establishing international education indica- a well-educated population Governments will seek to
tors, and its ongoing programme of policy reviews establish an environment that encourages individuals
They look to the OECD to continue working on to take greater responsibility for their own and their
improving understanding of the functioning of educa- children's learning and, where appropriate, permits a
tion systems through its research, data collection and choice as to where they acquire the learning they
analysis In particular, they seek advice on how best need Real commitment involving all partners
to implement lifelong learning for all, especially for including the co-operation of different government
the disadvantaged and those excluded from the main- Ministries will be needed to implement coherent,
stream Ministers invite the OECD to equitable and cost-effective programmes which will
assess alternative visions of the "school of cover the needs of all for high-quality learning Minis-
tomorrow", in particular in the light of new ters call on their partners in the provision of educa-
technologies and advances in pedagogy, tion, training and those involved in the creation of
employment to help them to generate a positive and
review and explore new forms of teaching and
encouraging climate of opinion in which lifelong
learning appropriate for adults, whether learning can flourish, and to establish the mecha-
employed, unemployed or retired, nisms which will make it a reality They have lointly
monitor progress towards the realisation of committed themselves to taking such action, and are
lifelong learning for all in OECD Member confident that as the 21st century begins, the strategy
countries, through thematic reviews of aspects outlined above will usher in a new era of lifelong
such as early childhood education, vocational learning for all

24
 Acknowledgements

We would like to thank the following persons for the significant contributions
they made to elements of this report Edwin Leuven, in consultation with
Andreas Schleicher (Chapter I), David !stance (Chapter 2), Torsten Hus6n
(Chapter 3), Wim Groot (Chapter 4). John Townshend (Chapter 6). John Lowe and
Peter Sutton (Chapter 7), and John Addison, Elchanan Cohn, Hessel Oosterbeek,
Wim Groot and Edwin Leuven (Chapter 8)
 INTRODUCTION

Since the last meeting of OECD Education Minis- ertheless, two priority areas for policy action are iden-
ters in November 1990, there has emerged a consen- tified in Chapters 3 and 4 revitalising schools and
sus on the importance of lifelong learning in meeting other institutions in order to establish a sound foun-
a range of educational, social and economic policy dation for lifelong learning, and improving the path-
objectives Lifelong learning is a means of shaping ways and transitions between formal and non-formal
the future of OECD societies, by fostering the per- learning and work A strategy needs also to identify
sonal development of the individual, countering the the instruments to be used in the pursuit of these
risks to social cohesion, promoting democratic tradi- priorities Four such instruments are discussed in
tions, and responding to the challenges posed by Chapters 5, 6, 7 and 8
increasingly global and knowledge-based economic Building an inclusive learning society is a long-
and social systems term goal, achieving it will require major and sus-
The key idea underpinning lifelong learning for tained efforts over many years Although the strategic
all is that while everyone is able to learn, all must directions developed in Chapters 3 through 8 are con-
become motivated to learn, and should be actively sistent with a long-term approach, their focus is on
encouraged to do so, throughout life Lifelong learn- action that must be initiated in the short and medium
ing is conceived broadly, as learning that occurs vari- term There is no single, unified and hierarchically
ously in formal institutions of education and training structured "system" of lifelong learning that suits all
or informally at home, at work or in the wider com- countries Lifelong learning will need to build upon
munity Although this notion of lifelong learning is specific national and cultural heritages, and policies
now widely accepted, and has already become a natu- modified to suit particular conditions and needs
ral feature of everyday life for certain privileged Moreover, to be effective, the strategy does not
groups, the next essential step is to make it a reality engage the education sector or governments alone
for all Three elements need to be taken into account First, a
In agreeing to make lifelong learning for all the "system" of lifelong learning cannot be imposed, it
focus of the Ministerial discussions, Member coun- must depend and thrive on a great variety of initia-
tries have laid down an ambitious agenda for reform tives taken by different actors in many spheres of life
The extent of the challenges posed to the education and work Secondly, the role of government is not to
and training systems of OECD countries are described "invent", manage and pay for a "system" of lifelong
in Chapter I, while possible policy responses are learning opportunities, but rather to monitor and
introduced in Chapter 2 The complexities of imple- steer developments and redistribute resources so
mentation in a held that cuts across traditional that provision is equitable, flexible and efficient
demarcations and departmental iunsdictions require Thirdly, the very nature of lifelong learning diverse,
that the existing evidence be carefully considered as a pluralistic, and undertaken over a lifetime calls for
basis for policy discussions No single strategy will co-operation and co-ordination among many policy
suffice. given the differences among countries and the sectors, involving both macroeconomic and structural
fact that lifelong learning is as a moving target Nev- policies

27
 TRANSITIONS TO LEARNING ECONOMIES AND SOCIETIES

A. INTRODUCTION are not emerging everywhere sufficiently clearly to

allow education authorities and other relevant policy
This chapter brings together two spheres the partners simply to watch matters evolve
broad trends and developments in OECD economies,
cultures and societies (Section B), and those in the
education and training systems of the Member coun- B. BROAD TRENDS IN THE ECONOMY,
tries (Section C) The two are clearly linked education CULTURE AND SOCIETY
and training systems both shape and respond to
broad social and economic changes Aspects of these Globalisation
interactions are examined in the different chapters Seen in the narrow perspective of movement of
that follow The objective here is to identify the long- goods and services, globalisation is not a new or even
term contextual changes challenges and opportuni- recent process some speak of a golden age of the
ties faced by education and training systems 1950s and 1960s, others cite references farther back in
The evidence presented paints a picture of ongo- history Today's globalisation process is, however,
ing indeed sometimes intensifying trends of new in its specificity The concept has been broad-
globalisation and ageing populations, of widely dif- ened to encompass movements not only of goods
fused information and communication technologies, and services, but also of investment, people and
of changes in the organisation of work and patterns of ideas across national and regional frontiers Since the
employment, and of changing values with regard 1970s, three closely-related phenomena have played
to family, community, the environment, leisure and a central role in facilitating and spurring a new wave
life-styles all part of the drive towards the post- of globalisation market deregulation, the advent and
industrial information society Most aspects of social spread of new information technologies based on
activity and economic production are becoming more micro-electronics, and the globalisation of financial
knowledge-intensive Meanwhile, because of its deep- markets
ening links with the economy, the education and These three aspects are reflected in some simple
training sector is also changing the types of demand indicators Trade within the OECD area grew more
for education, training and skills are diversifying, as rapidly than GDP during the 1970s sometimes aver-
are the types of provision One of the major policy aging 20 per cent although the rate declined in the
questions that emerges is whether the trends 1980s In 1993 some $1 trillion of Foreign exchange
described here contain risks for social cohesion and transactions took place every day Since the
democratic traditions If so, how can education and mid-1980s, global foreign direct investment (FDI) has
training systems be restructured to combat these been growing at a rate three times that of domestic
risks and strengthen the democratic foundations of output In 1993 there were some 37 000 multination-
OECD countries') als with 170 000 affiliates, and a global FDI stock of
This chapter. then, establishes the context for S2 trillion that produced 55 5 trillion in sales by for-
lifelong learning through the detailed analysis of a eign affiliates a figure larger than that for the global
wide range of social, economic and educational data value of exports World trade will thus be a major
The ideas that underpin this broad principle need to engine of growth over the next ten years World mer-
be grounded in an analysis of key facts and develop- chandise trade is projected to grow at more than
ments, and not merely founded on an assertion of 6 per cent per year until 2010. faster than at any time
anticipated benefits The facts show that while certain since the 1960s (World Bank. 1995) In this global
developments are consistent with the broad changes economy, the balance of imports and exports will be
required for lifelong learning to be implemented, they closely linked to the skills of the labour force in pro- 291
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

clueing marketable goods and services with high years, especially in the large western European coun-
value-added tries and in the Nordic countries These develop-
ments have made foreign encounters in the local
Increased movement of people is an important
environment a common experience Chart I I shows
component of globalisation Travelling abroad comes
that migration trends appear to be reversing in japan
naturally to a large proportion of the population of
in recent years Migrants must be integrated into the
OECD countries Mass tourism has created an
economy and society, and that requires action on the
entirely new dimension in social and cultural interac-
part of governments and the social partners Lan-
tion In the original twelve countries of the European
guage barriers have to be taken into account and an
Community, private consumption expenditure on
equilibrium must be found in combining new cultures
travel and tourism is estimated to grow by 78 per cent
with existing ones Valuing diversity will be essential
from 1995 to 2005 (Tourism Council, 1995) In addi-
as more and more people with different value sys-
tion to tourism, there are trends in international
tems and backgrounds interact in community life and
migration Table I I shows that compared to the early
the workplace, which increasingly rely on dynamic
1980s, the share of foreigners and immigrants in the
team situations, against the backdrop of an increas-
total population has increased in the majority of
ingly diverse customer base, both in production and
OECD countries Exceptions are Belgium and France,
in services The resources of education, training and
due to the importance of naturalisations, and Canada
self-directed learning are essential in addressing the
which experienced high levels of migration during the
challenge of valuing diversity
previous decade Although the foreign or immigrant
population is increasing in nearly all countries, the Globalisation brings opportunities for economic
presence of foreigners in the total population contin- and personal development, but it can also create vul-
ues to vary widely among the European countries nerability As cultures mix, some of the traditional
(OECD, 1995b) Furthermore, there has been an norms, values and cultural "maps" of communities
increase in the number of asylum-seekers in recent and families no longer apply One role of education

Chart I I Components of population growth in OECD regions,

1982-86,1987-91 and 19921.23
Percentage of total population

171 Share of natural Increase El Share of net migration Annual growth

in per cent
1982-86 Western Europe 017
1987-91 067
1992 068
1982-86 Nordic countries 0 22
1987-91 044
1992 0 59

1982-86 Oceania 1 29
1987-91 1 42
1992 1 06
1982-86 North Amena 097
1987-91 1 07
1992 1 10

1982-86 Southern Europe 0 95

1987-91 0 86
1992 1 02
1982-86 061
1987-91 I 037
1992 0 32

0 20 40 60 80 100

1 Share of natural increase and net migration in the tonl increase of population for each penod
2. Western Europe includes Austria, Belgium, France, Germany. Ireland, Luxembourg, Netherlands. Switzerland, United Kingdom
3 Southern Europe includes Greece, Italy, Portugal, Spain,Turkey
1 30 Source OECD (1995b). p 23
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

has been to maintain the stability of society by social- the demand for adult education will, to a large extent,
ising individuals with knowledge commonly accepted be oriented towards personal development rather
as being necessary for adult life However, in a com- than economic goals Flexible and diverse options are
plex world characterised by changing values, skills required because senior citizens cannot. as learners,
and competencies, this traditional knowledge-base is be treated as a single group (Schuller, 1992)
increasingly being questioned which presents a
major challenge to communities, families and indi-
Massive diffusion of information technologies
viduals "Enlightened" communities are responding
by creating multimedia houses of culture and learn- It is widely recognised that the new information
ing, where different traditions can meet Given that technologies represent a structural break from the
national identities and regional and local cultural past (OECD, 19886 and 1992a) They are pervasive
heritages are, at least in part, transmitted through - that is, they have an impact throughout economic
education, school and adult education are similarly and social systems and not simply on particular
faced with a major challenge enterprises or a specific sector Pervasive technologi-
cal change is not to be equated with certain hard-
Demographic developments ware, or with specific production processes, it is. in
its development and application, fundamentally a
The OECD population is ageing Total depen- social process, and cannot be Imposed on societies
dency ratios will increase, the majority of the This observation has major implications for educa-
dependants will be aged, and often living alone The tion and training systems Rather than describe the
consequences for public expenditures will be serious features of the new technologies from microproces-
Lower fertility rates influence not only the quantita- sors to information superhighways this subsection
tive demand for schooling, but also the lower inflow explores some of the indicators of change. and their
rate into the labour market Table 12 shows the likely implications for education
result, which is a rapid increase in aged dependency
ratios (OECD, 1988a) The share of people aged 65 The massive diffusion of information technolo-
and over is expected to increase from 18 9 per cent in gies is not easy to capture in statistical terms None-
1980 to 276 per cent in 2020, This shift delivers the theless, there are some indications of the extent of
equivalent of a "demographic shock" - beginning change in OECD societies For example, the software
around 2005 - to a number of OECD countries. market grew by 17 5 per cent over the 1991-93 period.
including Germany, Japan and, to a lesser extent, the and is now in the same league as hardware sales
United States (OECD, 1994a), even though computers are a fast
Annex Table A shows the changing age profiles
1
growing commodity in OECD trade Other high-tech-
of populations in OECD countries The shares of the nology sectors with a growing share in trade include
25-34 and 25-44 year-olds in the total population semiconductors, telecommunications. aircraft and
have increased in many countries since 1960, and pharmaceuticals The telecommunications sector in
they will continue to grow until at least 2000 To some particular has become a thriving industry Annex
extent this trend explains the rising demand for adult Table A 2 shows that the number of business main-
education and continuing vocational training lines per 100 employees increased from 15 in 1982 to
observed in many OECD countries Part of this new 28 in 1992 across the OECD area The global dimen-
demand is directed towards tertiary education in sion is further highlighted by the rapid increase in
particular the conventional universities, which gener- international telecommunications traffic, which grew
ally face rising enrolments of non-traditional stu- by more than 10 per cent per year in the OECD
dents But the trend in the age-dependency ratio sug- area during the period 1988-92 The data provided in
gests that there is also a large and rising demand for Table 1 3 also indicate a trend in international
adult education among senior citizens Providing ade- specialisation, where high technology plays an impor-
quate learning opportunities for older adults - who, tant part Japan shifted away from low-wage and low-
as a group, are under-represented in adult education technology industries towards high-wage and high-
in all OECD countries is a priority for governments, technology industries between 1970 and 1992 In the
partly because such provision may help reduce or United States the trend was slightly away from low-
delay dependency On the other hand, since a large wage industries and industrial specialisation stayed
portion of the retired population could well be pros- relatively unchanged Industry structure appears to be
perous and healthy and have a great deal of free time, very stable in the European Union with relatively little 311
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

emphasis on high-technology industries (OECD, is needed if people are to compete in the fast-
1994b) changing labour market Inadequate literacy skills
among large numbers of adults need to be addressed
The patterns of lob creation and lob destruction
(OECD and Statistics Canada, 1995) Workers need to
flowing from the introduction of new technologies are
be provided with more opportunities of on-the-lob
normally unevenly distributed from one region,
training New technologies can also have a major
industry or occupation to another and, if
impact on education practice by freeing teachers from
unchecked, can encourage dualism in society Full
the constraints of classroom space and time and
exploitation of the new technologies implies a shift
large classes They can cut costs and increase teach-
from the "taylorist" model of production organisation
ers' productivity Teachers, meanwhile, will need fre-
that dominated the first half of this century, not only
quent retraining, a point elaborated in Chapter 7
in manufacturing but also in services and public
administration New technologies tend to shift the Developments have not been uniform within the
emphasis in work organisation and lob content industrial sector, since low-technology, low-skill and
towards qualities like teamwork, initiative, creativity. low-wage industries saw their share in total employ-
entrepreneurship, problem-solving and openness to ment decrease, while that of high-technology, high-
change The move is away from a pyramid structure, skill and high-wage manufacturing expanded (OECD,
and towards a substantial upgrading and broadening 1994d) Thus the trends do not signal the demise of
of skills Table 14 illustrates this development for manufacturing industries in the OECD area, rather,
one country, Sweden, where long time-series are they indicate that such industries have tended to
available The data show a massive upward shift in become more productive with fewer but better-
the educational attainment of the population, a educated and better-trained workers Chart 2, which
1

movement that will not come to an end in 1996 shows the share of high-technology industries in total
qualification levels continue to rise with the inflow of manufacturing, confirms the shift from low-skill man-
young, well-educated people into the labour market, ufacturing to high-skill, high-technology intensive
with growth in adult education and training, and with production
narrow lob descriptions being replaced by broader
classifications But the rise in levels of qualification,
Changes in industrial, occupational and
which parallels the move from the industrial to the
qualification structures
post-industrial learning society, does not alter the
fact that well into the future, there will be a large Technological change affects the industrial.
group of people who are at the tail-end of the skills occupational and skill structures of labour markets
distribution Moreover, whereas highly-trained work- The long-run shift in the industrial structure is made
ers with access to the new learning economy will clear in Chart 13 It is widely recognised that in
benefit from the wealth being generated there. they recent decades the service sector has become the
still face careers with frequent lob changes, which largest single source of lobs, employing more than
indicates the need for continuing access to education 60 per cent of the workforce
and training Many other workers, however, will
The new growth industries are those involved in
remain tied to dormant sectors offering only dead-
the creation, processing and distribution of informa-
end lobs with low pay, poor benefits and few opportu-
tion and knowledge The share in value-added by
nities for acquiring new skills or qualifications In this
high-technology industries has increased from 1970
regard it is noteworthy that women's participation in
to 1991, in some countries more than in others Even
the labour force is estimated to increase in all coun-
though causality cannot be inferred, this finding
tries except Japan, commonly to 45 per cent in 2005
points to a positive relationship between skills, tech-
Women will contribute much more than men to
nology, innovation, productivity and competitiveness
labour force growth over the period 1995-2005
High-technology industries saw real growth in pro-
(OECD. 1994c, Chapter 2)
ductivity and their performance in trade was excep-
The education system needs to take these tional as well During the 1970s and 1980s the share
changes into account, it must provide everyone with of high-technology products in trade grew at an aver-
an adequate foundation for later acquisition of new age of 20 per cent at current prices Japan and
skills, and facilitate movement of workers between Germany recorded exceptional annual growth in the
industries, employers and occupations A high mini- percentage of employment in high-tech industries
I 32 mum threshold of competencies for all young people from 1980 to 1991, whereas Australia, Italy and the
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Chart 1.2. Shores of high-technology industries in total manufacturing exports, 1970 and 19921.2
Percentage of manufacturing exports

40

35
CD 1970 1= 1992 - Change 1992-1970
40

35

30 30

25 25

20 20

15 15

10 10

C E 11°
OI
5 2
O
0
g E C
C IL a U 0 fn E
C 3a

I. Australia and Italy, 1991 data.

2. See Annex Table A.3 for data and notes.
Source: OECD (1994d), The OECD Jobs Stuck Evidence and Explanations, Part 1,Table 4.12, p. 149.

United Kingdom experienced a contraction of The lower number of jobs in low-technology

employment in these industries (OECD, 1994d). manufacturing will be more than offset by the
expected rise of non-government services in total
Chart 1.4 and Annex Table A.4 show the occupa-
employment. However, the service sectors will be a
tional distribution. The share of white-collar employ-
source of employment opportunities mainly for those
ment has risen in nearly all OECD countries; overall,
with intermediate-level skills (OECD, 1994c). The new
the increase was from 54 per cent in 1981 to 60 per
jobs require a good deal of formal education and
cent in 1991 (OECD, 1994c). Among the white-collar training, and the ability to acquire and apply analyti-
workers, the highly-skilled experienced the largest
cal knowledge. Further, formal education is expected
employment growth, indicating the continuing high to exert an even greater influence with regard to allo-
demand for qualified workers. Occupational projec- cating and sorting workers, and legitimising social
tions for a number of countries suggest a strong stratification based on qualifications.
demand for highly-skilled professional, technical,
administrative and managerial occupations, and a
weakening demand for relatively low-skilled agricul- Unemployment
tural and production occupations. Whereas blue- The incidence of unemployment was relatively
collar workers in manufacturing and transportation low during the 1950s and 1960s; rates in many OECD
made up about 40 per cent of the United States countries were in the range of 1.5 to 3 per cent. The
workforce in the 1950s, they accounted for less than impacts of the first and second oil shocks were felt
20 per cent in the early 1990s. This trend will most during the 1970s. During the 1980s, Europe especially
likely continue, so that by the year 2010 industrial has experienced relatively high unemployment rates:
workers may account for no more than between an average of 9.5 per cent in the European Communi-
10-15 per cent of the total labour force in advanced ties (OECD, 1992b). While unemployment has tended
OECD countries. to increase in some OECD areas, labour force partici- 33 I
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Chart 1.3. Employment share of agriculture, industry and services, 1900-90

Percentage of total employment

- - France ---- Germany Italy Japan United Kingdom United States

70 70

Agriculture
60 .... 60
.... .....

50 50

40 ... 40

30 30

20 20

10 10

0 0

1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990

60 60

Industry
50 50

40 .......... ..................... 40
.................. 7.
...................... ........... .......................
....... ...... ....... -
^
30 30

....... . ......
20 20
...............
.... ... ............

10 10

0 0

1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990

80 80

Services

.....
60 60

r. 7. 7.

40 40
..
........... .......
........................
..
....... ......................
20
.............
.....................
..................... .....
..............
.............

20

0 0

1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990

1_34 Source: OECD, historical series.

 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Chart I .4. Employment shares for blue- and white-collar workers, 1981-911
Percentage of total employment, average annual change

0 Blue collar White collar

Portugal
Spain
Greece
Norway
Finland
Canada
Japan

Sweden
Ireland
New Zealand
United Kingdom
Austria
United States
Germany (FTFR)
Australia
Netherlands
Belgium
Denmark

-6 -4 -2 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

I. See Table A.4 for data and notes.

Sources: OECD (1994c), Employment Outlook,Table 2.3, p. 82.

pation rates have also continued to increase. The are expected to stay on in the education system, and
capacity of the European economy to generate jobs many other people the unemployed, underem-
slowed down during the 1970s and 1980s, whereas ployed, and senior citizens will be returning.
the United States experienced continued employment
growth (OECD, 1994c, Annex Table A). Many of those The changing work environment
unemployed were not able to find work for sustained
periods of time. Table 1.5 shows that long-term As noted above, work arrangements are changing
unemployment of one year and over as a percentage not only with respect to the nature and content of
of total unemployment in the European Communities jobs but also in terms of their organisation and loca-
ranged from 27 per cent in Denmark to 58 per cent in tion. High-performance workplaces emphasise self-
Italy in 1992, compared with II per cent in the United managing teams, study circles, flexible rather than
States and 8 per cent in Sweden. Unemployment in narrow job design, flat organisational structures,
the European Union is generally expected to remain employee problem-solving groups, information and
high until the end of the decade, at around 11 per office technologies, just-in-time learning and produc-
cent; rates of joblessness in the United States are tion, the ability to meet customer needs and, particu-
expected to fluctuate around the 6 to 7 per cent mark, larly, innovation and total quality management.
and those for Canada around 10 per cent; Japan's rate People's knowledge, skills and qualifications are key
increased substantially since 1990 (Stevens and to all these priorities. The move towards the high-
Michalski, 1994). This bleak picture of the future job performance and flexible workplace thus calls for a
market is bound to have consequences for the educa- major education and training effort. But the nature of
tion systems of OECD countries; education's role of learning in the workplace is also changing: self-
providing knowledge and skills and bolstering social directed and team learning is replacing formal class-
cohesion will have to be given urgent priority. Youths room instruction.
35]
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Before the Industrial Revolution, work was One element of the changing work environment
mainly agricultural or craft-oriented, and situated in is the long-term decline in the number of working
the vicinity of the home. Jobs in the industrial age hours. Chart 1.5 and Annex Table A.5 show that a
required workers to be concentrated in plants and century ago, people worked on average about
offices, which stimulated urban growth. New technol- 2 770 hours per year. Today that figure is approxi-
ogies now make it possible to place the home, once mately 700 hours for a majority of countries. This
1

more, at the heart of economic life. Teleworking and decline has been persistent during the twentieth cen-
self-employment are two examples of developments tury; only recently has it begun to level off or, in a few
that shrink the distance between the home and the countries, even to reverse. Although average hours
workplace. Today, much of the telework involves worked by men have fallen, female labour supply has
employees in traditional job patterns who prefer to increased. Women now work more hours than they
work from wherever they happen to be. But with did ten years ago. The net effect of the decline in
greater decentralisation of decision-making responsi- male labour supply and the increase in female labour
bility and an increase in task-specific team produc- supply is slightly positive with families as the unit
tion, telework is expected to grow in importance. By of analysis, the sum of husbands' and wives' labour
the year 2000 it is estimated that the number of time is now higher than it was before. But there are
teleworkers in Europe and North America will have divergencies in this respect. People in the United
jumped from around 0.6 million (in 1994) to 12 mil- States appear to have begun to work more hours, on
lion. As home and work environments become pro- average, than they did ten years ago. In contrast,
gressively fused, they are also becoming learning Japan, where working hours are still relatively high
environments. Consequently, the distinction between compared to the OECD average, at around 2 000 per
formal education and training and learning in non- person per year, is expecting a decline of 244 hours by
formal settings is becoming increasingly blurred. It is the year 2010. Most European countries are also
critical that educational policy takes these develop- expecting a continued decline. Germany, Norway and
ments into account. Sweden all have well below 600 working hours per
1

Chart 1.5. Annual hours worked per person per year, 1870-19931

Hours Canada - France ---- Germany Italy Japan United Kingdom United States Hours
3 100 3 100

2 900 2 900

2 700 2 700

2 500 2 500

2 300 2 300

2 100 2 100

I 900 1 900

I 700 1 700

1 500 1 500

1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990

I. See Annex Table A.5 for data and notes.

Sources: Data for the 1870-1960 period are from Carnoy and Castells (1995). From 1970 onwards the data are from OECD (1994c), Employment Ourfook,Table B.
L36
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

person per year, and expect a continued decline In others the choice is not voluntary Table 16 presents
the case of Norway, annual hours worked may fall to data on full-time and part-time employment and indi-
1 300 by 2010 (OECD, 1994c) vidual preferences for eleven European countries It
can be seen that in France. Greece, Ireland, Italy and
The long-term decline in working hours has
Portugal, where part-time employment was under
meant an increase in the time available for other
10 per cent in 1989, a significant group of workers
activities, such as family life, education and training,
would prefer part-time employment over full-time
travel and leisure In the United Kingdom, which has
long recorded time-keeping information, available employment However, in these countries over 40 per
cent of all part-time workers preferred a full-time lob
non-work hours in the average lifetime increased from
118 000 in 1856 to 287 000 in 1981 Over the same
Part-time employment can thus be voluntary or invol-
untary, reflecting partial under-employment It may
period, average working hours fell from 124 000 to
64 000 (Ausubel and Grub ler, 1994) This trend is
indicate an inability to find a full-time lob, or
significant, because it indicates that the portion of increased consumption of leisure Available data
show that involuntary part-time employment is more
total lifetime spent at work has fallen from about
50 per cent to less than 20 per cent However, the
common for women than for men (OECD, 1990c,
increase in time for non-work activities is distributed Table 7 I) In parallel, whereas men outnumber
unevenly between the different life stages One-fifth women in employer-sponsored training, women are
of total lifetime is now spent on formal education and over-represented in many adult education pro-
training before entering the world of work This pro- grammes The demand for such learning opportuni-
portion is expected to grow as learning societies ties is expected to grow for both women and men
mature As work environments change in response to
Working arrangements are being altered in many technological innovation and as conditions of work
Member countries Until recently, lifetime employ- are altered, flexibility becomes a key criterion of suc-
ment with a single employer was by no means an cess for both employers and employees This is
exception But conditions are changing, and so are reflected in the alternative work arrangements men-
the expectations and demands of both employers and tioned previously, including self-employment But
employees This results in part-time, temporary, mul- flexibility depends on indeed, presupposes the
tiple and irregular lobs Temporary work has become widespread capacity, willingness and opportunity to
more common in Europe since 1983, especially in continue learning The development of the informa-
France, Ireland and the Netherlands (OECD, 1991a, tion economy and the concomitant transition towards
Table 2 II) Annex Table A 6 shows that the share of the learning society must nevertheless be accommo-
part-time employment in total employment has dated within the context of a broad, non-instrumental
increased for both men and women during the 1980s view of learning Developing the creative and adaptive
and early 1990s The Nordic countries which in 1983 potential of all individuals has intrinsic value con-
had a relatively high part-time employment inci- tributing to social and economic adjustment is not
dence are an exception, in that the incidence has the only imperative
remained quite stable In all other OECD regions, The shapes of the information economy and
both male and female part-time employment has learning society to come are being influenced by the
risen in this period Charts 16 and 17 vividly illus- gradual but ongoing shift from materialist to
trate the trends in size and composition of part-time postmaterialist values, a shift characterised by a
employment for men and women Some countries reorientation towards enjoyment and self-fulfilment
have seen a doubling of male part-time employment (Lenk, 1994) Although many people will continue to
from 1983 to 1992 as a share of total employment, view work as a chore, for many others especially
examples (1992 figures) are Australia (10 3 per cent), those who are included in the high-skill, high-wage
the Netherlands (13 4 per cent) and the United economy work can increasingly become a source of
Kingdom (6 3 per cent) Female part-time employ- personal development and satisfaction This positive
ment increased the most in absolute terms, reflecting trend is, of course, offset by the growing precarious-
(at least in part) the re-entry difficulties women ness of employment This will change the scope of
experience consumption, there will be increased emphasis on
However, part-time work is not an option for eve- the pursuit of leisure, personal development goals,
ryone Inflexible working conditions prevent many and aesthetic and intellectual interests Postmatenal-
from taking up such employment, while for many ism will involve a redefinition of values, cultural 37I
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Chart 1.6. Incidence of part-time employment, 1973, 1983 and 1993

Men

Per cent Per cent

Ei 1973 1983 El 1993

12 12

10 10

0 0
-2 C
.2 -A' cj
'a
O
E
T U 0

Source: Annex Table A.6; and OECD ( I 994c), Employment Outlook, Table D, pp. 198-199.

Chart 1.7. Incidence of part-time employment, 1973, 1983 and 1993

Women

Per cent Per cent

1973 DI 1983 1993

70 70

60 60

50 SO

40 40

30 30

20 20

10 10

0 0
8°
8
LL O
z
C
3

138 Source: Annex Table A.6; and OECD ( I 994c), Employment Outlook, Table D, pp. 198-199.
 IJFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

norms, institutional structures and communities, and than a decade now, one in five children in the United
interpersonal and social relationships The indica- States is considered poor, and African-American chil-
tions are that the OECD countries and their educa- dren were much more likely than Whites to five in
tion systems are in for a significant cultural revolu- poverty More than half the children living in poverty
tion in this respect (OECD, 1994c) lived in a female-headed household (NCES, 1994)
But the United States is not alone among the OECD
countries Evidence shows that in European and
Cultures, communities and families
Pacific countries income gaps are also widening, in
Cultures a wide concept encompassing lan- Europe this development coincides with a trend of
guages, traditions, values and belief systems, but also rising unemployment, from a standardised rate
habits and the "art of living" are being redefined in of 4 3 per cent in 1975 to 11 4 per cent in 1994
the information age As an increasing number of com- (OECD, 1995d)
munities and families are linked by mainlines, cable Important social and economic issues are at
and satellite, entrepreneurs rather than governments
stake, because children living in poverty risk missing
are setting the pace, and the choices are multiplying
out on the social, cultural and economic capital they
Networks such as the Internet provide unprecedented
need if they are to establish the foundations for suc-
supply of often diffuse information Hence, more than
cess in lifelong learning and work The cost to chil-
ever people need the knowledge, literacy and analyti-
dren living in poverty is especially high in urban
cal skills to search for and select the information they
areas, where the perpetuation and emergence of new
need, and to put it into perspective While the skills
ghettos are a cause of concern The learning economy
needed to operate personal computers and related
represents a rich opportunity for many people, but
equipment come naturally to some people, this is not
not for all With poverty and unemployment continu-
true for many others Among the novelties further
ing at high rates, social assistance remains important
down the road are the expected growth of digital
for large segments of the population New ways must
commerce involving data transfer and banking ser-
be found to secure the welfare of all members of
vices, interactive television, home shopping, mul-
OECD societies What role can schools and adult edu-
timedia kiosks, and cable-based community services
cation play in combating poverty and its conse-
A literate and educated population is the key to
quences and symptoms? Because knowledge, skills
unlocking the benefits while safeguarding cherished
and educational and occupational qualifications are
cultural values The very notion of literacy has
powerful factors in determining access to good lobs
evolved, in addition to reading, writing and numeracy
with adequate pay, schooling and adult education are
skills, people now also require technological and
necessary components in any strategy for improving
computer literacy, environmental literacy, and social
competence Educational institutions have a major the quality of life of disadvantaged populations
Although educational policy cannot offer solutions by
role to play in preventing the social and economic
exclusion, and cultural alienation, that can result itself, there is a growing realisation that education,
from a lack of appropriate literacy skills training and continuing learning more generally have
a major role to play in complementing existing social
Another task for both schools and adult educa- insurance provisions
tion has emerged in the wake of changing values and
belief systems not least the rise in individualism For people not in employment, education is
Single-parent families and one-person households expected to hold even greater attraction in the future
have increased rapidly as a proportion of all house- than it does today First and foremost, it is the princi-
holds At the same time, new ways of organising fam- pal means of acquiring the skills and qualifications to
ily relationships are also emerging (Stevens and enter employment Education is more than an invest-
Michalski, 1994) These households are vulnerable to ment in human capital, however, it is also an avenue
economic instability Single-parent families are espe- for personal development Moreover, enrolment in
cially prevalent in the United States, where one-third education confers a sense of security and respectabil-
of female-headed families are classified as poor ity, which is to be preferred over the anxieties and low
Recent survey data from the United States suggest status that are associated with unemployment For all
that an increasing number of families with children these reasons, the potential demand for education,
face economic hardship, despite a 3 2 per cent annu- training and learning is thus becoming both greater
alised increase in real GDP from 1960 to 1990 (OECD, and more heterogeneous than ever before Flexible
I992b, NCES, 1994) Table 17 shows that for more learning environments that straddle the divides 391
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

between the home, the workplace and the community ments in non-formal learning are highlighted using
are the key to satisfying this demand The provision of examples from individual Member countries
high-quality education and training early in life is
Trends in the development of education and
important but not sufficient This foundation must be
training systems are organised under four broad
complemented by adequate learning opportunities
themes r) the contexts of education, training and
beyond traditional schooling
learning, n) access to and participation in formal edu-
Educational policy is a powerful instrument that cation and training, as well as participation in adult
falls within the competence of OECD Member coun- education and non-formal and self-managed learning,
tries Providing all citizens with a solid foundation of Br)the costs and resources associated with the provi-
knowledge and learning skills is of crucial importance sion of learning opportunities, and rv) the internal
in securing equity, sustaining democracy and promot- and external efficiency of education and training
ing economic development In the course of building systems
a learning society, many opportunities will be opened
up, the possibility of acquiring new knowledge, skills
The contexts
and competencies will no longer depend on obtaining
a formally prescribed education at any given age Education and training systems and the results
Instead, "learning will become the tool of the individ- they produce are subject to complex influences In
ual available to him or her at any age if only order to appreciate the differences in structures,
because so much knowledge and skill can be acquired processes and the outcomes achieved, it is important
by means of the new learning technologies" to note the different conditions and influences under
(Drucker, 1994) which these systems operate Thus, contextual infor-
mation for example, on the extent to which coun-
tries face demand for educational services at the dif-
C. TRENDS AND DEVELOPMENTS IN
ferent levels and in sectors of education, or
EDUCATION, TRAINING AND LEARNING*
experience resource constraints should be
Changes in skill and qualification requirements accounted for in an analysis of the equity and effi-
bring into focus the need for education, training, and ciency of education and training opportunities Many
learning more generally as the means of updating of the factors that shape the contexts of learning are
skills and acquiring new qualifications The premise given, they are not susceptible to policy intervention
that current education and training systems must Population characteristics, for example, play a signifi-
adapt to new conditions is based on the analysis of cant role in the design and achievement of educa-
broad transformations in OECD economies and soci- tional policies The number of children and youths in
eties presented in the previous section But that anal- a population determines the demand for schooling
ysis, as well as the review of options and strategies and hence the targets to be achieved for the supply of
for change given in further chapters, must be learning opportunities and the resources that will be
informed by an understanding of how education and required The number of adults lacking proficiency in
training systems have evolved over decades basic literacy and numeracy sets the stage for pro-
gramming a country's adult basic education and liter-
This section reviews trends in the demand and
acy efforts
supply of learning opportunities for children, youth,
and young and older adults in OECD countries The
purpose is to show how the demand and supply of Youth and population
learning opportunities have evolved, and who the Of central interest for educational policy is the
main beneficiaries of public and private provision ratio between the school-age population and the
have been Although the focus is on the formal sector total or working-age population Countries with larger
of education and training where internationally young populations must allocate a greater proportion
comparable data are available important develop- of their national income to initial education and

The statistics presented in this section must be Inter- allocation of national educational programmes to the
preted with utmost care because the dynamic nature of levels defined in the International Standard Classification
the education and training systems challenges the valid- of Education (ISCED) Furthermore, the various sources
ity of comparisons over time Many national changes in from which the countries derive the data submitted to
definitions and methodology have occurred since the the OECD are not always entirely compatible
140 data for particular years were collected, especially in the
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

training in order to devote the same proportion of countries now lies between II and 14 per cent; the
domestic product to each student compared with proportion of 15-24 year-olds is slightly larger.
countries with smaller youth populations. The pro- Although the differences between countries in the
portion of young people aged 5 to 14 has gone relative size of the young population have diminished
through a cycle of modest increase and then decline since 1970, there are still remarkable contrasts, as
and stabilisation in all OECD regions for a quarter of shown in Annex Table A.8 and Chart 1.9. In 1994, in
a century (see Chart 1.8). Annex Table A.7 provides Mexico and Turkey, more than 20 per cent of the
information on the trend in specific countries over population were aged 5 to 14. At the other end of the
the same period. In some countries, such as Canada, spectrum are Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Germany,
Iceland, New Zealand and Spain, the decline has Italy, Japan, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Sweden
exceeded 6 per cent. The decline in the number of and Switzerland, where the proportion of 5- to
young people, which reflects a reduced birth rate, has 14-year-olds is below 12 per cent.
somewhat eased the pressure on expanding school
systems at the lower levels of education. As was men-
The population forecasts shown in Annex Table A.9
tioned in Section B, this long-term decline in birth
and Chart 1.8 suggest that over the next decade the
rates has a knock-on effect on the rate of renewal of
proportion of the 5- to I4-year-old population will
labour force qualifications, which will reveal its full
stabilise in most countries; the exceptions are the
impact in the years to come.
Czech Republic, Germany (FUR), Greece, Ireland,
During recent years the decline in the proportion Mexico, Spain, and Turkey, where this proportion is
of young people has slowed down in many OECD expected to decrease by more than 2 per cent and,
countries the Czech Republic, Greece, Ireland, on the other hand, Sweden, Denmark and Norway,
Portugal and Spain are the exceptions. The ratio of where it is expected to increase by around I per cent.
5-14 year-olds to the total population in most OECD The forecasts also indicate that overall differences

Chart 1.8. The relative size of the population aged 5 to 14, 1970-20101'13

-
Percentage of total population
Per cent

--
Per cent

---- European Community Mexico North America Other Europe - OECD Pacific Area
30
30

25 25

20 ,

........................ ...............
...... ........... 20

15
..... ...........
........
15

............
10 10

5 5

0 0

1970 1972 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010

I. Data for the 1970-94 period are United Nations demographic estimates, those for 1994-2010 are United Nations demographic projections.
2. The chart shows trends in the relative size of the young [Link] young population is the percentage of 5- to 14-year-old people in the total [Link]
total population includes all persons residing in the country, regardless of citizenship, educational or labour market status.
3. The category "North America" includes Canada and the United States. The category "European Community" includes the 12 countries that belonged to the
-
European Community in 1992. Other Europe OECD includes Austria, the Czech Republic, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland and Turkey.
Source: United Nations (1994), World Population Prospects, 1950-20 l 0. Data for the Czech Republic were provided by the Czech Statistical Office. 41
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Chart I .9. The relative size of the population aged S to 14 and 1 S to 24, 19941'2
Percentage of total population

30
5 to 14 O 15 to 24
30

25 25

20 20

15 15

10 .
10

5 5

0
0 0 43 to
0 E a
E0 a 0
i" LL lL
7,,
a

I. Data are United Nations demographic estimates.

2. Data for Australia: Australian Bureau of Statistics (1995), Series A Population Projections data. Reference month: June.
Source: United Nations (1994), World Population Prospects 1950-2010, and national data submissions.

between countries in the relative size of the young educational qualifications and often neglect skills
population will continue to diminish. and competencies that are acquired through adult
education, continuing vocational training, or other
Educational attainment non-formal ways of learning at home and in the
workplace.
A well-educated and well-trained labour force is
critical to the social and economic well-being of The data in Annex Table A. I0 show that there are
OECD countries. Education plays a role in expanding marked inequalities in levels of educational attain-
scientific knowledge and transforming it into produc- ment among OECD countries. In 1992 in most
tivity-enhancing technology, as well as in raising the Member countries more than half of the population
skills and competencies of the population, thereby aged between 25 and 64 had completed at least upper
improving the capacity of people to live, work and secondary education (level 3). In four countries
learn well. Educational attainment and, by implica- Germany, Norway, Switzerland and the United
tion, labour force qualifications are therefore deter- States around 80 per cent had attained that level. In
minants of economic outcomes and the quality of life other countries, especially in southern Europe, the
for both individuals and whole societies. It must be educational structure of the adult population showed
recognised, however, that there is often no close cor- a different profile. In Belgium, Ireland, Italy, Portugal,
respondence between labour force qualifications Spain and Turkey, more than half of the working-age
which can be defined quite precisely and the skill population had not completed upper secondary edu-
requirements of jobs, which are difficult to pin down cation, with the figures in Portugal and Turkey
and measure with sufficient accuracy. Furthermore, exceeding 80 per cent (see Chart 1.10). These findings
because educational attainment represents only one have serious implications for job creation and eco-
aspect of labour force qualification, its use as a proxy nomic development. Because the annual inflow rates
for measuring qualifications is limited. Finally, attain- into the labour force are relatively low, countries
L 42 ment data are usually presented in terms of formal seeking to bring a large proportion of the population
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Chart 1.10. Population that has attained less than upper secondary education, 19921

-
Percentage of population aged 25-64

100
0 Men and women C] Women Difference
100

80
80

60
60

40

20
20

0
0
4."-
-20
-20
E TT0
2
C
0 LL
z

I. For definitions and notes see Annex Table A.I0.

Source: OECD Education Database.

up to the standard of upper secondary education will to the fact that the group with a low level of formal
have to expand enrolments in adult education and education was already comparatively small in 1981.
continuing vocational training. The demand for such High rates of change are recorded in Finland, New
learning opportunities cannot yet be met, especially Zealand, Sweden and the United Kingdom. In these
for people in their mid career. countries, the decline over the last decade in the
proportion of the population with less than upper
Overall, the share of persons completing less secondary education has been substantial.
than upper secondary education (levels 0/1/2) has
been shrinking, and the proportion of persons com- The proportion of the age group going on to
pleting upper secondary education (level 3) and going post-secondary education in universities (levels 6/7)
no further has declined significantly. This can be seen or non-university tertiary institutions (level 5) has
in Annex Table A.11 which presents, for a group of generally increased. In some countries, such as
OECD countries, estimates of the average annualised Canada, Norway, Spain and Sweden, this increase has
changes in educational attainment for the population been substantial. At the tertiary level, the biggest
aged 25 to 64 years from 1981 to 1992. However, this gains in absolute terms (and frequently in propor-
progress has been uneven and substantial differences tional terms) are found at the university level in most
in educational attainment between countries still countries. In some countries for example, New
remain (see Chart 1.11). There are large differences Zealand and the United States the share of the
between countries with respect to how quickly the population with qualifications below university level
educational attainment profile of the population has has even decreased. It is acknowledged that such
changed. The decline in the proportion of the popula- interpretations are problematic, however, since uni-
tion without an upper secondary education has been versity and non-university sectors have not been
relatively modest in countries such as Canada, clearly defined internationally. The trend over the last
Denmark, France, Norway, Spain and the United decade contrasts with that of the 1970s, when the
43
States. In the case of Norway, this trend may be due non-university sector experienced the most rapid
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Chart 1.11. Change in educational attainment, population aged 25 to 64, 1981-92'

Average annual change of the population-share having attained a specific level of education

El Lower secondary or less 0 Upper secondary 0 Non-university tertiary I. University tertiary

2.5 2.5
2.0 2.0
1.5 15
1.0 1 0
0.5 05
0 1-11 0
-0.5 -0.5
-1.0 -1.0
-1.5 -1 5

-2.0 -2.0
-2.5 -2 5
C
F 2 E
LL O
0

I. This chart shows the estimated average annual changes in population shares for below upper secondary education, for upper secondary education, for non-
university tertiary education, and for university tertiary education. Included are all persons in the age group 25-64. Annual changes have been calculated over the
period indicated in Annex Table A. I I. For countries for which the available data covered less than 5 years, no annual changes were calculated.
Source: OECD Education Database. For details see Annex Table A. I. I

expansion. Again, however, comparisons of educa- tertiary education also varies greatly across countries.
tional attainment over time must be interpreted with In 1992, more than 40 per cent of the population in
special care. Canada and around 30 per cent in the United States
Another way of looking at trends in educational had attained the tertiary level, whereas in Austria,
attainment over time is to examine the attainment Italy, Portugal and Turkey, the figure was less than
levels of different age cohorts. Chart 1.12 indicates for 10 per cent. Here also, however, it must be

four age groups the percentage of the population that recognised that educational programmes at the terti-
had attained at least upper secondary education in ary level differ significantly between countries so that
1992. As can be seen, younger age groups have gener- attainment levels must be compared cautiously.
ally higher levels of attainment. This is a result of It is important to note that the educational struc-
the expansion of education over decades. Annex ture is rapidly closing the attainment gap in southern
Table A.12 shows that, on average, as much as 72 per Europe, with younger generations obtaining more
cent of persons aged 25 to 34 had attained at least education than their elders (see Annex Table A.12). In
upper secondary education in 1992 in OECD coun- Italy, Portugal, Spain and Turkey, the proportion of
tries. Among those aged 55 to 64, less than 50 per persons attaining upper secondary education in 1992
cent had attained this level. The difference between was three to five times higher among those aged 25
these generations ranges from as much as 51 per cent to 34 than among those aged 55 to 64. As regards
in Finland to only II per cent in New Zealand. tertiary education, the proportion for the younger age
Older persons may increasingly find their com- group was two to four times larger than the older
paratively low levels of skills and competencies over- group in these countries.
taken by rising qualification requirements, and at the Even though in all countries except Turkey there
same time encounter difficulties in updating their has been significant progress towards greater equality
qualifications through retraining because of limited in opportunities between the sexes since the 1960s,
basic educational competencies (see also Chapter 4). there is still insufficient opportunity and/or incentive
44 The proportion of the population that has received for women to reach the same level of educational
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Chart I.1 2. Population in four age groups that had attained

at least upper secondary education, 1992' 2
Percentage of respective age group

n 25-34 El 35-44 El 45-54 0 55-64

100
100

80 80

60 60

40 40

20 20

0 0
-0 C,
-2
5 Cd
ro
E
O 115
z vs
LL U ,La

1. Australia, 1993 data. Portugal, 1991 data.

2. Of the 25- to 34-year-olds in Denmark, a relatively large number are still enrolled in education. Data may therefore understate the true values.
Source: OECD Education Database. For details see Annex Table A. 2. 1

attainment as men in many OECD countries. Annex ments of the labour market, even if they have received
Table A.13 shows that, in 1992, women still formed the same level of education and training.
the majority of those who had attained only primary
or lower secondary education. In Germany and the Labour force participation and education
Netherlands, the difference in the expected levels of
attainment among those aged 55 to 64 was greater The level of educational attainment is a factor
than 20 per cent, while for the age group 25-34 years influencing participation rates in the labour force and
it was 5 per cent or less (Chart 1.13). The same holds the quality of economic activity: the data in Annex
true for the group attaining non-university tertiary Table A.14 show that labour force participation rises
education, and in no OECD country did as many with the level of education. Participation rates, while
women aged 24 to 64 hold university qualifications as uniformly high, vary substantially among OECD coun-
men in the same group. Again, these tendencies are tries, ranging in 1992 from around 60-65 per cent of
much stronger among older age groups; specifically, the population 25-64 years in Ireland and certain
the high proportion of females having attained only southern European countries to around 80-90 per
primary or lower secondary education was more pro- cent in the Nordic countries, Switzerland and the
nounced among 45-54 and 55-64 year-olds than United States. Differences in participation rates by
among 25-34 or 35-44 year-olds. Similarly, among education levels are much larger among women than
university graduates, the average proportion of among men. This suggests that for women with low
women was only around 35 per cent in the age groups levels of educational attainment it is more difficult to
45-54 and 55-64, whereas this proportion was approx- obtain access to the labour market.
imately 10 per cent higher for those aged 25 to 34 and The influence of educational attainment on
35 to 44. In addition to these overall differences in labour force participation rates appears to be growing
attainment, it should be remembered that men and in importance, especially for older males and all
women often choose different fields of study a ten- females. From 1981 to 1992, participation rates have
declined in all countries for the group attaining only 45
dency that ultimately leads them to different seg- I
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Chart 1.13. Educational attainment of women compared to men for 25- to 34-year-olds and SS- to 64-year-olds, 1992'
Percentage difference

Age 55-64 Age 25-34

Portugal

Ireland

Spain

Norway

Denmark

Belgium

Canada

United States

Sweden

Finland

France

Italy

Netherlands

New Zealand

Austria

United Kingdom

Germany

Australia

Switzerland

Turkey

-25 -20 -15 -10 10

I. This indicator measures the difference in educational attainment between men and women. It is based on the percentage difference between a weighted average
of attainment among men and a weighted average of attainment among women. Negative numbers indicate that women have on average a lower educational
attainment than men, positive numbers indicate the [Link] higher the number the higher the degree of [Link] indicator only shows inequalities
between genders. It does not represent inequalities within gender groups.
Source: OECD Education Database. For details see Annex Tables A.1 0 and A.13.

primary education. The pattern is clearest for older ticipation rate of those having attained lower secon-
males. It is due to both social and economic changes, dary education and those having obtained some terti-
especially the structural shift in economic activity ary education is not only substantial in most
from low-skill manufacturing to high-skill services as countries, but also increased from 1981 to 1992 in
well as the wider availability of pension schemes and Canada, Denmark, Finland, Norway, Sweden, the
early retirement options. But Chart 1.14 indicates that United Kingdom and the United States, whereas the
in the majority of countries that provided data, edu- difference was relatively low in New Zealand and
cation is increasingly important in determining remained stable over this period. In France and Spain
46 labour force participation. The difference in the par- differences decreased.
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Chart 1.14. Labour force participation rate' of those having attained some tertiary education, 19812 and 1992
Contrasted with those having attained lower secondary education3

Per cent Per cent

25
0 1981 0 1992 Difference 1992-1981
25

20 20

15
IS

10
10

5
S

0 0

-s -5

-10 -10
5
C LL
LL

I. The labour force participation rate is calculated as the percentage of the population that belongs to the labour [Link] labour force is defined in accordance
with OECD Labour Force Statistics.
2. Data refer to 1984 for the United Kingdom and to 1982 for Finland.
3. This indicator shows the difference between the labour force participation rate of those having obtained some tertiary education and those having obtained lower
secondary education. For example, for the United States, the participation rate of those having obtained tertiary education was 20.1 per cent higher than the
participation rate of chose having attained only lower secondary education in 1981. In 1992 the difference was 23.9 per cent, the gap therefore widened by 3.8 per
cent.
Source: OECD Education Database. For details see Annex Table A. 14.

Access and participation growing variety of forms of pre-primary education

also appears to have had positive effects on improv-
Formal education and training systems vary in ing the prospects of many young children. The trend
their capacity to meet the full spectrum of learning can be attributed to a number of factors, both those
needs of young people. Enrolment statistics reflect internal and external to education systems. Internal
the structure of the systems and indicate their rela- changes follow on deliberate reform decisions the
tive openness. Indirectly they also provide glimpses decision in Belgium to extend compulsory schooling
of the phenomenon of early school-leaving. The pres- to the age of 18 is an example. In countries such as
entation below focuses on systemic factors which Australia, France and the United Kingdom, the
reflect the policies and practices of education sys- expanded provision of post-secondary opportunities
tems, and which are largely malleable. Part of the have created powerful incentives for young persons to
problem of early school-leaving is a predictable, if not stay longer in school. The diversification of curricula
inevitable, consequence of deeply entrenched prac- in those countries as well as in Scandinavia has also
tices: secondary education policies in many countries had an effect on the character of secondary education
are biased towards young people bound for tertiary it began better to serve the needs of those not
education; nearly half of the OECD countries require going on to tertiary education.
no more than nine years of compulsory education; External factors, such as labour market condi-
and in three-quarters of the Member countries, com- tions, have also played a role. High youth unemploy-
pulsory schooling ends at age 14, 15 or 16. ment rates since the 1970s especially in Europe,
New forms of assessment and certification meth- New Zealand and Australia and the decline of
ods and an emphasis on competency-based learning "youth jobs" requiring few or no skills increased the
have led to more diverse approaches and, in catering incentives for young people to stay on in the system
to a broader spectrum of learning needs, have ena- and acquire work skills while reducing the opportu-
47
bled more persons to continue studies longer. The nity costs of doing so. I
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

The relative importance of "education-led" and stantial part-time enrolments especially in secondary
"employer-led" vocational training (see Chapter 4) in education (OECD, I995y) Annex Table A 15 and
total provision varies across countries In France, the Chart 1 15 show the total number of full-time stu-
technical and vocational lycees play a dominant role dents (in all levels except pre-primary) as a percent-
in the training of those aged 16 to 19, in contrast with age of the population in the age group 5 to 29 years
Germany, where the dual system of apprenticeship is More than 20 per cent separated the two extremes in
the normal route towards skilled worker qualifica- 1992 Turkey with less than 40 per cent, and Finland
tions The United Kingdom relies more than any other with more than 60 per cent The trend since 1985 is
country on post-secondary training provision In relatively stable, sloping slightly upward for most
countries where full-time vocational secondary pro- countries Although the data should be interpreted
grammes coexist with general ones, the former have with care, and demographic variation needs to be
tended to outgrow the latter in terms of both enrol- taken into account, the trend seems to be fairly con-
ments and diplomas awarded The tendency towards sistent in the countries which provided data, enrol-
the vocationalisation of upper secondary education in ments increased since 1975 by about I to 5 per cent
Europe which is in sharp contrast to the trend of the population aged 5-29 Exceptions are Austria.
observed in Japan and the United States is espe- Finland, Japan and Switzerland, where enrolment
cially strong in Belgium, France. Italy, the increased by 8 to 10 per cent of the age group during
Netherlands and Sweden An exception is Germany, the same period
where full-time technical upper secondary education Another perspective can be obtained by examin-
complements the dual system of apprenticeship in ing the number of years a 5-year-old can expect to be
the system of vocational education enrolled in school Chart 116 presents estimates of
Apprenticeship is an important component of school expectancy in the OECD countries for which
vocational education provision in many countries time series are available In 1994, average school
although the nature of apprenticeships differs widely expectancy was the lowest 14 years or less in the
between countries In Germany it has had a central Czech Republic. Greece and Turkey It was highest.
role, catering for about two-thirds of the age group, 16 5 years or more, in Belgium, Canada and the
with government subsidies paid to companies to Netherlands (Annex Table A 16) School expectancy
increase the supply of apprenticeships in line with has generally increased from 1985 to 1994 in all coun-
the demand In France and Italy, apprenticeship has tries that provided data, in some cases by more than
been overhauled and strengthened, it now caters for two years, as in Norway and Sweden
the training needs of about 15 per cent of the relevant
age group In the Netherlands, the number of appren-
tices doubled between 1982 and 1990, reaching 20 per
Enrolment in early childhood and primary
cent of the age group in 1990 In the United Kingdom, education
apprenticeship declined dramatically from 1975 and Chart 17 shows the long-term trend of enrol-
1

has now been virtually replaced by post-school train- ment in early childhood education, from 1970 to
ing programmes 1992, by OECD regions The trend in Japan and North
Post-school training programmes have been set America appears rather stable, whereas strong growth
up in most European countries, usually under occurred in Europe and to an extent also in the
the auspices of the Ministry of Labour In France. Pacific Area Trends in the coverage of education sys-
Italy and the Netherlands, about 5 per cent of the tems can also be examined using net enrolment
16-18 age group acquire occupational skills through rates These relate the enrolment of a given age group
employment/training contracts or some other form of to the total population in that age group Table 18
on-the-lob training The United Kingdom has gone presents net rates of participation in early childhood
furthest in this direction, with over half of all school- and primary education from 3 to 7 years Early child-
leavers receiving training under the Youth Training hood education has become a growth industry, and
Scheme for good reasons, which are spelled out in Chapter 3
Overall, the rates of participation increase for each
Participation in formal education succeeding year of age In 1994, at age 3, six of the
16 countries reported enrolment rates of over 50 per
In most countries about half of the 5- to 29-year- cent (see Table 8) However, the variation among
olds are enrolled in full-time education, whereas in countries in access and par ticipation is highly signifi-
I 48 Australia and the United Kingdom there are also sub- cant, varying, for 3-year-olds, for example, from under
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Chart 1.15. Full-time students at all education levels except pre-primary, 1985 and 1992'2
Per 100 persons in the population aged S to 29

70
0 1985 MI 1992
70

60 60

50 50

40 40

30 30

20

10

12
-0
<9

4+
tl
N:
>-.
5 v
t,
c
Mt 0
0
0
1o
LL
20

10

I. Students enrolled in primary, secondary or tertiary education are counted regardless of their age. Students enrolled at the pre-primary level of education are
excluded, even if they are 5 years or older.
2. Enrolment in public and private institutions combined.
Source: OECD Education Database. For details see Annex Table A. S. 1

-
Chart 1.16. Schooling expectancy for a 5-year-old child, 1985 and 19941'2
Head counts

Years
20
0 1985 1994 Increase 1994-1985 Years
20
18 18

16 16

14 14

12 12

10 10

8 8

6 6

4 4

2 2

0
o -0
C
C
6"
z
Yl
z

I. The expectation is obtained by adding the net enrolment rates for each year of age from 5 to 29 and dividing by [Link] indicator therefore presents a hypothetical
duration assuming a constant length of studies during the ensuing years. Expectancy rates are calculated using head counts. Note that the results would be slightly
affected if part-time schooling was not taken into account the loss would be half a year or more for Norway, the United Kingdom and the United States.
2. 1994 covers the whole of Germany.
Source: OECD Education Database. For details see Annex Table A. 16. 49j
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Chart 1.17. Enrolment in early childhood education, 1970-92'

Percentage of the population aged 5 to 19

Per cent Per cent

10
European Community iaPar, North America -- - Other Europe OECD Pacific Area
10

9 9

8 8

6 6

5 5

4 4

3 ... ................................................. 3

.....................
2 2
....
........

0 0

1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992

I. North America includes Canada and the United States. Pacific Area includes Australia and New Zealand. European Community excludes Luxembourg. Other
Europe OECD includes Austria, Norway, Sweden and Switzerland.
Source: OECD Education Database.

20 per cent in Greece, Ireland, Mexico and Enrolment in secondary education

Switzerland to over 80 per cent in New Zealand and
France. Rates over 60 per cent are recorded in the In lower secondary education, there is virtually
Czech Republic and Denmark. Early childhood educa- universal enrolment. At this level, the variation
tion has thus become virtually universal in a few between countries in the enrolment of 5- to 29-year-
countries, while others still have a long way to go in olds reflects mainly demographic factors. No data are
achieving that target. therefore shown for this level. Choice of study pro-
grammes in upper secondary education is an impor-
Chart 1.18 shows that, between age 3 and 4, the tant factor in the retention of students. Higher rates
enrolment rates rise sharply in several countries. At of participation in upper secondary education inevita-
age 4 there is again significant variation: less than bly imply a broader spectrum of interests and learn-
30 per cent in Finland and Switzerland and over ing needs. Charts 1.19 and 1.20 show net rates of
90 per cent in France, Japan, the Netherlands, New participation in secondary education, depending on
Zealand, Belgium, Spain and the United Kingdom. the system, for 16- and 17-year-olds, in 1985 and
Table 1.8 suggests, however, that participation is 1994. It will be seen that enrolment increased virtu-
nearly universal at age 6. Over 90 per cent of the age ally everywhere, with large increases especially in
group are enrolled in all but one of the countries those countries where participation rates were com-
reporting data Finland. At this stage the balance in paratively modest in 1985. Increases have been most
enrolments shifts to primary schools. However, the marked in the Nordic countries, societies that have
majority of 4-year-olds in the United Kingdom are in not had a strong apprenticeship tradition (France,
primary school, whereas in Germany, Ireland, Ireland and Spain), and countries which in addition
Switzerland and the Nordic countries, a large propor- to lacking the apprenticeship tradition also had
tion of 6-year-olds are still enrolled in early childhood education systems that tended to use upper secon-
L50 education. dary education exclusively to identify and prepare
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Chart I . I 8. Net enrolment of 3- and 4-year-olds in early childhood education, 1994' 3

100
0 3-year-olds I. 4-year-olds
100

120 120

80 80

60 60

40

20

0 0
O C
0 al C
al

C Tv s-z E C
U 3 tC
-Ft
6' 0

I. Net enrolment rates for each age group are calculated by dividing full-time plus part-time enrolments at that age by the total population of that age. Most countries
do not distinguish full-time from part-time enrolment in early childhood education; all children are considered as full-time in this chart.
2. United Kingdom: includes substantial enrolments of 4-year-olds in primary education.
3. Canada: according to national definitions, 3-year-olds are enrolled in child care and not in early childhood education.
Source: See OECD Education Database. For details see Table 1.8.

candidates for university (New Zealand and the these rates include students who have completed one
United Kingdom). secondary programme successfully and are participat-
ing in a second programme at that level.
In most OECD countries, full-time secondary
schooling continues until age 17 or 18. With a few The data in Annex Tables A.I7 and A.I8 indicate
exceptions, full-time secondary participation rates of that the highest retention rates at age 17 and 18
16-year-olds are close to or over 90 per cent. Annex occur in European countries with very different mod-
Tables A.17 and A.I8 show that the rate exceeded, in els of provision in upper secondary education, includ-
1994, 95 per cent of the 16-year-olds in Belgium, ing both entirely school-based provision and dual
Finland, France, Germany, Japan, the Netherlands, systems. What these countries have in common is a
Sweden and the United States. Comparatively low long and continuing tradition of highly organised sys-
retention rates are observed in Mexico (39 per cent). tems of education and training, with clearly defined
Australia and the United Kingdom also have substan- and collectively organised and accepted responsibili-
tial numbers of students continuing upper secondary ties. Another feature setting these systems apart is
education on a part-time basis. Many countries show their "inclusiveness". This is particularly evident in
comparable enrolment rates at age 17 and 18. It the countries with the dual system (Austria, Germany,
should be noted that while full-time secondary partic- the Netherlands and Switzerland), whose success so
ipation ends for most persons before age 19, in 1994 far has resided in their capacity to provide the major-
nine countries show participation of 10 per cent or ity of young people with recognised qualifications
more of the population continuing after that age in and to organise the successful transition of large
secondary programmes. These countries are Canada, numbers of young people from education to employ-
Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, the Netherlands, ment (see Chapter 4).
Norway, Spain and Switzerland. It is important to Table 1.9 shows how the balance between gen-
note that for Denmark, Germany and the Netherlands eral and vocational education has evolved since 1975. _.5
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Chart 1.19. Net rates of participation in secondary education for 16-year-olds, 1985 and 1994'
Percentage enrolled

0 1985 0 1994

Belgium
Netherlands
Sweden
France
Finland
Germany (FTFR)
Japan

United States
Canada

Norway
Denmark
Austria
Ireland
New Zealand
Switzerland
Spain
United Kingdom

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110

I. whole of Germany.
1994 covers the
Source: OECD Education Database. For details see Annex Tables A.17 and A.18.

Chart 1.20. Net rates of participation in secondary education for 17-year-olds, 1985 and 1994'
Percentage enrolled

El 1985 El 1994

Belgium
Sweden
Japan

Finland
Germany (FTFR)
France
Norway
Netherlands
Austria
United States
Switzerland
Denmark
Ireland
Spain

Canada
New Zealand
United Kingdom

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

I . whole of Germany.
1994 covers the
L52 Source: OECD Education Database. For details see Annex Tables A. 17 and A.I 8.
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

In seven out of 14 countries which provided data for Switzerland enrolments increased by more than
1975, the majority of upper secondary students were 5 per cent since 1975, which indicates a significant
in general programmes. In 1992, in Australia, Japan expansion in a relatively short time span.
and New Zealand more than 70 per cent of upper
secondary enrolments were in general programmes. Transition from secondary to tertiary education
This is in contrast to Germany, where only in 1

Recent years have seen the dissolving of age

5 upper secondary students was enrolled in a general
boundaries in the transition from secondary to terti-
programme, as was I in 4 in Austria. In more than half
ary education. The process has widened to include
of the OECD countries two-thirds of the 16 coun-
students ranging from 17 to 24 years. Does this
tries providing data the majority of upper secondary
represent an opportunity for countries to explore new
students participate in vocational or apprenticeship
organisational frameworks for learning that are more
programmes (see Chapter 4). Among the European
gradual and take place outside as well as inside the
countries, Spain and Turkey are the exceptions, with
classroom?
rates below 50 in 1992.
Table 1.10 shows net rates of full-time participa-
It is of interest to review the trend in enrolment tion in upper secondary, non-university tertiary, and
growth at the upper secondary level. Annex university education at each year from 17 to 24. There
Table A.19 shows the percentage of 5-29 year-olds is a gradual shift from secondary to tertiary education
enrolled at that level. Chart 1.21 presents the differ- as the age increases. As can be seen, the age bounda-
ence between 1985 and 1992. In Australia, Canada ries are much more pronounced in some countries
and the United Kingdom enrolments have been fairly than others. Overall, rates slope downward for each
stable since 1975, but then they were already rela- succeeding year of age. The Czech Republic is the
tively high in 1975. In other countries such as only OECD country that reports full-time participa-
Austria, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Spain and tion rates below 65 per cent of the 17-year-olds. As

Chart I .2 I . Number of students in full-time upper secondary education, 1985 and 19921.2
Per 100 persons in the population aged 5-29

D 1985 D 1992 Difference 1992-1985

20
20

15 15

10 _ _ 10

-s -5

a
2-3 E
LL F2 0 _E
a

I. Students enrolled are counted regardless of their age.

2. Enrolment in public and private institutions combined.
Source: OECD Education Database. For details see Annex Table A.19. 53_1
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

full-time upper secondary education ends, the num- Enrolment in tertiary education and training
ber of countries with participation rates below 50 per
cent increases. By age 19, ten of 18 countries report-
ing complete data have full-time enrolment rates Annex Table A.20 shows the number of full-time
(upper secondary and tertiary combined) below students in tertiary education expressed as a percent-
50 per cent. age of the 5-29 year-old population. There is consid-
erable variation from fewer than 3 in Turkey to 10 in
After age 19, the decrease in full-time education
Canada and Finland in 1992. Whatever the causes of
is gradual but steady. For 20-year-olds, 15 out of
these differences, countries are similar in one respect:
18 countries with complete data report overall full-
Chart 1.22 indicates that enrolments in tertiary edu-
time participation rates of 30 per cent or greater, with
the majority of those participants in tertiary educa- cation increased everywhere during the period
1985-92. Since 1975, in seven of 21 countries enrol-
tion in all but four countries Denmark, Germany, the
Netherlands and Switzerland. Those four allow stu- ments more than doubled. The expansion of tertiary
dents who have completed upper secondary educa- education is a major achievement of the past
tion to pursue additional upper secondary qualifica- 25 years, and the process is far from complete. The
tions. For those aged 22, eight out of 18 countries impact of tertiary education provision on public edu-
report full-time participation rates above 30 per cent cation budgets is considerable. Public pressure to
of the age group, and all countries except Germany reduce the unit cost is rising. In this context, the
report a majority of their full-time participants in ter- discussion about the allocation of resources in the
tiary education. For the 24-year-olds, only Denmark, perspective of lifelong learning can have major conse-
Finland and Norway report full-time educational par- quences. The issue of financing tertiary education is
ticipation at more than 25 per cent. discussed in Chapter 8.

Chart 1.22. Number of full-time students in tertiary education, 1985 and 199212 3

Per 100 persons in the population aged 5-29

12
0 1985 IS 1992 Difference 1992-1985
12

10 10

6 6

4 4

-o
C C C
C
Ol is
U LL C
z
C
J z

I. Students enrolled are counted regardless of their age.

2. Enrolment in public and private institutions combined.
3. The number of students in Austria is slightly overestimated due to multiple counts.
I 54 Source: OECD Education Database. For details see Annex Table A.20.
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Participation in adult education and continuing costs. Eighteen to 49 per cent of workers received
vocational training training lasting one week or less. Of the people
trained in the Netherlands, 18 per cent received this
Lifelong learning becomes reality in the further brief training, in Sweden this was 49 per cent.
education and training market. This section will The Netherlands is the only country in which training
review the evidence that the demand for and supply tends to be for a prolonged period. Put in
of further education and training opportunities are another way, in all countries except Sweden and
rising. Research and data collection in this area are the Netherlands, about half of the people who
still in a developmental phase; reliable data are receive training are trained one to four weeks, the
scarce and inferences have to be made with caution. other half is trained for a month or longer (Annex
Table A.21).
One recent source of comparable data is the
International Adult Literacy Survey, with data collec- Time-series data that allow international com-
tion in 1994. This survey was conducted in six OECD parisons of adult education and on-the-job training
countries and Poland (see OECD and Statistics are not readily available. In order to investigate the
Canada, 1995). Chart 1.23 shows the percentage of evolution some country examples are examined
employees who received training during the six below.
months preceding the interview. Training rates are
highest in Switzerland, the United States and Sweden,
around 42 per cent, closely followed by Canada and Sweden
the Netherlands with rates of 38 per cent. In Poland
In Sweden a relative high percentage of the
15 per cent of the employees received training.
employed receives training that is fully or partially
Chart 1.23 also shows the length of the training financed by their employer. The data in Chart 1.24
an indication of intensity that has implications for show the percentage of the employed in different age

Chart 1.23. Employees who received training' and its duration, 1994
Percentage of employed population

ED I week El 1-4 weeks El 1-6 months > 6 months Training incidence

50 50

0 43 42 42
40 40
38 038

30 30

20 20

15

10 0

Sweden United States Switzerland Canada Netherlands Poland

I. Since the previous six months.

Source : OECD and Statistics Canada (1995). See Annex Table A.21 for source data. 55
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Chart 1.24. Sweden: employees who received training by age, 1982-94'

Percentage of employed population

50
0 16-24 0 25-34 0 35-44 0 45-54 MI 55-64 G Average
SO

40 40

33
0
30 30

25

20 20

15

10 10

0
1982 I987 1990
1 1994
0

I. Refers to the first six months of the year.

Source: Statistics Sweden, Personolutbildningsregistret.

groups that received training during the first six United Kingdom
months of the relevant year. In all age groups the
trend is upwards, being more pronounced for middle- Annex Table A.23 and Chart 1.25 show the per-
aged and older workers than for young employees. centage of employees receiving job-related training
Compared to 1982, the probability of being trained during the previous four weeks. The total share of
increased overall. The total training rate amounted to workers receiving training increased by more than
15 per cent in 1982 and increased to 38 per cent 50 per cent, from 9.1 per cent in 1984 to 15.4 per cent
in 1994. in 1990. The incidence of training decreases by age. In
1990, 25.2 per cent of the 16- to 19-year-olds received
One remarkable feature of the Swedish data is
training as opposed to 8.3 of the 50- to 59-year-olds.
the parabolic relationship between the probability of Relative to 1984 the training rates increased by 25 per
being trained and age (see Annex Table A.22). One cent for the employees aged 16 to 19, about 50 per
possible explanation for this could be that young cent for 20- to 29-year-olds, and 70 per cent for 30- to
workers have up-to-date skills and require limited
39-year-olds. Older workers experienced the highest
training. Workers above 55 are approaching the retire- increases in training rates. Rates more than doubled
ment age, thus making large training investments
for 40- to 49-year-olds and were nearly six times as
unattractive. In contrast, those aged 25 to 54 need high for workers aged 50 to 59.
training to update their skills; they will also remain
productive long enough to render investments in Annex Table A.23 and Chart 1.25 allow the train-
training profitable. Table 1.11 shows the average ing practices in the United Kingdom to be contrasted
number of days the training lasted, which was with those in Sweden. Whereas in the latater the
6.7 days in 1994. There is no clear trend over time relation is parabolic, it is linear in the United
average duration ranges from 5.7 to 7.3 days since Kingdom. Like Sweden, however, the United Kingdom
1986. In general, training duration tends to decrease shows an increase in training participation. This evi-
56 with age, although not uniformly. dence does not account for different types of training,
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Chart 1.25. United Kingdom: employees' of working age receiving job-related training' by age groups, 1984-90
Percentage receiving training during the previous 4 weeks

CI 16-19 CI 20-24 D 25-29 Ei 30-39 40-49 D 50-59 111 60-64 (males)

30 30

25 25

20 20

15 15

10 10

rs

5 5

0 0
1984 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

I. Excluding the self-employed and people on government employment and training programmes.
2. 'Training" includes both on-the-job and off-the-job training; four-week reference period.
Source: Labour Force Survey, 1984; 1986-90 (preliminary estimates for 1990).

however, or their duration or intensity. A second of the benefits of distance education is the Open
point is the lack of international standards for the University. Although enrolments increased, expendi-
classification of training. tures remained relatively constant, because of the
high fixed-cost component in distance education.
Denmark
Annex Table A.24 shows the number of students Germany (former territory of the Federal
enrolled in public adult education and continuing Republic)
vocational training. Stability is the most striking fea-
The concept of adult education in the German
ture. Enrolments are fairly constant except for Open
tradition of humanistic education was replaced by the
University students, adults in regular formal educa-
notion of further education and training in the early
tion and day high-school students. The fact that the
1970s. This more encompassing term pointed to both
increases in enrolment are found in general educa-
general and vocational education and training. Policy
tion points to adults updating their formal qualifica-
tions. Whether this is driven by labour market or pri- efforts in this area were directed to make it a fully
vate considerations is not clear. Enrolment in endowed independent sector under public responsi-
publicly-supported vocational training remained rela- bility. Chart 1.26 and Annex Table A.26 show the
tively constant or showed slight increases. The evi- development since 1965.
dence reviewed for Sweden and the United Kingdom The trend is markedly upwards. In 1965, 1.7 mil-
suggests that the increases in vocational training are lion people were enrolled in further education and
found mainly in employer-sponsored training. training. In the first half of the 1970s enrolments
The expenditures on public adult education and increased rapidly, reaching 3.7 million people. Growth
continuing vocational training are listed in Annex slowed down in the second half of the 1970s, but by
Table A.25. Nominal expenditures slope mildly 1980 4.6 million adults took part. In the first half of
upwards, areas that demanded more expenditures are the 1980s enrolments dropped slightly to 4.5 million
those with increased enrolments, A striking example in 1982. After 1985 growth picked up; in 1993 about 57 I
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

-
Chart 1.26. Germany (FTFR): enrolments and courses' in further education and training, 1965-93

Enrolments (thousands) Courses

7 000
- -- Enrolments Courses
500 000

6 000
400 000

5 000

300 000

4 000

200 000

3 000

100 000
2 000

1 000 0
EaraWleaMISMIUM xrt

1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995

I. Courses in 1991-93 include lecture series.

Source: Federal Ministry of Education, Science, Research and Technology (1994-95), Basic and Structural Data; Education Statistics for the Federal Republic of Germany.

6 million people participated in further education and France

training.
Further education and training in France
Chart 1.27 shows the development of public expanded steadily since 1984. Annex Table A.28
expenditures compared with enrolments. In the 1960s shows that 5.7 million people were engaged in 1993.
and 1970s expenditure growth was equal to enrol- In 1984 this number was 3.5 million; the average
ment growth. Throughout the 1980s there was an growth rate was 5.6 per cent. In France, enterprises
increased commitment to further education and have to spend 1.5 per cent of their wage bill on train-
training, and outlays increased more than ing. Firms spent about FF 44.8 billion on continuing
enrolments. education in 1993, more than twice the amount in
Chart 1.28 presents the budget share of further 1984. Expenditures thus increased by an average
education and training in total public education growth rate of over 10 per cent. Public expenditures
expenditures. There is a clear cyclical movement with equalled FF 28.4 billion in 1993, more than double
a low share in the first half of the 1970s and an the outlay on further education and training in 1984.
increase after 1974. From 1979 the budget share Annex Table A.28 also shows that the training lasted
decreased slightly until 1983, when the trend on average 297 hours in publicly provided courses.
reversed, reaching a peak in 1986, with 3.5 per cent of Training duration in enterprises was significantly
total public education expenditures allocated to fur- shorter (81 hours). During the second half of the
ther education. After 1986 the budget fluctuated. The 1980s and the first half of the 1990s expenditures on
general trend is upwards, although not impressively adult education increased substantially in France, as
so: it increased from 2 per cent in 1965 to about can be seen in Chart 1.29. Expenditures by enter-
3.3 per cent in 1992. But again, it should be recalled prises increased more rapidly than government out-
that the bulk of the investment in further education lays. This increase in expenditures was not so much
and training is supplied from private, not public, the result of more people being engaged in continu-
I 58 sources. ing training, but to the longer duration of this train-
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Chart 1.27. Germany (FTFR): evolution of enrolments and expenditure'

for further education and training, 1965-92
Enrolment in public institutions and public expenditure

Expenditure (million DM) Expenditure (million DM)

5 000

1992 4 000
4 000
1991

1990
1985 3 000
3 000

1980

2 000 2 000

1975
1 000 1 000

1970
1965

0 0
lisesmissammenzems 11111111MINIIIIIIVREM

I 000 2 000 3 000 4 000 5 000 6 000 7 000

Enrolments (thousands)

I . Net expenditure.
Source: Federal Ministry of Education, Science, Research and Technology (1994-95). Basic and Structural Data; Education Statistics for the Federal Republic of Germany.

Chart 1.28. Germany (FTFR): continuing education expenditure,' 1965-92

of total public education expenditure
As a percentage

Per cent Per cent

- Linear trend Budget share

4 4

..
ow. woo.

0
0
Nimmminsmaummo ilislosmtsmINE ariosimanniamall
1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995

I. Net expenditure.
Source: Federal Ministry of Education, Science. Research and Technology (1994-95), Basic and Structural Data; Education Statistics far the Federal Republic of Germany. 59
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Chart 1.29. France: increase in adult education, students, hours and expenditure, 1984-93
Percentage points increase by source of funding

El Students EJ Training hours 1111 Expenditure

150 ISO

137

128
125 119 125
115

100 100

88

75 72 75

58
50
50 50

32
25 25

0
Regional government National government Enterprises

Source: Ministry of Education, Higher Education, Research and Vocational Integration (1995), Reperes et references statistiques sur les enseignements et la formation.

ing; in enterprises the average training duration more education as a percentage of gross domestic product
than doubled. from 1970 to 1992. Chart 1.30 shows a plot of data for
four countries; the trend lines are suggestive of con-
Costs, resources and expenditures vergence in public education expenditure. Ideally this
indicator would have shown trends in the shares of
Financial resources are an obvious prerequisite GDP devoted to education without differentiating
to build schools, hire teachers, buy textbooks, and between funds from public and private sources. How-
otherwise create a safe and supportive learning envi- ever, comparable trend data for total educational
ronment. In addition to financial resources, the intan- expenditure are not available yet.
gible qualities of dedicated teachers, principals and
parents are of utmost importance. The incentives, In 1970, public expenditure on education as a
both costs and rewards, that bring people with the percentage of GDP ranged from 2.4 per cent in Mexico
"right" qualities to teaching are tied up in many fea- to 10.2 per cent in Canada. In the majority of Member
tures of economies and societies, including the local countries, the share of public expenditure was well
and public control of schools and the education and over 5 per cent. In the early 1970s the dominant posi-
salaries of staff. tion of education in publicly financed social pro-
grammes began to change as a consequence of two
factors: slowing economic growth, and decreasing
Public expenditure for education relative to GDP
enrolments as the drop in birth rates began to influ-
One of the major financial policy decisions that ence the size of the school-age population. Neverthe-
each country must make, implicitly or explicitly, con- less, in terms of GDP, public educational expendi-
cerns the share of total financial resources to be tures held their ground in most countries. By 1980,
devoted to education. A closely related task is then to expenditure was at or above 5 per cent in all coun-
divide the allocated resources among the various tries except Germany (4.8 per cent), Greece (3.2 per
levels and sectors of education and training. cent), Italy (4.5 per cent), Mexico (4.6 per cent),
60 Table 1.12 shows the trend in public expenditure on Portugal (3.7 per cent), and the United States (4.9 per
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Chart 1.30. Public education expenditure as a percentage of GDP, 1970-921'2

Selected countries

Austria Portugal United Kingdom

12

10

6 ......................
.. ............. .................................
....
. :.......
6

2 2

1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992

I. Data for gross domestic product (GDP) and expenditure are shown for selected countries, indicating the typical convergence of education expenditure among
OECD countries since 1970.
2. For 1992 and 1993 data, possible inconsistencies may arise with earlier years, because of changed definitions in the data collections.
Source: OECD Education Database. For details see Table 1.12.

cent). By 1988, public educational expenditures as a are a source of personal growth and satisfaction, and
percentage of GDP had declined in most countries, require continued commitment. However, public edu-
including Australia, Belgium, Canada, Germany, cation budgets are under pressure in many OECD
Ireland, Japan, the Netherlands, Sweden, Switzerland countries. This has led to a debate over the privatisa-
and the United Kingdom. Between 1980 and 1988 tion of educational activities, institutional diversity
public expenditure remained at the same level, or and the extent of public subsidies for privately con-
even increased, in Italy, New Zealand, Portugal and trolled schools. As Table 1.13 indicates, some OECD
the United States countries that had a compara- countries have reassessed the balance between pub-
tively low position during the 1970s. By 1993 public lic and private education finance since 1985.
expenditure was below the relative level in 1970 in The share of private education expenditure has
the countries which provided data, except Australia, been constant in many countries, but there are nota-
Austria, Germany, Mexico and Switzerland. The ble exceptions, such as Finland, the Netherlands and
increase was most remarkable in Portugal, where the United States (see Table 1.13). The most impor-
expenditures rose from 1.8 per cent of GDP in 1973 to tant increases in the demand for learning opportuni-
5.3 per cent in 1993. This increase reflects a massive ties are thus beyond the sector of initial schooling.
reform and expansion effort carried out as part of that Chart 1.31 shows that private expenditures for
country's democracy-building and modernisation educational institutions were in 1992 less than I per
drive in the years following the 1974 Revolution. cent of GDP for all countries except Germany (FTFR),
Japan, Spain and the United States. In the Nordic
Private and total education expenditures countries Denmark, Finland and Sweden the role
of the government is predominant. The data for
Education and training expenditures can gener- Germany (FTFR) suggest that the institutional
ate economic growth, reduce social inequality and arrangements and the existence of partnerships that
secure democratic values. They are therefore a pro- go beyond financing are important factors in increas-
61
ductive investment. Moreover, education and training ing private funding.
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Chart 1.3 1 . Educational expenditure by initial source of funds, 19921'2

As a percentage of gross domestic product

ED Private payments to educational institutions Total expenditure, public and private sources

United States

111=111111111
Germany (FTFR)

Spain

Japan 1111=1111
France

Australia

Canada

Netherlands 1

Denmark

Ireland

Finland

Sweden

0 2 4 6 8 10

I. See notes to Table 1.13.

2. Data for Germany (FTFR) and Ireland refer to 1991.
Source: OECD Education Database.

Share of education expenditures in total public Two points should be considered in interpreting
expenditures such unit cost data. Firstly, variations across coun-
tries or years may not reflect true differences in the
Table 1.14 shows that most OECD countries
resources provided to students, because there may be
spent between 10 to 15 per cent of the total public
budget on education in 1993. The pattern is relatively differences in relative prices. Secondly, unit costs
stable and points to a continued effort to maintain need to be interpreted carefully, because of differ-
current levels of investment. Variation among coun- ences in reporting practices. At the tertiary level, for
tries in the share of education spending in the public example, some countries include research expendi-
budget can be partially explained by the division of tures whereas other countries report them separately.
responsibilities between the public and private sector The data presented in Annex Tables A.29-A.32 should
in the financing of education. This applies especially therefore be taken as a first approximation.
to tertiary education, where the importance of private There is large variation among the countries in
funding differs considerably among countries. per student expenditure at all levels of education.
In the aggregate, measures of education expendi- Annex Table A.29 presents estimates of the unit cost
ture can estimate the total cost of education at the of pre-primary education from 1985 to 1992. In 1985,
various levels of education. They do, however, not spending per student ranged from 912 US dollars in
account for differences between countries in partici- Spain to 4 410 dollars in Norway. By 1992, the range
pation rates. An indicator on expenditure per student had shifted from 240 dollars for the Czech Republic
1

(also called the unit cost) provides an estimate of the to 6 300 dollars for Denmark. Expenditures per stu-
financial resources that are invested each year for the dent were higher in 1992 than in 1985 for all countries
education of a student at given levels of formal edu- that provided data for this period. Some of the varia-
cation. Summing such estimates over the duration of tion is explained by differences between countries in
studies would yield an estimate of the total cost of what constitutes early childhood education. True
I 62 education per student. costs may be overstated, because of the inclusion of
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

costs for extended day and evening programmes, as in the United States. In 1992, the Czech Republic
in the Nordic countries, or understated because of a spent 3 590 dollars per student, compared with
failure to distinguish between full- and part-time 12 350 dollars for Canada and 12 900 for Switzerland.
programmes.
Chart 1.32 shows country averages of expendi-
student expenditures in primary
In 1985, per ture per student by level of education for the years
education ranged from I 320 US dollars in Ireland to 1985 to 1992. Typically, per student expenditures
4 356 dollars in the United States (Annex Table A.30). increase with increasing levels of education, with the
Spending per student increased from 1985 to 1992 in highest costs incurred for tertiary education. The vari-
nearly all countries. In 1992, per student expenditures ation in per student expenditures by levels is
were lowest in Ireland (1 770 dollars) and highest in expected to decrease, however, as expenditures per
the United States (5 600 dollars). Annex student in pre-primary seem to be growing more
Table A.31 presents unit costs in secondary educa- rapidly than those at subsequent levels. The growth
tion. Expenditures seem to have increased since in per student spending appears to be the lowest in
1985, at least for the countries that could provide the tertiary education.
date. Portugal spent the least per student in 1985.
and the United States the most. In 1992, the unit
costs ranged from 2 620 dollars in New Zealand to
Ratios of students to teaching staff
6 470 in the United States. An important indication of the educational
tertiary education, expenditures per student
In resources that are available in a country is the ratio of
were relatively stable or showed only slight increases students to teaching staff. But the allocation of teach-
from 1985 to 1992. As can be seen from Annex ing resources to the different levels of education is
Table A.32, of the countries reporting data in 1985, also an important policy issue. In almost all coun-
spending per student was lowest in Spain and highest tries, older students have more access to teaching

Chart 1.32. Expenditure per student from public sources by level of education, 1985-921'2.3
Country average,4 constant 1992 US dollars

8 000
0 Pre-primary (4.7%) Primary (3.3%) 0 Secondary (2.8%) IIII Tertiary (1.4%)
8 000

6 000 6 000

4 000 4 000

2 000 2 000

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992

I. The number of students used to calculate expenditure per student from public sources is the number enrolled in public schools or in private schools that are
predominantly publicly funded.
2. Direct expenditure per student from public sources is calculated by dividing direct gouverment expenditure for educational institutions at the corresponding level
of education by the corresponding full-time equivalent enrolmentThe result is converted into US dollars using the purchasing power parity (PPP) exchange rate
for GDP
3. Number in brackets in the legend is the average annual growth rate.
4. Calculated using data from countries that report full series. Norway, Spain and the United States, report data for all levels. Belgium reports data for all levels except
tertiary [Link] and Denmark report data for all levels except pre-primary education. Ireland reports data for all levels except secondary education and
the United Kingdom reports data for pre-primary and primary education.
Source: OECD Education Database. See Annex Tables A.29 to A.32. 63
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

resources than younger students. This pattern of a of education, student:teacher ratios have decreased
progressively declining ratio of students to teachers constantly since 1985 in most OECD countries for
can be thought of as producing a "bonus for age". which such data are available, most markedly in
Annex Tables A.33-A.35 show the trend in Denmark, Germany (FTFR), Japan and Spain.
student:teacher ratios at the levels of pre-primary, At the tertiary level of education, the reverse
primary and secondary combined, and tertiary educa- trend can be observed: the increases in participation
tion from 1985 to 1992. Chart 1.33 shows the situation have outpaced the increase in teaching staff in most
in 1992. In that year, of the 13 countries reporting OECD countries over the period 1985-92, most mark-
information for both public and private early child- edly in Ireland and the Netherlands. However, due to
hood education, six had ratios between 12 and 19; substantial problems in measuring educational staff
one had a ratio under 11; and six had ratios above 23. at the tertiary level of education, the comparisons are
Of the 15 countries reporting data in 1992 for primary not fully reliable.
and secondary education, eight had ratios between 15
and 20, and another five had ratios below 12. For
most countries reporting lower and upper secondary Internal and external efficiency of education
education separately, the ratios between the two and training
levels are relatively similar. In tertiary education, in
The overall picture of important trends in educa-
1992, the ratios ranged from 10.7 in Germany (FTFR)
tion and training is not complete without information
to 23.1 in Turkey.
on student, system, and labour market and social
Examining the trends over time, at the pre-pri- outcomes, so that the results achieved can be
mary level there is a picture of sharply declining assessed and possible shortcomings identified. There
ratios in a few countries, notably Austria, Denmark, are many kinds of results, reflecting the multiple
Spain and Turkey, and a sharp increase in ratios in goals or purposes of education including access to
the Netherlands. At the primary and secondary levels and completion of schooling; academic learning; job

Chart 1.33. Ratio of students to teaching staff by level of education, 19921

40
Early childhood 0 Primary and secondary 0 Tertiary
40

30 30

20 20

I0 10

0
-0
ea
3 0_
E 7 0
-r) S
O
J

I. The student:teacher ratio is obtained by dividing the number of full-time equivalent students at a given level of education by the number of full-time equivalent
teachers at the same level. Note that the student:teacher ratio is not an indicator of class size. Note further that all children in early childhood education are
counted as full-time even though they may attend school only half-day.
64 Source: OECD Education Database. For details see Annex Tables A.33 to A.35.
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

placement, continuation into tertiary education, or upper secondary programme varies substantially
other dispositions after schooling, such as values, among countries. However, 12 in 19 countries provid-
attitudes and social skills; and satisfaction of the ing data show rates above 80 per cent. Austria,
public with school performance. In addition to out- Denmark, Germany, Ireland, Japan, the Netherlands
come measures in the form of basic national aggre- and Norway have first-programme graduation rates
gates, indicators of disparity between major regional exceeding 90 per cent. The extent to which students
and socio-economic groups are also of interest. graduate from general or vocational programmes also
differs among countries. Of the 17 OECD countries
Graduation rates in upper secondary education providing data in 1992, eight reported that the major-
ity of first-programme graduates came from institu-
It will be seen that achieving upper secondary tions with general programmes and the others
education is of utmost importance not only to secure reported that they came from vocational or appren-
employment and labour market participation, but ticeship programmes.
also to serve as a basis for subsequent learning later
in life. One measure of how systems perform in pro- Upper secondary graduation has expanded sig-
viding the population with upper secondary educa- nificantly since 1985. Denmark, France, and Turkey
tion is the graduation rate. Annex Tables A.36-A.38 experienced increases of 10 per cent, and Italy, the
provide the graduation rates in upper secondary edu- Netherlands, Portugal, Spain and Norway of 20 to
cation for different types of programmes. 40 per cent. Graduation rates in other countries were
Graduation rates measure "first-time" graduates relatively stable. The distribution of graduates
as a percentage of the persons in the population at between general and vocational education has also
the typical age at which individuals complete the rel- been fairly constant for most countries. In France,
evant programme. As can be seen from Chart 1.34, however, the overall increase in graduation rates is
the proportion of students completing their first mainly due to an expansion of general education,

Chart 1.34. Graduation rates in upper secondary education, 1992'

0 General U Vocational and technical Total Percentage in vocational and technical

(right scale)
120 140

100 120

100
80
_
60
_ 60
40
40

20
= 20

0
C C C
C
n. g-
LL
z O

I. Graduation rates are calculated as the ratio of first-time upper secondary graduates to the number of persons in the population who are at the typical age at which
persons in that country complete the corresponding educational programme. Upper secondary graduates are persons who successfully complete the final year of
upper secondary education (success may or may not be established through a final examination).As a consequence, graduation rates may exceed 100 per cent
because graduation can occur before or after the theoretical age of graduation.
Source: OECD Education Database. For details, see Annex Tables A.37 and A.38. 6]
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

whereas in the Netherlands and Norway the increase Student learning outcomes
was mainly due to a substantial rise in vocational and
OECD education systems have expanded, and
technical graduates.
increased enrolment rates made attainment levels
rise. But what about the quality of education that is
Graduation rates in tertiary education actually delivered? Assessment must be an integrated
part of educational policy. Bishop (1995) observes
Annex Table A.39 presents the graduation rates that "high-stakes" examinations at the end of secon-
for tertiary university education. These rates are of dary schooling are probably necessary if high achieve-
interest because they show the proportion of young ment levels are to be attained. Based on Canadian
people who are highly qualified. The graduation rates data he finds that examination systems have perva-
presented in Chart 1.35 include advanced degrees; sive effects on students, school administrators, teach-
however, they exclude non-university tertiary educa- ers and parents. In provinces with external examina-
tion, which is a large segment in some countries. As tions, schools were not only likely to employ better
can be seen, the tertiary graduation rates vary from qualified teachers, but the school infrastructure was
7 to 11 per cent in Austria, Switzerland and Turkey, to
of higher quality, and more attention was being paid
36 per cent or more in Australia, Canada, Norway and to science and mathematics instruction.
the United States, with the remaining countries Chart 1.36 shows the mean proficiency scores on
spread over the percentage range. The rise in gradua- the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) in the United
tion rates in some countries points to an increased States since 1976. The SAT is the test most frequently
demand for learning. Although birth rates tend to taken by college-bound students. It is designed to
slow down or decline, in the future, the pressure on predict success in the first year of college and to
tertiary education is expected to continue because of provide information about student performance over
continuing high demand. time. Since 1976 the mean SAT scores decreased until

Chart 1.35. Graduation rates in university education, 1985 and 19921'2

El 1985 IIII 1992

45 45

40 39 40

35 35

30 30

25 25 25
22 21 21
20 20

1
IS 15
5
I0 10

S 5

0
0 C E
CI C
7- C
U NA 2
O
z

I. Ratio of public and private university education graduates to population at theoretical age of graduation, men and women.
2. For the Netherlands, 1992 data include non-university education graduates. For Norway, data refer to 1991.
L66 Source: OECD Education Database. For details see Annex Table A.39.
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Chart 1.36. United States: mean scores of college-bound students on verbal and mathematics components
of the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT),' 1976-93

500
- -- Mathematics - Verbal
500

480
----------------- 480

460 460

440 440

420 420

400 400

1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994

I. The Scholastic Aptitude Test is the test taken most frequently by college-bound [Link] proportion of high-school graduates who take the examination varies over
the years, a development that can influence the mean [Link] highest score possible on each scale is 800; 200 is the [Link] raw mean score on the tests in 1941
was 500 with a standard deviation of 100. Since then the tests have been psychometrically anchored to this scale. For source data, see Table A.40.
Source: National Center for Education Statistics (1994), The Condition of Education, p.64 and p. 228.

1980 when performance increased. Test scores wors- comparable indicators are available. A major aspect
ened after 1985 only to rise again in 1991. This pat- of efficiency is captured by trends in labour force
tern is more or less consistent for both verbal and qualifications as measured by the educational attain-
mathematics test scores. Mean scores in mathemat- ment of the working-age population. Another aspect
ics were higher than the scores on the verbal tests. is the relationship between educational attainment
More detailed data show that performance is highly and earnings. Further indicators examine the relation-
correlated with family background and ethnicity. ships between education, labour force participation
and unemployment.
As the complexity of working life increases and
technology enters daily life, competence in science
becomes a crucial determinant of success in educa- Education and earnings
tion and life career. Chart 1.37 indicates the science Chart 8.1 (see Chapter 8) indicates that earnings
proficiency of 9-, 13- and 17-year-olds in the United differentials are closely related to education, for both
States, for 1992. Time series data are presented in men and women. Earnings from work is an indirect
Annex Table A.41. Mean science performance is measure of the extent to which education enables the
higher for all groups than it was ten years ago. recipient to find and hold gainful employment. Earn-
Another indication of success in the improvement of ings also represent a useful indicator of the value of
science education in the United States is that the education, since they are closely related to other
gender gap in performance has decreased. important outcomes, for example health and depen-
dency on social assistance (see Chapter 8). While the
Education, unemployment and earnings specific gaps in earnings between different attain-
ment levels vary in size and in the degree to which
There are numerous conceptual problems in they have changed over time, there is a clear ten-
evaluating the external efficiency of education and dency for mean earnings differences to widen persist-
training systems, and few reliable and internationally ently from the more to the lesser educationally quali- 67 I
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Chart 1.37. United States: mean science proficiency scores,' by sex and age, 1992

El Men MI Women
300 300
299
289

260
256

250 250

2.35

227

200 200
Age 9 Age 13 Age 17

I. The science proficiency scale has a range from 0 to 500. The science tests are administered as part of the National Assessment of Educational Progress
since 1970. See Table A.41 for details.
Source: National Center for Education Statistics (1994), The Condition of Education, p. 56.

lied workers. Tertiary education normally offers a The multiple disadvantages suffered by people
substantial earnings advantage in comparison with with low educational attainments have, in some
upper secondary education. In 1992, among men aged countries, increased with time. In cases where relative
25 to 64, the average earnings of tertiary graduates wages have declined in response to declining demand
were between 45 to 75 per cent higher than those of for less-skilled labour, employment losses may have
upper secondary graduates. In the Netherlands, how- been less, but at the cost of increased poverty and
ever, this earnings advantage was much smaller than hardship. Annex Table A.42 presents ratios of mean
this percentage range. The earnings advantage for annual earnings by educational qualifications from
university-educated women also lies in the range of the early 1970s to the early 1990s. During the 1980s, a
45 to 75 per cent in most countries. In 1992, however, fairly sharp increase in earnings differentials occurred
it was much smaller in Austria, Denmark, Italy and in the United States, the United Kingdom (men only),
considerably larger in the United Kingdom. Canada, and Sweden (men only), especially for work-
ers without qualifications at the upper secondary
Persons lacking an upper secondary qualification
level. In these countries, the largest increase in differ-
have considerably lower earnings than those edu-
entials occurred between those with university quali-
cated at upper secondary or higher levels. In 1992,
fications and those with the lowest levels of attain-
men aged 25 to 64 without an upper secondary quali-
ment. This represented a reversal of the trend
fication typically earned 10 to 25 per cent less than
observed for the 1970s, when there was some com-
those who had attained that level. In the United
pression in average earnings differences. In contrast,
States, this difference was as large as 35 per cent.
little change was observed in Australia, Denmark and
Among women as well, the typical earnings disadvan-
Japan, and some decline seen in the Netherlands and
tage of those lacking an upper secondary qualification
Norway during the 1980s.
is 10 to 25 per cent. As is the case with men, women
in the United States who had not completed an upper Chart 1.38 shows that important differences
secondary education earned around 35 per cent less emerge when trends are examined separately for
L68 than those who had. younger and older age groups. Younger workers
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Chart 1.38. Earnings differentials by educational attainment' for young and older men in the early 199052
Ratio of mean annual earnings by qualifications, ages 25 to 34 and 45 to 54

El Level E/Level A El Level E/Level B 111 Level E/Level D

3.0 30

2.5 25

2.0 20

1.5 1.5

1.0 1.0

0.5 0.5

0 0
25-34 45-54 25-34 40-49 23-34 45-64 25-34 45-54
Australia Australia Japan Japan Netherlands Netherlands United States United States

I. For the definitions of the education levels see notes to Annex Tables A.42 and A.43. The following classification can serve as a rough approximation:
A = ISCED 0/1/2, level B = ISCED 3,1evel D = ISCED 5 and level E = ISCED 6.
level
2. For the Netherlands, educational level B includes upper secondary vocational (defined as level C in Table A.42) and general upper secondary education.
Source: OECD (1994d), The OECD Jobs Study: Evidence and Explanations, Table 7.A. pp. 160- 161. See also Table A.43.
I ,

entering the labour market in the 1990s without an Education and employment
upper secondary qualification are especially disad-
As occupational qualifications are rendered
vantaged; their mean earnings have fallen relative to
obsolete more quickly, the notion of a once-and-for-
the others. Especially in Australia and the United all career preparation is disappearing. There is evi-
States, the career chances of the least qualified dete- dence of market failures in education and training, a
riorated sharply during the 1980s. In Japan and the point elaborated in Chapters 4 and 8. For example,
Netherlands, on the other hand, there was little or no even during spells of high unemployment there is
change. Among older workers, the well-known ten- evidence of skill shortages, which can be interpreted
dency for earnings to rise with age for the more edu- as a sign of qualitative mismatches between labour
cationally qualified workers is evident in all four supply and demand. Education enhances an
countries. Beyond that, there are no common pat- individual's position on the labour market. Those
terns. The United States is the only country where the with less schooling are more likely to be caught in
pattern observed in the 1970s differs clearly from that jobs characterised by frequent turnover, low wages,
of the 1980s. Whereas earnings differentials declined and high unemployment (OECD, 1994d), Chart 1.39
or rose very little during the 1970s, the 1980s wit- shows that unemployment rates are generally much
nessed a substantial increase in the earnings of older higher for those with a primary, lower secondary or
college-educated workers relative to others. In con- upper secondary education than for those with a uni-
clusion, those who enter the labour market without versity or non-university tertiary education. Educa-
an upper secondary qualification are at risk of low tional attainment thus has a consistent influence on
earnings both at the beginning of their career and the employment experience.
throughout it. While low levels of attainment are con- However, the relationship between educational
sistently associated with low relative earnings, the attainment and unemployment is not linear, because
gap is more variable in its size, and changes over the largest difference in experience is usually found
time, at higher levels of educational attainment. between the least educated and all other groups. The 69
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Chart 1.39. Unemployment rate'. 2 by level of education for persons 24 to 64 years, 1992
Compared with unemployment rate for tertiary graduates

16
P Lower secondary or less 11111 Upper secondary
16

14 14

12 12

10 10

8 8

6 6

4 4

0 A I r C
rr a, C
-v
C
2

a
0 C
e

I. In some cases the data are unreliable due to small sample sizes.
2. The unemployment rate is the percentage of people in the labour force (the currently active population) without work (i.e. not in paid employment or self-
employment). Labour force participation is defined as the proportion of the population that a) is working for pay, b) is self-employed, or c) meets the following
two conditions: seeking work (i.e. taking specific steps in a specified recent period to seek paid employment or self-employment) and currently available for work.
Source: OECD Education Database. For details on sources, see Annex Table A. 10.

risk of unemployment is especially high for young unemployment for older workers. This could be linked
school-leavers: educational attainment conditions to structural change and the difficulty encountered by
that risk. In all countries, and over time, individuals those with low qualification levels when they try to
without an upper secondary qualification have the leave jobs in declining industries.
highest rates of unemployment. That risk has grown
since the late 1970s, concomitant with the rise of the D. CONCLUSIONS
"minimum threshold" of skills and competencies
required in the labour market. Section B reviewed a number of broad trends
affecting life in the OECD area, including demo-
The relationship between educational attain- graphic change and ageing, globalisation, the diffu-
ment and unemployment tends to be irregular at the sion of new information and communication technol-
highest levels of education. The fact that this pattern ogies, trends in employment and shifts in the
is widespread may be a sign of rigidities in wage distribution of occupations, qualifications and skills,
adjustments for occupations requiring advanced edu- and developments in the worlds of work, community
cation, or a sign of extended job search by more and family life. Together, these trends and develop-
educated persons. In some countries the differences ments point to an array of gradual but profound
in unemployment rates by level of educational attain- changes. Analysis of some of the symptoms of the
ment have widened considerably (Table 1.15). This is ongoing transformation of OECD economies, cultures
true even when adjusting for changes in the shares of and societies revealed both risks and opportunities.
the labour force for each educational attainment Despite continuing productivity gains and a gradual
group. Within countries, however, the differences in increase in overall standards of living, unemploy-
unemployment experience for different attainment ment, poverty and social exclusion remain wide-
levels (at least those above the level of the least spread, and the aspirations and needs of many are
qualified) diminish as workers get older and experi- unfulfilled. The emerging high-skill, high-wage learn-
ence progressively substitutes for formal qualifica- ing economy accommodates a growing share of the
tions. Since the late 1970s, educational attainment workforce in OECD countries, but the divisions
170 also seems to have more to do with differences in between those who are included and those who are
 IJFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

excluded are sharp, and could deepen Long-estab- most countries But the variation among countries in
lished patterns of lob entry and career progression access and participation is highly significant Early
are "in doubt" or called into question" as the knowl- childhood education has become virtually universal
edge content of lobs is altered and low-skill mass in a few countries, but others have a long way to go in
production systems are replaced Turnover in the opening up learning opportunities for young children
labour market is rising, and skills tend to become Policy dilemmas are posed, because resources are
obsolete more rapidly But if the future is uncertain, it limited and because an expansion of pre-primary
is also rich with opportunity Ongoing transforma- education affects the relationships between families
tions hold promise for major advances in the quality and schools Moreover, as early childhood education
of life Realising these improvements in living condi- expands, the boundary with primary schooling tends
tions and securing a fair distribution of the efforts to blur, which creates both new opportunities and
and benefits will depend heavily on a sense of difficulties
solidarity and on the knowledge, skills and qualifica-
The evidence indicates that all OECD countries
tions of the population The central importance of the
pursue a policy of expansion in secondary education
human factor underscores the imperative of reorient-
A few countries now retain nearly all youth in secon-
ing policies to build and strengthen the learning
dary school until age 17 But many education systems
society
fall short of this target A quarter or more of 7-year-
1

As a necessary condition for and complement olds is no longer enrolled in full-time education in
and balance to the post-industrial economy, the Australia, New Zealand, Greece, Ireland, Portugal,
very concept of the learning society raises a funda- Spain, Turkey and the United Kingdom Young people
mental question, addressed in Section C Are the without an upper secondary qualification face a diffi-
trends in education and training consistent with the cult transition to work, with high unemployment, high
development of the post-industrial society, or do turnover, and low-paying lobs that offer few opportu-
education systems continue to develop in accordance nities for personal development and further educa-
with the model of an outmoded industrial society? tion and training Whereas this situation is not neces-
The analysis of trends in education and training offers sarily indicative of school failure or inadequate
mixed answers student performance, increasing the retention rates in
Impressive progress has been achieved in many secondary education and discouraging early school
areas of education and training policy since the leaving must feature highly on the policy agendas of
1970s The evidence presented in this chapter points governments But, however ambitious, achieving a
to rising overall levels of educational attainment In full cycle of broad-based secondary education for all
most Member countries more than half of the popula- students until age 17 is not enough Upper secondary
tion aged between 25 and 64 has completed at least education must be relevant and of high quality
upper secondary education But progress has been Merely keeping increasing numbers of youths in
uneven There were large differences in educational schools for more and more years does not present an
attainment between countries in the early 1980s, attractive option Graduation rates in upper secon-
some of these differences still exist today Levels of dary education are well below the participation rates
educational attainment are, moreover, rising faster in in many countries, suggesting that a significant num-
certain countries than in others a development that ber of youths attend school but do not obtain qualifi-
will have an impact on the comparative advantage of cations Although there is evidence that a certain
nations To complicate matters further, within coun- number of these youths will obtain this qualification
tries, there is an uneven distribution of attainment at a later age, it is desirable that qualifications are
levels by age groups In certain European countries acquired earlier on, because failures tend to cumu-
more than half of the working-age population has late, and because it is difficult for schools and com-
received little education beyond primary schooling munities to reach out to at-risk youths beyond a cer-
Evidence shows that those people are at risk in tain age Thus, in conclusion, it appears that
changing labour markets In these countries there is a despite the progress towards the shared goal of
large, but unmet, demand for adult education and providing universal upper secondary education
training, especially among people in mid-career achievements to date fall short in all Member
countries
Early childhood education has become a growth
industry, and for good reasons, which are spelled out Countries have, moreover, dramatically
71
in Chapter 3 At age 4, enrolment rates rise sharply in expanded enrolments in tertiary-level institutions, in 1
 IJFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

a few cases reaching 40 per cent of the age group education, insufficient participation and in other
leaving secondary schools Despite the growth in cases unchecked growth at the tertiary level, and une-
enrolments, tertiary education reaches less than ven development of adult education and training The
25 per cent of an age group, in some cases less than financing of expansion and reform is an additional
10 per cent Some countries are thus likely to face factor But the problems clearly go beyond the man-
increasing pressures for expansion The prospect of agement of quantities At a time when education and
further growth in mass tertiary systems highlights a training systems are confronted with a wide range of
range of policy dilemmas and problems Employment new and intensified challenges, the question must be
considerations, finance and staffing are large-looming asked whether merely continuing to expand educa-
issues for all countries How to define the proper tion and training systems more of the same will
balance between traditional university education and suffice as a policy strategy for gearing up to the
newly emerging forms of post-secondary vocational demands of the twenty-first century
education is another contentious issue Maintaining
The challenges clearly go beyond the mere not-
quality and controlling costs while accommodating a
ing of a growing demand for education and training
larger student body are the overriding challenges
among learners of all ages, and an increase in the
The data on educational attainment suggest that diversity of providers There is a need for a different
there is a large and unmet demand for adult educa- quality and content of education, which signals a
tion and forms of continuing vocational training generic and paradigmatic shift from education to
OECD data sources indicate that around a third of the learning New information and communication tech-
labour force in certain countries participates in lob - nologies can change the way education is organised.
related education or training in a year Although Instead of a supply-led and heavily institutionalised
impressive, this figure suggests that two-thirds of the system, the new conditions allow for a demand-led,
labour force do not participate in organised learning client-driven approach. where the learners can shop
activities each year The data further suggest that for education from diverse sources and in ways they
many of the least-qualified receive training lasting themselves plan These developments will have reper-
only one or two days an amount that is unlikely to cussions on governments' near-monopolies of sup-
count much towards the goal of acquiring new skills plying education and training, prescribing the curricu-
and qualifications Moreover, there are many people lum and textbooks, and assessing and certifying the
who are not counted in labour force statistics, their outcomes In so far as current education systems are
learning needs must also be accommodated The not proactive in meeting the new and diverse
inevitable conclusion is that, despite the increasing demands under flexible conditions, educational
volume and diversity of supply, the learning needs arrangements in OECD countries fall short of what is
and demands of many adults go unmet Reaching out needed.
to such adults is a high priority for all countries In
On balance, the data analysis presented in this
pursuing a necessary policy of development and
chapter supports the conclusion that more of the
expansion in adult education and continuing voca-
same will not be enough, and that continuing to
tional training, countries will have to come to grips
expand currently front-loaded systems without
with a number of thorny issues, ranging from financial
rethinking their purpose and design is a mistake The
and legal problems and questions about the proper
challenges posed cannot be dealt with in isolation
division of responsibilities, to the institutional
For example, the policy decisions taken with regard to
frameworks and the supporting arrangements that
the development of adult education and training will
will need to be put into place
have an impact on policies for tertiary education, and
The above review of developments in education they in turn will influence policies designed to ease
and training suggests that the moves, as yet uncom- the transition from school to work Addressing the
pleted, towards mass education systems have challenges thus requires not only major redirections
reached a new plateau But the analysis also under- of education and training policies What is needed,
scores the problems and weaknesses, which pose above all, is that the reforms are planned as part of a
large challenges the underdevelopment of early coherent blueprint for change a new organising
childhood education, less than full retention in upper framework for the long-term development of learning
secondary education, graduation gaps in secondary societies

172
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Table I I Foreign or immigrant population and labour force, 1983 and 1993
(percentage and numbers in thousands)

Foreign population and labour force I

Foreign population Foreign labour force

% of total population % of total labour force

1983 19932 1993

Austria 39 86 96
Belgium 90 91 83
Denmark 20 36 19
Finland 03 1 1

France 68 63 62
Germany 3 74 85 88
Ireland 24 27 30
Italy 07 17
Japan 07 1 1

Luxembourg 26 3 31 I 386
Netherlands 38 5I 39
Norway 23 38 45°
Spain 05 1 1 05
Sweden 48 58 51
Switzerland 144 18 I 21 75
United Kingdom 28 35 36
Foreign-born population and labour force('
Foreign-born population Foreign-born labour force

% of total labour
Thousands % of total population Thousands
force

1981 1991 1981 1991 1981 1991

Australia 3 004 4 125 20 6 22 7 2 184 25 7

Canada 3 843 4 343 16 I 156 2 681 18 5
United States 14 080 19 767 47 79 11 636 93
Note Data not available
I Data for the foreign population are from population registers except for France (census), the United Kingdom (labour force survey), Japan and Switzerland
(register of foreigners) Data for foreign labour in EU countries are taken from the Community labour force survey For the other European countries data
are based on work permits
2 1990 for France, 1992 for Ireland
3 Data for 1993 cover Germany, and for 1983 the former Federal Republic of Germany
4 Excluding the unemployed
5 Number of foreigners with an annual residence permit or a settlement permit who engage in gainful activity Seasonal and frontier workers are excluded
6 Census data (1980 and 1990 for the United States), except for Australia (labour force survey)
Source OECD (1993b), Trends in International Migration, Annual Report Table 2 p 271

73
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Table I 2 Aged dependency ratios In OECD countries, 1980-20401

% Change
1980 2000 2020 2040
1980-2040 2010-2040

Canada 141 190 289 378 168 77

France 21 9 23 3 30 6 38 2 74 56
Germany 23 4 25 4 33 5 48 2 106 58
Italy 208 226 293 410 97 60
lapan 135 226 336 378 180 28
United Kingdom 23 2 22 3 25 5 33 I 43 48
United States 17 1 18 2 25 0 32 3 89 72
Average of the above 19 I 21 9 29 5 38 3 108 57
Australia? 148 183 261 362 144 80
Austna 242 226 304 408 69 53
Belgium 219 220 269 360 64 53
Czech Republic? 181 196 31 2 430 137 97
Denmark 223 215 305 421 89 73
Finland 177 212 348 388 119 56
Greece 20 5 22 6 27 4 34 0 66 32
Iceland 15 8 16 1 20 9 33 2 110 106
Ireland 182 169 187 271 49 66
Luxembourg 200 255 319 364 82 32
Netherlands 17 4 19 7 28 9 42 0 141 90
New Zealand 15 4 16 3 23 0 35 8 132 105
Norway 23 4 22 8 27 9 38 2 63 71
Portugal 16 1 20 8 23 7 33 1 106 55
Spain 17 2 21 8 25 3 38 2 122 66
Sweden 25 4 25 1 33 1 37 4 47 41
Switzerland 20 8 25 0 39 9 49 9 140 57
Turkey 8 5 80 10 3 15 9 87 94
OECD average 189 208 276 366 98 63

I (Population 65 +/population 15-641 x 100. 1980 actual ratios, 2000 to 2040 projected ratios
2 Australian Bureau of Statistic, 1995, Series A Population Protections data Reference month lune
3 The data for 2000 and 2020 are from a projection made by the Czech Statistical Office (Protection of the population of the Czech Republic until the
year 2020, Czech Statistical Office. Praha, 19951, the data for 2040 are raw estimates based on this projection The data for 1980 are from the demographic
yearbook published by the Czech Statistical Office
Sources OECD 11988a1 Ageing populations The social policy implications Table 14, and national data submissions

Table 1 3 International specialisation in high-wage and high-technology industries, 1970 and 19921
Japan United States European Community
1970 1992? 1970 19922 1970 19922

High wage 64 107 136 118 101 98

Medium wage 122 121 95 95 94 92
Low wage 102 56 64 82 110 116
High technology 124 144 159 151 86 82
Medium technology 78 114 110 90 103 100
Low technology 114 46 64 74 103 113

I The specialisation (or revealed comparative advantage) index for a particular type of industry has been calculated by dividing the share of a country' s
exports in a particular Industry relative to Its total manufacturing exports by the total OECD exports in that indus fir type relative to the total OECD
manufacturing exports
2 Total OECD and EC exports for 1992 were calculated using 1991 data for Italy and Australia
Source OECD 1199461. Table 26, p 134

I 74
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Table I 4 Educational attainment in Sweden, 1930, 1970 and 19941

(distribution of population 16-59 years by education level, in per cent)

19302 1970 1994

Education level
Men Women Men Women Men Women

Early childhood and primary education 84 3 86 9 46 7 48 8 II 7 96

Lower secondary education 59 54 130 170 175 166
Upper secondary education 81 74 33 0 27 6 468 480
Tertiary education 16 03 73 66 210 231

I The data from 1970 and 1994 are fully consistent Some minor problems were encountered in the conversion of 1930 data to the ISCED classification
system
2 Age group 15-60 years
Sources Statistics Sweden, Census 1930 1970 and Utbudrungsregistret Statistics Sweden (SCE/ situation on 1st January 1994

Table I 5 Incidence of long-term unemployment, 1983, 1989, 1992 and 19931, 2

(per cent of all unemployed)

1983 1989 1992 1993

6 months 12 months 6 months 12 months 6 months 12months 6 months 12 months

and over and over and over and over and over and over and over and over

North America
Canada 288 99 208 68 334 13 1 314 141
United States 239 133 99 57 206 II 2 204 117
Pacific Area
Australia 52 7 27 5 40 6 23 1 58 7 34 5 57 1 36 5
lapan 315 129 373 187 362 159 344 172
New Zealand 34 5 14 7 53 2 31 9 52 5 33 2

European Community
Denmark 606 330 508 259 499 270 252
France 67 0 42 2 63 7 43 9 58 1 36 1 58 2 34 2
Germany 648 393 667 490 554 335 403
Greece 607 350 735 524 703 497 508
Italy 830 577 587 704 697 582 577
Netherlands 751 505 661 499 769 440 552
Spain 728 524 727 585 661 474 696 501
United Kingdom 680 470 572 408 573 354 455
Other Europe OECD
Norway 20 3 6 3 29 5 II 6 41 1 23 6 45 6 27 2
Sweden 249 103 182 63 257 80 320 109

Notes Data not available

I Data derived from surveys in OECD countries While data from labour force surveys make international comparisons easier compared to a mixture of survey
and registration data they are not perfect Questionnaire wording and design, survey timing, differences across countries In the age groups covered, and
other reasons still mean that care is required in interpreting cross-country differences in levels
2 Data refer to persons aged 14 and over in Italy and Greece, aged 15 and over in Australia Canada Denmark France, Germany lapan, the Netherlands and
New Zealand and aged 16 and over in Spain and the United States Data for Norway refer to persons aged 16-74 and data for Sweden refer to persons
aged 16-64 Data for the United Kingdom refer to men aged 16-69 and women 16-64
Source OECD (1999c), Employment Outlook, Table P, p 206

75 I
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Table I 6 Full- and part-time employment situation and individual preferences in European countries, 19891
(percentage)

Would you prefer

Would you prefer Would you prefer
a full-time
a part-time lob a full-time lob
Full-time lobs Part-time lobs workers) or part-time lob
ipart-time workers)
funemployedP
Yes No Yes No Full-time Part-time

Belgium 71 22 13 77 19 47 51 30
Denmark 83 17 13 84 6 89 52 27
France 92 8 17 79 57 32 28 70
Germany 82 18 17 83 8 92 22 19
Greece 97 2 14 86 78 22 87 10
Ireland 87 7 7 90 87 1 I
Italy 94 6 32 68 49 51
Netherlands 69 27 12 86 18 78 39 54
Portugal 94 5 24 70 40 29 76 23
Spain 85 15 24 73 63 35 72 24
United Kingdom 78 21 25 75 6 94 71 20
Total 85 15 21 77 30 66 52 34

Note Data not available

I When the figures do not add up to 100 per cent, the difference is the percentage of respondents who provided no reply'
Sources Commission of European Communities, European Economy, No 47, March 1991 Annex 2, Table 23, and OECD (1994d) The OECD lobs Study
Evidence and Explanations Part II, Table 6 14 p 93

Table I 7 Children under 18 years living In poverty In the United States, 1960-92
(by ethnicity, selected years)

Percentage of all children living in poverty Percentage of children living in poverty

who live with a female householder'
Total White Black Total White Black

9602 26 5 20 0 -65 5 23 8 21 0 29 4
9653 20 7 4 4 47 4 31 7 27 0 49 7
970 14 9 05 41 5 45 8 36 6 60 8
975 16 8 2 5 41 4 51 4 41 7 70 I
980 17 9 34 42 I 52 8 41 3 75 4
985 20 1 5 6 43 1 53 8 43 0 78 4
990 19 9 5 1 44 2 57 9 46 9 80 3
991 21 1 61 456 59 0 47 4 83 I
992 21 I 60 46 3 57 9 45 4 81 8

No husband present The householder is the person in whose name the housing unit is owned or rented
2 Data presented are for 1959 for Blacks and 1960 for Whites and total
3 Data presented are for 1967 for Blacks and 1965 for Whites and total
Sources Us Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Current Population Reports, series P-60 Poverty In the United Sates', various years (based on
March Current Population survey), and National Center for Education Statistics (1994), The Condition of Education, p 132

I 76
 Table I 8 Enrolment in public and private early childhood and primary education, 1994
(net enrolment rates by single year of age
I 3 to 7, head counts)

3-year-olds 4-year-olds 5-year-olds 6-year-olds 7-year-olds

Pre- Pre- Pre- Pre- Pre-

Primary Total Primary Total Primary Total Primary Total Primary Total
primary primary primary primary primary

North America
Canada n a n a n a 39 2 39 2 87 0 II 7 98 8 06 987 993 99 2 99 2
United States 276 276 54 1 54 I 74 8 61 81 0 133 846 980 05 101 5 102 I

Mexico 9 7 n a 9 7 484 na 484 71 8 55 77 3 17 988 100 6 34 100 7 104 I

Pacific Area
Australia 74 6 99 2 994 994
lapan 570 na 570 91 8 na 91 8 96 2 na 96 2 na 101 9 101 9 na 102 8 102 8
New Zealand 80 4 80 4 95 7 02 95 9 24 102 3 104 6 101 8 101 8 100 0 100 0
European Community
Belgium 98 2 98 2 99 7 99 7 98 0 I 4 99 4 42 95 6 99 8 01 991 992
Denmark 61 0 61 0 81 7 81 7 84 7 84 7 92 7 38 96 5 57 934 991
France 99 3 99 3 101 4 101 4 999 21 102 0 I 1 100 I 101 2 01 100 8 100 8
Germany 409 409 71 4 71 4 81 5 81 5 70 7 43 8 114 6 I 3 96 8 98 0
Greece 15 3 15 3 576 576 48 3 20 0 68 3 1 I 91 6 92 6 933 933
Ireland 10 10 54 2 54 2 1001 03 100 4 55 5 45 3 100 8 23 985 100 8
Netherlands n a na n a 971 04 975 980 06 987 09 98 2 99 I 0I 995 996
Spain 52 7 52 7 985 985 102 0 102 0 02 103 3 103 5 0 I 104 1 104 3
United Kingdom 39 4 4 I 43 5 109 813 920 100 2 100 2 0I 99 3 99 4 00 985 985
Other Europe OECD
Austria 29 5 29 5 69 3 69 3 87 0 870 37 9 61 2 99 I 01 982 983
Czech Republic 556 556 74 8 74 8 81 4 81 4 34 I 65 9 100 0 42 958 100 0
Finland 24 4 24 4 29 9 29 9 34 8 348 56 8 08 57 6 06 990 996
Sweden 48 6 48 6 54 5 54 5 61 2 61 2 92 8 53 98 I 97 4 97 4
Switzerland 5 4 5 4 26 5 26 5 77 7 02 779 70 0 28 7 98 7 26 972 998

Notes Data not available n a Not applicable Magnitude is either negligible or zero
I Net enrolment rates for each age group are calculated by dividing full-time plus part -time enrolments at that age by the total population of that age Most countries do no distinguish full-time from part-time
enrolments in early childhood education all children are considered as full-time in this table
Source OECD Education Database
 mT

Table I 9 Enrolment In upper secondary education, 1975-92

(percentage of upper secondary students enrolled in public and private general and vocational education,2 head counts)

1975 1980 1984 1988 1992

O
Vocational Vocational Vocational Vocational Votional
ca
General General General General General
education and education and education and education and education and
education education education education education
apprenticeship apprenticeship apprenticeship apprenticeship apprenticeship

Pacific Area
Australia 71 6 28 4 75 5 24 5
Japan 3 621 379 680 320 71 1 289 685 281 725 275
New Zealand 972 28 970 30 812 188
European Community
Belgium 545 455 408 592
Denmark° 400 600 370 630 350 650 313 693 438 562
Frances 407 593 416 584 422 578 437 563 459 541
Germany° 192 808 210 790 210 790 203 797 204 796
Ireland 828 172 764 176
Italy 6 270 730 250 750 240 760 317 684 326 674
Netherlands 58 7 41 3 57 9 42 I 47 6 52 4 33 7 66 3 29 9 70 I
Portugal 739 260
Spain5 580 420 590 410 550 450 567 435 586 414
United Kingdoms 640 360 846 154 819 176 424 576
Other Europe OECD
Austria 45 6 54 4 41 4 58 6 39 3 60 7 24 3 75 7 24 0 76 0
Finland 490 510 490 510 490 510 456 545 456 544
Norway 56 4 43 6 50 0 50 0 44 8 55 2 44 1 55 9 40 2 59 8
Sweden 29 0 71 0 29 0 71 0 23 0 77 0 23 2 76 7
Switzerland 667 333 636 364 656 344 231 769 268 732
Turkey 560 440 600 400 580 420 582 418 565 435
Note Data not available
le
I Due to the revision of the OECD Education Statistics questionnaire in 1985 there may be ome differences in coverage prior to that date
2 Vocational education Includes vocational, technical and apprenticeship programmes
3 Students enrolled in special training colleges (about 100 000 in the relevant age group) no Included
4 Including part-time education
5 Students enrolled in special education excluded
6 Figures for programmes lasting less than three years not reported
7 Vocational course figures are inflated by large numbers of adults taking courses at the upper secondary level
Source OECD Education Database
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Table 110 Transition characteristics from secondary to tertiary education, 1994

(net enrolment rates i by single year of age, 17-24-year-olds, head counts2)
Age
ISCED 3
17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

North America
Canada 3 706 401 162 146
5 49 141 197 207 236 247 108 12 1

6/7 11 9 22 7 29 0 27 4 25 9 22 0 16 3 1 I 7

United States 3 813 260 70 13 06 03 01 04

5 1 2 144 175 12 1 104 77 65 68
6/7 1 7 20 5 20 8 21 4 22 5 19 9 15 6 II 8
Pacific Area
Australia 3 723 291 173 139 80 63 56 51
5 29 96 99 86 70 59 54 49
6/7 126 230 233 203 161 114 86 72
New Zealand 3 756 307 138 86 51 40 33 29
5 16 62 82 77 63 49 40 33
6/7 15 199 264 265 223 156 105 76
European Community
Belgium 3 978 535 292 168 68 55 47 47
5 02 122 206 235 187 122 71 44
6/7 06 189 203 184 168 138 94 59
Denmark 3 708 61 5 434 272 168 105 68 44
5 00 00 07 20 30 36 33 29
6/7 00 02 34 102 163 194 204 194
France 3 85 8 59 1 34 0 14 7 48 1 7 0 4 0 2
5 02 45 105 131 109 63 29 13
6/7 20 186 240 257 244 212 162 108
Germany 3 799 804 572 314 159 212 21 08
5 08 18 26 29 24 18 17 17
6/7 00 1 0 5 5 11 7 15 3 15 5 167 158
Ireland 3 743 603 109 39
5 x x x x x x x x
6/7 74 327 367 319 215 132 79 54
Netherlands 3 70 9 62 5 43 9 29 7 17 6 10 7 70 5 3
5 x x x x x x x x
6/7 2 0 12 2 21 5 26 3 27 1 24 7 21 1 16 1

Spain 3 740 431 258 200 130 86 44 32

5 00 04 05 10 02 01 01 01
6/7 00 192 255 299 268 247 189 149
United Kingdom 3 717 31 3 153 97 79 73 65 6I
5 03 38 57 49 35 27 21 19
6/7 1 3 169 221 213 160 94 60 46
Other Europe OECD
Austria 3 85 7 55 2 21 3 7 8 4 I 1 2 1 0
5
6/7 00 53 120 147 151 145 139 125
Czech Republic 3 625 249 36 09 04 00 00 00
5 00 36 58 50 64 52 14 00
6/7 00 76 138 125 119 120 87 39
Finland 3 896 800 237 174 161 135 90 61
5 05 17 40 70 93 94 84 62
6/7 00 05 93 157 206 229 218 203
Norway 3 90 4 82 1 35 1 20 2 14 1 10 5 7 3 5 3
5 00 03 87 11 5 102 86 68 53
6/7 00 02 64 122 172 198 195 170
Sweden 3 956 824 228 106 87 83 78 67
5 x x x x x x x x
6/7 00 08 11 7 178 182 185 164 143
Switzerland 3 766 738 51 5 226 89 48 31 22
5 02 05 13 30 46 58 64 58
6/7 00 05 29 71 97 101 93 81
Notes Data not available x Data included in another category
I Net enrolments rates for each year of age are calculated by dividing full-time plus part-time enrolments at that age by the total population at that age
2 Public and private institutions
3 For the definitions of the education levels (ISCED) see Annex Table A 10
Source OECD Education Database

79 I
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Table I II Sweden: average number of training days per employee receiving training, 1986-941
Age group 1986 1987 1989 1990 1992 1993 1994

16-24 68 68 88 83 53 69 61
25-34 73 64 81 88 66 67 73
35-44 61 57 62 73 73 69 68
45-54 52 48 69 69 53 58 67
55-64 45 42 45 41 44 47 55
Total 62 57 ,69 73 62 63 67
1 Refers to a six-month reference period
Source Statistics Sweden Personalutbildmngsregzstret

I 80
 Table 1 1 2 Public education expenditure as a percentage of gross domestic product, 1970-92

1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981

North America
Canada 102 99 91 87 84 5 83 86 80 77 77 76
Mexico 24 26 29 30 33 9 43 47 48 50 46 50
United States 60 60 57 55 55 7 56 53 50 49 49 48
Pacific Area
Australia 46 47 50 54 64 2 61 62 59 58 56 57
Japan 50 51 50 49 54 3 53 54 57 56 59 55
New Zealand 57 58 59 5 60 64 64 62 67 61
European Community
Belgium 57 62 9 58 61 60 60 57 57
France 55 6 55 54 53 52 51 55
Germany IFTFR) I 37 42 44 45 49 I 49 47 46 46 48 48
Greece 28 27 29 28 34 4 34 37 38 35 32 34
Ireland 62 63 64 65 73 5 66 65 66 66 64 66
Italy 50 51 51 48 8 50 49 45 47 45 46
Netherlands 75 75 74 73 71 4 72 71 71 70 71 72
Portugal 18 20 3 36 40 35 34 37 39
Spain
United Kingdom 62 63 65 63 69 8 64 60 58 57 57 56
Other Europe OECD
Austria 2 46 48 50 50 52 7 57 55 57 56 55 59
Czech Republic
Finland 65 59 58 59
Norway 62 64 60 64 62 64 63 60 58 58
Sweden 79 80 79 76 73 71 72 77 80 86 85 80
Switzerland 39 42 44 47 50 53 55 54 53 52 52 51

LO
 Table I 12 Public education expenditure as a percentage of gross domestic product, 1970-92 (cont )

1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 19923

North America
Canada 78 75 72 69 70 69 68 I 62 62 67 72
Mexico 50 36 39 38 35 33 33 36 40 45 49
United States 49 48 46 46 48 48 I 49 50 52 55 54
Pacific Area
Australia 57 56 54 54 53 51 I 55 46 46 50 53
Japan 53 51 49 47 47 45 44 37 36 37 36
New Zealand 56 49 47 51 58 59 61 65
European Community
Belgium 57 56 55 56 55 53 50 57 53 54 60
France 56 57 57 57 57 56 55 51 51 54 55
Germany (FTFRI I 47 48 46 46 45 44 43 42 41 41 41
Greece 36 36 38 40 38 38 34
Ireland 61 63 60 60 63 62 I 54 51 50 52 55
Italy 47 48 51 50 50 I
48 49 50 52 51
Netherlands 72 70 66 66 67 69 I 61 57 57 56 I 56
Portugal 40 41 40 40 43 41 42 40 43 55
Spain 31 34 34 36 36 37 39 42 44 45 46
United Kingdom 55 52 52 49 49 48 I 48 48 49 53 52
Other Europe OECD
Austria? 61 60 58 58 60 59 56 55 54 56 58
Czech Republic 4 I 4 2 44 4 8
Finland 58 58 55 57 57 58 57 I 57 60 61 I 83
Norway 60 60 58 56 55 56 57 I 70 68
Sweden 78 74 72 70 70 69 65 I 54 56 65 I 77
Switzerland 52 53 52 51 51 50 51 50 52 55 57
Notes Data not available Vertical lines denote break in series
I From 1974 onwards, an increased coverage of financial statistics Since 1983, including university research Since 1991, including East-Berlin The figure for 1992 is an estimate
2 From 1970-75 including private education" data have not been allocated separately over this period
3 Possible inconsistencies may arise with earlier years, because of changed definitions in the data collection
Sources OECD (1992c1, Table 2 3, p 84, and OECD Education Database
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Table I I3 Educational expenditure by initial source of funds,' 11985-922

(as a percentage of gross domestic product)

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992

North America
Canada Private 06 06 07 06 07 07 07 07
Total 70 69 72 70 69 69 74 79
United States Private I 4 I 5 I B
Total 66 70 72
Pacific Area
Australia Private 08 07
Total 5 5 62

lapan Private I 2 I I I 3 I I

Total 49 47 50 48
European Community
Denmark Private - - 05
Total 69 65 62 64 64 63 61 82
France Private 06 06 06 08
Total 57 58 60 63
Germany (FTFR) Private I 5
Total 5 5

Ireland 04
59
Netherlands Private 02 03 03 03 03 03 04 06
Total 64 65 68 65 61 60 58 61
Spain Private I 3 13 12 I I I I I I I I I 2
Total 49 49 49 50 53 55 56 50
Other Europe - OECD
Finland Private 04 05 05 04 05 05 06 02
Total 62 63 63 62 62 65 66 85
Sweden Private - -
Total 60 59 57 54 56 65 78
Notes Data not available Magnitude is either negligible or zero
1 The distinction between education funds originating in the public and pnvate sectors is based on the initial source of funds and does not reflect
subsequent transfers between the public and private sectors The expenditure shown under private payments consist mainly of tuition and other lees
paid to educational institutions by students or households but exclude public subsidies to households and other private entitles The expenditure shown
under "total expenditure from public and private sources combined reflect direct government expenditure for public and private institutions and payments
of households and other private entities to educational institutions Public subsidies have been netted out where necessary to avoid double counting
2 Possible inconsistencies may arise with earlier years, because reporting practices changed in 1992
Source OECD Education Database

83
 IJFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Table I 14 Direct public education expenditure, 1985-92 1

(as a percentage of total public expenditure)

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 19922

North America
Canada 13 7 13 4 14 1 14 1 14 1 13 6 13 8 14 0
Mexico 128 122 130 139 152 157 182 203
United States 13 1 13 2 13 4 13 6 14 0 14 3 14 7 14 2

Pacific Area
Australia 155 149 143 149 127 122 125 13 1

Japan 12 5 12 0 II 7 II 6 11 3 11 4 11 3

European Community
Belgium 103 101 98 97 103 95 95 105
Denmark 1 6 I I I 7 108 107 106 106 104 125
France 10 3 10 3 10 6 10 6
Germany 1F7PRI 96 95 94 91 80 85
Ireland 11 2 118 115 126 122 124 137
Italy 91 94 96 96 98 96 95
Netherlands 102 104 104 102 100 99 98 95
Portugal 87 93 103 105
Spain 86 87 91 97 100 101 100 104
United Kingdom II 1 108 I I 1 II 4 11 6 11 9 11 6 11 9
Other Europe OECD
Austria 77 78 77 75 74 75 75 74
Czech Republic 8 I 83 82 8 1 8 1 8 1 87 10 3
Finland 129 126 126 127 132 129 147 139
Norway 132 130 13 1 124 128 12 1 140
Sweden 94 96 97 90 93 104 117
Switzerland 150 152 15 1 151 152 154 155 152

Note Data not available

I Direct public expenditure for educational services include both the amounts spent directly by governments to acquire educational resources and the
amounts provided by governments to public and private institutions The latter include expenditure such as scholarships and other financial aid to
students plus certain subsidies to other private entities
2 Possible inconsistencies may arise with earlier years because reporting practices changed in 1992
Sources OECD Education Database, OECD National Accounts Database

I 84
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Table I 15 Unemployment rate by level of education for persons 24 to 64 years, various years I

Level of education

Lower secondary or less Upper secondary Tertiary All levels

North America
Canada 1981 78 52 35 57
1989 100 68 43 67
1992 152 97 76 100
United States 1981 10 1 65 3 2 5 8
1989 89 46 26 44
1992 135 72 32 66
Pacific Area
Australia 1989 7 3 4 2 4 3 5 4
1991 91 60 57 71
1993 II 2 89 50 88
New Zealand 1981 2 8 1 9 I 5 2 3
1990 81 49 44 60
1992 1 1 2 75 42 81
European Community
Belgium 1989 1 1 I 4 7 2 4 7 5
1992 130 47 22 78
Denmark 1981 83 57 27 63
1988 12 I 71 36 83
1992 156 91 51 106
France 1981 6 7 4 7 3 2 5 6
1989 11 0 66 3 2 8 I

1992 12 1 74 45 88
Germany 1989 137 68 42 73
1992 89 64 41 62
Ireland 1989 209 66 32 138
1992 198 93 45 136
Italy 1989 64 77 48 66
1992 73 82 60 74
Netherlands 1990 9 7 48 4 7 66
1992 80 44 50
Portugal 1989 4 0 4 7 4 7 4 1

1991 53 45 18 49
Spain 1981 86 78 45 82
1989 133 131 107 129
1992 160 14 1 105 147
United Kingdom 1984 II 4 76 38 85
1989 98 58 26 65
1992 123 83 35 84
Other Europe OECD
Finland 1982 49 35 00 37
1989 40 30 14 30
1992 149 12 I 44 114
Norway 1981 2 1 I I 0 7 1 3
1989 63 37 16 37
1992 71 49 23 45
Sweden 1981 27 17 06 20
1989 1 4 I I 0 9 1 1

1992 46 43 21 38
Note Data not available
I Consult explanations given in Chart 139
Source See Annex Table A 10

85 I
 TOWARDS LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL:
AIMS, BARRIERS, STRATEGIES

A. INTRODUCTION must establish the framework conditions for making it

a reality for all Strategies for achieving these condi-
Chapter I described broad demographic, techno-
tions will be a major preoccupation of countries for
logical, economic, social and cultural trends, as well
the foreseeable future No single strategy will suffice,
as major developments in education and training
given the differences among countries and regions
There is a reciprocal relationship between societal
and the complexity of the work to be undertaken
change and developments in education and training
Strategies are needed to gain general acceptance of
Change opens up new opportunities for education
the basic principle, that a lifelong learning framework
and training, but it also poses new challenges, they
is useful in addressing three fundamental objectives
are summarised in the increased importance of the
shared by all Member countries
human factor in underwriting social and economic
progress, and wider participation in an increasingly personal development by focusing on and
globalised world exploiting the active learning potential of the
individual, lifelong learning strategies place
Another way to review the opportunities and
the individual at centre stage, the quality and
challenges for education and training is to underline
relevance of provisions are tailored to inter-
the importance of increasing diversity of settings in
ests and needs, by giving individuals greater
which learning takes place as well as in the diversity
choice and opportunity for initiative,
of demand for learning opportunities tailored to indi-
vidual interests, aspirations and needs Current edu- social cohesion by emphasising that lifelong
cation and training systems have neither exploited learning has until now remained the privilege
the opportunities, for example those offered by new of the few, and that halting and reversing
technologies, nor fully met the challenges As agreed social polarisation requires that systematic
by Education Ministers in 1990, piecemeal changes to opportunities be extended to all, the frame-
the systems are not sufficient, broader, system-wide work offers a rallying point for strengthening
reforms are called for (OECD, 1992d) "Lifelong learn- the democratic foundations of OECD
ing" constitutes a framework for coherent reform societies,
planning This is the message given in the OECD lobs in) economic growth by improving the condi-
Study (OECD, 1994d) The same message was tions, equity and efficiency of investment in
repeated at the informal Forum of Ministers in Sep- skills formation, the framework is fundamen-
tember 1994, and reinforced by the Ministerial Coun- tal to improving flexibility, raising productiv-
cil in May 1995 ity and promoting economic growth and lobs
"Lifelong learning" defines a broad set of aims creation Against the above, the question is
and strategies around the central tenet that learning not whether OECD countries can pay the
opportunities available over the whole life-span and price for lifelong learning, but whether they
accessible on a widespread basis should be key can afford not to
attributes of modern societies To add the demanding These issues determine the coverage of this
qualification that this must be "for all" is to stress chapter Firstly, in Section B, It elaborates why "life-
that for lifelong learning to be limited to a privileged long learning for all" is now such a central ambition
group is to create unacceptable divisions in society for OECD countries, showing that it contributes to an
that could well threaten social cohesion array of goals rather than a single aim This section
At the dawn of the 21st century, the need for also traces how the concept has evolved Different
lifelong learning is pressing OECD countries now proposals for recurrent and lifelong education have 87
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

been advanced since the 1960s (Faure et al, 1972, were among the original principles of recurrent
OECD, 1973) Although successes were booked on education
certain fronts, the proposals did not go all the way to Promoting complementarity between school
successful implementation As a prelude to the dis- and adult education Qualifications should not
cussion of the present-day policy context, Section C be seen as the "end result" but as steps in a
reviews the main barriers that have stood in the way process of personal development and growth
of successful implementation in the past Section D throughout life
describes the elements and broad outlines of strate-
Modifying the upper secondary curriculum so
gies through which lifelong learning is to be realised
that the final grades of secondary schooling
These broad guidelines for policy are the subject of
offer the students a real choice between fur-
the more detailed analyses advanced in Chapters 3
ther study and work
to 8
Introducing compensatory education at the
primary and secondary levels
Increasing the participation of adults in terti-
B. FROM RECURRENT EDUCATION
ary education, by recognising the value of work
TO LIFELONG LEARNING
experience and "opening up" the universities
There has long been an awareness of the impor- Extending the provision of formal adult educa-
tance of lifelong learning for a whole set of objectives tion to a wider audience
personal, economic, social and cultural at the core Abolishing "terminal stages" in the formal
of the dynamism and prosperity of Member countries education system so that all programmes lead
Earlier discussions. including those around the OECD on to other programmes
concept of "recurrent education", have stated that Alternating formal education and work at the
case in powerful terms Nevertheless, long-standing upper secondary and tertiary levels
barriers and new problems meant that those earlier
Alternating work and education careers in an
concepts were rarely realised in full, and in some
quarters there remained scepticism that the radical
intermittent way, which necessitates paid
study leave, maternity leave and general
reforms being called for were either necessary or fea-
income maintenance during periods of "signif-
sible Developments since have shown that the earlier
icant non-work"
case was indeed justified, and many of the original
arguments and propositions remain as pertinent as Many of the above principles of recurrent educa-
ever That Ministers of Education now discuss "Real- tion still apply today This is not surprising, given that
ising Lifelong Learning for All" demonstrates as recurrent education was advocated as a strategy for
much achieving lifelong learning, which was seen as the
longer-term goal But as the description below of
The concept of recurrent education, which what we now mean with lifelong learning will show,
emerged in the late 1960s, was defined by the OECD there are some important differences between the
(1973) as follows "Recurrent education list a compre- strategies advocated in the early 1970s and those that
hensive educational strategy for all post-compulsory appear appropriate today These differences are less
or post-basic education, the essential characteristic conceptual than contextual, they derive not from a
of which is the distribution of education over the total new understanding of education or learning, but from
life-span of the individual in a recurring way. I e in major changes in wider economic and social contexts
alternation with other activities, principally with work, in which education policies are shaped and
but also with leisure and retirement" (p 16) The goal implemented
was the modification of the entire education system
so that access would be made available throughout
the lifetime of individuals It was seen as desirable Changing contexts and conditions
that access to post-compulsory education should be for policy-making
guaranteed to all individuals at appropriate times Recurrent education emphasised the correspon-
over the life-cycle, that it should be possible to alter- dence between formal education and work, and
nate formal education and work in an intermittent implied some instances of interruption in the lifelong
way, and that each adult should have a legislated process of education It also considered that educa-
188 right to study leave (Bengtsson, 1985) The following tional opportunities should be spread out over the
 IJFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

entire life-cycle, as an alternative to the lengthening icies and practices Above all, the long debate around
of formal schooling early in life In contrast, today's recurrent education helped to bring about greater
notions of lifelong learning pay less regard to the role awareness among educationists as well as other
of formal institutions and more to non-formal and stakeholders of the inter-relatedness of their con-
informal learning in a variety of settings at home, at cerns and the need for concerted action" (p 115)
work and in the community Another major difference
concerns the role of government Partly because it The meaning of lifelong learning today
emphasised formal education, the recurrent educa-
tion strategy assigned a large role for government in The meaning of lifelong learning is still open to
organising, managing and financing the system The selective interpretation, it depends, to a degree, on
past years have seen a partial retreat from this princi- the political and philosophical allegiances of the
ple, and partnership and shared responsibility have beholder Yet there exists a core of common elements
become the norm This shift is reflected in recent in most interpretations (Sutton, 1994, Titmus, 1994,
policies to strengthen the development of continuing Tullman, 1994) These include, firstly, a strong belief
vocational training, especially on-the-lob training, in the intrinsic as opposed to instrumental value of
rather than expanding formal adult education in insti- education and learning Secondly, there is a common
tutions fully or partly financed from the public desire for universal access to learning opportunities,
budget The notion that work ought to be alternated regardless of age, sex or employment status A third
on a sporadic basis with formal education has been common denominator is the recognition of the
replaced by strategies to promote learning while importance of non-formal learning in diverse settings
working and working while learning Another differ- not confined to those of educational institutions
ence is that full retention in broad-based secondary Fourthly, most observers agree that what distin-
education until at least 17 or 18, and even the expan- guishes lifelong learning from more conventional
sion of tertiary education, are no longer considered approaches is the diversity in means and methods of
problematic in certain countries, achieving a full cycle teaching and learning Another common element is
of secondary education for all has, as argued below, the promotion in learners of the personal characteris-
become one of the cornerstones of strategies for real- tics required for subsequent learning, including the
motivation and capacity to engage in self-managed,
ising lifelong learning for all Increased reliance on
the responsibilities of employers and individual independent learning Fi IS the lifelong learning
learners is also reflected in the reluctance of many concept is advanced as a critique of, and an alterna-
countries to legislate and implement arrangements tive to, conventional, "front-end" educational
for paid study leave Concomitantly with the rising philosophies
emphasis on accountability, choice and even, in cer- Lifelong learning is now understood to mean the
tain OECD countries, "markets for learning" (OECD, continuation of conscious learning throughout the
I996a, see also Chapter 5), the concept of "social life-span, as opposed to the idea that education stops
demand", which was central in the recurrent educa- at 16, 18 or 21 This understanding involves two
tion philosophy, appears to have been replaced with aspects (OECD, 1991b) Firstly, it encapsulates the
"individual demand" as key to the provision of adult blueprint of recurrent education but in an adapted
education, training and learning more generally As form the opportunity to return repeatedly to formal
will be seen, this move has implications for equity, educational institutions and non-formal learning that
efficiency and flexibility is in some way conscious, planned and systematic
In reviewing the changing educational policy Secondly, it implies recognition by individuals,
contexts in OECD countries since the 1960s, Papado- employers and governments of points where there is
poulos (1994) refers to the "double challenge" posed a social and/or economic need to update knowledge

by recurrent education vertically, to the established and skills This second aspect is distinguished from
patterns of progress through education, and horizon- the first because it does not lust see lifelong learning
tally, to education's place in broader social policy He as a right to be exercised, but as a necessary require-
concludes "Few governments, even if they were will- ment of participation
ing to accept this double challenge, had the machin- "Learning" is not associated only with formal
ery to confront it effectively Yet it must not be education and training People learn not only in
assumed that the effort had been wasted Many of the classrooms, but informally at work, by talking to
elements of the recurrent education strategy in fact others, by watching television and playing games, and
gradually found their way into national education pol- through virtually every other form of human activity 89
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Although few would deny that valid learning does education and training The new approaches clearly
take place in such ways, it is difficult to analyse non- carry considerable implications for the changed role
formal learning with any rigour That is why the dis- of governments and the expanded type and number
cussion on lifelong learning still tends to concentrate of roles that can be played by other stakeholders
on activities where "learning" is organised, struc- Because of its fluid. dynamic, and cover-all character,
tured, conscious, and in some way "measurable" "lifelong learning" does not lend itself readily. partic-
"Learning as consumption" is an imperfect term ularly as regards orientation and programming, to the
to describe learning activities that contribute directly imposition of precisely specified government norms,
to the quality of life rather than aiming mainly to controls and regulations, nor to the specification of a
enhance economic potential The essential difference set of organisational, administrative, methodological
between learning as consumption and learning as and procedural criteria by which its progress and suc-
investment is the time perspective If the education cess may be measured
activity is being undertaken with a view to immediate
satisfaction, then learning is a consumptive activity rrive arguments for lifelong learning
If the learning activity is undertaken with the aim of
As described above, the concept of lifelong
increasing utility or satisfaction in the future, then the
learning is broad and inclusive Five sets of argu-
investment motive determines the choice for educa-
ments in favour of the lifelong learning approach can
tion There are two main problems with making crude
be distilled from the foregoing In distinguishing
distinctions between learning for investment and for
these, it is important to note that not all these expec-
consumption The first is that many learners have
tations regarding lifelong learning will be met in
mixed motives Even learning that takes place at work
equal measure, precise results will depend on the
can have strong socially related motives, while learn-
concrete shape that is given to it in the different
ing associate with "leisure" activities can accomplish
countries and communities for, as observed at the
confidence-building that will serve well in the work-
outset, there is no single path to its realisation Ten-
place The second is that learning can be used for a
sions may exist between the different aims and ambi-
multiplicity of purposes, regardless of the main
tions for instance. to what degree are broad learning
motives behind it
strategies geared to raising and maintaining employ-
The development of learning over the whole life- ment-relevant skills consistent or in competition with
cycle with initial education as an introduction and those for social cohesion or cultural renewal') The
pre-school learning as a prelude has important possible tensions that arise need to be addressed
implications for the school curriculum in terms of and resolved if lifelong learning is to be realised
developing long-term self-sustaining study skills and for all
habits It also presents personal and policy choices There is the "learning economy" argument,
about when learning should take place, raising the
which recognises the extent to which OECD econo-
possibility of re-allocation of resources and poten- mies and societies have moved towards a depen-
tially a deferral of some of the learning traditionally dence on the creation and manipulation of knowl-
associated with full-time initial education
edge, information and ideas This case is central to
A further essential element of an understanding the recent OECD-wide formulations of the necessity
of the concept involves lifelong learning as an atti- for lifelong learning referred to above, including the
tude, both of individuals and societies Although such OECD lobs Study (OECD. I 995e) Since these defining
things as the willingness to learn from experience features of the knowledge and information-intensive
may seem like a psychological matter with little direct society affect everyone, the learning involved is for
policy relevance, it can be extended to cover the way those of all ages. not lust the young. mature adults
communities, employers and whole societies operate, are lust as much part of it as are children and youth
and in this sense is relevant for the macroeconomic There is a warning inherent in this argument those
and structural policy changes being planned and countries and regions that do not follow its logic to
experienced by OECD societies create learning societies, and those individuals who
Current approaches to lifelong learning differ do not participate in them, are increasingly disadvan-
from those put forward previously in that they now taged and left behind There are thus international.
stress the importance of various kinds of partnership equity, and inter-generational outcomes at issue
in learning, rather than concentrating chiefly on the ri The "speed of change" argument is closely
190 role of governments as monopoly providers of formal related, but focuses especially on the ubiquity of
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

rapid technological change and of growth in knowl- cycle arrangements in which education and training
edge and information In the future, such change and constitute an important part
growth is unlikely to reverse and slow down, so that
rdl- There is the "active policies" argument for life-
the ramifications of rapid change will in all likelihood
long learning, which picks up and extends the theme
become still more pertinent as time goes by These
current in much economic and social policy that an
ramifications are economic, social and cultural, underlying broad aim should be to move away from
although economic arguments tend to dominate essentially passive approaches based on transfer pay-
many policy agendas They all point to the need not
ments especially in response to unemployment
only for there to be excellent and widespread learning towards active policies that contribute directly to the
opportunities (consistent with the "learning econ- formation of human capital and to the psychological
omy" case), but also for knowledge and skills to be and social well-being of individuals As regards edu-
constantly renewed Partly, this is a matter of "keep- cation and training specifically, policies permitting
ing up" with change But is also about securing access to high-quality and relevant learning opportu-
human capacity for flexibility and coping with change, nities represent prime examples of active approaches
and maintaining cultural coherence and quality in the However, those education and training programmes
face of knowledge and information "overload" As the representing little more than the passive operation of
report on OECD Societies in Transition The Future of holding or "parking" mechanisms offering partici-
Work and Leisure (OECD, 1994e) underlines, however, pants a place but few prospects of active learning
a full perspective is needed that incorporates the cannot themselves rightly be counted as "active" In
whole range of social and cultural concerns, not only other words, education and training programmes
the skills dimension This case for lifelong learning especially for those who are unemployed, seeking to
contains an implicit warning about the risks for enter the labour market or otherwise disadvantaged
countries, enterprises and individuals of being "left- should not automatically be assumed to be prefera-
behind" ble to transfer policies aimed at income maintenance,
r The "life-cycle redistribution" argument is more unless there is a genuine learning component that
confers knowledge, skills and qualifications, and
speculative and open-ended, but may be lust as tell-
ing in the long term as those mentioned above As improves life and career chances Meeting the more
economic and labour market activity is increasingly exact conditions implied by the promotion of "activ-
being compressed into the middle period of life, ity" would, however, contribute substantially to the
between a prolonged education at the beginning and well-being of OECD countries
an extended retirement period at the other end, seri- rg This leads, finally, to the "social cohesion" argu-
ous questions arise about the rationality and sus- ment In part, this stems from all the foregoing given
tamability of the pattern, if for no other reason than the importance of the learning foundations and of
the growing expenditure burden on the "shrinking continued learning in knowledge-intensive societies
middle" Might not education and training be strate- characterised by rapid change, those who miss out
gic elements in general policy approaches that seek either initially or later on suffer effective exclu-
to reverse this compression and spread activities sion Further, given the close and cumulative links
more evenly over the life cycle? Instead of promoting between successful learning in childhood and youth,
the increasingly delayed start to working life, there is and the motivation and capacity to continue to learn
a case for re-thinking the life cycle distribution of throughout life, social cohesion is undermined by the
organised learning resources Temporal factors are failure to put firmly in place these virtuous circles of
also at the centre of social issues posed by the com- successful learning The social cohesion argument
bination of ageing societies and limited employment extends also to other broader social, cultural and
openings Life cycle considerations already play some economic fields There are, for instance, the pro-
part in educational arrangements, such as grant and nounced socio-economic inequalities of income and
loan systems, implementing lifelong learning will personal resources which recent OECD analyses have
require that such considerations are further extended shown to have increased in many countries during
The equity dimension is important to this discussion recent years, markedly so in some cases The pros-
Strategies for lifelong learning should thus address pects here, without innovative policy strategies, could
the distribution of opportunities, across generations be bleak indeed as underscored by the report, OECD
and across social strata, they invite new thinking to Societies in Transition The Future of Work and Lei-
devise more integrated, equitable and efficient life sure (OECD, 1994e) Learning is the most necessary 91 1
 IJFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

insurance against exclusion and marginality, educa- attributed exclusively to the presence of hostile learn-
tional activity represents a particularly important ing environments or lack of suitable learning opportu-
source of involvement and participation in light of the nities or lack of individuals' interest and motivation
many pressures now putting social cohesion at risk they arise from combinations of all of them It
serves the purpose of clarifying that a range of policy
Strategies for lifelong learning must be "for all" approaches is relevant to overall strategies for life-
long learning
It follows from all these arguments that strate-
Structural/contextual barriers refer to many of
gies for realising lifelong learning for all are broad,
the factors outlined above as among the most perti-
open-ended and future-oriented They address learn-
nent aspects of the changed context for lifelong learn-
ing in all its forms, they accept neither narrow demar-
ing Thus the socio-economic, labour market, finan-
cations between education and training, academic
cial and political conditions Include some of the most
and vocational programmes, nor restrictions to learn-
ing opportunities in formal structures Yet, it is this
powerful influences on participation in learning The
very breadth and diversity that call for a close exami- nature of people's lives, living conditions, communi-
ties, and sense of security shape not only whether
nation of the balance and direction that should be
taken if lifelong learning is to be more than a chaotic, they will enrol in education or become involved in
unarticulated collection of structures and functions other forms of learning, they help to form what peo-
ple regard as relevant to their lives and what they
The value of spelling out these different ratio-
might expect from active learning These structural/
nales is also that they serve to reinforce the starting
contextual factors influence both the "supply" side of
point that the broad ambition of lifelong learning provision, programmes and opportunities and the
loses its policy impact if it is regarded as an idea that
"demand" side of individual expectations and moti-
is relevant for some individuals but not generalised
vations One problem is that while these are not
across society as a whole The relevance of lifelong
outside the reach of policy, they will often not be the
learning to contemporary societies derives from its
direct province of the education authorities, nor will
being a concept for national and international appli-
their Impact on learning be a direct or exact one They
cation, guiding large-scale strategies The meaning of
may indeed operate at the most general level of the
the different cases for lifelong learning the "learning
values, belief systems, habits and traditions that con-
economy", "speed of change", "life-cycle redistribu-
stitute the very fabric of OECD societies The lack of
tion", "active policies", and "social cohesion" argu-
precision and diffusion of their operation does not
ments stems from their general relevance across
lessen their importance
OECD countries, not to individual persons For this
reason it is valuable to examine the barriers inhib- Institutional barriers refer in essence to the "sup-
iting the generalisation of learning to all parts of the ply" side of the education, training and learning
community, seeing non-participation not as an indi- opportunities in place, rather than the "demand" of
vidual failing but as a result of structured conditions individuals and groups What individuals and groups
affecting individuals in manifold, complex ways perceive as the learning possible and relevant to their
lives is closely shaped by such factors as the pro-
grammes available, their timing and accessibility, the
C. BARRIERS TO THE IMPLEMENTATION
quality and ethos of teachers, trainers and support
OF LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL
staff, the location of institutions, the environment for
A number of major barriers to adult learning non-formal learning to flourish, and so forth Indeed,
have been identified in the research literature and in these "institutional" factors are those most accessi-
OECD's work on adult learning and recurrent educa- ble to reform through educational policy-making,
tion (OECD, 1975, OECD, 1977-81, Levin and Schutze, though in decentralised, pluralistic systems even this
1983, Schutze and (stance, 1987, Kawanobe et al, range of factors will often only be open to influence
1993) Based especially on the framework devised by rather than prescription Examples of institutional
Cross (1981), the distinction can be drawn between barriers include the factors that prevent students
barriers that operate at the structural/contextual from progressing along their routes or that limit
level, those at the institutional level, and individual/ access Inadequate use of new technologies and
dispositional barriers to learning The value of elabo- insufficient and ineffective guidance and counselling
rating these different dimensions is to show that all services that assist people in creating individually rel-
192 of these are in play lack of participation cannot be evant pathways for lifelong learning are other limiting
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

factors Or, most simply, suitable programmes and fields of learning in order to create a valuable
pathways may lust not be in place and relevant foundation of knowledge and
skills This points to the need for guidance and
Indonclual/dispositional barriers comprise the
dispositions, values and attitudes of individuals to counselling services
education and learning more generally They are, of Among teachers, protection of professional
course, closely shaped by the structural and institu- self - interest can stand in the way of the struc-
tional factors outlined above factors which are both tural, organisational and pedagogical changes
more directly shaped by and further removed from at the system, institutional and individual
the influence of education systems and their authori- levels that the realisation of lifelong learning
ties These individual factors, in their turn, shape the entails
play of those structural and institutional forces While Within many of the discrete sectors of educa-
this dimension becomes manifest in the dispositions tion and training systems, as well as the sepa-
and attitudes of individuals, it does not follow that it rate government departments, are the territori-
reflects the purely personal and hence lies outside alism and viewpoints that prevent the
the realm of legitimate policy intervention Personal emergence of the larger, holistic visions
attitudes are very closely shaped by broad cultural implied by lifelong learning
contexts Attitudes to learning are especially sensitive
to the general culture, the respect that this gives to Among employers in many countries, there is
often a marked inconsistency between the
the improvement of knowledge and skills, and the
demands made for the creation of a high-level
extent to which this improvement is regarded as
knowledge and skills base on the one hand,
rightfully "for all", or only for certain sections of
society and willingness to match such demands with
corresponding support for the educational
Valuable though it is to identify these inhibiting enterprise in general and the preparation of
factors and pressures, they are still only a framework, their workforce in particular
not a precise model for action, as in reality these
Among politicians and decision-makers there
different dimensions are all interactive and some are
is too often only a superficial espousal of the
more powerful in certain circumstances than others
grand principles and no real willingness to
They show, however, that policy strategies should be
confront the consequences for action stem-
operating on a number of fronts simultaneously,
ming from that espousal "Lifelong learning" is
rather than on a narrow range of variables They also
one such principle that may well receive rhe-
show the scope for strategies that do attempt to be
torical support but not the corresponding radi-
comprehensive to set in train positive developments
cal agendas for governance and finance
that are mutually reinforcing
Among parents, there are depending on the
system in question examples of efforts to
Addressing the bottlenecks to a systemic culture maximise the comparative advantage of their
of lifelong learning own children's education, and in so doing
The theme of this section is that realising life- ensure that much-needed reforms for the gen-
long learning is not exclusively a matter of creating eral good cannot take place, or that the learn-
and sustaining widespread, high-quality learning ing opportunities available to those who need
opportunities, challenging as this is It is also about them most are either inadequate or not availa-
overcoming the obstacles that inhibit its develop- ble at all
ment In the foregoing, some of the principal condi- In some communities, including those most in
tions and dimensions outlined that act to inhibit need of educational and cultural investment,
both the widespread implementation of lifelong the attitude may prevail that learning is some-
learning and the take-up of opportunities by adults thing for the specialist education and training
Below, the barriers are described in terms of some of bodies with little connection with those in the
the main "publics" who need to be targeted to make community
lifelong learning a reality These are only examples, not meant to typify all
Among individuals, there is often a lack of individuals, teachers, employers and politicians The
insight into what is possible, as well as an "types", however, are sufficiently widespread to illus-
innate conservatism about venturing into new trate the value of addressing target "players" who 93
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

sometimes act as obstacles to lifelong learning There all-embracing concept of lifelong learning and pro-
needs to be a common acceptance of the demanding poses the broad outlines of possible strategies It
nature of "learning societies", a capacity for change, aims to identify the policy directions that might be
some of which will be radical, the high level of considered guidelines that are analysed indepth in
involvement of all groups and communities, and not the subsequent chapters
lust specialist educational bodies, and the victory of
The policy directions and guidelines are aimed at
large visions over narrow viewpoints It is unrealistic
improving equity, coherence, flexibility and efficiency
to imagine that this environment will simply emerge
unaided, except in those countries and settings where of the pathways in lifelong learning and work, by
improving the relevance and quality of the founda-
lifelong learning has taken strongest root
tions and extending it to all, by enhancing articula-
The importance of a strategic vision that tion between the various pathways and system com-
addresses and meets these obstacles is critical Pro- ponents, by renewing the resources and "assets" of
viding that vision may well be a role for education the system, and by improving flexibility and increas-
authorities and their counterparts in labour and ing efficiency through better policy co-ordination,
social affairs departments to undertake, not through new approaches to governance, including new part-
prescriptive plans but through an understanding of nerships, and a reassessment of the priorities and
the bigger picture and consequent information needs means of financing the system
Clearly, there are profound implications for invest-
ment and consumption The goals associated with Building an inclusive learning society will take
lifelong learning are ambitious expanding early major and sustained efforts over the long term Yet,
childhood education, making upper secondary educa- the need for action is urgent, for unless countries are
tion a common experience for all youth, opening up already moving towards lifelong learning now, the
post-secondary education and training, developing likelihood that they will meet these long-term objec-
employer-led pathways from education into the world tives become still more remote Although the policy
of work, pursuing active training policies for the guidelines developed below are consistent with this
unemployed and disadvantaged, further developing long-term vision for the development of education
distance education and general adult education, and systems in OECD countries, the focus is also on
improving the equity and efficiency of provisions in action that must be initiated in the short and medium
the markets for learning and training Realising these term, until the turn of the century "Long-term" does
goals may well call for increased public and/or private not mean "dispensable in the immediate term", it
investments, even if some of the resources could be refers instead to the large scale of the undertaking
freed by efficiency gains or the redistribution of costs and hence the investment of time and resources in
by levels and types of education and training provi- order to see the protect fully through into practice
sion The case for new investment will hardly be con- There is a particular value, given the theme of part-
vincing in the absence of a full elaboration of the nerships, of identifying the strategic contribution
strategy for lifelong learning, including estimates of where each of the main partners has particular
the costs of alternative futures, and a full calculus of responsibilities It is obvious that the education
expected benefits authorities, by no means the only partner in the life-
long learning enterprise, have a central role, it cannot
be realised without the lead and integral involvement
D. TOWARDS STRATEGIES FOR LIFELONG of education and training systems
LEARNING
In considering the scope and content of strate-
The above review of barriers to the implementa- gies for lifelong learning, three questions are perti-
tion of lifelong learning strategies has indicated a nent Firstly, what are the goals and objectives a life-
number of weaknesses and problems, which pose long learning strategy is supposed to serve''
major challenges to policy-makers These problems Secondly, what are the constituencies for lifelong
cannot be appropriately addressed in a piecemeal learning, and what are their respective roles and
fashion, meeting the challenges requires system-wide responsibilities'? And thirdly, what are the require-
reform Lifelong learning provides an appropriate ments in terms of monitoring, assessing and evaluat-
framework for pursuing this system-wide reorienta- ing progress towards achieving the goals'? These
tion of education and training policies This section questions imply directions for strategic analyses
94 examines the overall feasibility of implementing the which are elaborated in the subsequent chapters
 UFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Strategic goals and objectives become a part of the on-going process of

everyday life, as a function of continuing self-
A commitment to lifelong learning will necessi- development and adaptation to new condi-
tate a review of the goals and objectives of education. tions and environments This highlights the
training and learning more generally Although the importance of creating a better framework to
priorities and specific emphases will differ among motivate, facilitate and reward continued
countries, six interrelated sets of goals deserve learning, and in so doing increase the
attention demand for learning opportunities among
i) Enlarging access to high-quality early child- adults Because evidence suggests a strong
hood education Because the first years of bias in participation in favour of those who
life are crucial for continued learning, and already have a good education, there is a role
since disadvantage which is not corrected in for governments in securing fairness, this
the early years can persist, enlarging access must be reflected in strategic policy deci-
to high-quality early intervention pro- sions Because over 20 per cent of adults in
grammes and early childhood education is a some of the most advanced OECD countries
central goal in any strategy for lifelong have literacy skills at only the most basic
learning level (OECD and Statistics Canada, 1995),
adult basic education must feature centrally
Revitalising foundation learning in primary
in any strategy for realising lifelong learning
and secondary schools Providing a solid and
for all
secure basis of learning in primary and sec-
ondary schools will require attentiveness to v) Addressing the lack of coherence in the sys-
both the capacity and motivation to learn In tem A comprehensive system of lifelong
order to sustain motivation and develop abil- learning opportunities implies a fluid rela-
ities, "positive" learning environments are tionship between learning and work, where
needed Such environments should facilitate an initial period of full-time schooling is fol-
the use of individualised teaching and learn- lowed throughout working life by sequences
ing strategies, and employ assessment and and combinations of organised learning at
examination procedures that value and take school and/or at work, which accompany or
account of individual progress in learning A alternate with full- or part-time work Under
rethinking of the curriculum and the very current arrangements, most of the elements
organisation of schools, continued attentive- of the system are in place, but the articula-
ness to students with special needs, the tion between them is far from perfect Uni-
underserved and slow learners, and more versity education exerts a disproportionate
generally a focus on those who are "at risk" influence on the structure of some education
of failure, are further requirements systems, and the pathways that should con-
nect general and vocational education are
iii) Overcoming problems of transition In all
often non-existent or inflexible Priority must
Member countries, young adults, communi- be given to the creation of a framework for
ties and employers are faced with the indi- linking the formal and non-formal elements
vidual, social and economic consequences of of lifelong learning in flexible sets of path-
difficulties in managing the transition from ways and progressions in education and
school to work Building an inclusive learn-
working life, taking account of the differing
ing society requires that the barriers that needs and potential of individuals, and
hinder this transition be removed Appropri- including arrangements for the assessment
ate guidance and counselling services are a of knowledge and skills which recognise the
major element in any strategy for achieving value of all forms of learning Important ele-
this ments of a coherent system are more devel-
iv) Encouraging adult learning Beyond school- oped arrangements for the assessment and
ing and initial tertiary education, the most recognition of acquired skills and competen-
common times for adults to undertake major cies, including well-developed mechanisms
learning projects have been at points of crisis for assessing prior learning and validating
or substantial change in their lives or skills acquired outside the formal sector
careers There is a need for learning to Frameworks of standards for assessment, 9S I
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

recognition and certification of training are ble Certain of these are elaborated in the following
needed to encourage investment in skills and section, focusing on those aspects that are closer to
to facilitate mobility those fields where the education authorities are likely
vi) Renewing the resources and "assets" of the to play a lead or major role
system The goal of creating "positive" learn-
ing environments calls for new capital invest- Means and instruments
ment in buildings and other physical infra-
structures But the "assets" of education The key instruments for implementing a strategy
systems lie only partly in their buildings The for lifelong learning include it the redefinition of the
greater share is in the knowledge and experi- roles and responsibilities of Education Ministries and
ence of teachers and non-teaching staff In their partners, in the appropriate human resources,
many OECD countries these human physical infrastructure and knowledge base to provide
resources are underdeveloped Teachers and high-quality lifelong learning, Int adequate financing
administrators need access to information arrangements to implement an inclusive programme
and research about the structures they are of lifelong learning and to provide sufficient opportu-
working in, at local, national and interna- nities and incentives to the partners in the system
tional levels The continuing professional The insight that lifelong learning is not restricted
development of staff, especially but not to formal education provides a useful starting point
exclusively teachers, must be taken far more for a strategic discussion about roles and responsibil-
seriously However, informed decision- ities A strategic question is how far the responsibility
making cannot take place in the absence of of governments for education should be extended to
an adequate information base Hence there the areas of lifelong learning that lie beyond formal
is a need to strengthen the research and education and training, for example continuing voca-
information base at the national and interna- tional education and learning on the lob Instead of
tional levels extending the role of governments in organising and
In order to give substance and focus to the for-
funding an integral system of lifelong education,
mulation of these goals and objectives, the main pur- extending from pre-school years to old age, policy-
poses of lifelong learning, the "cases" outlined above, makers now tend to opt for a more limited approach,
come to the fore to ask how each the "learning one in which the responsibilities of other interest
economy", "speed of change", "life-cycle redistribu- groups especially the individual and the social part-
tion", "active policies", and "social cohesion" argu- ners are emphasised This approach has been
ments can be implemented on a widespread basis accompanied by a tendency to increase the scope for
The focus of each emphasises the need to seek ways private constituencies to assume more responsibility
in which these broad ambitions are actively devel- for provision
oped across OECD countries as continuous training There is wide agreement that governments need
and retraining on the basis of an advanced founda- to assume a significant role in co-ordinating the pro-
tion of learning, openness to new learning and the vision of lifelong learning for example, it is clear that
ability to manage knowledge "overload", the promo- governments have a role in disseminating informa-
tion of active lives and policies, social inclusion not tion and guidance on the options that are available It
exclusion, "fife-cycle sensitive" perspectives and is the responsibility of governments to establish the
practices that break away from rigid (and inappropri- appropriate framework conditions for lifelong learn-
ate) age compartmentalisation patterns ing, but governments cannot become monopoly prov-
It is also necessary to recognise that practices iders Partnerships are central in any strategy for
and policies that promote one of these may not pro- achieving an inclusive approach to lifelong learning
mote the others in equal measure Hence the inclu- Notions of partnership differ, however, depending on
sion in the goals and objectives listed above of the the levels and sectors of educational provision, part-
need for "visions" that set out the nature and priori- nerships for better schools will be very different from
ties of lifelong learning, bringing in all the relevant partnerships for adult education and training
partners and players Obviously, too, objectives by Strategies for lifelong learning must be financed,
themselves are much easier to identify than to put the success of any strategy stands or falls with its
into practice, for they depend on a range of means success in mobilising and reallocating resources
[ 96 and instruments through which they are made possi- Because of the high costs involved, the financing of
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

mass tertiary education is a real issue for govern- co-ordination among many policy sectors, involving
ments If it is widely acknowledged that education both macroeconomic and structural policies
and training have the characteristics of investment,
These strategic issues, aims and instruments,
little has been done in OECD societies to account
especially as they are pertinent to the particular con-
properly for human capital As a result, countries are
unable to make appropriate investment decisions In
tribution that the education authorities in OECD
OECD (1996a), it is put this way "In the context of a
countries will make to realising lifelong learning, lead
growing body of evidence that investment in human directly into the chapters that follow The next two
capital is playing an even greater role in determining
chapters examine the main issues confronting educa-
the outcome of competition amongst firms ( ) the tion and training systems for which those authorities
question lenses] of the extent to which the systems have substantial responsibility This is done, firstly, in
for information and decision-making regarding the Chapter 3, which examines the foundations laid for
stocks and flows of human capital impede or facilitate lifelong learning through schools and initial educa-
structural adjustment and optimal choices In the tion systems, secondly, in Chapter 4, which addresses
light of today's competitive pressures and pervasive the pathways and transitions that take place between
changes in the realm of production ( ) the need list the worlds of education, learning and work On this
to rethink the rules and traditions that govern human basis, Chapter 5 then looks at the nature of govern-
capital formation and decision-making systems" ance and constituencies that have become so crucial
to educational debate and policy formulation today
From this, the more detailed focus is developed on
E. CONCLUSIONS
the means and instruments through which lifelong
The strategic directions suggested in this chapter learning is to be realised, and the major issues that
do not apply only to the education sector or to gov- are raised in relation to these the role and use of
ernments alone Coherent strategies for lifelong educational goals and standards (Chapter 6), main-
learning must take three framework conditions into taining and renewing key educational resources the
account Firstly, a "system" of lifelong learning can- professionals, buildings and research and develop-
not be imposed, it must depend and thrive on a great ment (Chapter 7), and the ubiquitous questions
variety of initiatives taken by different actors in many raised above, costing and financing lifelong learning
spheres of life and work Secondly, the role of govern- strategies (Chapter 8) Their contribution as back-
ment is not to invent, manage and pay for a unified, ground to the contemporary discussion about taking
comprehensive "system" of lifelong learning, but the lifelong learning project forward to become reality
rather to monitor and steer developments and redis- lies thus both in the cumulative form of analysis
tribute resources so that the available opportunities from the main sectoral and transversal issues to
will be equitable, systematic, flexible and efficient detailed means and instruments and in the compi-
Thirdly, the very nature of lifelong learning diverse, lation of a very detailed body of evidence and experi-
pluralistic, and undertaken over the lifetime calls for ence from across the OECD range of countries

97
 ESTABLISHING THE FOUNDATIONS FOR LIFELONG LEARNING

A. INTRODUCTION change. this report concludes that they should

embrace change while offering essential stability for
This chapter considers the far-reaching implica-
pupils, parents and the wider public While all this
tions for schools of a successful reorientation of pol-
calls for specific policies, it also depends on creating
icy towards lifelong learning Change must be consid-
a general environment that is strongly supportive of
ered and it must be persuasive, reinforcing public
the enterprise of schooling Through the creation of
commitment to early childhood education and inter-
such a "positive" climate, many of the more detailed
vention programmes, and primary and secondary
reforms will be substantially facilitated
education Lifelong learning is not synonymous with
adult education, it begins from the earliest years Section B considers the common values and
Because the first four to five years of life are the principles that underline school curricula in OECD
-
period of most rapid growth critical in the child's countries Issues encountered in defining and select-
cognitive, emotional and social development - ing the content of the core curriculum are reviewed in
enriching the learning environment early on, develop- Section C Section D addresses the question of how
ing a sound foundation for subsequent growth of this common content might best be offered, and in
knowledge, skills and values, and a positive attitude what settings. Section E takes up the issue of individ-
towards learning are the key features of any coherent ual differences in ability, needs and interests. includ-
strategy for continuing growth and development ing the tensions between policy measures to promote
throughout the life cycle, the ultimate goal of lifelong equality and those intended to increase quality and
learning If the early foundations are not properly efficiency in school learning Section F analyses evi-
mastered, it will serve little purpose to develop a dence on the effectiveness of early childhood educa-
learning society that targets adults This chapter aims tion and intervention programmes, and concludes
to identify points of intervention up to, and including. that public attention, resources and effort should
the completion of a full cycle of secondary education focus on the children who most need community sup-
by all students port to help them acquire the foundations for lifelong
The importance of formal schooling for the over- learning and work Section G presents a summary of
all success of lifelong learning calls for a new and the main findings and the strategic considerations for
searching scrutiny of its nature - schools as institu- policy
tions, the processes that govern them, and the "fit"
between these characteristics and processes and the B. CULTURE, VALUES AND PLURALISM
aims they seek to realise In this, It is necessary to IN SCHOOL LEARNING
include the examination of the earliest pre-school
years and how integrated with or distinctive from the Today's multicultural, pluralistic and increasingly
rest of the schooling cycles this phase should be And technocratic societies are faced with fundamental
it is important that the focus is systemic and not lust questions that are at the heart of the debate about
institutional, it should extend beyond the questions values and purposes in school education Given that
of what are good schools and how they can be real- schools are embedded in their local communities,
ised in individual cases, to ask how good schools can which differ a great deal in terms of affluence, cohe-
be put in place in all cases Such is the speed of sion, and social and cultural outlook, what core of
change in so many social, economic and cultural common humanistic values and civic principles, if
domains, as amply illustrated in Chapter I, that such any, shall constitute the guidelines for the curriculum
an examination of the nature of schools should to be taught in the compulsory school? Flow can we
address how far they should also be subject to rapid ensure that these common values and principles 99 I
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

complement or are compatible with those taught at are organised in an individualistically competitive
home and in the community> mode, where a high grade for one student often
means a low grade for a classmate, success for some
The elementary or primary school, with its essen-
means failure for others There are many alternative
tial features of universality and full-time attendance,
ways of motivating students and assessing perform-
developed as an institution for children concomi-
ance, an issue taken up below and explored further in
tantly with the industrial society and was a powerful
instrument in the establishment of the modern Chapter 6
nation-states in the OECD area It was the main In a lifelong learning framework designed to
instrument in establishing a common identity, backed meet the conditions of modern life and serve a more
by a policy of making the populations within the vari- global, post-industrial society, curricula need to be
ous national borders literate in one or two considered differently from the way they were at the
standardised languages Children were taught the his- time when school for most students was not only the
tory of their country, often with a strong nationalistic beginning but also the end of formal education, and
bias Basic skills constituting literacy and numeracy commonly equated with "filling up" for the rest of
were a staple for all, as were a moral code and a life Since there is no way of predicting precisely the
general or "factual" curriculum Notions of "good" changing conditions in work, culture and everyday
conduct or behaviour and a set of facts to be mas- life, it is difficult to foresee what specific elements
tered defined the competence required in the pro- should be part of the foundations for lifelong learn-
gression towards either secondary school or entry ing However, one of the few things that can be pre-
into the workforce dicted with certainty is that the individual in
Traditional primary school systems have had tomorrow's world will be called upon to learn and
clear purposes, goals and expectations, which natu- relearn throughout life There is widespread agree-
rally related to the main characteristics of the socie- ment that everyone should be motivated and have
ties they served Schools have responded to the the capacity to be actively involved in continuing
expectations not only of governments but also of learning processes The implication is that the
religious bodies and other powerful groups (Husen, schools should capture and hold the interest of all
1979) children from an early age and concentrate on teach-
ing those competencies which constitute the ability
In tomorrow's world, schools will continue to to learn systematically, consistently and
play arole in establishing a basis for national iden- enthusiastically
tity But the goals and objectives the schools are
expected to pursue have widened, partly in response Determining the content of the curriculum is a
to internationalisation and resultant changes in cul- major challenge It must be changed from near-
ture, economy and polity (Husen, 1987) Governments encyclopaedic information on disconnected subjects
are challenged to find overall policy frameworks that and items to a source of intellectual instruments and
are unifying, coherent and orderly on the one hand, strategies for learning Paradoxically, in several coun-
and receptive to diversity on the other As in the past, tries, recent years have seen the emphasis in curricu-
literacy, numeracy, a common sense of history and lum work move away from the "cross-curriculum"
cultural identity, concepts of nature, and an under- competencies that this challenge Implies In the
standing and appreciation of the larger society and United Kingdom and the United States, for example,
civic order have to be acquired by all children, so as the trend is towards a tightening of the curriculum
to establish a framework of reference for the citizens and a return to well-defined subjects complemented
of countries and to provide the human resources for by an appropriate system of formal assessment (see
continuing growth However, the school must also also Chapter 6) The "back to basics" movement may
foster critical self-awareness and the capacity to be seen as an attempt to find an anchor of stability in
reflect constructively on experience, and thereby con- an unstable social and economic context Lifelong
tribute to educating independent, critical and respon- learning strategies invite reflection on how to restruc-
sible citizens ready to live comfortably with one ture a curriculum to prepare young people for a life
another and to exercise their duties in democratic with more uncertainties, risk-taking, entrepreneurial
and pluralistic societies that extend across the vari- opportunities, and perhaps periods of unemployment
ous borders of the traditional nation-states More or "significant non-work" Two seemingly opposed
than ever, schools will be called upon to emphasise forces are influencing the development of school cur-
1100 co-operation in learning and in living Today, schools ricula, one that steers "back to basics" and one that
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

concentrates on "cross-curriculum" or "survival" School curricula in OECD countries need to rise

skills, which involve problem-solving and theoretical- to these challenges and indeed to be part of social,
analytical competencies not related to any specific cultural and economic vitalisation, rather than a pale
discipline or subject, information search, decoding reflection or, as it sometimes appears to be, a reac-
and synthesis skills, critical reflexiveness, learning- tionary force School itself needs to be proactive and
how-to-learn, and social competence (Trier and creative There are also the specific issues of plural-
Peschar. 1995) Ultimately, though, the issue is not ism and diversity Pluralism, in terms of the right to
one of "basics" or no basics", but what is meant by hold another opinion and tolerance and respect for
basics for contemporary life and in a lifelong learning other people's values, is already a shared norm
context among OECD countries But the implications of this
In re-examining the school curriculum, countries
for the organisation and operation of schools and the
are faced with the question of how the breadth and
content of learning are not always well understood, or
depth of knowledge should be balanced (OECD, are resisted Attitudes towards ethnic or religious
I993d) Breadth is necessary it is essential to be minorities, and towards immigrants, are a case in
familiar with different subjects and well-articulated point Language policies are another important
fields of human enquiry in order to identify key com- aspect of multi-culturalism and tolerance for diversity
petencies and learning strategies Moreover, breadth in school practice In many countries, schools enrol
in the curriculum is important for capturing students' large numbers of students for whom the language of
interest, for motivating them to enlarge their view of instruction is not their first or even second language
the world But breadth does not and should not pre- School systems must resist pressure to turn what
clude depth The aim of curriculum design and teach- amounts to an advantage into a disadvantage and a
ing is to find ways in which the deeper challenges of barrier to learning and achievement
enquiry can be encompassed within a broad frame- In practical terms, the problem is whether and to
work of forms of knowledge and experience what extent nationally-based syllabuses should be
Schools are expected to impart not only substan- tailored to a "common standard" Given the link
tive knowledge and "applicable" skills, but also the between trade and labour markets, there are practical
core values that are central in a society Such core reasons for harmonising though not standardising
values can develop and change over time, however, as the syllabuses in certain respects, if for no other rea-
is the case of environmental awareness (OECD, 1994o son than to render the skills, competencies and quali-
and 1995x) Chapter I showed how national cultures fications attained in different countries transportable
have been deeply affected by the pluralism and multi- But what about national history and geography, cul-
culturalism accompanying the processes of industri- tural values, and language imperatives' Table 3 I sug-
alisation The question is, to what extent is a core of gests that the European countries generally teach not
shared values which constitute a common frame of one but two foreign languages in lower and upper
reference with regard to socially, culturally, and in secondary education The Netherlands has the high-
some instances religiously anchored norms a neces- est mean number of foreign languages per student,
but allocates relatively few hours to language instruc-
sary prerequisite for consistent foundation learning
for all9 If there is a need, how is such a core best tion In England and Wales, secondary students are
defined" This question is taken up in the next section taught on average one language for between two and
four hours per week
The problem of shared values and consistencies
between the various actors in education has become OECD countries together or in various regional
acute in OECD countries, because of mass media, groupings are faced with adjusting to ongoing inte-
urbanisation, migration, tourism and international gration, mainly economic but in some instances with
communication all of which bring together people substantial cultural and political implications There
of various backgrounds and expose them to different are increased migration. cross-border trade and
values (Husen et al, 1992) The issue will become global communication on the one hand, and on the
even more pronounced in a framework for lifelong other a new wave of ethnic and cultural claims by
learning, because it encourages increased diversity in peoples and minorities residing within national bor-
the supply and demand for learning opportunities, ders, for whom political and cultural self-determina-
and because it calls attention to the need for comple- tion is a cherished goal Will foreign language learn-
mentarity of different agents and their roles in formal ing have to be extended to cover international
1011
and non-formal learning language differences') How the OECD countries pro-
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Table 3 I Foreign language education In the European Community, 1990

Number of hours of instruction per week

Mean number of foreign
First language Second language languages per student in
secondary general education
Age 14/15 Age 17/18 Age 14/15 Age 17/18

Belgium (French community /I 6 6 4 4 4

Belgium (Flemish community'' 6 6 5 6 9
Denmark2 2 3 3 3 4
France' 3 3 3 3 5
Germany' 3 4 6 4 6 3
Greece2 3 3
Ireland? 4 3 3 0
Italy? 4 3 0
Luxembourg' 3 4 55 5
Netherlands2 25 25 2 25 22
Portugal? 3 4 3 08
Spain2 5 4 3 3 3 I 0
United Kingdom° 2 4 2 4 09
Notes Data not available
I Maximum possible number of hours per week
2 Mean number of hours per week
3 Instruction in the Gymnasium
4 Full-time instruction only
5 Refers to the situation before the school reform
6 England and Wales only
Sources Survey conducted by Eurobarometer in December 1990 EUROSTAT (1995) Les chiffres des de education dans l'Union europeenne, Luxembourg
1

pose to cope with this phenomenon will profoundly place or under review frameworks of national goals,
affect the shape and orientation not only of the objectives and guidelines for a core curriculum
school curriculum but the very fabric of future learn- (Skilbeck, 1990) Nations have increasingly demon-
ing societies that depend on formal institutions and strated a capacity to define common goals and pur-
community-based movements What is to be taught" poses for schooling (Knutsen, 1995) They have
On whose authority' To whom and by whom' Plural- created and continue to review curricular frameworks
ism and acknowledgement of the values of diversity and the outlines of core curricula in schools
do not mean abandoning the idea of a common set of (Papadopoulos. 1994) These frameworks and outlines
shared values need to be reappraised and perhaps modified to meet
both the increasing diversity and mobility of popula-
This leads us back to the question raised in the
tions and the principle of basic formal schooling as a
opening paragraph of this section What core of com- foundation for continuing learning instead of an end-
mon values and civic principles, if any, shall consti-
point A further challenge is to modify and strengthen
tute the guidelines for the curriculum to be taught in these frameworks and curricula to acknowledge the
the compulsory schools of individual countries, and ongoing internationalisation process, whereby coun-
perhaps more widely across the OECD area' Govern-
tries become intimately linked economically and new
ments have a role in establishing frameworks in political structures emerge
which these common values and principles comple-
ment or are compatible with those of particular sub- Although the conditions and contexts in coun-
sets of society and with those of home and tries are very different, there are certain shared objec-
community tives for school education that transcend national
boundaries (see Chapter 6) Democracy and respect
The idea of a common core of values and princi- for diversity are two such objectives But the goals
ples underpinning curricula thus emerges both as a and principles underpinning the curriculum may be at
necessity in the modern democratic state and as an odds with one another, and countries can face diffi-
acute challenge to governments attempting to culties in ensuring that the national values espoused
achieve a balance of potentially conflicting and divi- in the curriculum are compatible with those of their
sive interests For schooling, however, there are sey- neighbours, or even those of the cultural and linguis-
1102 eral clear implications First, most systems have in tic minorities residing within their borders As the
 IJFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

OECD Member countries press forward in creating an The position of these leading executives is in
interconnected, post-industrial world, the differences striking contrast to that often taken by other repre-
- if not the tensions - over what constitutes accepted sentatives from the world of work, who do not focus
values may increase New opportunities are, of on a perceived lack of orientation in history, lan-
course, in the offing as well The legacy of universal guages and the natural and social sciences, but criti-
basic schooling is there to build on, but the struc- cise school-leavers' competence in arithmetic, writ-
tures need to be more comprehensive in acknowl- ing, communication and analytical skills
edgement of an increasingly globalised environment - competencies which are seen by many to be at the
heart of the school curriculum
C. WHAT FOUNDATIONS FOR LIFELONG What kind of competencies and skills are called
LEARNING? for in a society that tries to enhance the capacity for
learning and relearning throughout life" Clearly, these
There is a consensus that all children must
competencies must reflect the multidimensional
master a core of essential knowledge and skills, and
nature of the goals for education mentioned previ-
acquire the values and attitudes that prepare them
ously The essential elements constituting a common
effectively for adult life and the worlds of work and
continued learning Some people think that schools foundation might include the following areas of
give too much weight to "academic" subjects, knowledge and experience (OECD, 19941) moral rea-
whereas others feel that the "basics" are being soning and action, mathematical-analytical skills and
neglected Others claim that schools do too little to their applications, scientific ways of mastering and
prepare young people for jobs, and that the voca- applying technological knowledge, information and
tional orientation of programmes as well as the rela- communication science, cultural, civic and economic
tions with employers must be strengthened In the studies, arts, health, and the environment Core
perspective of lifelong learning, what sort of founda- learning processes might include learning and think-
tion should all young people acquire" What should ing techniques, ways of organising knowledge, forms
be the basic elements? How do these differ from the of expression and interpersonal and social relations
elements schools have traditionally sought to impart'? Some of these areas refer to the "cross-curriculum
Are these differences sufficiently important to competencies" (Trier and Peschar, 1995) seen by
demand a complete overhaul of current curricula and many to hold increasing significance problem-
the methods of teaching and learning.' Finally, what solving, critical thinking, communication, democratic
are the implications for children with special learning values, understanding of political processes, self-
needs" perception, and self-confidence
Few empirical studies have been conducted with "Cross-curriculum" skills are not normally identi-
the aim of identifying the skills that constitute a com- fied in the syllabus, which still tends to be organised
mon core of competence in a learning society This is around discrete subject areas Table 3 2 shows teach-
not surprising, since there is still a great deal of
ing time per subject specified in the curriculum as a
debate about what constitutes such a society A
percentage of all teaching time in public lower secon-
recent study - on the broad theme of what European
dary education Many countries devote a substantial
business expects of schooling was conducted under
portion of teaching time to reading, writing and for-
the auspices of the European Round Table of Indus-
eign languages The amount of time devoted to math-
trialists (1995) in co-operation with the Conference of
European University Rectors When questioned about ematics and science is consistent across the coun-
the shape of the school curriculum of the future, lead- tries The data suggest that the teaching of foreign
ing business executives outlined a broad humanistic languages in the Netherlands may reduce time for
educational philosophy. Far from seeking vocationally mathematics and science teaching For all countries,
trained specialists, or wishing to see schools concen- the data give an impression of a full and possibly
trate on a limited set of basic skills, they advocated a "overloaded" curriculum How, in such a context, can
modern liberal education, structured around three room be created for new subjects and new curricular
key learning areas mathematics, science and technol- emphases" Cross-curriculum skills will need to be
ogy, the humanities, economics and social sciences, accommodated within the time devoted to existing
as forming the basic chain extending from pre-school subjects arrangements that will represent a major
1031
to adult education challenge to teachers
a
Table 3 2 Teaching time per subject specified in the intended curriculum In lower secondary education, 19921
(percentage of total teaching time)

Reading Social Foreign Physical Vocational

Mathematics Soences3 Technol ogy Arts Religion Other
and writing? studies° languages education skills

Pacific Area
New Zealand 20 6 9 9 7 1 I 7 12 6 3
European Community
Belgium 15 3 6 I 13 2 5 8 6 23
France 18 4 10 3 17 8 7 II I
Germany (MTh 13 2 II I 18 9 9 6 3 9
Ireland 19 0 8 6 12 6 12 4 5 10
Italy 22 0 10 4 10 10 13 7 3
Netherlands 16 8 9 4 26 10 II 2 2 I
Portugal II 3 14 6 17 14 6 6 3
Spain 20 3 10 0 13 6 12 10 6
Other Europe OECD
Austria 14 2 13 I II 6 II II 6 2 3
Finland 12 2 12 2 9 6 9 4 24
Norway 16 2 9 0 10 9 9 7 19
Sweden 10 2 13 7 9 2 7 9 21
Turkey 20 3 13 I 10 9 7 7 7 3
Country mean 16 12 II 13 13 6 9 9 5 2 10
Notes Data not available
I Refers to the percentage of the total available teaching time per subject category in public lower secondary education Teaching time is expressed as a number of lessons of standard duration
2 Refers to mother tongue instruction
3 Includes physics, chemistry biology and earth science
4 Geography philosophy and history
Source OECD (1995d1, Education at a Glance OECD Indicators p 165
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

A crucial element concerns the skills referred to viers and provide adequate career guidance and coun-
in the expression "learning to think, thinking to selling. particularly at the key transition points
learn", used in a CERI (Centre for Educational (Killeen et al. 1992)
Research and Innovation) conference report (Mac lure
It is therefore imperative not to stream the stu-
and Davies, 1991) These skills are not a priority in
dents too early with regard to what are deemed, often
schools where the overriding objective is to impart
prematurely, to be different cognitive abilities Post-
encyclopaedic knowledge In contrast, the position
poning the rigid separation of "academic" and "prac-
receiving much support today is that detailed and
tical" students until after the completion of a com-
factual knowledge in specific areas can be taught
mon foundation programme in lower secondary
and mastery in them achieved as they are needed
education is the best means of securing options open
later on Learning-to-learn skills (Smith, 1994) refer to
to all students At the same time, in the interest of
the ability to find information and to extract the rele-
reducing the discontinuity between school and the
vant from the less relevant, to relate it to previously
acquired knowledge, to contextualise it, and put it to world beyond. "employer-led" and work-based learn-
use again, as needed On the whole, what is ing activities need to be introduced or extended in
required of students is familiarity with the sources of upper secondary education For some students, this
information that can be used, as well as the tech- might provide a break in the routine during their
niques of using them involuntarily lengthy school careers Students taking
pre-university academic programmes can also bene-
Active and experiential learning have been a pri- fit from out-of-school learning The issue of educa-
ority in enlightened approaches to vocational educa- tion-led vocational training versus employer-led
tion in OECD countries The role of general education work-based learning is explored further in the next
in contributing to vocational preparation is now more chapter
widely recognised Vocational education is no longer
viewed as a matter of training students for a set of There are many indications of a convergence
specific competencies for which there is a high between general and vocational education Within
demand on the labour market at any given moment general schooling. there has been a steady introduc-
Today, in compulsory schooling the emphasis is on tion into the vocabulary of such terms as work experi-
broad knowledge and generic competencies, and ence. school-business partnerships, and practical
vocational education is regarded as a part of work- "hands-on" learning experiences Within the voca-
related lifelong learning Separate structures may be tional sector, in countries where it continues to exist
maintained. but there is strong consensus about the as a separate sub-system, there is a growing recogni-
need for a more unified framework, with a clear align- tion of the need for students to acquire not only more
ment of subject content specialised skills that provide links to professions.
but also a broad and theoretically-based knowledge
How can lower secondary schools provide high-
of principles in the natural and social sciences as
quality academic preparation for those who are going
well as social competence, and information search,
on to universities and other tertiary institutions, and
at the same time satisfy the more pragmatic needs of processing and synthesising skills All of this paves
others who are not'> How can the school develop the the way for a unified curriculum, combining the lib-
broad and generic abilities that will allow students to eral and life-preparation traditions of "academic"
acquire the specific skills and competencies that schooling with work-oriented technical and voca-
make them "productive" on a job') tional education For its part, vocational education
will have a much stronger general education compo-
It is now generally agreed that part of the answer nent. as workplaces increasingly demand broad and
to the above question is that the best vocational flexible skills
preparation for tomorrow's uncertain labour market is
a solid and broad general education, on the strength In reaction to the narrowness of "traditional"
of its generic character Another part is that the best vocational qualifications acquired through appren-
general education will incorporate understanding of, ticeship or secondary schooling, a movement to
and wherever possible also experience of, the world broaden vocational education and training support-
of work Such an approach will, however. only work if ing "foundation skills", "core skills" and "key qualifi-
the pathways in initial education and training are cations" gained momentum throughout the 1970s
kept open to all students At present they are not, and and 1980s, and gave rise to concrete innovations in
the curricula of general and vocational programmes I0.5]
a major challenge for most systems is to remove bar-
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

at the secondary level of education It has also fos- Children and youth at risk
tered the view that occupational expertise is not a
What might be the implications of the new per-
major concern of schools and that vocational special-
spectives on curriculum and school organisation for
isation should start at the post-secondary level, if at
special education' Current notions of democratic
all There is widespread agreement today that
entitlement and accompanying concerns for equality
"taylorist" forms of specialisation in secondary edu-
and social justice bring into force the educational
cation do not work However, many analysts also sug-
needs of disadvantaged children or those with severe
gest that labour markets are no longer organised
learning difficulties These concerns pose a major
according to the traditional occupations and profes- challenge to OECD governments committed to the
sional qualifications for which programmes are goal of making lifelong learning a reality for all
intended Consequently, there are voices pointing to (OECD, 19951) Chart 3 I shows that while there are
a need to redefine "professionalism" as a principle some differences between countries, the vast majority
and "professionalisation" as a lifelong process, the of children with special learning needs are enrolled in
new definitions would in turn need to be "translated" mainstream schools This reflects the point that poli-
in terms of learning objectives and conditions at vari- cies across countries now favour the full integration
ous education, working career and life stages of children with special learning needs into main-
In many countries there is a tendency for specific stream schools (OECD. 1995h) There are certain pre-
vocational education to be postponed until a second requisites First. all children must have access to the
phase of upper secondary or even post-secondary
curriculum, which implies a need to modify buildings
and equipment and to reconsider certain modes of
stages of education Even though vocational prepara-
tion in these cases is scheduled after the completion instruction In addition, the organisation of the
school is a significant factor streaming and grade
of general programmes, there is a new realisation that
repeating are obstacles to genuine integration Atten-
embedding certain work-related learning encounters
tion thus needs to be given to teacher training and to
in general secondary education is an attractive means
ways of involving parents as fully as possible in the
of diversifying and contextualising the learning envi-
education of their children Integrating students with
ronments to which students are exposed (OECD,
learning difficulties and special needs into main-
19951) As noted in Chapter 4, a further link is being
stream schools is part of the commitment to lifelong
pursued in some countries through the idea of
learning for all a policy that serves not only the
generic vocational competencies as achievements for
equity goal but also the efficiency perspective,
students by the end of their schooling period
because students with special needs can develop
It is thus clear that the imperative of developing more effectively in an integrated learning
lifelong learning alters and broadens several of the environment
traditional emphases of school curricula The former At their last meeting in 1990 the Ministers of
emphasis on the three "Rs" reading, 'rating, and Education addressed "the urgent need" to open
'nthmetic has now been broadened to include, for access further, to allow all to achieve their full poten-
example, scientific literacy, environmental literacy tial, and to overcome failure They were concerned
and computer literacy That multiple literacy now about the reality that despite the considerable
needs to cover a wide range of human activities national efforts made since the early 1960s to offer
mathematics and natural science, the humanities, equal educational opportunities to all and to over-
technology, economics, politics and the environment come the problem of failure, a significant percentage
Literacy in this sense is a continuing quest, one can- of young people in many countries were leaving
not become fully "literate" at school (OECD and Sta- school without an employable qualification and with
tistics Canada, 1995) no interest in further studies Under-achievement was
Initial schooling should be conceived not as a occurring from the beginning of the primary school
unique, self-contained period of schooling leading on stage, pupils who started behind frequently remained
to vocations, professions or tertiary education, but a behind throughout the whole period of compulsory
phase in a process, albeit a crucial one The notion of schooling
value-added learning, which presupposes individual- What can be done to prevent people from failing
ised instruction and personal growth targets in learn- at school that has not been tried and tested already')
ing achievement, is worth exploring in this connec- The recommendation offered in a recent study
1106 non (OECD, 1995g) (OECD, 1995f) is that the top priority should be to
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Chart 3.1. Percentage of children with special learning needs who are enrolled in schools outside the mainstream
education system, late 980s'

7
ID Early childhood education 0 Primary education ON Secondary education
7

6 6

5 5

4 4

3 3

2 2

0
_ALNorway
LI
Japan Spain Ireland
1.11161.1111116
Greece France Belgium Netherlands Finland
0

I. Data refer to selected years from 1987 to 1991.

Source: OECD ( I 995h), IntegratingStudents with Special Needs into Mainstream Schools, p.41. See also Table A.44.

adopt proactive measures during early childhood and ity and motivation to learn naturally depend on
primary education while continuing to maintain and whether they draw positive experience from their
refine those programmes for the whole of schooling compulsory stay in schools and other institutions. A
and the transition to working life that are clearly hav- first prerequisite, therefore, is that schools must be
ing some impact. It is essential to detect and help places where children and young adults like to be,
pupils with learning difficulties at the earliest possi- where they experience a sense of self-worth, chal-
ble moment. A second conclusion is that the problem lenge and lasting achievement. The second prerequi-
of failure is closely associated with social and eco- site is that all children before leaving the formal edu-
nomic disadvantages and cannot be solved by cation system must have "learned how to learn"
schools on their own. The road to overcoming failure under self-motivated and self-managed conditions.
lies through co-ordinated national, local and commu- How should schools and classrooms be organised to
nity policies over a broad range of actions, including create such "positive" learning environments? What
income transfers, welfare housing, health and, above are the best methods to enable and encourage chil-
all, active employment measures concerted with the dren to acquire and develop the foundations, and to
social partners. what extent is this consistent with current provision
and teaching-learning strategies? What should gov-
D. CREATING "POSITIVE" LEARNING ernments do to improve the learning environments
ENVIRONMENTS that schools now offer?
Current experience and insights derived from Since the mid-19th century, when compulsory
research findings offer some guidance on the ques- schooling became universal by law in the leading
tion of how and in what environments the founda- industrial nations, the competencies needed for adult
tions for lifelong learning and work might best be life have been imparted more or less according to a
developed. To begin with, adults must be capable of, standard model of instruction. Usually the school in
and willing to, engage continuously in personal that model is age-graded and the students are
development tasks and learning projects. Their capac- divided into separate classrooms, all of which are 107j
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

about the same size, have identical tools, and have people in OECD countries Yet the basic structures
the teacher at the front This section first examines and procedures of schooling are often recognisably
some of the consequences of the rise of the "peda- similar to those of an earlier era While it does not
gogical factory", and then employs a critique of follow that they should be radically different in all
schools today to describe some desired features of respects, their adequacy and relevance is called into
tomorrow's school The role of the teacher is consid- question as certain ambiguities and problems come
ered only briefly here, but discussed at length in to light
Chapter 7 Instead of the great maionty entering the adult
world in their early teens, most young people
The rise of the "pedagogical factory" now stay on for an increasing number of years
in schools and other institutions which, at
Up to the Second World War, in the typical OECD
country, the vast maionty of 13- to 14-year-olds left least on paper, have been given a much
compulsory school in order to work A few decades broader mandate with regard to imparting
later, the legislated school-leaving age had been knowledge and skills, the fact is, however, that
many young people have little contact with the
raised to 15 or 16 Today, upper secondary education
is mandatory until age 17 or 18 in a few countries
world of work and adult life outside school
Instead of only 5 per cent of an age group fifty years Their "functional participation" in adult life is
ago, today half or more qualify for entry into tertiary practically nil
education programmes This represents a significant The limitations imposed on children and
shift towards a belief in the need for formal, struc- youth have been reinforced by the rapid pace
tured learning to be extended progressively into early of urbanisation spurred by economic growth
and middle and now late adolescence and early increasing numbers of children are growing up
adulthood in cities and densely-populated suburban
The basic physical unit, the school building, has areas, places which can impose constraints on
grown in size following urbanisation and the consoli- the freedom to move about, explore nature,
dation of school districts and catchment areas, how- and interact with the community beyond the
ever, with notable exceptions, it has not been modi- immediate home neighbourhood
fied to match the wider changes occurring in society The reduced sense of security in the urban
The time of the "little red schoolhouse" has passed environments in which the malority of children
In the early 20th century, many children went to grow up reinforces their separation from "nor-
schools that enrolled up to a hundred pupils, today mal" community life, as many can no longer
such schools are exceptions With the consolidation go to school by themselves but must rely
of school districts, increases in enrolment and reten- on adult supervision and organised
tion, and differentiation among programmes, compul- transportation
sory schools have become large public institutions, or
Although working hard to open up schools to
"pedagogical factories" (Good lad. 1984) The size and
the surrounding environment, communities
number of school units falling under the iunsdiction
have been compelled to isolate their buildings
of school administrations, as well as the number of
and grounds by putting up walls, fences and
children enrolled, has grown markedly over the
other physical barriers
decades On the whole, the school system has
become much more complex, and the need for With both parents tending to work outside the
increased co-ordination has meant employing more home, schools have had increasingly to
non-teaching and administrative staff These factors assume caretaking functions beyond the regu-
in part explain the trend of rising unit costs in educa- lar school hours, further isolating children
tion, reviewed in Chapter 8 A superficial analysis may from the community
conclude that productivity in school learning has Because they are expected to provide educa-
declined It is argued in Chapter 6 that this is not the tion as well as to care for a large number of
case, because goals have been widened and new children and adolescents, schools have a
standards evolved strong incentive, for financial, organisational
Within a relatively short period, a revolution has and managerial reasons, to become
occurred as regards the status and role of schools as standardised almost industrial in their
1108 institutions and the needs and attitudes of young approach to allocating all children of a given
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

age to a closed classroom where fixed sylla- nations leading to recognised qualifications
buses for defined grades are taught, most all children are expected to progress at a
often still in a "frontal" mode certain pace through the same tralectones,
with tests that fail a significant portion of
Over the years supervision by authorities
them as a "reward" at the end of the path
whether locally, regionally or nationally
organised has also been tightened, as OECD Standardised achievement tests, because of
countries' school systems have matured and it the way they are constructed, often involve the
has become increasingly important to enforce recall of memorised, factual knowledge in
compliance with defined norms and regula- narrow areas of competence, the outcomes
tions As mentioned in Chapter 5, this trend they measure are at odds with the "cross-
towards technocratic supervision and control, curriculum" skills most sought in a framework
which again reinforced separateness from for lifelong learning motivation and self-
communities and families, has begun to confidence, social and communication skills,
reverse in certain countries self-managed learning, and capacity for inde-
pendent information search, retrieval and
The model of "frontal" classroom instruction
analysis
has become dominant as the school classes
have gradually become more homogeneous in As it stands, the standardisation of school
both age and ability Previously it had been learning, and testing, can be at cross-purposes
common, in certain types of school, for more with the cherished ideals of diversity, individu-
advanced pupils to help teach their less alisation and, in the long run, the incentives to
advanced classmates learn
This picture of the "standard school" in today's
Despite the significant changes that have
post-industrial world is a bleak one The picture is of
occurred, on the surface very little has hap-
course not universally valid, many schools look quite
pened with regard to the modes of operation
different But the tendencies of alienation and dis-
and strategies for teaching and learning
continuity between the school, the home, the wider
employed in schools The overriding problem
community and the world of work are common, and
is that schools have become increasingly
they point to serious problems for today's and
"information-rich" but "action-poor"
tomorrow's schools
Given the lack of self-initiated activity in
The symptoms are clear Lack of trust leads some
school, many young people are not well pre-
parents to pay themselves for the schooling of their
pared to shoulder adult responsibilities after a
children, even though it can be obtained virtually free
long sequence of uninterrupted schooling
of charge in government-dependent schools Aliena-
They have become used to having their work
tion and distrust are also behind the deliberate
planned in minute detail by the teachers, hour
choice of certain adolescents and young adults to
after hour. day after day The subject- matter is
become truants In the former industrial society,
carefully prepared and dispensed in measured
young people had a choice of leaving school early,
doses by teachers who are concerned that they
because there were still "entry lobs" to be found In
may lack the time needed to cover the
today's world, however, the number of unqualified
syllabus
lobs that can be taken up by young people who are
While schools try to impart an ever-swelling tired of school is decreasing Many young people who
subject- matter to increasing numbers of stu- would like to enter the world of work have little
dents for more and more school years, society choice but to carry on in the system in the hope
beyond the school is undergoing sea changes which for many may be in vain of improving their
In the information economy, other institutions prospects These developments may lead to further
and agencies are poised to take over some of strains in the relations between schools and the
the school's traditional tasks outside world
Standardisation within countries of syllabuses, For many different reasons, the "pedagogical fac-
textbooks and pedagogical regimes has been tory" described above cannot survive the transition to
further reinforced by the introduction of the information economy and learning society But
national assessments of student performance what is to take its place? How might tomorrow's
I 093
and, in certain countries, standardised exami- "ideal" school look? Before turning to this question,
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

however, some insights derived from recent research revising their courses of learning Most impor-
into new possibilities for teaching and learning are tantly, learners need to develop strategies for
presented, special attention is given to the options acquiring additional knowledge and expertise
opened up by new information and instructional
Learning experiences should introduce the
technologies
learner into the community of participants in a
given domain or occupation, so that the indi-
Possibilities of a "new" pedagogy vidual will come to understand the physical,
Raizen (1994) has tried to summarise recent conceptual, symbolic and social tools of the
research on what makes learning effective A first per- community and their use
spective is that instruction should take account of the This analysis suggests that the learning process
learner's own ideas and experiences, and use these to is not "roughly the same" for all learners in a particu-
stimulate a range of responses Secondly, learning lar age group, and that learning does not routinely
should occur as far as possible in context Research proceed in a linear fashion The implication is that
studies suggest that learning in many cases is most the traditional classroom approach in which the
effective when it takes place through "situated" activ- learning process was largely teacher-centred and
ity groups of learners engage on a common task, instructive in mode, linear in progression, and didac-
using "real-life" tools The hallmarks of successful tic in character may be less effective than is often
environments for the worlds of learning and work are assumed, at least for certain categories of students
identified by Raizen (p, 97) and for many areas of the curriculum The realisation
Any learning experience must be meaningful that learning is most solid when students are
and motivating for learners they must be able involved in directing and monitoring their own pro-
to make sense of it and understand its gress and that a co-operative rather than a competi-
purpose tive approach to learning is of immense help to stu-
dents has major implications for the design of
Any learning experience must take into
"positive" learning environments For the learners,
account what the learner brings to it, individu-
this means that the process has less to do with pas-
als come to any learning experience with prior
sive acquisition of knowledge for recall later on, and
knowledge and experience, which may either
more with becoming active in structuring and
facilitate or impede the intended learning
organising the encounter Thus, the importance is
Learning experiences should interweave placed on learners' own interaction with the phenom-
domain-knowledge, problem-solving strate- ena that confront them, rather than on the assump-
gies appropriate to the domain, and real-world tion that learning processes must be dominated by
applications of both most people learn best teacher-centred authority and that knowledge must
when declarative knowledge ("the what"), pro- be externally transmitted, received and reproduced
cedural knowledge ("the how"), and strategic According to this view, "knowledge cannot be con-
knowledge ("the when"), are integrated veyed, it can only be constructed" (Mac lure and
Learners must be actively involved in their Davies, 1991) Osborne and Freyberg (1985) put this
own learning, even as they are provided with succinctly
models of expert performance to emulate "IThis1 view of learning with understanding
They need coaching and error-correction, in focuses on the proposition that learners them-
diminishing amounts a "fade" that will selves must actively construct or generate mean-
allow them to become autonomous and ing from sensory input ( ) No-one can do it for
independent them ( ) Piaget, too, considered that knowledge
Learning sequences should introduce increas- is constructed by the individual as he or she acts
ing complexity, yet students should learn at on objects and people and tries to make sense of
any level of complexity to attend to the gen- it all (. ) Knowledge is acquired not by the
eral nature of a task before attending to its internalisation of some given outside but is con-
details structed from within ( )."
Learning experiences should help each person The implication is that the skills of research.
to build strategies for controlling his or her enquiry, and expansion of the concepts and catego-
own performance setting goals, planning, ries one already has are essential to meaningful
1110 checking work and monitoring progress, and learning A further step involves applying, monitoring,
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

correcting and extending the knowledge and skills should, for some learning activities, relate together in
acquired in the actual situations in which those skills an interdisciplinary approach At the elementary
are to be used The concept of "learning to learn" level, this can more easily be arranged, because one
captures this constructivist view of "active learning" teacher tends to be in control of all subjects This
Smith (1994) puts this as follows presupposes, however, that the teachers have at their
disposal an "open" curriculum, for which they will
"Learning to learn is a matter of both aptitude
need to be prepared Moreover, learning takes place
and personal experience, and people can typi-
in other settings as well, the responsibility of fami-
cally be said to learn to learn in a relatively hap-
lies, communities and societies in fostering and sup-
hazard manner From in-school and out-of-
porting learning must be more generally recognised
school experience people constantly acquire new
The idea of the "educative society" is not new, the
information and behaviours While so engaged.
time has now come to translate it into practical real-
they gradually develop personal learning strate-
ity on the basis of partnerships for educational
gies and personal knowledge about the optimum
advancement
conditions for learning Each person develops a
concept of self-as-learner The learning to learn New technologies, especially the personal com-
process is understood as haphazard, because it puter, offer a means of reconstructing both the con-
results not so much from deliberate interven- tents and processes of learning, particularly at the
tions on the part of teachers or trainers to primary and lower secondary levels of education
improve learning capacity and performance, as Such technologies can execute algorithmic functions
from personal interpretations over time of learn- rapidly, and memorise facts that constitute a major
ing-related experience These interpretations part of today's school curriculum Furthermore, such
often prove dysfunctional as far as becoming an technologies can be used by students in self-directed
active, flexible, confident learner in a variety of learning activities that do not require teacher attend-
contexts is concerned Hence the growing inter- ance This may mean that some resources can be
est in the deliberate enhancement of learning freed and reallocated (see Chapters 7 and 8) For
capacities, dispositions, and strategies, through example less time needs to be spent on acquiring
such means as curriculum planning, instruction the factual knowledge base indicated in Table 3 2,
and training" and so more time is available for the questions of
"what", "why", "how" and "when" in other words,
In developing the foundations for lifelong learn-
on the metacognitive skills now deemed so important
ing, then, it will be important to consider the ways in in the perspective of lifelong learning (OECD. 1995f
which people learn effectively For policy-makers and and 1995,) Computers are also powerful tools for
curriculum-developers, the challenge is to ensure that helping students learn some of these metacognitive
learning-to-learn ceases to be a haphazard enterprise skills Finally, multimedia learning packages hold
and instead becomes an integrated part of the style promise for developing, de facto, technological
and organisation of all learning endeavours carried I iteracy

on in school The aim is twofold to achieve effective

It is expected that education systems are at the
learning for all students and to foster and stabilise a
readiness to go on learning once the school has been
beginning of a major transformation, a few glimpses
left behind of which are given below At the same time, it should
be realised that major changes in education require a
The above discussion demonstrates that there is long time to take effect Despite the urgency with
strong pressure on schools for students to acquire which educational reforms are sometimes launched,
cognitive, metacognitive, social, cultural and practical the formal school systems tend to change only slowly
competencies But it is obvious that schools alone
cannot perform all these tasks, and that a reconceptu-
Glimpses of tomorrow's schools
alisation of the core curriculum should discuss not
only the type of subjects to be learned, but more Although the new information and communica-
fundamentally their contents, in order to reduce tion technologies represent the potential for major
them, leaving more time for other, non-cognitive change to occur, until now they have frequently been
activities The question is not, therefore, whether and used in ways that merely reproduce "traditional" ped-
how much mathematics or science, environmental or agogical practices In the next stage, the newly availa-
health education should be taught, but what the con- ble technology should lead to real innovation in
tent of these subjects should be and how they teaching, learning and the administration of educa-
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Lion This is the realm of interactive technologies, dered open through, a mix of physical and electronic
such as networks and multimedia Finally, technology access points, thus meeting the needs of new catego-
will be used to transform education its purpose and ries of learners
content
Another element is that, in the school of the
It should not be understood that "traditional" future, students of various ages can mix with the
procedures are all obsolete some, such as group participants using a personal computer, and with
teaching, remain in use because of their effectiveness multiple interactions among individuals Thus, learn-
and resource efficiency The point is not to abandon ing will be less a matter of lumping or failing to
practices because they are rooted in the past, but to lump fixed hurdles at set intervals, and more a self-
assess and modify them as necessary in the light of paced or small-group activity in which students of
new challenges and possibilities Again, the orienta- mixed ages and backgrounds address objectives by
tion should be towards effective, stimulating and multiple means
enjoyable learning, by means of efficient teaching,
The concept of a school as a "community learn-
and to instil in students a commitment to continuing
ing centre" is of interest in this regard A typical
that learning beyond the end of schooling
centre would welcome people of different ages and
The programme for change must be generated the range of services would extend well beyond those
and driven forward not by technology per se but by provided by conventional primary or secondary
considerations of how society, and the teaching pro- schools The home and the workplace would be
fession in particular, can exploit technology in order extensions of the centre, linked by computer and tele-
to provide the most effective education for a demo- communications and operating during hours that are
cratic, socially inclusive and economically advanced determined by the learners rather than the availability
community Hebenstreit (1994, p 117) identifies the of teachers Classrooms will be needed but at times
elements of a programme to integrate information and for groups very different from those at present
technology into tomorrow's schools Conventional media such as the blackboard and text-
All students will need to become computer- book will be complemented and in some cases
literate as well as literate and numerate in the replaced by multimedia, learner-driven equipment
familiar sense they should be able to handle Indices such as teacher student ratios need to be
current information technology at a level replaced by indices reflecting that teacher workloads
appropriate to their discipline or field of study, will be determined less by the number of students
and be equipped to employ it appropriately to and more by the nature of the "subject" and the
further their cognitive development in the availability of software The resource implications of
future this concept are considered in Chapter 7
New technology can contribute to the redesign Despite the promise of the new technologies and
and implementation of the curriculum and to their value in transforming several key elements of
assist in applying new methods of assessment the learning process, it is not sufficient, in visualising
and certification "the school of the future", to focus on more efficient
Students and teaching staff will need to have and flexible ways of learning specific elements of sub-
ready access to workstations and networks in ject- matter One of the great achievements of the
order to benefit from the growing availability school as an institution is that it provides a well-
of services structured social setting in which young people can
address a wide array of developmental tasks Their
Collections of software for use in teaching can emotional needs, interpersonal relations, physical
become accessible anywhere on the network development and artistic expression not to mention
and in the educational establishment a wide array of activities requiring the manipulation
New information technologies should open up of physical materials cannot be provided for satis-
and increase access to educational establishments factorily in a one-to-one relationship with a computer
and agencies for the development of open learning screen The school is also a community functioning
organisations or dual mode institutions It will be on many levels Identification with that community
important to capitalise on the fact that educational and its values is part of the process of maturation
pathways may not be rooted in time or place, they and, for many students, will be the point of departure
could be accessible electronically from anywhere and for a continuing involvement with education In other
12 at any time Institutions could consist of, or be ren-
L
words, a sense of place and people is lust as impor-
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

tant as
a sense of handling specified learning tasks for institutional day care and early childhood educa-
Good schools will continue to be needed for social tion Even those with a choice often opt for some
learning form of pre-school at age 3 or 4, as It is felt that
children benefit from the interaction with adults and
children other than family A 1981 study on this sub-
E. INVESTING IN EARLY CHILDHOOD ject indicated that many parents would make use of
EDUCATION day care if they could (OECD. 1981) Things have not
Early childhood education and early intervention changed since then For a variety of reasons, child
programmes in primary schooling are important care, pre-school and early intervention programmes
aspects of a strategy aimed at equal opportunities in have become dominant policy concerns across OECD
foundation learning and assisting children and young countries
people at risk At what age should early childhood The conditions under which a child spends the
education begin? What factors and conditions can first years of life tend to set the stage for the career to
make early intervention programmes successful? come For instance, the academic promise that teach-
What are the beneficial effects of intervention pro- ers express in rating cognitive ability when the child
grammes, and do these effects justify an increase in reaches the end of primary school is related to attain-
public and private expenditures? ments during the later years of formal schooling
It is widely recognised that the early years of (Husen. 1969, Rist, 1970), moreover, follow-up studies
education play a decisive role in a child's future, for show that there are enduring effects on attitudes to
they shape attitudes to learning and provide basic education and the willingness to continue learning in
social skills that come into place in later school years adulthood (Tuijnman, 1989) Table 3 3 shows starting
Many families have no financial choice but to arrange ages for early childhood education and compulsory

Table 3 3 Compulsory school staffing and ending ages, 1992

Early childhood education Compulsory schooling
Starting ages Ending age,
Starting ages
Ifull-time)
North America
Canada 4 6 6
United States 3 6 7
Pacific Area
Australia 5
Japan 3 6 5
New Zealand 2 5 6
European Community
Belgium3 25 6 6
Denmark 3 7 6
France 2 6 6
Cermany3 3 6 5
Greece 35 55 4
Ireland 4 to 5 6 to 7 5
Italy 3 6 4
Luxembourg 5
Netherlands3 4 6 6
Portugal 3 6 5
Spain 2 6 6
United Kingdom 2 5 6
Other Europe OECD
Austria 3 6 5
Finland 3 to 6 7 6
Norway 3 7 6
Sweden 3 6 to 7 6
Switzerland 4 to 5 6 to 7 5
Turkey 3 6 5
Notes Data not available
1 Typical starting age
2 Legal compulsory school-leaving age in 1993
3 Compulsory part-time attendance until age 18
-
Sources OECD (1995d1 Education at a Glance OECD Indicators EUROSTAT (19951 Les chiffres des de !education dans I Union europeenne I13]
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

schooling In the majority of OECD countries compul- that certain elementary skills such as reading, singing
sory schooling starts at age 6, by age 4, however, and playing musical instruments can be fostered
nearly all children are in organised programmes in much earlier The question here is not whether provi-
such countries as Belgium, France, the Netherlands, sion should be organised for 2- to 6-year-olds, but
New Zealand, Spain and the United Kingdom In rather, what kind of provision would ensure school
these countries there are proposals to reorganise the readiness
link between pre-school and primary school Data on It is generally acknowledged that preschooling
the transition from home to school are given in brings real benefits to disadvantaged children,
Table 3 4 although how and to what extent these benefits last
In OECD countries, early childhood education is a matter of debate Furthermore, preschooling can
has increasingly become a public provision and thus provide children with compensation for the lack of an
an integral part of the service society Table 3 4 sug- extended family The role given to pre-school educa-
gests that, in some countries (Belgium and France are tion and its implementation varies across countries
examples), formal instruction begins much earlier, Most countries share the aim of familiarising children
many children are in preparatory classes from age 2 with life in society Some countries, such as Denmark,
It is argued that better educational use could be Germany, Ireland and the Netherlands, view
made of the receptivity in very young children, and preschooling as complementary to children's family

Table 3 4 Transition from home to school, 1992

Net enrolment in public and private early childhood and primary education, ages 4 to 7
(percentage)

Age
72
3 4 5 6i

North America
Canada 459 992 103 7
United States 28 5 53 0 88 6 102 3 I 1

Pacific Area
lapan 23 I 57 6 65 7 101 9
New Zealand 73 7 92 6 99 73 100 8

European Community
Belgium 97 7 99 3 99 7 99 8 01
Denmark 37 9 53 6 61 I 96 4 84
France 98 8 101 4 99 83 100 6
Germany (FTFR) 30 8 68 5 78 5 115 1 14
Greece 1 1 2 48 9 85 2 102 5
Ireland 12 55 7 99 9 99 I 25
Netherlands 98 04 98 8 97 7 08
Spain 37 2 95 8 100 4 103 2
United Kingdom 370 90 14 98 8 98 5
Other Europe - OECD
Austria 29 0 66 3 86 2 98 4 03
Finland 24 3 28 1 32 0 57 6 06
Norway 44 0 56 5 65 I 79 3 12
Sweden 45 2 50 8 60 6 99 9
Switzerland 74 26 2 77 3 99 0 27
Turkey 03 15 14 2

Country mean 33.0 62.6 79.2 93.2 1.0

Notes Data not available

I Enrolment in early childhood and primary education, figures over 100 per cent anse because the demographic year and the school year do not always
correspond
2 Enrolment in early childhood education only
3 Primary education only
4 Enrolment in early childhood and primary education
Source OECD (19954 Education at a Glance - OECD Inc/kelp's p 132

1114
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

life, and see its main role as that of socialising chil- A survey of three countries
dren Other countries, including Belgium. France,
France
Greece, Italy, Luxembourg and Spain, further aim to
introduce learning skills and familiarise children with France has long begun schooling children at
school life (Eundyce, 1994) age 3and preschooling has also been available to
children under 3 for almost a decade. While many
Country differences in the age at which children view French pre-school as a model worthy of emula-
enter preschooling aside, there are many approaches tion, others would argue that it has gone too far
to early childhood education These are most evident Currently, approximately 30 per cent of children
in the private sector Some approaches focus on between ages 2 and 3 go to school, and lively debate
experiential education (involving, for example, fre- continues over the question of the most appropriate
quent field trips), others emphasise skills develop- age for children to enter Pre-school for 2-year-olds
ment (sports, games), academic development (regular initially aimed at accommodating disadvantaged chil-
reading and story times), the visual arts (drawing and dren living in "priority education zones" (ZEPs) If
painting), or a particular religious faith Montessori such children begin earlier, the argument goes, they
schools see constructive play as an educational tool would have better chances of educational success
Waldorf schools emphasise musical education In later on
addition, there is great variation in the cost and qual-
The Marne Valley suburbs to the east of Paris
ity of private day care and pre-school education
provide an example. This area, faced with an ageing
For these and many other reasons, universal, pub-
population and a declining birth rate, decided to con-
licly-funded and regulated pre-school education is
vert surplus space into kindergartens Rather than risk
increasingly a sought-after goal in OECD countries
cutting classes, and to meet the growing demand of
Even though as noted above pre-school sys- parents, children were increasingly accepted at the
tems in OECD countries operate differently depend- age of 2. More generally, the increased number of
ing on the historical context in which they evolved. women workers, the shortage of day care places, and
they currently face similar challenges, and high- parents' perception that earlier education can
quality research is needed to illuminate the options Improve their childrens' chances all have led to the
for policy and practice Given limited financial gradual extension of preschooling to those under 3
resources, should more public funds be allocated to Finally, the financial savings over day care centres or
reach more children, or should funding focus on other forms of child care are considerable, as kinder-
maintaining and improving existing services" At what garten is free of charge
age is it most appropriate to begin pre-school activ- In lune 1992, measures were announced to facili-
ity" How much preschooling is effective') How shall tate the entry of children into kindergarten (ecole
quality in child care be defined" Any attempt to maternelle) from age 2 The rationale was in part
respond to these questions entails a consideration of based on a study that showed a positive influence of
aspects such as the ratio of staff to children, group preschooling on subsequent performance (larousse
size, space in square metres as well as the equipment et al 1992) In the meantime, policy remains flexible,
,

and materials required for an effective play-learning schools decide on entry on a case-by-case basis, and
environment, the type and level of training of the according to local needs Lowering the age limit for
care-providers, and their salaries and benefits, and entering school raises important issues, as most
the interaction and involvement of parents in the pre- ecoles maternelles are not sufficiently equipped. in
school setting terms of either teaching staff or facilities, to provide
for the physical and emotional needs of 2-year-olds
Despite the progress in research, most questions There are also concerns that, with more 2-year-olds in
cannot be answered yet Synthesising the available the classroom, the ecole maternelle will be confined
knowledge base for early childhood education, and to playing a supervisory rather than educational role
undertaking reviews of recent policy initiatives and of
"good practice" appear to be urgent tasks The brief
survey of the experience of three countries, given
United States
below, suggest that a thematic review of policies for Head Start, launched in 1965, IS a comprehensive
early childhood education can reveal interesting pre-school development programme whose main goal
country differences, and offer insights useful for deci- is to improve the social competence of 3- to 5-year-
sion-making old children from low-income families It delivers a
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

wide range of services: health, education, parental nomically, and less likely to be unemployed and poor
involvement and social services. In 1990, 20 per cent and, in the case of girls, less likely to become teenage
of the total population of 3- to 5-year-olds whose single mothers.
family income fell below the poverty line were in A study of sixteen American day care centres
Head Start. That year, the programme served over (Endsley, 1993) suggested that directors who promote
half a million children at a cost of approximately formal parent involvement are likely to run high-
$1.45 billion. Current policy is geared to providing quality programmes and facilitate parent-staff com-
one year of coverage for 4-year-olds (Chafel, 1992). munication. Another study (Replogle, 1994) describes
Chart 3.2 shows the expansion of Head Start since the activities of two Head Start programmes, one in
1975. Kentucky and one in Iowa, that integrate families into
the wider community and bring community resources
To date, the results of much of the research on into their programmes to better serve parents and
the effects of compensatory pre-school education are children. They illustrate how Head Start can become a
ambiguous (Currie and Thomas, 1993; Maynard, community hub for families.
1995). The pessimism surrounding some studies of
Head Start is based on the failure to find lasting
effects on the 10 of children involved in the pro-
United Kingdom
grammes. However, other studies such as for The National Union of Teachers and Leeds Uni-
example the Perry Pre-school Project in Ypsilanti, versity researchers carried out a study entitled "Test-
Michigan concluded that long-term cognitive gains ing and Assessing Six- and Seven-year-olds" on 395 1

were not adequately measured by 10 tests (Barnett, children who had had pre-school and 933 who had
1992; Zig ler and Muenchow, 1994). In addition to edu- not. The results showed that the first group, which
cational benefits, such studies have noted that chil- had a lower socio-economic profile than the children
dren who went through the programme are more who had no nursery education, scored higher in all
likely to improve their lives, both socially and eco- subjects (Blackburne, 1992). On a related theme, a

Chart 3.2. Federal expenditure per student' for Head Start and enrolments in the programme, United States, 1975-95

Enrolments (thousands) Expenditure per student (US$)

- Enrolments Expenditure per student

1 000 5 000

900

800 4 000

700

600 3 000

500

400 2 000

300

200 1 000

100

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995

I. Expenditure per student is obtained by dividing total federal expenditure for Head Start by total enrolments.
11 16 Source: United States Department of Education (1994a), Digest of Education Statistics,Tables 349 and 360. See also Table A.45.
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

study done in 1994 by the University of London trac- exploit fully what was then called the "reserve of tal-
ing the school careers of 900 pupils over nine years, ent" (OECD, 1962, Halsey, 1961)
showed that the quality of teaching at a primary Despite the "rolling reforms" pursued by many
school affects childrens' performance right through to OECD countries since then, the practice of "stream-
GCSE (General Certificate of Secondary Education) ing" or "tracking" children after four to six years of
(Hopkins, 1994) The "primary school effect" appears primary schooling still prevails in the few European
to influence children's long-term retention, attitudes countries where structural reform has been most
towards school, study skills, motivation and self- vehemently resisted The data in Annex Table A 46
esteem (cited in Times Educational Supplement, give an indication of the extent of early grouping or
9 September 1994) One could hypothesise about a streaming Chart 3 3 reports the distribution, in per-
similar "pre-school effect" centages, of 9-year-olds in various types of grouping
for reading instruction, a "common core" subject
F. EARLY OR LATE SELECTION
Organisational differentiation during or immediately
AND DIFFERENTIATION? following primary school is common in New Zealand
(83 per cent) and the Netherlands (87 per cent), it
This section describes and analyses the struc- also occurs in the United States (45 per cent), Ireland
tural and institutional changes OECD countries might (49 per cent) and Iceland (48 per cent)
need to consider in establishing tomorrow's schools The large majority of OECD countries have
Dilemmas faced by the school as an educational as moved beyond the early tracking model, and now
well as social institution are described, and tensions employ a "mixed" approach, characterised by uniform
between approaches involving early versus late stu- syllabuses and modes of provision in lower secondary
dent differentiation noted education until about age 15 or 16 and differentiated
Life chances are determined by many personal services thereafter Fully comprehensive schools that
factors and conditions in the social and economic lack differentiation until the age of 17 or 18 exist in
environment, including the educational level of par- very few countries outside North America, Australia
ents and their expectations for their children In post- and, albeit to a lesser extent, Japan
industrial society, schools play an increasingly central Formal equality of opportunity is endorsed by
role in mediating the effects of the home and the all Yet policy-making aimed at promoting equality in
social environment of children's educational and education is beset with dilemmas that are not always
eventual occupational careers Learning is a cumula- made explicit In the Netherlands, for example, after a
tive process, and successful acquisition of knowledge, protracted and disruptive debate, all lower secondary
values and attitudes early on sets the stage for nego- schools were made comprehensive in the sense that a
tiating further learning encounters successfully Given standardised curriculum was introduced, but the
the tensions between policies to promote equal mechanism of structural differentiation at age 12
access and a fair distribution of educational out- remained firmly in place In the United States, to take
comes and policies to raise the quality of provision another example, there is a strong commitment to
and improve efficiency, what should policy-makers do meritocracy - a notion used to describe a social sys-
in terms of early versus late selection and differentia- tem where status depends entirely on documented
tion" To what extent, and up to what age level, should ability and merit, and not on ascription (Young,
the core curriculum be common to all children, 1958). thus, fully comprehensive schools have devel-
despite their differences in interests and aptitudes" oped in the United States but not, generally, in main-
What, in particular, can be done to provide equal land Europe Although the principle of meritocracy is
opportunities for all, combat school failure and assist widely endorsed across the OECD area, so are the
children and youth at risk" practices that contradict and negate equal opportuni-
A major issue has been how to make secondary ties vast differences in funding between schools and
schooling universal but at the same time comprehen- school districts, large quality differences between
sive, so that it caters to the needs and interests of all public and private schools, and selective entry
young people between 10-11 and 17-18 years-old At requirements in certain public and private schools
two major conferences in 1961, important questions A first problem derives from the fact that the
were asked about the capacity of highly selective and education system is there to impart knowledge and
structurally differentiated school systems to offer the skills, which by necessity amplify individual differ-
1171
best learning opportunities to all students, and to ences The school is expected, simultaneously, to
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Chart 3.3. Distribution of 9-year-olds in various types of grouping for reading instruction, 1991
Percentage distribution

ED No grouping U Ability groups 0 Interest groups O Age groups Other

Spain :'.2ERINgt ElI

Greece I III
Belgium 1.1
Portugal

Finland

Germany (FTFR)

Canada

Switzerland

Ireland

Iceland

United States 1

Denmarle
Germany

Netherlands
New Zealand

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

I. Based on data collected for the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement reading literacy study.
2. "No grouping" probably underestimated due to an inaccurate translation in the Danish survey.
is
Source: Elley (1992) and OECD (1995d), Education at a Glance OECD Indicators, p. 172.

serve as an "equaliser" of opportunities and out- uniform provisions within the education system are
comes, and as an instrument that establishes, rein- not necessarily the solution to realising a more egali-
forces and legitimises distinctions. These two func- tarian society that undergirds the policy pursued in
tions are incompatible as long as there is only one the Netherlands. A policy of lifelong learning which
approved pathway to mainstream educational suc- calls for multiple pathways and the abolition of "dead
cess, which is assessed using yardsticks very similar end" tracks, as well as parity of esteem among pro-
to those applied when elite systems of education grammes thus offers a key to reconciling the educa-
were still the rule. If the criteria of success and the tive and sorting functions of the education system.
approach to assessment are standardised and
applied in a linear fashion a measurement of one The second problem is that between equality and
cognitive dimension rather than multiple intelli- meritocracy mentioned above an issue that cuts
gences (Gardner, 1987) then a significant group of across various types of social and economic organisa-
students will a priori be destined to fail. Comprehen- tion. The movement towards the "new centrality of
sive systems that employ comparative examinations theoretical knowledge, the primacy of theory over
therefore do not necessarily improve formal equality empiricism, and the codification of knowledge into
of opportunity, although the evidence shows that the abstract systems of symbols that can be translated to
between-school differences are smaller in such sys- many different and varied circumstances" (Bell, 1973)
tems compared with differentiated ones (OECD, puts rationality and systematised knowledge before
I993a and I995z). However, by making a broader property and political status as a basis for influence
spectrum of options available to young people, the and power in the post-industrial society. The
forces that work in the direction of inequality are dilemma lies in the fact that the handing down of
given more scope. Equality of opportunity can be achieved status from one generation to the next is, in
achieved only if multiple options based on different the meritocratic society, a substitute for inherited
values are provided options that are not ranked privileges in the ascriptive society. As educational
1118 along only one dimension. It is this realisation that qualifications become the key determinant of life
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

chances and social status, the mentocranc tenden- market, and allow pursuit of further and higher-level
cies associated with educational selection also studies or lateral switching to other pathways, with-
become a mechanism of social reproduction and out the need to repeat what is already known and
everywhere, children with poorly educated parents mastered
seem unable to take full advantage of opportunities Initial education should lead to broad qualifica-
(Hansen, 1994) Research evidence overwhelmingly tion profiles The responsibility for the "fit" between
supports the finding that inequalities in educational skill requirements on the labour market and skill
careers among children from different social back- profiles produced through initial education and train-
grounds have not diminished but remained remarka- ing should not be left primarily to young people and
bly stable, despite increases in the standard of living, their parents As will be discussed more fully in Chap-
rises in enrolment and reforms implemented to pro- ter 6, modular courses seem a far more efficient alter-
mote equal opportunities (Shavit and Blossfeld, native in the context of lifelong learning
1993) Table 3 5 offers a summary of the research However, "foundation learning" at the primary
evidence for a number of OECD countries Ishida and secondary stage cannot be fundamentally rede-
et al (1995) conclude that the effect of educational fined or reorganised so as to become more inte-
qualifications on social reproduction and mobility is grated, broad, open and motivating with regard to
remarkably uniform over time across ten OECD coun- further learning as long as tertiary education, in par-
tries Thus, meritocracy in the fabric of post-industrial ticular the university, in its present form, continues to
OECD countries works against equality govern the entire education system Openness and
Diverging pathways can either encourage or hin- integration must logically start at the level of tertiary
der the completion of a qualifying initial education and continuing adult education This is currently not
and participation in further learning Diversity can the case For example, the Fachhochschulen that par-
lead to segmentation and exclusion In order to allel the universities and the Grandes ecoles point to
encourage the largest possible number of individuals a reproduction of "academic" and "occupational"
to pursue effective, successful and continuing learn- streams at the post-secondary level Similarly, adult
ing routes, pathways should not only be open education in most countries has not become inte-
towards the higher levels of education and training in grated with tertiary education As long as "destina-
different learning environments, but also offer multi- tions" of exclusive types are offered as alternatives at
ple exit and re-entry points, clearly defined and truly the upper end, the preceding stages of learning will
enabling qualifications that have value in the labour inevitably tend to be selective

Table 3 5 Trends in the dependence of educational attainment on social origin', 2 3

Changes in independent variables Trend

Father's education Fathers occupation Additional variables Age cohorts

Germany 0 0 None 916.1965

Italy None 920-1967
la pan 0 None 905.1955
Netherlands None 891.1960
Sweden Community size (I 902-1967
Switzerland 0 0 None 950-1960
United Kingdom° 0 0 None 913-1952
I)
'
United States 0 Mother's education 910-1964

I Legend '+" means increasing dependence 0" means no change in the dependence, means decreasing dependence
2 Estimates denved from studies employing nationally representative data for successive cohorts born between the second decade of the twentieth century
and the 1960s Data for even older cohorts are employed in the case studies of Japan the Netherlands Sweden and the United States Data do not extend
to the most recent cohorts in England and Wales The study on Switzerland analyses data for only two age cohorts The data sets range in size from about
1000 to 25 000 cases Most include data for men and women, but for Japan and England and Wales, data were only available for men
3 All studies analyse cohort differences in the effects of socio-economic origins on the length of schooling The effects on length of schooling are estimated
in Ordinary Least Squares regressions of highest school grade completed ior attended) The exception is the study for England and Wales in which the
dependent variable Is defined as the highest qualification attained In all studies, socio-economic origin is represented by father s education and by father's
occupation In most studies, father s occupation is measured by occupational status or prestige-like scales, but in a few, it is measured by a set of
categories approximating occupational classes Father's education is usually measured by the highest school grade completed by the father
4 The studies refer to England and Wales only
Source Shavit and Blossfeld 119931 pp 11 13 and 16 1191
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

The conclusion is, therefore, that the reorienta- rent research, policies and practical approaches to
tion of policy in a framework of lifelong learning offers early childhood education in the OECD area is in
fresh possibilities of overcoming dilemmas caused by order
the structural differentiation still present in the
Initial schooling should be a phase in a process
school systems of certain, mainly European, coun-
that provides a broad, solid foundation of knowledge
tries But for this to work, OECD countries will need
and skills as a basis for further learning, and contin-
to take a critical look at the organisation and func-
ued motivation for it In many instances, this will
tions of universities as forming the cornerstones of
mass tertiary education This point is explored further
require that attention be paid to the way in which the
in Chapters 5 and 8
various disciplines in university education are struc-
tured, as well as to the close correspondence between
disciplines, competitive selection and admission pro-
G. THE FOUNDATIONS FOR LIFELONG cedures, and the secondary school curriculum The
LEARNING: POLICY CONCLUSIONS "wash-back" effects on the curriculum of competitive
entrance examinations for post-secondary education
Schools are no longer the only experience of
that are administered by universities or, in certain
education for the majority of the population Nor are
countries, by national authorities, are a cause for con-
they adequate Instead, schools are becoming the
cern in this respect Such examinations, to the extent
principal agencies for developing, in children and
they are subject-matter oriented, can hinder curricu-
young adults, the foundations for further learning
throughout life Schools are also invited to play a lum reform and reduce the scope for experimentation
wider role as focal points for educational and cultural with new pedagogical approaches
activities that engage the adult population In order for the school to be a place where all
The embedding of schools in a lifelong learning learners like to be, and feel motivated not only to
approach to education raises questions about their perform optimally given their conditions and inter-
status as social and cultural institutions, and about ests but also to continue to learn actively throughout
their curricula, methods of teaching and learning, life, a means needs to be found to link assessment for
instructional technologies, and assessment and certi- selection and assessment as a tool for developing the
fication There are implications for the goals and val- individuals' capacity and motivation to learn The
ues underlying what is taught, for career guidance notion of value-added learning, which presupposes
and counselling services, and for the physical envi- individualised instruction and personal growth
ronment in schools If schooling is to provide a foun- targets in learning achievement, is worth exploring in
dation for lifelong learning, an expansion of pre- this connection
school education is in many cases also called for In order to allow schools to develop into com-
There is at least some convincing evidence to munity education centres which prepare students for
support the assertion that early childhood education continuing learning, and which provide a focus for
and intervention programmes in primary schooling adult learners, governments will need to take a num-
can produce important value-added results for indi- ber of policy initiatives
vidual children, their families and the community at First, there is a need to re-examine the values
large Meeting the expanding demand is a serious and beliefs traditionally assumed or actively taught in
challenge for some Member countries Targets might schools, to compare these with those exposed by
be to offer a minimum of half-day education four or other significant groups, and to reconcile the two
five days per week to all 4-year-olds, and to 3-year- wherever possible Communities, schools and teach-
olds deemed to be at risk of school failure on account ers ought to be given some scope for developing their
of their social environment or other reasons The own imprints and signatures At the same time, how-
principle of individual treatment should be extended ever, the process of schooling must be consistent and
to pre-school children, so that some may enter formal
coherent across the nation Hence, a broad consen-
education at an earlier age than the norm, when they
sus should be reached on a common core of values.
are "school ready" Social maturity should be a factor
with sufficient scope left for schools and their curric-
in such decisions
ula to confront differences in a spirit of tolerance and
However, given the costs involved, and consider- respect A suitable framework for this exercise will
ing the anticipated individual and social benefits (see involve consultations with students, communities,
1120 Chapter 8). it is clear that a thorough review of cur- parents, teachers, and organisations in civil society
 IJFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

A parallel review of the broad goals and objec- secondary schooling There should also be a
tives of foundation learning, within a coherent frame- convergence between general and vocational
work for lifelong learning, should be undertaken, curricula, so that pupils who do not expect to
involving the social partners and other interested par- transfer to tertiary-level institutions receive a
ties and sectors of education Any recent surveys may broad and general education on which subse-
be taken as a starting point, and this will form part of quent vocational training can repeatedly build
the wider exercise in setting goals discussed in Chap- at later stages in life, while keeping open the
ter 6 possibility of their entering tertiary education
In the light of the above, the curricula of primary at a later date
and secondary schools should be reviewed, and In tune with the greater individualisation
revised where necessary The following guidelines made possible by new learning technologies
may be anticipated and the principle of a general primary and sec-
The curriculum of primary education should be ondary education for all, pupils should not be
revised, where necessary, to concentrate on sorted too early into pre-tertiary academic and
core skills for further learning This will include pre-employment practical groups Those likely
familiarity with new information technologies to proceed directly to tertiary education ought
for all primary pupils also to take part in practical activities The
links with the world of work are discussed in
The factual content at primary and lower sec-
the next chapter
ondary levels should be reduced further in
favour of "cross-curriculum" skills, including Given the above requirements, the articulation
learning-to-learn skills, social competence, of upper secondary and tertiary education pro-
and information retrieval and processing skills grammes needs to be seriously reconsidered
Such skills will provide the basis for later Particular attention should be given to students
learning, and help to avoid an overloaded with special needs, and those at risk of school failure
curriculum and social alienation Increased flexibility in the
A reduction in factual knowledge should not grouping of students will provide some response to
mean the abandonment of the principles of this challenge, and the greater involvement of parents
the natural and social sciences, of moral rea- and the local community, as discussed in Chapter 5,
soning, or knowledge and practice of the per- will strengthen the environment for such pupils
forming and visual arts Awareness of the his- Young people and adults should be permitted to
tory and geography of the country of residence return to regular secondary schools and other institu-
should be set against a widening background tions of secondary education at later ages, to loin
which matches the age-related spatial and particular classes This will make efficient use of
temporal perceptions of the learners, and con- resources, and help to break down the alienation
temporary concerns for the environment between young people in school and the world
In secondary education, there should be con- outside
tinuing emphasis on metacognition and the Clear norms should be devised for the acquisi-
teaching of core subjects in upper secondary tion and use of new information technologies by
education, mainly mathematics and sciences, schools and teachers Connectivity with the outside
social studies, and foreign languages, next to world should be an important criterion The develop-
cross-curriculum competencies ment of appropriate software and multimedia pack-
At all levels, particular attention will need to ages needs further encouragement To this end, gov-
be given to foreign language learning, in ernments should team up and pool resources, in
response to the growing linguistic diversity in order to expand their markets and offer better incen-
Member countries Second or third languages, tives for firms focusing on the development and mar-
and those of the linguistic minorities residing keting of learning technologies
within borders, should attain a higher status, Teachers will need to adopt new pedagogical
next to the principal language, and should in methods in order to exploit the opportunities offered
consequence be taught in school by new learning technologies, and to teach the learn-
Specific vocational preparation should be ing-to-learn and information retrieval skills that are
postponed, at least until the stage of upper deemed so important in a framework for lifelong 1211
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

learning Active or constructive rather than passive tions and the study programmes they offer should
learning techniques are required This presupposes guarantee a high-level preparation Governments
that students, parents and teachers work out a per- should make provision for this in advance, through
sonal learning plan for each student and young adult, their inspectorates and in consultation with teachers
incorporating challenging subjects and special inter- and other sectors of educational provision
ests, relevant information-based learning, a tutorial
Lifelong learning presupposes continuity
relationship with teachers, and an aligned assess-
between initial education and training, and the
ment system that encourages value-added learning
organised learning experiences that take place there-
based on progress in attaining personal growth
after, during working life What is sometimes over-
targets For purposes of transparency and portability,
looked is that continuity is absolutely essential
such learning will still require accreditation by
throughout initial education and training Articula-
existing or modified certification procedures, at least
tion must be assured from one school year to the
at the end of school cycles Further, heterogeneity will
next and, above all, from one stage to another, nota-
increase as many young adults stay longer in school,
bly, from early childhood to primary education, from
and as adults return to study in increasing numbers
primary to secondary education, and from secondary
Accommodating their learning needs will require flex-
education to further studies and working life This
ibility, suggesting the adoption of a modular
chapter has indicated how secondary education
approach to teaching and learning
should be organised and delivered so as to equip
Accordingly, serving teachers are faced with a young people with a solid foundation of useful knowl-
number of challenges deriving from likely changes in edge and skills The next chapter is concerned with
their work environments As discussed in Chapter 7. a the challenge of how to guarantee continuity and
major retraining programme should be an element in articulation, when most young people are no longer
national strategies for creating tomorrow's schools in compulsory schooling but are free, at least in prin-
There are implications also for pre-service teacher ciple. to make their own choices in respect of learning
training Given the demands placed on tomorrow's and work
teachers, recruitment into teacher training institu-

1112
 4

IMPROVING PATHWAYS AND TRANSITIONS IN LIFELONG

LEARNING AND WORK

A. INTRODUCTION Some aspects of individual pathways can be use-

fully measured and certified in terms of established
Chapter 3 took up the basic principles of lifelong levels of achievement and recognised qualifications
learning This one places those principles into a con- They imply that continuing learning not only
text at once wider and more concrete that of path- enhances the freedom and adaptability of learners,
ways and transitions through lifelong learning and but also leads to a potentially useful accumulation of
work A learner is like a traveller faced with a choice of knowledge and skills, thus increasing the learners'
routes to a destination More than one route is possi- personal "capital" of competence and qualification
ble, each entails costs and benefits Policy-makers
and their partners can have a hand in shaping the Inherited structures and the organisation of
infrastructure of these learning "routes", by encourag- pathways vary strongly across countries Some have
ing an itinerary through incentives here, and by highly differentiated education and training systems,
strongly suggesting an alternate route there In the others more homogeneous ones In some systems,
end, however, the route is the learner's own he or she pathways diverge with few interconnecting routes, in
chooses among the types and sequences of available others there are frequent cross-roads and junctions,
courses and programmes, and decides on the time to allowing learners to take short cuts or detours The
be invested This necessary emphasis on the individ- underlying difference is that some systems rely on
ual means that career guidance, whether based in
education and training courses that are modular and
can be relatively freely assembled into individual
educational institutions, employment centres or
enterprises, has an important role to play in lubrica- routes, whereas others continue to use inflexible
ones A flexible and interconnected system of path-
ting the relationship between the learners own devel-
ways, in comparison with the discontinuities of some
opment and the demands of the labour market Fac-
structurally differentiated systems, enhances learning
tors influencing these choices will naturally include
opportunities and facilitates continuity
the specific opportunities and constraints facing the
learner for example, gender, resources, ethnic ori- Lifelong learning necessitates movements and
gin, age, the geographical availability of learning linkages enabling learning to be undertaken in combi-
opportunities, and the quality of information and gui- nation with other activities and phases of life These
dance which is available depend critically on the arrangements for education
and training, in particular the extent to which they
To the extent that learning pathways are open-
enable these movements and linkages to take place
ended and interconnected, they invite learners to pro-
They also depend on the organisation of labour mar-
gress from one type and level of education and train-
kets, firms, social and private arrangements and the
ing to another, and to move back and forth between,
ways that these permit individuals, supported by
or to combine, learning and work activities The
career guidance, to move through the different path-
notion of pathways stems from the conviction that
ways in realisation of lifelong learning trajectories
human beings at all life stages are able to learn and
These are examined in this chapter, which seeks to
develop
summarise the lessons from research and offers con-
Indeed, the meaning of the very word "career" is crete illustrations of national experiences Many of
currently being extended to take in not only progress the findings of research and country examples are
within an occupation, but the overall lifelong devel- taken from the early post-compulsory and post-
opment of an individual in terms of both learning secondary phases, reflecting the volume of research
and work and work on the initial years of adulthood Ultimately, 1231
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

lifelong learning policies will call for a comprehensive study of barriers to realising coherence and smooth
description and analysis of pathways and transitions transitions, the study of transitions in values and
throughout the entire life cycle beliefs, in life experience, and in inter-personal rela-
This chapter considers the characteristics of a tions, the role of guidance in support of lifelong
coherent framework from several perspectives Sec- career development, the study of life-cycle transitions
tion B formulates the policy questions and issues in relation to concepts such as "new professional-
Section C describes four types of pathways and tran- ism", "value-added in lifelong learning", and "work-
sitions, and examines evidence about their frequency learning-culture-democracy interfaces" These are
Section ID examines a range of issues related to the only touched on here
articulation between education, training and the
Lifelong learning can perform at least three func-
labour market The focus is on the weaknesses and
tions with regard to transitions to and from work It
structural barriers that block transitions, particularly
provides the foundations of values, knowledge, skills
to and from employment Questions are raised about
and qualifications that facilitate initial access to the
trade-offs between equity and efficiency, and the role
labour market It offers an avenue to obtaining new
of governments vis-à-vis that of other stakeholders
Section E addresses the transition from education or skills and qualifications that improve re-entry_ pos-
training to the labour market, and considers particu- sibilities for those who have become unemployed or
larly the advantages and disadvantages of employer- underemployed, or who have voluntarily left the
led and education-led systems of vocational educa- labour market for a while Thirdly, lifelong learning
tion Section F reviews the role of adult education provides the conditions and means for the continuing
and continuing vocational training in flexible labour formation and updating of the skills of the employed
markets, for example, in facilitating the transition labour force, at least in some cases, facilitating
from one lob to another, and considers the wider within-firm and lob-to-lob mobility This chapter
social returns to all adult education For each of the addresses these three functions and seeks answers to
pathways and transitions considered, the chapter the following questions Are the current levels and
reviews the impact of recent policy initiatives and the current direction of investment adequate to meet
their contribution to the coherence of the overall sys- the requirements of a coherent approach to lifelong
tem and smooth transition to employment Section G learning for all? What should be the proper balance
examines arguments for the value of education to between general and vocational education, both in
employers, to individuals and to society Finally, Sec- initial and in further education and training) Given
tion H offers conclusions and directions for the objectives of lifelong learning specified in Chap-
policy ter 2, what changes in education and training systems
might improve the transitions from school to work,
from unemployment to employment, and from one
B. THE POLICY QUESTIONS AND ISSUES
lob to another)
Transitions between the world of learning and
the world of work take several forms from home to These three broad questions are analysed by
school, from school to work, and from work back to examining evidence regarding the scope and magni-
education To this must be added "learning while tude of problems in lifelong learning and work transi-
working" and "working while learning" This chapter tions, and how these differ among OECD countries
considers the progressions between different pro- The conditions and arrangements that put young peo-
grammes and levels of education and different labour ple at risk in these transitions are identified The
market conditions Some of the policy issues, for chapter also studies the policies, strategies and inno-
example the structures of differentiation and the vations that countries have undertaken, and the
nature and role of secondary curricula in facilitating forms of government intervention that are likely to
the transitions, were discussed in Chapter 3 This increase the efficiency and equity of pathways, transi-
chapter concentrates on the transitions from educa- tions and outcomes The issues addressed here are
tion to work and vice versa To date, the policy analy- large, complex and to an extent country-specific,
ses and research studies conducted in the area of life- so that complete and universally valid answers can-
cycle transitions have examined the narrow set of not be obtained But analysis of the issues provides
issues described below The intention here is to pre- many insights not least by revealing the gaps in the
sent the "state of the art" of an underdeveloped yet comparative knowledge base about transitions in life-
1124 important field Further analyses would include the long learning and work
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

C. TYPES OF PATHWAYS AND TRANSITIONS Pathways within initial education and training
IN LIFELONG LEARNING AND WORK systems

This section describes four major types of transi- Table 1.9 in Chapter shows the distribution of
1

tion: from one education or learning institution or upper secondary students in general and vocational
programme to another; from education to work; from education and apprenticeship programmes from 1975
unemployment or inactivity to work; and from one job to 1992. It provides one indication of the pathways
to another. The limited descriptive statistics, which leading through general and vocational education.
are offered here without much analysis, are intended Chart 4.1 indicates that there is considerable varia-
to provide the background. The data are used for tion among countries. For five of the 16 countries for
analytical purposes in subsequent sections. which data are available, the share of students in

Chart 4. I. Upper secondary students enrolled in public and private general and
vocational education, 1992'''''s
Percentage

11/ General education 1=I Vocational education and apprenticeship

Germany

Austria

Switzerland

Netherlands

Italy

Norway

Belgium

United Kingdom

Denmark

Finland

France

Turkey

Spain

Japan

Australia

New Zealand

0 20 40 60 BO 100

I. Students enrolled in special training colleges (about 100 000 in the relevant age group) not included in Japanese data.
2. Data for Denmark and Germany include part-time education.
3. Students enrolled in special education not included in the data for France and Spain.
4. Figures for programmes lasting less than three years not reported in Italian data.
5. Vocational course figures are inflated by large numbers of adults taking courses at the upper secondary level in the United Kingdom.
Source OECD Education Database. _125.
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

vocational education was high in 1992 In Austria, must be examined in the context of the requirements
Germany, Italy, the Netherlands and Switzerland, for lifelong learning
more than two-thirds of all students in upper secon-
dary education were enrolled in programmes classi-
fied as vocational or technical In three countries Transitions from education to employment
Australia, Japan and New Zealand - about a quarter and other activities
or less of the students were in such programmes In The transition from education to work and other
the other countries, between 40 and 60 per cent of the activities takes place at different ages This can be
students were enrolled in vocational upper secondary inferred from the net full-time enrolment rates in sec-
education ondary and tertiary education and training given in
Table 4 shows the trend in the share of voca-
I Annex Table A 47. and can be illustrated by using the
tional and technical education in total enrolment in concept of median school-leaving age the age by
upper secondary education Two periods are distin- which 50 per cent of the relevant age groups have left
guished 1975-84 and 1984-92 japan was the only full-time secondary education There is considerable
country where the relative importance of vocational dispersion across the countries The unweighted
education diminished over both periods, a develop- median for all countries is at age 19, but in some
ment consistent with the redirection of policy in a countries (Australia. Greece. New Zealand and the
framework for lifelong learning (see Chapter 3) The United Kingdom), it is at 18, whereas in some others
share of vocational education increased in Austria. (Belgium, Denmark, France, Netherlands and
Denmark, the Netherlands and Norway No discerni- Switzerland) it is attained at age 20
ble change, or very minor fluctuations, were observed At age 17 the age by which compulsory educa-
for Finland, France, Germany, Spain, Switzerland and tion has ended in most countries - on average three-
Turkey As argued in Chapter I, these developments quarters of all young people are in school on a full-
time basis Countries in which enrolment at age 17 is
well above average are Belgium (where compulsory
education ends at age 18), Denmark, Finland, France,
Germany, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden and
Table 4 I Trend in the share of vocational
and technical education In total upper secondary
Switzerland In the Nordic countries, on average,
enrolment' 15 per cent of the 17-year-olds have left full-time
schooling behind Chart 4 2 shows that, in 1992, the
Time period enrolment rates are above 90 per cent in three coun-
1975-84 1984-92 tries Belgium, Germany and the Netherlands Nearly
one in three 17-year-olds in New Zealand and Spain
Pacific Area are no longer enrolled in the regular school system
Japan
European Community A particular problem of transition is associated
Denmark with early school-leaving This term can be defined as
France 0 0
leaving the formal system before completing a full
Germany 0 0
Italy 0 cycle of upper secondary education or acquiring a
Netherlands recognised vocational qualification Although com-
Spain 0 0
pletion rates from initial schooling have increased
Other Europe - OECD since the mid-1980s (see Chapter I ), it can be inferred
Austria
Finland 0 0 from the net enrolment rates shown in Annex
Norway Table A 18 that, in 1994, a significant number of
Sweden
Switzerland 0
young persons still leave school without a qualifica-
0
Turkey 0 0 tion This is a major failing of education and training
Note Data not available
systems, since lifelong learning opportunities for this
I Based on percentage of upper secondary students enrolled in public group are severely constrained
and private general and vocational education, 1975-92
Legend Over 5 per cent of 14-year-olds were no longer
+' means increasing enrolment in vocational education
enrolled in full-time secondary education, in 1994, in
'0 means no discernible or non-significant change in vocational
enrolment, Denmark, Greece and Mexico (Annex Table A 18) In
-'
means decreasing enrolment in vocational education
some countries where the legal school-leaving age
Sources OECD Education Database and Table 19 in Chapter I
1126 was 16 years in 1992, the enrolment rate of 16- and
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Chart 4.2. Net full-time enrolment rates for I7-year-olds, 19921'2

100 100

80 80

60 60

40 40

20 .
. 20

C a C
a )7,
b.)
a 1: C
C
12 U tl z Un
LL

O
U,

I. Total enrolments in secondary and tertiary education.

2. If part-time students are considered, the enrolment rates are substantially higher in the United Kingdom. In 1992,20 per cent of 17-year-olds were enrolled on a

part-time basis.
Source: OECD Education Database.

17-year-olds was still above 90 per cent; in other acertificate for several countries, provides further evi-
countries the retention rate in secondary schooling dence of the scale of school failure that must be
began to decline steeply once schooling was no addressed if programmes of lifelong learning are to
longer compulsory for all students. According to the be implemented.
OECD lobs Study (OECD, 1994d), Norway is one of In the absence of internationally comparable sta-
the few countries in which less than 10 per cent of tistics, it is useful to refer to data for individual coun-
20-year-olds have received less than an upper secon- tries, to gain a broader perspective on the nature as
dary education. Table 4.2, which shows the percent- well as extent of "drop-our, a term used in different
age of students leaving secondary education without ways and contexts:
Some countries refer to retention in upper sec-
Table 4.2. Percentage of students leaving secondary ondary, post-compulsory schooling. In Japan,
education without a certificate "of those who graduated from lower secondary
schools in March 1993, 96.2 per cent advanced
Leavers
without certificate
to upper secondary schools or colleges of
technology in April 1993" (Japanese Ministry of
Finland I 1992 12 Education, Science and Culture, 1994). In the
France 1986 19 United Kingdom (England), the staying-on rate
Germany 1988 12
36
beyond compulsory schooling "is now 73 per
Greece 1987
Ireland 1989 9 cent, rising to 80 per cent when part-time
Italy 1988 11 study is taken into account. In Scotland, the
Netherlands 1986 26
Spain 1988 23
current figure for full-time post-compulsory
United Kingdom 1989 8 education is 82 per cent" (OFSTED, 1994).
I. Drop-outs per 100 students in upper secondary schools and vocational Other countries use "drop-out" to denote
and professional upper secondary institutions those students who leave before completion of
Sources: OECD (1993a) and EURYDICE (1994b) 1271
compulsory or all of secondary education. In
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

France. "of the generation born in 1968 (the those leaving full-time junior secondary voca-
latest one to complete its education), 8 per tional education, general secondary education
cent left school at 16" (French Ministry of Edu- and pre-university education do so without
cation. 1994) In Australia, the year 12 (end of any qualifications However, 52 per cent of
secondary school) completion rate reached an these leavers go straight on to part-time edu-
estimated 72 per cent in 1992 The "apparent cation (some eventually to acquire qualifica-
retention rate" of secondary school students tions)" (Dutch Ministry of Education and Sci-
to year 12 (i e the estimated proportion of the ence, 1989) In Germany, "the percentage
cohort entering secondary schooling who con- leaving school without any certificate has
tinued to year 12) was 77 per cent in 1992 stabilised at about 6 per cent However, about
(Australian Education Council, 1992) In one-quarter of these persons obtain the
Sweden, "a survey carried out by Statistics apprenticeship certificate" (OECD 1994d)
Sweden in Spring 1987 among 20-year-olds, While it is not possible to be precise, a few
four years after they left compulsory schooling, generalisations might be drawn An estimate of drop-
showed the following results 77 per cent had out referring to the "theoretical" age of secondary
completed upper secondary school, 4 per cent school completion fails to take into account that
had never entered a programme in the upper some young people complete secondary schooling
secondary school but were studying in special later than the "theoretical" age and qualifications
courses, 9 per cent had entered, but never may be acquired in ways other than through comple-
completed, upper secondary school, 10 per tion of upper secondary schooling A reasonable
cent had never applied or been admitted to question is whether delayed alternatives to schooling
upper secondary school" (Swedish Ministry of at the "upper secondary" level are, in fact.
Education and Science, 1992) In the United "equivalent" The motives for drop-out vary, but
States, by 1992, 11 6 per cent of the 8th-grade include perceptions of a lack of relevance and limited
class of 1988 were neither enrolled nor had success in schooling (as reported from surveys carried
received a high school diploma or equivalent out in the United Kingdom) as well as possibilities for
credential 1992 would have been the "theoret- employment (one of the explanations in the Dutch
ical year" of secondary school completion for case) It is not possible to judge the extent to which
these young adults (US Department of Educa- the drop-out situation has changed, and importantly,
tion. 1994b) However, it is noted that this may why improvement or deterioration may have
overstate the eventual rate of attainment in occurred Attention is inevitably drawn to responses
the United States "Of those in the 10th-grade on the part of education authorities le g Education
class of 1980 (who should, 'theoretically', have Priority Programme in the Netherlands, education pri-
graduated in 1982), 83 6 completed on time (in ority areas (ZEP) in France] or to broader economic
1982), 8 3 per cent completed between 1982 and social developments (including sustained, high
and 1986, and 17 per cent completed by 1992. levels of youth unemployment)
An estimated 7 per cent dropped out and did
High drop-out rates may signal a range of
not eventually complete secondary schooling"
problems, such as unattractive schooling environ-
(US Department of Education, 19946)
ments, lack of motivation in students, values and
For a third group of countries, available data beliefs that cast doubt on the relevance of schooling,
refer specially to leaving school before the or limited success in initial learning Some students
acquisition of vocational qualifications In may drop out because they expect to be better off
Denmark, "7 per cent of a year group do not without finishing the education programme At least
continue in the education system after basic part of the problem of early school-leaving stems
school ( ) Of the 93 per cent of a year group from inappropriate education policies and practices
who commence a course of education after For example, policies in many countries favour young
basic school, only 77 per cent complete it" people who seek to continue in tertiary education,
Not all of these post-compulsory courses lead they are not focused on those at risk of dropping out
directly to vocational qualifications, so "in Nearly half of the OECD countries require no more
total, it is 25 per cent of a year group who do than nine years of compulsory schooling, in three-
not get any vocationally-qualifying education" quarters of the countries, compulsory schooling ends
(Danish Ministry of Education, 1993) In the at age 14, 15 or 16 (see Table 3 3) Policies to combat
1128 Netherlands, "in 1985/86, 29 7 per cent of dropping out should target such conditions
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

The problem of early school-leaving extends fur- rates occur in the "continental" European countries,
ther than policies governing the age of compulsory where provision of upper secondary education is very
school attendance. As mentioned in Chapters 1 different from that in the English-speaking countries.
and 3, social factors also contribute: poverty, ethnic There are separate institutions for vocational training
minority status, and factors in the home environment and education as well as dual systems; in addition,
such as level of family education, and quality of hous- governments and educational institutions in these
ing. Other factors include poor knowledge of the countries have a long tradition of highly organised
majority language, the type of school attended, the support systems that take responsibility for young
location of the school and wider community influ- people who are at risk of early school-leaving.
ences. The schools themselves also play a role. Early Strategies for combating early school-leaving
school-leaving may be caused by the school "ethos" have focused on diversifying upper secondary educa-
as reflected in the programmes of study, school tion to meet a wider spectrum of learning needs and
organisation, and the incentives or disincentives fac- student preferences. Recent actions in this vein
ing the individual. Rumberger (1995), using data from include: targeting pupils with learning disabilities
the US National Educational Longitudinal Survey of (Belgium); curriculum reforms aimed at overcoming
1988, found that a number of family and school expe- inequities across different socio-economic groups
rience factors influence the decision of adolescents to with different risks of dropping out at an early age
leave school, with class repeating being the single (Ireland); changes in governance providing for greater
most powerful predictor. At the institutional level, the school autonomy; involvement of parents and indus-
study revealed that mean drop-out rates vary widely try in new partnerships (Portugal); and the pursuit of
between schools, and that much of the variation can a "standards-driven" approach to educational reform.
be explained by differences in the background charac-
Additional indicators of the transition from
teristics of students.
school to work are the youth labour force participa-
The enrolment rates in full-time education tion and unemployment data given in Chart 4.3. In
shown in Chart 4.2 suggest that the highest retention five countries, the youth participation rate mea-

i.2
Chart 4,3. Youth labour force participation and unemployment, 1994
Percentage

Youth unemployment rate Youth labour force participation rate

Youth unemployment rate Youth labour force participation rate

45 80

40 70

35
60
30
SO

25
40
20
30
15

20
10

10
5

0
no
E
7
E
-0 2
a 71 LL
E tl Cn at
7

I. Youth refers to ages 15-24. Unemployment and labour force participation rates are defined in accordance with OECD Labour Force Statistics.
2. 1993 data for Belgium, Denmark, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Portugal and the United Kingdom.
Source: OECD (1995j), Employment Outlook, Table B, p. 205. See also Annex Table A.48. 1291
 IJFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Table 4 3 lob turnover and labour turnover,' 1985 and 1991

(annual rates as a percentage of total employment)

Unit of observation lob turnover2 Share of lob turnover

Labour turnover in labour tumover
1985 1991
(per cent)

Australia Establishments (manufacturing) 29 33

Canada Firms 23 3° 30 4° 752 (89014 34 84
Denmark Establishments 30 05 28 55 57 95 45 05
Finland Establishments 19 56 25 3 776 25 76
France Firms 23 87 25 67 587 12 47
Germany Establishments 16 68 16 38 56 18 28 78
Italy Firms 22 8 20 19 68 19 31 29
la pan Establishments (continuing) 7 810 36 6 21 3
Netherlands Based on labour flows 19 311 24 711 31811
3712
Sweden Establishments 30 8 28 4 37
United Kingdom Establishments 17 513 14 413 40 013 59 3
United States Establishments 19 71° 23 314 436 (quart 114 3081°

Note Data not available

lob turnover is the sum of changes in employment levels across all firms or establishments Labour turnover measures change in individuals among lobs
1

Greater total lob turnover should be associated with higher labour turnover but high labour turnover needs not to be the result of high lob turnover
2 Sampling months/periods vary across countries Periods are as follows Australia, lune, Canada annual averages, Denmark November Finland annual
averages France, November, Germany lune, Italy, December Japan lanuary-lune, Netherlands, September Sweden November, United Kingdom, March-
une, United States lune (biannual)
3 For manufacturing only lob turnover for 1984-85
4 ob tumover is an average of 1984-85 and 1985-86 and 1989-90 Labour turnover figures in brackets include temporary hirings and separations
5 ob turnover is an average of 1985-86 and 1986-87 and 1989-90 Labour turnover and share for manufacturing only for 1984-85 to 199091
6 ob turnover for 1986-88 Labour turnover for 1984 Share based on lob turnover 1986-88 and labour turnover 1984
7 ob turnover is an average of 1984-85 and 1985-86 and 1989-90 Labour turnover based on continuing establishments only
8 ob turnover is a weighted average of 10 511982-831+ 1983-84 +0 511984-8511 and 10 511988 -891 + 11989 -9011 Labour turnover refers to 1985 and the share of
abour turnover accounted for by lob turnover for 1980-85
9 ob turnover is an average of 1990-91 and 1991-92 Labour turnover for 198591
10 ob turnover for 1984
II ob turnover for 1990 constructed from labour market flows Data on share of labour turnover for 1990
12 Share of lob turnover in labour turnover for manufacturing only using lob turnover
13 lob turnover for 1985-87 and 1989-91 Labour turnover for manufacturing only and the share of labour turnover for manufacturing uses lob turnover for
1987-89
14 Data on lob turnover are an average of 1980-82 and 1982-84 and 1989-91 Share of ph turnover in labour turnover for 1979-83
Source OECD 11995w), Employment dynamics in firms , mimeo, Employment Labour and Social Affairs Committee Paris

In Japan, as a consequence of the long-term ten- latter are larger than those in the former Data on
ure system, the stability of employment and the fos- inflows and outflows reveal that in many countries.
tering and application of higher skills and competen- the increased duration of unemployment resulted
cies of employees in firms have been promoted, and from a relative decline in outflows Relatively low and
these have been the driving forces of high economic falling outflows may be an indication of employers'
growth Therefore, the low rate of turnover does not reluctance to hire, owing to, inter alga, the high cost
indicate a weakness in lifelong learning or the acqui- of dismissals (OECD, 1994c and 1994d) As shown in
sition of skills The importance of long-term tenure Chapter I, unemployment rates in Europe are now
has not changed until very recently, and the promo- close to 10 per cent, while in the United States they
tion of the fluidity of the labour market does not are substantially lower
necessarily contribute to the protection of workers Annex Table A 49 shows that the flow rate into
and the facilitation of lifelong learning unemployment, in 1994, was particularly high in
Canada, Denmark, Finland and the United States In
Transitions between employment all four countries, more than 15 per cent of the
and unemployment employed workforce became unemployed each
month The Nordic countries excepted, the flow into
One component of labour turnover are flows into unemployment in Europe and Japan is lower, com-
and out of unemployment These differ widely among prising less than 0 5 per cent of the workforce
OECD countries, particularly between Europe and Australia and New Zealand are somewhere in
between The inflow rates into unemployment for 1311
North America As shown in Chart 4 5, flows in the
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

2
Chart 4.4. Enterprise tenure,' 1 99 1

Median/Average tenure in years Percentage of employees with tenure less than I year

E Median tenure
I 1:3 Average tenure Under I year
12 30

10 25

8 20

6 15

4 10

2 5

0 0

C
LL

I. The data are not perfectly comparable across countries, because of differences in data sources, population and sector coverage, reference years, and definitions. For
more details, consult the source.
2. 1989 data for Norway, 1990 data for Germany, apan and the Netherlands and 1992 data for Spain.
Source: OECD (1993b), Employment Outlook,Table 4.1, p. 121.

Chart 4,5. Monthly flow into unemployment, 99 3 1 2 3

5
0 Total 0 15-24 Ratio 15-25/Total
5

4 4

3 3

2 2

0 r C -o
0

C
2 '13 2 0)

O ea C

I. Inflows refer to those unemployed for less than one month (two months in the case of Finland).
2. As a percentage of the working-age population (15-64 years) less the unemployed.
3. For some countries, data may refer to 1992 or 1994. For details see Annex Table A.49.
[132 Source: OECD (1995j), Employment Outlook,Table 1.9, pp. 27-28.
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

youth aged 15-24 years are generally double the rates Table 4 4 summarises the main findings on
observed for the entire labour force This is another indicators of pathway use in education and the transi-
indication of the difficulties experienced by many tion from school to work with the notions "low",
youths in finding stable employment The incidence "medium" and "high" A comparison of the entries in
of unemployment in the United States and Canada is the different columns reveals that all of the four coun-
thus almost three times that of Europe and Japan In tries which have both "low" youth unemployment and
the United States the burden of unemployment is a "high" rate of participation in secondary vocational
much more evenly distributed over the workforce than education Austria, Germany, Luxembourg and
in Europe, where a large share of the labour force has Switzerland all have employer-led systems of voca-
low risk of unemployment, and a small share are tional training (see also Annex Table A 51) The only
long-term unemployed other country classified as having a "high" rate of
secondary vocational preparation is Italy, where the
European countries are in general characterised
system is led by educational institutions, and here
not so much by low labour turnover rates but by low
the rate of youth unemployment is high Japan and
inflows and outflows from unemployment The char-
Norway, the only other two countries where youth
acter of labour turnover may also differ, with labour
unemployment is classified as "low", also have edu-
turnover tending to be concentrated in relatively
cation-led systems of vocational education, with low
fewer positions in Europe than in North America
and medium rates of participation The latter two
(OECD, I 995 w) Though flows into and out of unem-
countries have, however, experienced favourable eco-
ployment are apparently significantly lower in a num-
nomic conditions during much of the 1980s and early
ber of European countries than in North America.
1990s The pattern in the data implies that a high rate
there are indications that lob-to-lob flows play an
of participation in vocational education is associated
important role in some European countries (OECD,
with low youth unemployment if the vocational train-
I 995 w) With respect to the transition between
ing system is employer-led Otherwise, a high rate of
employment and unemployment, there is a cleavage
participation in secondary vocational education is not
between European countries and Japan on the one
related to the level of youth unemployment
hand and the United States, Canada and the Nordic
countries on the other In three of the eleven countries where youth
unemployment is high, the median school-leaving
The implications of these data have not fully
age is early, in the six others the median age is about
been analysed High labour turnover (including lob-
average These findings suggest that there is no clear
to-lob flows) in general provides some advantages, relationship between school-leaving age and youth
such as flexible reallocation of resources across firms
unemployment There is also apparently a weak rela-
However, it may also reduce the investment in tionship between the school-leaving age and the
employer-based knowledge and skills because youth labour force participation rate in three coun-
employers less certain of reaping the benefits Limits
tries the participation rate is high whereas the
on the incentives for investment in employer-based
median school-leaving age is early, for five others the
training stemming from high labour turnover former is high and the latter medium to high
represent a weakness in the provision of lifelong
learning opportunities High flows and short spells of
unemployment may be more efficient from the point D. PATHWAYS IN FORMAL EDUCATION
of view of the operation of the labour market than, for AND THEIR LINKS TO LABOUR MARKETS
example, a combination of low incidence and dura- This section considers whether the evidence
tion This is because unemployment erodes the value available shows that the organisation of pathways in
of human capital and countries'
education and training systems
In summary, this section has provided empirical approaches to differentiating types and levels of insti-
baseline information on pathways in education and tution, and to sorting and selecting students have
transitions between education and employment consequences for achieving the obiectives of lifelong
Some indication of a relationship between types of learning The section also considers the place of voca-
education and training systems, early school-leaving tional education, the extent and nature of differentia-
rates, and youth unemployment rates are also pro- tion, how and at what age it occurs, the ease of entry
vided It is clear that there are major deficiencies in and what role, if any, social background plays in the
the provision of lifelong learning for a small but sig- selection process The flexibility or rigidity of student
differentiation in Member countries is also examined, 1331
nificant percentage of the youth cohort
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Table 4 4 Summary indicators of pathways in education and transitions to employment

Pathways use Transition from school to work'

Share of students
Median
in upper Youth Youth labour force
school-leaving
secondary vocational unemployment participation
age
education

North America
Canada Medium High High
United States Medium Medium High
Pacific Area
Australia Low Low High High
Japan Low Low Medium
New Zealand Low Low Medium High
European Community
Belgium Medium Medium High Low
Denmark Medium High Medium High
France Medium High High Low
Germany (FTFR) High Low High
Greece Low High Low
Ireland Medium High Medium
Italy High High Low
Luxembourg? High Low Medium
Netherlands High High Medium High
Portugal Medium Medium
Spain Medium Medium High Medium
United Kingdom Medium Low High High
Other Europe - OECD
Austria High Low High
Finland Medium Medium High Low
Norway Medium Medium Low High
Sweden Medium High Medium
Switzerland High High Low Medium
Turkey Medium Low Medium Medium

Note Data not available

1 The countries are classified on the basis of the 1993 data provided in Annex Table A 49 Youth unemployment is considered Low" if it is under 10 per cent
Medium' rates are those between 10 and 15 per cent and 'High' rates are those over 15 per cent Youth labour force participation rates are considered
Low beLow 45 per cent 'Medium between 45 and 55 per cent 'High above 55 per cent
2 The rating from Luxembourg is based on 1988 data (OECD, 1992t)
Source OECD Education Database

for example in terms of accommodating student which build on the basic and meta-cognitive skills,
choice Given the objectives of lifelong learning imparted by schooling The trajectory from general to
inclusion, equity and efficiency and noting the vocational skills differs widely among OECD coun-
evidence on the effects of good quality education and tries Chapter 3 concluded that not all the more spe-
training, what is or should be the role of governments cific vocational skills need to be developed prior to
in improving pathways and facilitating progressions') employment, in fact, there is a widespread consensus
about the value of general knowledge and competen-
cies as laying the foundation for the acquisition of
Approaches to differentiation in education
specific vocational skills at the workplace This con-
systems
sensus notwithstanding, OECD countries differ in the
Chapter 3 described how education systems vary following six respects
in the way they differentiate between type and level of Extent and nature of differentiation School
education and training, and in the way they sort and systems differ in the age at which students
select students All school systems teach the basic choose or are directed into separate schools or
cognitive skills (reading, writing, elementary mathe- separate curricula, criteria may include, for
matics) in the first grades Labour market participa- example, differences in cognitive abilities or
1134 tion requires generic and more vocational skills, the vocational interests of students A major
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

issue here is the degree of choice available to direct government activity may be involved Little is
students and families known about the effects of such differences on equi-
Flexibility or rigidity of differentiation In some table outcomes or the efficiency of producing the
systems, choices have to be made at an early desired individual and labour market results
age and are virtually irreversible In others, Table 4 5 summarises certain characteristics of
choices are made later or permit flexibility in differentiation in the initial education systems of
changing earlier choices Member countries Compulsory education starts at
Ease of entry Some systems are more or less age 6 in most countries The first structural differenti-
open, with students enjoying easy access to ation of pupils takes place in either lower or upper
the schools of their choice Others are more or secondary education On average, it occurs at the age
less closed, with strong selectivity at entry of 14 years Countries with early differentiation
levels for advanced learning include Austria, Belgium, Germany. Ireland, the
Positioning of vocational education In some Netherlands, Turkey, the United Kingdom and the
education systems vocational education is United States In contrast, in Australia, Canada.
positioned at the secondary level, in other Denmark. Finland, New Zealand, Norway and Sweden.
systems it occurs increasingly at the post- the first structural differentiation occurs at a relatively
secondary level of education Some appren- older age and has more to do with individual interest
ticeship programmes combine schooling with than assumed or estimated ability levels On average,
on-the -lob training and work experience Cer- students can choose between three and four different
tain countries notably Germany and the types of educational institutions at the first stage of
Netherlands have seen an increase of enrol- differentiation It will be noted that Japan has six
ment in post-secondary institutions with a options to choose from and Italy seven
strong "applied" character, in a shift away
from the specific vocational tracks and pro- The factors determining differentiation cannot be
grammes formerly considered as "terminal" inferred with certainty, but are likely to include talent
education (OECD, I994g and 1994k) and ability, interest and motivation, and social
and home background Kellaghan et al (1993) and
Quality of educational services In some sys-
tems there are large quality differences Maynard (1995) conclude that family background
between schools and between classes within exerts a strong set of influences on the educational
schools, whereas in others the differences are success of children, some of which are direct and
less marked (see OECD, 994h) The wider dis-
I
enduring for example, those resulting directly from
persion of quality in certain systems implies the socio-economic status of the family and the phys-
that greater effort in enforcing a uniformly ical environment of the home Factors such as the
high-quality level of provision is required The amount and quality of time parents spend with their
sharing of the benefits of successful innovative children, the number and spacing of children,
approaches on a larger scale by all institutions changes in the composition of family and residential
is an important avenue for improving quality mobility have more episodic influence
Nature of the transition to the labour market
In some systems there is a gradual transition The structure of pathways
from education and training to the labour mar-
ket, whereas in others the transition is more The different pathways between organised learn-
discrete This juxtaposition mirrors the ing and work in OECD countries, both during and
involvement of employers in vocational train- after initial education and training, are described by
ing In the former, employers frequently take three illustrative or stylised types of situations or
the lead in developing partnerships that can "models", which do not necessarily correspond fully
be characterised as employer-led When the to the experience of any specific country Actual coun-
transition from school to work is of a more try experiences are staged, in reality, across a contin-
discrete nature. educational institutions are in uum rather than three discrete "models" The pur-
a dominant position vis-a-vis employers, that pose of this stylised description is to highlight certain
is, education-led patterns of interconnection between institutional
Differentiation varies not only in type and timing, arrangements, qualification structures, and labour
1351
but also in extent, regulation, subsidisation and/or market outcomes
rco -0
O

Table 4 5 Differentiation characteristics in Initial education and training, 1992

Compulsory schooling age First differentiation Initial Vocational education zz

By ability During
From To
Levels or
At age By 111tPe From age To age compulsory Form
level types
schooling

North America
Canada 6 6 8 Yes Yes 4 8 27 No Vocational colleges
United States 6 7 2 Yes No 5 8 20 No Community colleges
Pacific Area
Australia' 6 5 6 No Yes 3 6 8 No Traineeships
Japan 6 5 5 Yes Yes 6 5 8 No Vocational education
New Zealand 6 6 8 Yes Yes 5 5 8 Yes Vocational education
European Community
Belgium (Flemish) 6 8 2 Yes Yes 2 2 8 Yes Vocational education
Belgium (French) 6 8 2 Yes Yes 2 2 8 Yes Vocational education
Denmark 7 6 6 No Yes 3 6 8 No Vocational education
France 6 6 5 Yes Yes 3 5 8 No Vocational education and apprenticeship
Germany 6 8 0 Yes 5 6 9 Yes Vocational education and apprenticeship
Greece 5 5 5 14 5 Yes Yes 4 14 5 17 5 No Vocational education
Ireland 6/7 5 2 Yes Yes 3 5 8 No Vocational education and apprenticeship
Italy 6 4 4 Yes Yes 7 4 9 No Vocational education
Netherlands 5 6 3 Yes Yes 4 6 9 No Vocational education and apprenticeship
Portugal 6 4 5 Yes Yes 2 5 7 No Vocational education
Spain 6 6 4 Yes Yes 2 4 7 No Vocational education
United Kingdom2 5 6 I Yes No 2 - -
Other Europe - OECD
Austria 6 5 0 Yes No 2 14 19 No Apprenticeship
Finland 7 6 6 Yes Yes 2 16 19 No Vocational education
Norway 7 6 6 Yes No 2 16 18 No Vocational education and apprenticeship
Sweden 7 6 6 Yes Yes 3 16 19 No Vocational education and apprenticeship
Switzerland 6/7 5 5 Yes Yes 4 15 18 No Vocational education and apprenticeship
Turkey 6 5 2 Yes Yes 5 12 15 Yes Vocational education and apprenticeship
Note -
Not applicable
1 Form includes trameeship, apprenticeship and technical and further education colleges
2 Since 1992 new vocational qualifications have been introduced
Sources OECD 11995d1 Education at a Glance OECD Indicators, and national submissions to OECD
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Model I represents a situation where vocational of both, and most seek to progress towards the third
education is underdeveloped and where general edu- model
cation and vocational education (to the extent that The French system, for instance, is close to
the latter exists) are distinct and mutually isolated
Model 2 in that vocational-technical progression
Transition from school to work is regulated either routes have been organised in the form of secondary
through the labour market (low youth wages, absence and tertiary technical education, and that transition
of occupationally segmented markets) or through to employment at this intermediary level (and from
ad hoc programmes Learning on the lob and internal
traditional vocational education and apprenticeship
labour markets allow workers to advance to higher in some areas of activity) takes place on the basis of
levels of responsibility and remuneration Credentials
strong traditional links between educational certifi-
are obtained mainly in initial schooling and ternary
cates and industrial classifications (OECD, 1994c)
education Nevertheless, the French system also has features of
Model 2 shows a configuration in which general Model I, in that increasing numbers of young people
education and vocational education are, again, unsuccessfully try to enter the labour market without
organised in mutually isolated tracks Vocational edu- any occupationally relevant certificate either directly
cation, however, is highly developed at the post- after general or vocational secondary education or
compulsory stage and is closely linked to the labour after an incomplete tertiary education
market Effective linkages between education and
Although no national education system is alto-
employment are created through organised combina-
gether close to Model 3, it can be used as a goal for
tions of school- and work-based learning, through
lifelong learning Most countries currently appear to
industry involvement in the design of curricula and
be seeking ways to approach it The diversification of
certificates, and through close correspondence
the vocational-technical routes in many European
between educational qualifications and lob classifica-
countries illustrates this tendency The Netherlands is
tions Progression in this model takes place through
illuminating in that it continues to have a highly
prolonged routes of formal education and training,
structured and non-unified system of general and
both general and vocational Both types of tracks lead
vocational education, but has gone far to provide
to recognised qualifications, but they are associated
bridges back and forth between the two streams in
with different destinations and there are no links
secondary education The Netherlands is also of
between them
interest because it is among the few countries that
Model 3 represents a situation appropriate to a have recently been able to attract more young people
lifelong learning strategy in which the different into vocational than general education at the secon-
branches of education and training are connected by dary level (OECD, 1994k) This seems to be partly due
a series of "bridges" and "ladders" at all stages and to the widespread perception that young people who
levels of post-compulsory, tertiary and adult educa- leave secondary education with vocational qualifica-
tion and training This situation also suggests a fluid tions have better chances of finding satisfactory
relationship between learning and work, where an ini- employment in the long term Another explanation
tial period of full-time schooling is followed through- may be that these vocational programmes at the sec-
out working life by sequences and combinations of ondary level are no longer "terminal", in that success-
organised learning on or off the job, which accom- ful graduates can pursue further studies at either the
pany or alternate with part- or full-time work secondary or post-secondary levels The possibility of
switching among different vocational programmes
National configurations of education and training and between general and vocational tracks thus does
pathways more than enable young people in vocational educa-
tion to progress to higher levels of vocational-
As noted above, current systems in OECD coun-
technical education or eventually continue into terti-
tries do not exactly fit any of these three stylised and
ary education It allows young people at any stage of
descriptive models; they can, however, be examined
post-compulsory education who decide not to pro-
in terms of their relative closeness or dissimilarity
ceed to the next level to turn to a relevant vocational
Historically, some English-speaking and southern
programme providing recognised labour market
European countries come close to Model I, whereas
qualifications
the education and training systems in the German-
speaking countries traditionally have been close to Other steps towards Model 3 can be observed in
1371
Model 2 In reality, all systems incorporate elements countries where the borderline between secondary
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

and post-secondary education has become increas- way They lead most often, and most successfully,
ingly blurred through the development of multi- from general education to higher levels of technical
purpose further education since the 1960s Commu- education
nity Colleges in North America, Technical and Further
The general absence of bridges between voca-
Education (TAFE) in Australia, and further education
tional secondary and non-technical tertiary education
colleges in the United Kingdom offer alternative, non-
reinforces the argument advanced in Chapter 3 for a
academic routes to tertiary education as well as voca-
convergence between general and vocational educa-
tional and technical programmes to both young peo-
tion at secondary level This is not to say that there
ple and adults It remains to be seen, however,
should be automatic parity of esteem between voca-
whether these efforts will be successful in developing
tional-technical and general academic education at
bridges to high-quality tertiary education
the tertiary level However, countries have attempted
A radical innovation in developing tracks has to strengthen upper secondary and post-secondary
been undertaken in the United Kingdom, where since vocational studies (France), created or reinforced
the mid -1980s the expansion of further education has apprenticeship-style training (Australia, Canada, Italy,
been accompanied by another fundamental move Portugal, the United Kingdom and the United States),
towards system flexibility the introduction of and increased the capacity for advanced technical
National Vocational Qualifications (NVOs) and, more studies by developing tertiary-level polytechnic insti-
recently, General National Vocational Qualifications tutions (Austria, Finland and Switzerland) A major
(GNVOs), which are seen as a bridge towards aca- thrust of new policy initiatives is to make the univer-
demic educational qualification for upper secondary sity system more flexible and responsive to the
students Together with academic qualifications emerging needs of the economy Countries have
equivalence arrangements, NVQs and GNVOs are upgraded their more technically oriented tertiary-
expected to enable young people and adults to pro- level education institutions into universities
gress via routes that combine academic and voca- (Australia and the United Kingdom), fostered institu-
tional courses or modules according to the learner's tional autonomy and competition between
choice Only longer-term experience will show polytechnics (New Zealand), and made it easier for
whether these strategies actually lead to a situation students to move between the apprenticeship system
in which vocational and academic education become and tertiary studies (Germany)
equally valuable elements in a unified system of inte-
grated routes of lifelong learning Entry into tertiary education immediately after
secondary education provides a solid basis for learn-
ing later in life, and reinforces the habit of education
Pathways through tertiary education But initial tertiary education can no longer meet
In existing provision which broadly follows Mod- potential needs for the whole of working life, and it
els I and 2, the division between vocational and gen- can be assumed that much subject-knowledge is
eral secondary education is as starkly present in most never directly applied An argument can therefore be
tertiary education The term "high-quality tertiary advanced for the postponement of part of tertiary
education" is frequently applied exclusively to "aca- education until a time when entrants are sure of the
demic" education, which is only considered to be lob- uses to which they intend to put it Alternative learn-
related if it leads to one of the traditional profes- ing models such as enterprise training, distance edu-
sions, notably medicine and law cation, adult education in the humanities, physical
An exception to the lower status accorded to
sciences and technologies, and non-formal learning
vocational or technical tertiary education are the for either lob-related or personal development pur-
French Grandes &cies However, relatively few young poses, can fulfil some of the functions of existing
people continue from secondary vocational education tertiary education structures This has implications
to technical education at the tertiary level (about for employers' recruitment policies, greater testing of
15 per cent) Only I per cent enter the Grandes applicants will be required, rather than reliance on
ecoles, via the technological baccalaureat and classes certificated tertiary education, which may or may not
preparatoires The competition among candidates be relevant
from the most selective streams of upper secondary Access to tertiary education also needs to be
education increases with the level and prestige of the kept open to as wide a section of the population as
technical education In this case, bridges and ladders possible Access courses, refresher courses and a
1138 across the two sub-systems exist, but they are one- modular approach, with full recognition of prior
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Thus, the United States established community col- Models of transition from education
leges, the United Kingdom expanded further educa- to employment
tion colleges at post-compulsory level and developed
Two modes of transition from school to the
a new qualification system, and Australia developed
labour market can be distinguished a discrete or
TAFE and embarked on the process of award restruc-
sequential one, and a gradual one The two types of
turing, which included revision of qualifications as
gradual transition are working while learning and
well as collective agreements In addition, these
learning while working The latter involves a specific
countries rely heavily on transition programmes and
form of partnership between educational institutions
active labour market policies targeted towards young
and the world of work The dual model approach was
people At the same time, they have experimented
reviewed previously, but other less systemic, exten-
with "partnerships" between schools and firms Due
sive and institutionalised forms of co-operation have
to the marked decentralisation of education, and the
emerged as well Most of these protects involve sim-
weakness or absence of collective organisation ple forms of co-operation between an enterprise and
(except in Australia), these efforts have remained less
a school (OECD, 1992e)
systematic than those in continental Europe, despite
the success of some of these experiments Work - experience placements are the most com-
mon activity in the United Kingdom, as in many other
In addition to the differences between national European countries, if only because they are often
education systems which are significant in many required by governments In France, for example, the
respects there are important similarities, which sequences educatwes en entrepnse have been a stan-
have not been mentioned Various types of imbalance dard feature of vocational upper secondary schools
testify to flaws in the articulation of the education since the late 1970s Reinforcing this link with the
systems of OECD countries high youth unemploy- workplace, visits to enterprises by students and
ment, paradoxically associated with the recruitment teachers, work-shadowing (observation of a worker's
difficulties reported by some employers for certain daily routines) and teacher secondment have become
categories of lobs, problems of transition, affecting increasingly popular But much activity also goes on
even highly-qualified young people, and the doubts within schools, notably curriculum development
cast over the role of diplomas and certificates in protects and the establishment of mini-enterprises In
recruitment and access to employment The direction the United States, significant emphasis has been
of change in OECD countries has also been placed on employers giving direct help to schools and
described All are seeking to remove the traditional students career academies, company employees
barriers between vocational and general education in acting as mentors to individual students, "adopt a
order to improve the parity of esteem between pro- school" initiatives, and donation of equipment are all
grammes and to provide better preparation for life- examples (Stern et al 1995)
,

long learning Model 3 identified some of the features Coalitions between schools and enterprises have
of a flexible system of pathways, which may serve as a been established in a variety of forms In one version,
direction for programmes of lifelong learning employers in an area agree to give lobs to students
who meet certain educational objectives, even this
form has a number of variations Big companies in
E. EDUCATION, TRAINING AND TRANSITIONS the United States are becoming more action-oriented,
TO EMPLOYMENT and inclined to launch their own programmes
rewarding innovation across an entire school system
This section reviews the advantages and disad- Other coalitions are based around programmes
vantages of different approaches to facilitating the originated by public, semi-public or other non-profit-
transition from education or training to the labour making bodies Such programmes may aim, for exam-
market The causes and consequences of transition ple, to promote enterprise in schools, improve career
problems are examined in the light of evidence on guidance and counselling services or retrain teachers
changing skill requirements Concern is directed to with co-operation from employers Such co-operation
various transitions from employment due, for exam- as well as that between schools and firms in general,
ple, to early school-leaving, career interruptions and tend to concentrate on upper secondary schooling,
returns to learning from retirement Policy issues and are designed in particular for students engaged
arise because some approaches are more successful in pre-vocational and vocational studies There is
1140 than others thus a tendency for public authorities as well as
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

employers to direct partnership efforts towards stu- Three elements are important in this regard. the rele-
dents close to making the transition from school to vance of specific skills being taught in a vocational
work field to current practices in the workplace, the
The involvement of employers in vocational edu- method of combining these specific vocational stud-
cation frequently stems from their perception of the ies with broader, and more general learning, and the
failings of an education system managed and efficiency with which young people acquire these
financed almost entirely by the public authorities skills
Three shortcomings in particular lead employers to Co-operation between vocational schools and
believe they are not getting what they require (OECD, employers can be one way of making studies more
1992e) relevant to employers' needs But employers have an
Relevance schools are criticised for running incentive to emphasise the skills they think are appli-
vocational programmes that are out of touch cable in the workplace, which may be taught at the
with the changing skills needed by industry expense of general skills How should firms be
This perception stimulates schemes to give involved in vocational education and training'? This
learners greater experience of the wider world, question can be studied by comparing education-led
and brings greater knowledge of that world and employer-led systems
into the curriculum
Standards there is an impression in some Education-led and employer-led systems
countries that educational standards have
been declining precisely when they should be In most countries and for most young people,
rising Even those who dispute this allegation the "transition" from full-time education to full-time
would generally not deny that education sys- employment is no longer a matter of crossing a short
tems still fall short of providing a high-quality bridge between two stable structures Rather, it is
and relevant education for all Employers thus part of a continuous iourney of discovery that starts
seek 'general improvement in education, for well before students leave school, and ends well after
example by adding their voices to calls for they start employment This realisation of the fluidity
schemes designed to help improve the teach- of the boundaries between education and employ-
ing of specific subjects most commonly sci- ment provides a powerful rationale for the advocacy
ence and mathematics which too few workers of lifelong learning More and more students have a
are thought to have mastered part-time job, as the figures on youth labour force
Skills employers fear that without being participation rates presented in Chart 4 3 demon-
pushed, schools, colleges and universities will strate In the United States, three-quarters of high-
go on teaching as if their students were des- school seniors are already working in their spare time,
tined for lobs in enterprises organised in old- mainly in relatively low-skilled and temporary lobs
fashioned or outdated ways This relevance Work experience of this type does not necessarily
imperative is another powerful focus for improve the chances of entering higher-quality lobs,
partnerships it is, however, beneficial to the extent that it shapes
desirable attitudes such as perseverance and team
There are conflicts between the three concerns
spirit The description of Model 3 in Section D out-
Possibly the starkest conflict is between reinforcing
lines features of a system of flexible pathways which
traditional standards and teaching "new" skills an
can help realise some of the goals of lifelong
issue taken up in Chapter 6 From these concerns, two
learning
questions can be raised that underlie the debate on
vocational education and training The first is, how In an education-led system of vocational educa-
much should be provided, and to whom.' The second tion, the emphasis is on classroom teaching of voca-
is, how should it be delivered, and what should be tional skills Employer-led systems place more
the respective roles of schools and employers') At the emphasis on learning on-the -lob with additional
heart of both issues is the problem of how to prepare instruction through formal teaching The main exam-
workers for the increasing number of occupations ple of an employer-led system of vocational prepara-
requiring combinations of technical and general com- tion is the dual system, dominant in Germany,
petence Countries that aim at improving the effi- Austria and Switzerland (OECD, 1994r) Apprentices
ciency of vocational routes would do well to ensure recruited and paid by employers spend one or two
that employers perceive those routes as appropriate days a week in vocational schools and the remainder 1411
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

with the firm, learning a trade Such employer-led "creaming off" of the most capable students by firms
systems appear to have at least five advantages offering the highest wages and the best career pros-
The drop-out rates appear to be lower than pects, which will compound existing inequities
those from formal vocational education in Because firms may be short-sighted, the number of
schools Because school failure is a major open training places will vary over the business cycle,
deterrent to achieving lifelong learning for all, resulting in too few places during a recession A fur-
lower drop-out rates may signal a comparative ther point is that a dual approach may be at odds
advantage in several respects with the goal of creating a more flexible workforce.
because it puts more emphasis on the transfer of
The learning efficiency of an employer-led sys- skills specific to one employer Employer-sponsored
tem appears to be higher than that of formal training increases internal flexibility through promo-
classroom education, because new and "appli- tion or replacement within the firm, but decreases
cable" skills are learned more rapidly and thor- external flexibility and job-to-job mobility Appren-
oughly, and students have an earlier introduc- ticeships have proved an excellent means of passing
tion to up-to-date technologies Because on specific craft skills, but are employers able to cater
constructivist learning is facilitated by the vari- for the broader body of knowledge and competencies
ety and challenge inspired by "real-world" required in many occupations today? Uncertainty
learning environments, employer-led systems about the duration of the employment and fear
are in a better position than education-led of running risks by employers may cause under-
ones to take full advantage of the new oppor- investment in the more general competencies
tunities opened up by a shift to a lifelong acquired on the job Another concern is the early
learning approach break with general education made by many students
In an employer-led system, enterprises learn following a dual track programme With more initial
about the productive qualities of students as education, there is on average a greater likelihood of
prospective workers This information is more a young person's returning to education and training
valuable than the diplomas awarded in formal as an adult On the other hand, the relatively early
schooling Although the certificates conferred age at which young people change from full-time to
by the firm at the end of the training period part-time education in a dual system may prevent
may have value as a device for signalling some of them from dropping out altogether
achievements, the firm at which the student Systemic approaches to managing the transition
receives the training benefits more from this from education to the labour market influence the
information transfer Aptitude, interest and nature and extent of early school-leaving The data
motivation to continue learning are among the suggest that countries with a well-developed system
qualities sought by employers, but they are of gradual transition from education to the labour
usually only very indirectly signalled by educa- market are more successful in preventing early
tional credentials school-leaving than countries with a discrete school-
The cost-efficiency of an employer-led system based system of transition A strategy for lifelong
may well be greater, for both governments and learning would need to take these considerations into
employers, because the total costs are lower account, within the specific national context of each
than those of providing relevant and high- country Further evidence on the ability of employer-
quality vocational preparation within the for- led systems to reduce the problems of school-to-work
mal school system transition can be inferred from Table 4 7, which gives
the unemployment rates for leavers from different
Using the enterprise as a site for education
school levels one year after dropping out In almost
and training gives students practice in learning
all countries, the unemployment rate declines as the
at the workplace, which helps to prepare them
level of education rises Among school-leavers with
for a lifetime of learning at work
lower secondary education in Australia, France,
Employer-led systems introduce a wider diversity Ireland, Spain and the United States more than a
of learning environments for students Although vari- third are unemployed one year after leaving school
ety in settings for learning is desirable from a peda- Among university graduates, the unemployment rate
gogical viewpoint, it can increase inequality, as stu- is 12 per cent or less, except in Italy and Spain In
dents in a good learning environment will fare better almost all the countries surveyed in Table 47, the
1142 than others Employer-led approaches also lead to unemployment rate among the 15- to 24-year-olds is
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Table 4 7 Unemployment rates for those leaving education at different levels, one year after leaving
(based on follow-up surveys), and unemployment rates for the total labour force

Unemployment
Unemployment for leavers from
in the labour force

Lower Upper Non-university

University
secondary secondary tertiary Age 15-24 Age 25-64
education
education education education

North America
Canada 988 8 9 18 10
United States' 991 37 12 6 8 14 7

Pacific Area
Australia2 992 33 18 9

European Community
Denmark 991 9 15 12 11 11

France3 992 57 24 8 12 21 9
Ireland° 992 35 24 21 10 23 14
Italy 992 39 33 7
Spain 991 34 36 13 26 34 15
United Kingdoms 993 15 13 15 8
Other Europe OECD
Finland 990 17 6 2 1 23 11

Sweden° 992 16 5 I I 4
Switzerland 993 3 6 7 3

Note Data not available

I The population of recent leavers was deduced from data collected by means of a retrospective household survey
2 Data for all school-leavers have been used since the statistics on transition from education to work do not distinguish between those who obtained their
Secondary School Certificate (ISCED 31 and those who did not 11SCED 21
3 Seven months after leaving education instead of one year Data for tertiary education are from 1989
4 Leavers from ISCED 2 include both persons who left full-time education alter having successfully completed ISCED 2, and persons who left school while
attending ISCED 3, but who did not complete it The data in all cases relate to short-term perspectives i e one year following departure from full-time
education Persons who left school while attending ISCED 3 but who did not complete ISCED 3 are included in the total of ISCED 2 leavers
5 Data refer to England and Wales only
6 Data for lower secondary education are from 1990
Source OECD (1995d) Education at a Glance OECD Indicators

on average double that for workers aged 25-64 The indicate that the countries with work-based appren-
exceptions are Denmark, Italy and Ireland The higher ticeship systems linking skill development with
relative unemployment rate among school-leavers employment are associated with low rates of youth
compared to the total unemployment rate signals unemployment Regression analysis shows that even
efficiency and equity problems in the transition from after controlling for certain differences between edu-
school to work cation systems, the countries with an apprenticeship
system have a youth unemployment rate 4 percentage
What can be said about the relative outcomes of
points lower than that of countries which do not have
different systems? No country has a perfect system
employer-led systems This difference is highly sug-
for providing a problem-free transition from school to
gestive, as it equals almost half the average youth
work (OECD, 19941) Yet, some systems appear to
unemployment rate among all countries
work better than others Consider, for example, Annex
Table A 51, which presents data on youth and adult Of the countries with mainly school- or college-
unemployment rates, classified by the nature of voca- based vocational education systems, only japan has
tional preparation in Member countries Whether the so far escaped high youth unemployment Although
observed differences are due to education systems, lapan does not have a dual system, in practice train-
labour market institutions or country-specific condi- ing takes place very largely in enterprises Vocational
tions is an open question Caution must be exercised high schools and colleges prepare young Japanese
in inferring a direct relationship between institutional people for certain occupations, but in practice the
arrangements for vocational preparation and youth recruitment system judges candidates according to
1431
unemployment rates, even though Chart 4 6 seems to their performance in general education Employers
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Chart 4.6. Type of vocational education and youth unemployment, 1992'

Difference between youth and adult employment rates

Predominantly work-based El Hybrid Predominantly Institution-based

14 14

12 12 12

10 10

7.6 7.7

I'
8 8

6 6
4.6
4 4

2.2
2 2

0 0

-0
E

F8

I. Youth unemployment is measured as a percentage of the labour force aged 15-24 years. Adult unemployment is measured as a percentage of the labour force aged
25-64 years.
Sources: OECD (1995d), Education at a Glance OECD Indicators,Table C12(b), p.42; and OECD (19950, Employment Outlook,Table P, p. 218.

then rely on on-the-job career development to foster Policy changes in education-led systems
work-related skills and desired attitudes. In short, the
countries that have witnessed the lowest youth Chapter 3 noted that, in order to prepare individ-
unemployment rates are the ones in which employers uals for work that demands intellectual curiosity and
are mainly responsible for training. These systems continuing learning, many employers now call for
also share certain characteristics of stability, predict- education and training that promote higher-order
ability and legitimacy: they are readily accepted by all thinking for all students, not just for the elite, as in
those involved and provide clear routes. Young Japa- the past. Vocational education, which has tradition-
nese and German people know far more precisely ally concentrated on practical abilities, is now being
than young American and French people what they reformed and, in some places, radically reorganised.
have to do to get a particular kind of job. Thus, there Changes include strengthening the general content of
is strong evidence that employer-led systems are vocational classes and making it easier to attract
more successful in facilitating the transition into more intellectually talented students into vocational
employment than education-led ones. programmes, by offering them sufficient theoretical
grounding to deal with new technology and problems
That conclusion is forceful. However, successful
as they appear. As noted in the previous chapter, the
employer-led systems depend on conditions and
line between vocational and general education is
characteristics that are lacking in many OECD coun-
becoming blurred. The blending of vocational and
tries. Simply concluding that all countries should
general education mirrors the convergence of working
develop the apprenticeship model will not be helpful
and learning in the workplace to a greater or lesser
therefore to some policy-makers. How, then, can the
degree in all OECD countries.
efficiency of education-led systems be improved? The
section below, based on findings in Stern (1994), In the United States there is now a proliferation
explores this question by reviewing recent policy of new programmes designed to integrate general and
LI44_ changes introduced in a range of OECD countries. vocational education (Grubb et al., 1991; Rosenstock,
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

1991) This followed revision in 1990 of the federal number, and more than one-third the 1992 enrolment
law on subsidising vocational education programmes level in universities
run by states and localities Prominent spokesmen for
France has created three sets of upper secondary
employers complained in the 1980s about the poor
diplomas general, technical, and vocational (bac-
preparation of vocational graduates from secondary
calaureat professionnel) At age 15, after four years of
schools (National Academy of Sciences, 1984, Com-
lower secondary school most students either con-
mittee for Economic Development, 1985. Kearns and
tinue in a three-year upper secondary programme
Doyle, 1988) Since employers had traditionally pro-
towards a general or technical diploma, or enter a
vided decisive political support for vocational educa-
two-year vocational programme In 1985. the voca-
tion as a separate track, their complaints had a major
tional diploma was introduced, giving graduates of
impact The 1990 law requires that all federal money
two-year vocational programmes the option of receiv-
for vocational education must be spent on pro-
ing an upper secondary diploma after an additional
grammes that integrate academic and vocational
two years As of 1991/92, the number of students
instruction Examples include career academies,
enrolled in the vocational diploma programme had
which organise the core curriculum of the secondary
grown to 114 000, compared to 707 000 preparing for
school around an occupational theme Graduates
general and 290 000 for technical diplomas (Kirsch,
from these academies may enter the workforce full-
1994) At the post-secondary level, students holding a
time, or they may pursue further studies at a college
general or technical diploma may continue studying
or university either continuing in the same field or
for tertiary diplomas in technology The majority of
transferring to an entirely different one Evaluations
graduates from the university institutes of technology
have found that students in career academies achieve
continue into further studies The system thus allows
higher grades and are more likely to complete high
students to enter a vocational programme at various
school (Stern et al. 1992) Another recent innovation
ages, and to pursue occupational studies at a high
in the United States is "tech prep", which combines level
the academic and vocational curricula and also links
the last two years of secondary school with the first The dichotomy between vocational and academic
two years of post-secondary education (Hull and routes will not disappear quickly or without struggle.
Parnell, 1991) These and related innovations have since the traditional disciplines have been sanctified
received additional impetus from the passage of the by time and it is still not sufficiently clear what will
1994 School-to-Work Opportunities Act take their place But there is pressure to create some-
thing new, in part because it is difficult to attract
Japan has just created a new, "integrated" voca- talented or ambitious students to vocational
tional-academic upper secondary curriculum Until education
1994, such schools offered either a prescribed general
curriculum as preparation for university or a special- High youth unemployment rates also indicate
ised vocational curriculum However, the proportion continuing problems with the school-to-work transi-
of students attending vocational secondary schools tion in most countries Countries are following three
fell from 40 per cent in 1955 and 1965 to 26 per cent principal approaches to improve the transition
I) augmenting the supply of high-quality vocational
in 1992 Therefore, beginning in 1994, upper secon-
dary schools were permitted to offer an integrated and training opportunities and redressing the balance
curriculum focusing on career development Students between technical and academic education, in creat-
in the integrated programme have fewer required sub- ing frameworks for the assessment, recognition
jects and are given career guidance to help them and certification of training, and in) introducing co-
design their own course sequence In 1994 very few financing arrangements to even the sharing of costs
and benefits
schools introduced the integrated curriculum, but it
was expected that the idea would catch on and pro-
mote "convergence of vocational and general educa- Work-based learning for students
tion" (Yoshimoto. 1994, p 5) This convergence has
already occurred to some extent at the tertiary level, Apart from teaching knowledge and skills
through the growth of special training colleges offer- required on the job, the approach of education
ing higher diplomas in industrial, commercial and through work gives students practical experience for
other vocational fields Enrolment in these institu- the purpose of learning School-based enterprises
tions stood at 862 000 in 1992 double the 1978 that combine learning and productive work are 1451
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

another recent development Examples of new initia- fixed length of time in an enterprise Prototype
tives can be found in many OECD countries programmes were developed in 1994 in 12 sec-
Sweden now requires students in the new tors, including agriculture and commercial
three-year upper secondary programmes to horticulture, business administration, chemi-
spend 15 per cent of their time in a workplace cals, child care, construction engineering.
Most of these placements are unpaid Stu- information technology, and retailing There
dents use the experience to conduct protects are expected to be 150 000 apprentices in
related to their courses (Vickers, 1994) training when the new system is fully up and
running (Employment Department. 1994).
Australia is creating "student traineeships" to
allow those in grades 11 and 12 "to combine Korea has restructured its vocational secon-
their school-based studies with work experi- dary curriculum to include one full year in
ence and off-the-lob training" The govern- enterprises during the three-year programme
ment will fund the purchase of off-the-job It is hoped that this will help attract more
training for up to 5 000 students by 1995-96" students into vocational secondary schools,
(Keating, 1994, p 93) thus reducing the perceived oversupply of stu-
dents going to university At the same time,
France is making greater use of alternance
however, opportunities for vocational secon-
(work-based learning). Traditional apprentice-
dary school graduates to enter university will
ship still exists in France on a minor scale
be expanded, again to increase the attractive-
(mainly in the craft industries), and work-
ness of the vocational programme The year of
based training contracts are used for unem-
work experience for vocational upper secon-
ployed young people However, the placement
dary students is intended to enhance their
of students in enterprises as part of their
adaptability in actual work situations (Cho,
schooling did not begin on an extensive scale
1994)
until the introduction of the vocational, secon-
dary diploma (baccalaureat professuannel) in While enterprises are developing methods of
1985 Students are required to spend at least "just-in-time" learning and schools are giving more
16 weeks in enterprises during the two-year students the opportunity to learn in workplaces, the
programme The traditional separation emergence of the knowledge- and learning-intensive
between formal education and employment in economy is creating demands for hybrid organisa-
France has meant that these work experiences tions that combine education with production One
are often not closely connected with what is such hybrid is the school-based enterprise, which for
being studied in school For instance, perform- the most part has been connected to vocational pro-
ance in the workplace has no effect on whether grammes in order to give students an opportunity to
a student receives the diploma Nonetheless, practice what they learn Placements in firms may not
the fact that hundreds of thousands of stu- be available or may not offer as much opportunity to
dents have been placed in enterprises has learn as a school-based enterprise (Stern et al 1994)
,

encouraged the education authorities to In addition, school enterprises are now taking on
extend the practice of alternance to the two- other tasks, including technology transfer and the
year vocational programmes that begin at development of better methods to build learning into
age 15 and precede the vocational diploma the work process Examples from three countries
programme The technical universities are also follow
currently in the process of adding a third year In the United States, the school-based enter-
that will consist mainly of traineeships in the prise is a common feature of vocational and
workplace professional education A 1992 survey for the
The United Kingdom, where an initiative to National Assessment of Vocational Education
create "modern apprenticeships" for 16- to (US Department of Education, 1994b) found
17- year -old school-leavers is being launched, that 19 per cent of secondary schools were
offers government-funded training credits operating some kind of enterprise that
which students can cash in with employers involved students in producing goods or ser-
who are able to provide the training required vices for other people as part of their school
Unlike traditional apprenticeships, these new activities, most of these were associated with
1146 schemes will not require trainees to spend a vocational programmes For example, students
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

in construction trades may build a house, skills at later stages of the occupational career than
those preparing for food service occupations vocational training On the other hand, vocational
may run a restaurant, classes in automotive skills are better preparation for a smooth transition
trades often repair cars, a child care class may into employment than general education There is a
provide day care for clients outside the school need to supply young people with both general and
Similar programmes are offered in Community broad vocational skills Thus a tension is created
Colleges These school-based enterprises are between the need for greater contact with the work-
analogous to teaching hospitals run by medi- place to ensure that learning is relevant and the
cal schools, or law journals produced by law need for continued learning in formal institutions
students The school enterprise provides prac- This tension can only be addressed through greater
tical experience that helps prepare students convergence between general and work-oriented
for subsequent work in a particular occupation learning The challenge posed to both education
or industry systems and labour markets is formidable The
In Denmark, school-based enterprises, which response to that challenge might be a convergence of
are part of the apprenticeship system, provide systems that, under a variety of institutional arrange-
experience for students who are waiting for ments, seek to create balanced packages of learning
training contracts with enterprises (Danish in both workplaces and educational institutions
Ministry of Education, 1994, p 101) Printing. packages that will require co-operation between
retailing and construction are examples of employers and educators at the final stages of path-
activities carried out by school enterprises ways through initial education and training
Students normally expect to stay in the occu-
pation for which they receive training There The role of guidance and counselling
are some indications that employers prefer to
have trainees work in school-based enterprises Guidance and counselling are neglected in many
during the early part of their training, when national systems They must play a more central role
they are less profitable for firms if lifelong learning is to become a reality since a
framework characterised by choice and individual
A particularly good example of school enter- pathways through learning and work must entail
prise for the learning-based economy is the information and guidance if appropriate decisions are
German-Singapore Institute (GS!) in to be made At present, too many students are
Singapore. Founded in 1981 as a pint venture obliged to rely on reputation and rumour for informa-
between the Economic Development Board of tion Effective guidance makes it easier for workers to
Singapore and the German Agency for Techni- continue learning and developing, by helping them to
cal Co-operation, GSI calls itself a "teaching make good choices, by smoothing transitions of all
factory" It carries out development projects kinds, by giving individuals access to information,
for local manufacturers while preparing techni- and by encouraging them to take continuous respon-
cians and middle managers in the fields of sibility for their own careers whether inside or
technology, factory automation and robotics, outside the workplace At the same time, good gui-
plastics manufacturing technology, and (since dance can reduce unemployment by improving the fit
1992) manufacturing software Having enrolled between the knowledge and skills of individuals and
about 1 100 students in 1994, GSI plans to the opportunities offered to them on the labour mar-
admit 2 000 students a year in the next six ket A further potential benefit is the upgrading of the
years Students spend most of their two or skills and qualifications of the workforce as the
three years in laboratories equipped with result of alerting them to education and training
state-of-the-art production equipment The opportunities and a consequent increase in job sat-
GSI model has been adopted in other coun- isfaction and, possibly, a reduction of inequality of
tries, including Brazil and Malaysia opportunity
In economies in which much or most work is Guidance services can be based in educational
becoming less routine, workers will need above all to institutions, employment centres, or they can be
respond flexibly to changing demands, to solve independent The education-based services are usu-
problems, to take responsibility and to work in teams ally offered by school counsellors or guidance teach-
with relatively flat hierarchies General education may ers, who have the important advantage of knowing
provide a better preparation for young people to learn and understanding the young people they are advis- 1471
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

ing but who sometimes lack information concerning should be encouraged to take educational and career
job opportunities and the demands of the labour guidance more seriously While the issue of wasteful
market Moreover, their services are not generally duplication should be addressed, a pluralistic model.
available to young people who have left education or based in both education and labour, is likely to be the
to adults Employment centres often supply informa- most effective in meeting the needs of a very diverse
tion to a wider age range, but their counselling ser- range of clients, especially adults, who require several
vices are sometimes confined to the unemployed, different access routes But unnecessary duplication
and those who work in them are not always qualified should be minimised by rigorous auditing of the
to offer a more broadly-based guidance service This activities of different parts of the service, and effective
typical division of responsibility between education liaison between different elements and interests is
and labour authorities means that there may be some essential
duplication, and sometimes conflicting agendas
Employers may feel that school-based guidance ser-
F. EDUCATION, TRAINING AND WORK-
vices do not pay enough attention to their interests,
TO-WORK TRANSITIONS
while educators tend to believe that the developmen-
tal needs of the young people sometimes risk being This section addresses the relationship between
overlooked by the labour authorities coherent approaches to lifelong learning and labour
So far as young people are concerned, careers market flexibility It reviews the evidence of trade-offs
education normally takes place in schools but not in the effects of lifelong learning on both internal
always on a very consistent basis In Mexico, for (within firm) and external flexibility, and considers
example, the needs of young drop-outs may be rela- the wider social benefits of adult education Other
tively neglected, in Austria, many university students issues include the relationship between on-the-lob
lack appropriate guidance Ideally, careers education training and internal work organisation within firms,
should be part of the secondary school curriculum, the effects of an ageing labour force on the need for
integrated into an individual programme of learning lifelong learning, and the effects of training certifica-
Constructive links with local enterprises can help tion and standardisation on the demand for and sup-
individuals to develop the skills to create a personal ply of learning opportunities for adults
learning protect, which can be extended through fur-
ther education, training and work Training programmes for the unemployed
Although various forms of educational guidance Rising unemployment has focused attention on
are well established in many OECD countries, most the issue of the transition between the worlds of work
offer a rather patchy and incoherent service The and education Governments have attempted to
extent and quality of guidance for adults in transition devise a range of training measures designed to help
varies widely but is generally inadequate Some those who have already left school to obtain qualifi-
enterprises have career planning facilities for their cations in order to secure a worthwhile lob This is
employees either in-house or using external consul- clearly a narrow focus and interpretation of the inter-
tants Independent counselling services are perhaps face between lifelong learning and work As argued
the best solution for adults, but they have to depend above, what is required, in the perspective of lifelong
on public funding, rely on voluntary help, or charge learning, is to equip individuals to move between
for their services various alternatives, and back and forth within the
Most OECD countries need to improve the oper- realms of working while learning and learning while
ation of their systems if lifelong learning is to become working Active labour market programmes, particu-
a reality In particular, training and updating for gui- larly but not exclusively youth training schemes, need
dance counsellors needs to be markedly improved in to be related to both general and vocational adult
terms of both quality and quantity Many govern- education Adult basic and secondary education
ments could have a positive effect on their national organised by Education Ministries exist all too often
systems for relatively little financial outlay by spon- side by side with active labour market programmes
soring high-quality training packages, guidance governed by the employment services, in a lifelong
materials and computer programmes along the learning framework, these separate provisions need
lines of the highly successful materials produced by to be better co-ordinated and linked more directly
Human Resources Development Canada and by the with the world of work, as in employer-led vocational
1148 Canadian province of Alberta Employers, also, training systems that emphasise alternance
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

As shown in Chart 4.7 between 0 and 5.3 per cent latter objective but become dominated by the former.
of the labour force in OECD countries participate in Ways of coping with this problem are to make a clear
training programmes for the unemployed. These pro- distinction between the different audiences involved,
grammes are distinguished by: to improve guidance and counselling, to strengthen
Their timing: programmes in some countries co-ordination between policy fields, and to create
commence after six months of unemployment; bridges between different programmes of active
in others a person must be unemployed for at labour market and education policy.
least two years to be eligible for training.
Box surveys some of the empirical research on
1

Their targeting: some programmes are aimed the effectiveness of training programmes for unem-
at special target groups, whereas others select ployed workers. OECD (1993b) presents a summary of
on the basis of motivation or trainability.
seventeen evaluation studies and concludes that the
Their type and duration. available evidence offers meagre support for the
Their relation to work after training: some pro- hypothesis that such programmes are effective. How-
grammes guarantee participants work; others ever, most studies show that the effects of training
expect trainees to find a job themselves. programmes are greater for women than for men.
Training programmes for the unemployed are Haveman and Hollister (1991) claim that "in general,
often complicated by multiple objectives that are not employment and training programmes have had their
complementary. The two most common objectives greatest impacts and largest social returns for those
are to help those finding the transition to employ- who have had the least previous labour market expe-
ment difficult, by allowing them to have contact with rience and are most disadvantaged. Most evaluations
the labour market and practice in work habits, and found that programmes work better for women than
to offer an avenue for upskilling by providing high- for men, for those less educated and poorer than for
quality training. Programmes created as a response to those better educated and with higher income". They
youth unemployment sometimes claim to have the also conclude that intensive, firm-based skill-training

Chart 4.7. Active labour market programmes:

training of unemployed adults and those at risk, 1993194'
Percentage of the labour force

5.3

4.2
4 4
3.6 3.6

2 2

0.6
0.2
1.4
0 0
C C
C id
al s
0
1 C
S
-`g

I. 1992/93 data for the United States.

Source: OECD (1995.0. Employment Outlook, Table T. pp. 222-230. See also Table A.52. _14_9]
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Box I Effectiveness of training programmes for the unemployed

Moffit (1992) surveys the effects of training programmes on welfare recipients in the United States The main
conclusions of this survey are /) training programmes clearly have positive earnings effects, u) calculation of the
net monetary social benefits which acknowledge the costs of implementing the programme, the transfer payment
costs, and the value of output produced by the welfare recipients generally shows positive effects, in) these
programmes however are no panacea for the problems of low incomes among female-headed households a large
change in the poverty rate of female-headed households
Barnow (1987) and Riddell (1991) survey the effects of the Comprehensive Employment and Training Act
(CETA) in the United States They conclude that women are generally found to benefit more from training than
men In terms of the different services offered by the programme, public service employment and on-the-lob
training generally had the highest estimated impact, and classroom training and work experience
the lowest However, the range of estimates of the various studies is quite large, which mars the conclusions
Biorklund (1991) surveys evaluation studies of Swedish training programmes The results of this review are
ambiguous half the studies cited find that training programmes have negative earning effects, while the other half
find (weakly) positive effects Blorklund and Moffitt (1987) analysing the wage effects of training programmes for
the unemployed in Sweden, find that the average is 6 5 per cent They further find that the marginal wage effects
are negative The implication of this finding is that the average wage would decrease if everyone were to receive
training Unlimited access to training is therefore not efficient
[Odder (1986) evaluates employment programmes, wage cost subsidies and training programmes in the
Netherlands The results suggest that training programmes have no effect on the stability of re-employment for
unemployed workers who are older than 35 They are most effective for women, ethnic minorities and younger
workers, in that order

programmes for youth may be very effective, and that Training and work-to-work transitions
lob search and placement efforts generate at least
short-term benefits at low cost With regard to seri- This section examines evidence on the incidence,
ously disadvantaged men, it is difficult to draw con- distribution, effectiveness and value of on-the-lob
clusions because of the lack of evaluation studies, training for workers According to The OECD lobs
which points to a general problem Europe lags Study, on-the-lob training increases labour market
behind the United States in the availability of good flexibility (OECD, 1994d) Two types are relevant here
evaluation studies of labour market programmes internal flexibility (the number of tasks a worker can
(Buechtemann and Ryan, 1996) In conclusion, it be assigned to and the employment of workers within
appears that even within the narrow perspective of the enterprise) and external flexibility (lob-to-lob
training for pursuing employment, there are difficul- mobility) Investments in "general" human capital
ties with such programmes, particularly those that are increase both internal and external flexibility (Becker,
1962 and 1975) Higher-educated workers are more
disconnected from both the education system and
the lob market, in that the evidence appears "employable" within the firm, they also voluntarily
unfavourable to labour market policy interventions change lobs more frequently than poorly-educated
for youth and young adults The results are, however, workers Investments in "specific" human capital
not entirely negative the broad attributes of also increase internal flexibility, in particular if the
employer-led systems, which link more general edu- training takes the form of "multi-skilling" (Cappelli,
cation, specific vocational skills training, and work- 1993) However, on-the-lob training may decrease
based learning, are expected to yield greater benefits external flexibility, and the value of the shared invest-
than partial, short-lived and institutionally detached ment in specific human capital may be reduced when
youth training schemes This, again, points to the workers move to another enterprise
necessity for efficient policy co-ordination in the per- Labour market flexibility also has an effect on
1150 spective of lifelong learning training provision Workers with a high propensity to
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

quit are less interested than others in investing in on- sions that can be drawn from a vast body of research
the-job training. Workers may be more inclined to on this subject are as follows:
quit if the opportunities for promotion are small. Less The likelihood of participation in on-the-job
internal flexibility may therefore increase external training increases with the level of education:
flexibility, and higher external flexibility may decrease higher-educated workers receive more on-the-
the opportunities for profitable investments in on- job training than poorly educated ones.
the-job training. Workers who frequently change jobs
Men receive more on-the-job training than
are also less likely to be selected for training by the
women.
employer (Booth, 1992). As a result, higher external
flexibility leads to less investment in specific human Full-time workers receive more training than
capital. As was shown previously in Chart 4.4, turno- part-timers.
ver rates are lowest in Japan and highest in the The participation rate decreases with age, work
United States; European countries are somewhere in experience and tenure.
the middle. Accordingly, it is to be expected that the
The probability of receiving training is to a
Japanese and European economies are more
large extent determined by occupational and
characterised by low turnover and high training inten-
industrial characteristics. Workers in higher-
sity, and the United States' economy relatively more
level positions participate in training more fre-
by high turnover and low training intensity.
quently. Public sector workers participate in
training more frequently than private sector
Non-formal learning at work and the economic workers.
returns Chart 4.8 presents figures on participation in job-
Access to both formal and non-formal learning in related continuing education and training by educa-
the workplace is not equal for all workers. The conclu- tion level for some Member countries (OECD, 1995k).

Chart 4.8. Participation in job-related continuing education and training by level of education)
Percentage of the employed population aged 25-64, early 1990s

100
0 Lower secondary education or less 0 Upper secondary education EI Tertiary education Total
100

90 90

80 80
During the 12-month period preceding the interview
70 70

60 60

50 50

40

--
40
During the 4-week period preceding
the Interview 30
30

20 20

10 -- 10

0 0
E S
C C O
XC E
a 0
z a 0
-o
a

I. A definition of job-related continuing education and training for adults is given in OECD (1995d), p. 366.
Source: OECD ( 995d), Education at
I a Glance OECD Indicators. See also Table A.53. 1511
 UFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Between 30 and 40 per cent of workers in the coun- Occupational stratification may be another part
tries surveyed had participated in training in the of the explanation of why workers with higher levels
12 -month period preceding the survey The participa- of initial education also receive more education and
tion rate among highly-educated workers was three to training on the job University graduates and holders
five times higher than among poorly-educated work- of advanced degrees are usually given preference in
ers Between 10 and 20 per cent of the latter had hiring for positions at managerial and professional
participated in training, while in all countries sur- levels These are also the levels at which greater
veyed participation was over 40 per cent among amounts of in-service education and training are
highly-educated workers (see also Chapter 8) provided
What factors can explain this uneven distribution Differences in the "pay-back" period of the
of learning opportunities? Employers use observable investment in work-related lifelong learning for adults
characteristics of individuals such as education as explain why full-time workers tend to receive more
a selection device for hiring new workers Education training than part-time workers This profitability
is seen as a proxy for the amount of formal on-the -lob rationale extends to older workers as well What are
training and non-formal learning at work that the the effects of the "greying" of the labour force
employer will need to invest in the worker, since reviewed in Chapter I, Section B on the need for
higher-educated workers are expected to need less lifelong learning? Productivity may decrease with age,
training, at least initially Thus employers hire the but this can be compensated by training Neverthe-
highest-educated worker, irrespective of the require- less, Chart 4 9 shows that, with the exception of
ments of the job This theory, therefore, predicts a Sweden, participation in continuing vocational train-
positive return to educational attainment over and ing among older workers is lower than among
above that which seems to be required by the job, younger workers The participation rate among work-
and a negative effect of perceived "overschooling" on ers aged 45-64 is only one-quarter to two-thirds that
the participation rate in firm-based training among workers aged 25-34 This situation has adverse
However, results from the empirical research on
effects on the labour force flexibility of older workers,
the costs and benefits of continuing vocational train- who change jobs less frequently than younger workers
ing summarised in Box 2 suggest that initial for-
and are also less mobile within the establishment A
mal education and on-the-lob training are comple- relevant question is how labour market flexibility can
be increased, and what are the possible effects of
mentary rather than alternatives In OECD (1991a) it
was concluded that' education and post-school train-
institutional arrangements, such as early retirement
ing seem to be complements" (p 152) If formal edu- programmes, on participation in and returns to life-
cation and on- the -lob training are complementary, long learning? So far, little evidence is available to
answer these questions, even though information
then the latter tends to increase the value of invest-
ments in the former This may widen inequality about incentives and the costs and benefits of differ-
among individuals, which enhances the risks of social ent institutional arrangements is critical to the design
of a coherent and successful strategy for lifelong
exclusion of some groups of workers who do not have
access to either adult education or continuing voca-
learning
tional training This problem particularly applies to In some countries there are central regulations
women Because of their generally weaker labour on continuing vocational training, in others it is der-
force attachment, women have less incentive to egulated In some countries the amount of money to
invest in on-the-job training than men, and the be allocated to continuing vocational training is spec-
expected profitability of investment for employers is ified as in France, where a mandatory I 5 per cent of
lower The pay-back period of the training investment the pay-roll has to be spent on training In other
is shorter for women than for men, and so the eco- countries with such regulation, the amount is lower
nomic returns to female on-the-job training are 0 7 per cent in Spain, 0 25 per cent in Belgium, and
reduced As their investment is less, the earnings 020 per cent in Greece In Sweden, workers have a
growth for women is also lower than that for men, legal entitlement to educational leave At the other
thus increasing the male-female wage gap (see Chap- end of the spectrum there are countries where the

wage growth lower wages )

force attachment less on- the -lob training )
ter I) This completes a vicious circle of lower labour
lower
weaker labour force
government refrains completely from imposing regu-
lation In Germany, continuing vocational training is
regarded as a market good which should remain as
1152 attachment free as possible from government intervention A self-
 IJFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Box 2 The effects of training

Almost all available evidence suggests that continuing vocational training has substantial productivity effects
Barron et al (1989) use an employer rating of the productivity of new hirings on a scale of 0-100, where 100 equals
the maximum productivity rating an employee can obtain at this position, and 0 is absolutely no productivity by
the employee The productivity rating of the new employee is compared with the productivity of a typical employee
after two years on the lob The results show that on-the-lob training has a significantly positive effect on
productivity and wages a 10 per cent increase in training time raises productivity growth by 3 per cent and raises
wages by 5 per cent Similar findings are reported by Bishop (1987 and 19896) Apart from training, few variables
1

appear to affect wage and productivity growth They also find that the effect of relevant previous experience on
wage and productivity growth is U-shaped
Bishop (1991). using the same data set as Barron et al, finds that the elasticity of productivity growth with
respect to training time is 009 at establishments with 185 employees and about 0 12 for companies with
200 employees The impact of training on wage growth is small, and less than one-fifth of the impact on
productivity growth
Groot (1993) uses data on individual productivity ratings of employees in the Netherlands to generalise both
the individual wage and productivity growth of workers who received training, and the wage and productivity
differences between trained and non-trained workers The duration of training has a positive effect on productivity
growth, wage growth, productivity differences and wage differences The average productivity growth of training is
16 per cent, and the average productivity difference 8 per cent The average wage growth is less than a quarter of
the average productivity growth
Research on the wage effects of continuing vocational training in the United States includes Mincer (1988),
Barron et al (1989), Brown (1989), Holzer (1988), Lynch (1991), and Lillard and Tan (1986) A survey of this research
leads to the conclusion that the wage effect of continuing vocational education is between 4 and 16 per cent
(OECD, 1991a)
Evidence for positive wage effects of continuing vocational training in the United Kingdom can be found in
Greenhalgh and Stewart (1987), Booth (1992), and Groot and Oosterbeek (1995) Greenhalgh and Stewart find that
vocational training yields significant returns, but the marginal benefit of further weeks of training falls to zero once
the individual has accumulated four weeks They also find evidence to suggest that the acquired skills depreciate
within a decade or so
For the Netherlands, Groot et al (1994) find higher values for the wage and welfare effects of participation in
continuing vocational training They find that on average, participants in continuing vocational training earn 11 per
cent more than non-participants They further find that participants are better off with firm-sponsored training than
self-financed or self-directed learning For a representative worker in the sample, the wage effect is 21 2 per cent
Blanchflower and Lynch (1992) compare the structure of post-school education and training for young non-
university graduates in the United Kingdom and the United States Their principal finding is that non-college
graduates in the United Kingdom receive much more post-school training than similar youths in the United States
They further find that the rates of return to post-school training in both countries is high, especially in the United
States

regulating system also operates in the Netherlands Training has a substantial effect on wages,
In Italy, government intervention is limited, further workers typically receive between one-third
training being seen as the responsibility of the enter- and half of the substantial benefits accruing to
prise or public sector employers the investments in learning made by
employers
The following conclusions can be drawn from the
findings in Box 2 Despite the fact that employees receive a sub-
stantial benefit from enterprise-based training, other
Continuing vocational education of a formal research indicates that they do not pay much of it
type and non-formal learning in the workplace (Stern and Ritzen. 1991) This means that employees
both increase worker productivity receive a very high rate of return to their small invest-
1531
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Chart 4.9. Participation in job-related continuing education and training by age groups'
Percentage of the employed population aged 25-64, early 1990s

60
0 25-34 El 35-44 0 45-64 Total
60

During the 12-month period preceding the interview

50 50

40 40

30 30
During the 4-week period preceding
the interview
20 20

10 10

0 0
a C
C C -o
C a
C
E C C
LL

I. See notes to Table A.53 and A.54.

Source: OECD (1995d), Education at a Glance - OECD Indicators.

ment in enterprise-based training in some cases fied. Appreciating the returns to adult education
higher than the rate of return received by the spon- which is not immediately tied to vocational needs is
soring employers. Yet employers exercise more con- even more difficult, given the near total absence of a
trol over the amount of training provided. Presuma- statistical knowledge base. A common-sense belief is
bly, employers' decisions will tend to reflect the rate that there are two principal benefits of such provi-
of return they themselves receive, not the higher rate sion: social cohesion and personal development.
of return received by their employees (see also Chap-
As discussed in Chapter 3, there is a divergence
ter 8). This implies that the amount of training pro-
between the culture of youth and that of the sur-
vided will be less than what would be warranted by
rounding society. In association with rising unem-
the social rate of return, where the social rate of
ployment and individualisation at the workplace, this
return is an average of the rates of return received by
poses a threat to social cohesion. The continued abil-
employers and workers. Additional explanations sup-
ity and opportunity to relate to other members of the
porting the case for under-investment in training are
community are therefore of crucial importance to the
put forward by Stern and Ritzen (1991): i) uncertainty
functioning of democratic societies. Such ability and
about the returns; ii) liquidity constraints: iii) wage
opportunity can be gained by some work-based rela-
legislation; iv) displacement by subsidised training
tionships, but will for many others depend upon the
for the unemployed; v) complementarity between
accessibility of educational activities.
general and specific training; vi) restrictions imposed
by labour contracts; vii) unemployement insurance Personal development, which can only be
and transfers which facilitate the substitution of older ensured through some form of lifelong learning, con-
by younger workers. tributes both to performance and productivity, and to
general physical and mental health. A number of
employers have already recognised the importance of
Social returns to adult education
the personal development of staff, and support gen-
There has frequently been under-investment in eral education in the arts and other non-vocational
!I54 training because the full returns are not easily quanti- fields.
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

In the interests of equity and social cohesion, levels of general education lead to better lob pros-
adult education should be available to all members pects In most OECD countries, an adult with a uni-
of the community and not restricted to those working versity degree can expect to earn 15 times to twice as
for certain employers The question of funding is much as one with only an upper secondary qualifica-
dealt with particularly in Chapter 8, but the principle tion, university graduates are only half as likely, on
should be acknowledged that provision should not average, as all adults to be unemployed (OECD,
cease at the normal age of retirement, since active life 1995d) Education is not a homogeneous good, and
extends well beyond that age, and the social integra- the returns also differ by the type of education
tion of those above it can also be ensured through received The annual wage growth rates for university
education It will become commonplace to learn graduates in the United Kingdom in the 1980s varied
while working, but lifelong learning by definition also from 2 per cent for theology to 24 per cent for law
embraces the unemployed, the poorly-educated, (Dolton. 1992) Table 4 8 shows for four countries the
women with weak attachment to the labour market, share of technically-educated workers in the labour
the retired and every other member of the commu- force and the difference between the average net
nity, and it includes learning which may be regarded wage rates of technical and non-technical workers
as general and at first sight unconnected with paid Both in the United States and in the United Kingdom,
work technical workers (on average) earn substantially
more than non-technical workers In the Netherlands
G. THE VALUE OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING and Germany, the net average wage differentials
between technical and non-technical educated work-
In determining the need for and value of lifelong ers are much smaller, but the share of technically-
learning in a human capital perspective, two ques- educated workers in the workforce in these countries
tions must be answered Is there under-utilisation of is higher than in the United States and the United
the skills of inefficiently-allocated workers and, if so, Kingdom The four-country comparison seems to sug-
is this a temporary phenomenon? Secondly, is there gest that the lower relative earnings prospects for
evidence that poorly-educated workers are displaced technically-educated workers in Germany and the
by more highly educated workers? Netherlands have not, so far, caused their share to
Under-utilisation of knowledge and skills leads drop below the level observed in other countries The
to an allocation of people to lobs that is less than results in Table 48 rather seem to suggest that a
economically efficient, and frustrating for the individ- relatively large share of technically-educated workers
ual Under-utilisation is associated with the displace- causes a lower wage differential between the two
ment of poorly-skilled by higher-skilled workers, groups
resulting in higher unemployment rates for the Model 3, reviewed in Section D, offers one way of
poorly-skilled and a decrease in the private rate of dealing with allocation and distribution problems
return to education and training The problems of which can, potentially, lower the benefits expected
under-utilisation and displacement are highly rele- from a lifelong learning strategy to make academic
vant in a policy strategy designed to increase learning and vocational routes in secondary and tertiary edu-
opportunities and attainments for all people regard- cation less separate, and to establish "parity of
less of age, sex or employment status Will lifelong esteem" This is the option chosen by Germany
learning merely aggravate the "diploma disease", and Attempts are under way in the United Kingdom and
restrict even further the opportunities to work, learn France to develop vocational equivalents to academic
and prosper of those who missed out, for whatever qualifications, although in neither country has genu-
reasons, in their initial education trajectory? Fortu- ine equal esteem yet been achieved Denmark, how-
nately, the evidence offered in Box 3 suggests that the ever, has come a long way Of the 42 per cent of each
incidence of skill under-utilisation decreases with age age cohort entering tertiary education, slightly over
and work experience (Groot, 1995) This finding sug- half come from the academic gymnasium, the rest
gests that the problem is to an extent only a tempo- come directly from various vocational and technical
rary one, and that displacement is concentrated upper secondary programmes that automatically
among entrants into the labour market. qualify students for further education Thus, the
The signals from the labour market to young 94 per cent of young Danes who enrol in upper secon-
people are often mixed On the one hand, employers dary education following compulsory schooling do
say they want workers with immediately relevant not seal their futures by taking up a particular option
1551
skills On the other, it is clearer than ever that high There seems to be a delicate balance, therefore.
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Box 3 The screening theory of education

Screening theory actually refers to a range of theories that challenge the human capital assumption of the
productivity-augmenting role of education The general term "screening" is often used to indicate that education
serves as a signal for pre-existing abilities, or as a means for the already better off to get the best lobs In the first
view education as a signal wages still equal marginal productivity In the latter view the credentialist view of
education which can be ascribed to Berg (1970) and Thurow (1970) education only serves as an admission ticket
for certain professions The existence of a relation between productivity and wages is questioned Since productiv-
ity is not altered by schooling, total output is not raised
According to the signalling view, education yields useful information to identify individuals with a higher
expected productivity This set of theories includes the filtering theory (Arrow, 1973.) the screening theory (Stiglitz,
1975) and the signalling theory in the strict sense (Spence. 1974, Riley, 1976) In these theories the (empirical)
relation between education and wages is a result of the productivity-identifying role of education, the exact extent
to which education has a productivity-augmenting effect as well remains an open question In either case,
educational achievement serves as signals for employers and results in an efficient allocation of employees over
lobs
If education serves as an admission ticket or credential for a better lob with higher earnings, there is a
premium for completion of a course with a certificate Early school-leavers or drop-outs would thus have, averaged
over their years of schooling, a lower return to education than those who completed their course with a certificate
Layard and Psacharopoulos (1974) compare the returns and conclude that there are no significant differences
between these two groups Hungerford and Solon (1987) also compare year-to-year returns and find that the rate in
the first and last year is higher than in the years in between The first finding confirms the prediction by Arrow
(1973) that admittance to higher education (college) itself yields an Income benefit
Groot and Oosterbeek (1994) divide actual years of education into effective years (the shortest. most efficient
path to attain a certain level of education), inefficient routing years (skipping and repeating classes, and years
spent inefficiently), and drop-out years (spent in education without receiving a diploma) This division is such that
the actual number of years of education is equal to the sum of effective years, repeated years (minus) skipped
years, inefficient years, and drop-out years This decomposition allows the screening theory to be tested against
the human capital theory This test relies on two predictions of the screening theory first, that years spent in
education without obtaining a degree should not increase earnings, and second, that a more rapid completion of a
degree signals greater ability and should therefore lead to higher earnings For males, the results strongly support
the human capital theory and refute the predictions of the screening hypothesis Skipped years have a significantly
negative influence on future earnings According to the screening hypothesis this effect should be positive. since
skipping a class gives a positive signal to potential employers whereas within a human capital framework the
finding can be explained as the manifestation of a less-than-thorough understanding of the curriculum Repeated
years have no effect on future earnings This is in accordance with the human capital theory. whereas the screening
hypothesis predicts a negative effect because of the negative signal repeated years give to employers The absence
of influence on earnings from inefficient years of education agrees with both the human capital and screening
predictions Finally, a positive return on drop-out years is found This is in line with the human capital theory and
refutes the screening theory For women too, all results are in line with the human capital predictions and reject
the screening theory

between maintaining the option of further study so as Several countries have launched initiatives to
to avoid stigma, and maintaining a sufficient flow of improve the relevance and marketability of educa-
graduates going directly into employment so as to tional programmes New Zealand has established a
justify employers' investment As long as pathways in single national framework for the recognition of
lifelong learning and work are connected by a series school, vocational and higher academic qualifica-
of bridges and ladders, at all stages and levels of tions The United Kingdom has introduced a system
education, and during all phases of the work career, that awards upper secondary education certificates
skills under-utilisation and displacement in the for a combination of academic and vocational stud-
labour market are less of a problem than that of ies, and that meets agreed workplace standards a
1156 under-investment in lifelong learning controversial approach whose results are yet to be
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Table 48 Share of technically educated and differences between the net wage rate
of technically educated and non-technically educated by education level' 2
Upper secondary education Tertiary education

Share of technically Difference in average Share of technically Difference in average

educated net wage rate educated net wage rate

Germany 51 3 Technically educated earn I% 45 4 Non-technically educated earn 9%

more than non-technically more than technically educated
educated
Netherlands 460 Non-technically educated earn 23 0 Non-technically educated earn
5 to 8% more than technically 15% more than technically
educated educated
United Kingdom 37 I Technically educated earn 17% 39 9 Technically educated earn 5 8%
more than non-technically more than non-technically
educated educated
United States 230 Technically educated earn 17% 20 8 Technically educated earn 14%
more than non-technically more than non-technically
educated educated

Upper secondary education refers to completed ISCED 3 or less, tertiary education refe 5 to the attainment of a degree, diploma or certificate at ISCED 5, 6
or 7
2 Share of technically educated in the labour force
Source Groot 119951

assessed (see Chapter 6) Germany has attempted to answer the three questions posed in Section B of this
put qualifications for part-time vocational studies on chapter before offering directions for policy
an equal footing with those for intermediate general Are the current levels and the current direction of
education, and university entrance certificates are investment adequate to meet the requirements of a
being awarded by vocational institutions Japan has coherent approach to lifelong learning for all' Partici-
taken steps to ensure that qualifications acquired in pation in initial schooling, tertiary education and fur-
special training schools are fully recognised by the ther training can be less than efficient When it is, is
universities Canada has established a system for the under-investment in human capital the result? Ineffi-
recognition of prior learning on the basis of testing ciency arises mainly because of the uncertainty about
But these steps, while promising, are still rather mod- individual and social returns The costs are immedi-
est in relation to the perceived need to enhance the ate, but the returns accrue in the future and are
recognition of skills and competencies and to ensure imprecise and uncertain If individuals are averse to
their value in the domains of lifelong learning and risk, they will be reluctant to embark on major learn-
work ing tasks Another reason for insufficient investment
in lifelong learning is that many people do not have
the funds to pay fees, and need to take out loans in
H. LIFELONG LEARNING AND WORK: POLICY
order to do so Banks and financial institutions are
CONCLUSIONS
generally unwilling to finance investments in educa-
This chapter has addressed a range of policy tion and training since human capital cannot. at re-
questions and issues surrounding the relationship sent, be treated as a collateral security To coun
between progressions in education and lifelong learn- this deficiency, governments can step in with student
ing and transitions to and within the labour market loans and subsidies
The focus has been on employment rather than the Two problems affect the education system
links between transitions in lifelong learning, culture Firstly, young people do not stay in the system long
and democracy This narrow focus is to an extent enough Early school-leaving and dropping-out are
determined by the type, quantity and reliability of the particularly worrying phenomena Because employers
evidence available Further studies will need to use certificates as a mechanism for screening pro-
inquire into the wider aspects of transitions within spective workers and the process of lob entry often
1571
the lifelong learning framework This section seeks to determines career prospects, including opportunities
 IJFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

offer concrete suggestions for determining policy In all OECD countries the main dividing line
Meanwhile, the next question for policy-makers has between pathways in education runs between general
to do with the inaccessibility of lifelong learning and academic education on the one hand, and
opportunities for some groups, resulting in disadvan- employment-oriented vocational education and train-
tages and even social exclusion, and what govern- ing on the other Clear-cut differentiation occurs in
ments can do to improve the social distribution of North America mostly at the tertiary stage, while in
learning opportunities This question raises again the most European countries it originates in the struc-
issue of foundation learning, reviewed in Chapter 1 tures of upper secondary education Further, in all
In the perspective of lifelong learning, what should be countries there are questions about the parity of
the proper balance between general and vocational esteem and comparative value of general-academic
education, both in initial and in further education and and vocational-technical education at the tertiary
training? level These concerns are being addressed by
attempts to integrate general and vocational content
Initial formal education is the foundation for in the same programmes, and to build bridges and
learning later in life It is sometimes argued that gen- ladders between separate general and vocational
eral qualifications lower the cost of training in the tracks
future, and that the greater participation of higher- Given the objectives of lifelong learning, what
educated workers in on-the-lob training can be seen changes in education and training systems might
as proof This suggests that general knowledge and
improve the transitions from school to work, from
skills improve the efficiency of lifelong learning, while unemployment to employment, and from one lob to
specific vocational skills do not, or do so to a lesser another? Inefficient transitions from school to work
degree From a lifelong learning perspective it may be result in spells of unemployment by school-leavers
preferable to endow young people with general Some vocational qualifications facilitate the immedi-
knowledge and skills rather than with narrow voca- ate school-to-work transition There are, essentially.
tional qualifications However, young people with two models for the provision of vocational education
vocational qualifications have smoother transitions one has employers taking the lead, the other assigns
from school to work, if those qualifications are the larger role to educational institutions In either
acquired in an employer-led system Further, within case, there are both equity and efficiency implica-
the same education level, starting wages in most tions However, the evidence suggests that the former
Member countries are higher for school-leavers with is more effective in smoothing the transition from
vocational qualifications than for young workers with school to work The best-known example of an
general education employer-led system is the dual system
This may indicate that there is a trade-off Inefficient transitions from unemployment to
between efficiency in the short and long run, that is, employment are those that do not result in relatively
between a rapid, smooth transition to employment stable employment Training programmes for unem-
with vocational qualifications and a delayed transi- ployed workers are meant to provide the answer
tion offering better and more durable lifetime career However, programmes do not always achieve the
perspectives with a general education However, it desired results and may even have a counterproduc-
may be that a smooth transition from school to work tive effect The programmes need to be linked there-
does have a positive effect on lifelong learning oppor- fore, both structurally and through effective career
tunities and long-run efficiency If there is a state of guidance, with the mainstream pathways in the edu-
dependency in unemployment, if youth unemploy- cation and training system
ment has long-lasting effects on career prospects, if lob-to-lob transitions point to the need for flexi-
unemployment at the start of working life implies a bility of workers and enterprises Firm-specific on-the-
higher risk of being locked into a sequence of unsta- lob training strengthens employment because trained
ble lobs with few opportunities for training and workers are less likely to quit or to be made redun-
advancement, then there are evidently also long-term dant Lower turnover rates, however, may be at odds
benefits accruing from broad vocational qualifica- with a policy of increasing the flexibility of the labour
tions The same holds true if unemployment leads to market The apparent paradox is that training may do
a depreciation of human capital, because skills both improve the flexibility of workers and enter-
become out-of-date and obsolete, and few new skills prises while reducing that of the labour market as a
1591
are acquired during spells of unemployment whole Therefore, it is also necessary to encourage
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

enterprise-based training that has some general. In countries where an employer-led or appren-
transferable content Some of this training can be ticeship system is not already in place, a range
provided more cost-effectively in enterprises than in of policies is required, given the variety of indi-
schools Attention needs to be given to measures vidual learning needs and interests as well as
which will actively encourage labour flexibility, differences in objective and functioning of
including certification of on-the-lob learning, porta- enterprises and public administrations
bility of such certification, and access to career Institutions and programmes must be flexi-
guidance ble and responsive to changing labour mar-
Bridging these three factors is a key objective ket conditions as well as to the changing
What is, or should be the role of governments and behaviour and priorities of employers and
their partners in implementing strategies to avoid young people
early school-leaving and dropping out, improving
Programmes must maximise collaboration
school-to-work transitions, and enhancing the supply among employers, educators and public
of well-educated and trained workers ready to learn
agencies, in both decision-making and the
and face tomorrow's challenges'?
creation of appropriate incentives for people
to participate.
Possible directions for policy To give young people practice in using the
The main conclusions and suggestions for policy
workplace as a site for learning, enterprises
can be summarised as follows should be encouraged to provide opportuni-
ties for work-based learning, and schools
The conditions and types of pathways in life- can organise productive activities under
long learning and transitions to the labour their own auspices
market are related to many country-specific
features of education and training systems and An alternative approach to bringing work
their relationship with labour markets Any experience into schools is to provide educa-
action aimed at improving coherence or link- tional institutions at all levels with a legal
ages must take these particularities into framework enabling them to offer paid ser-
account It must be based on careful analysis vices to the public Examples of such
of the specific relationship in each country school- and college-based enterprises are
between employment and unemployment, construction, catering, vehicle repair and
wages, the provision of organised learning software development
opportunities, and whether such learning Programmes must create a favourable bal-
leads to recognised qualifications ance between the initiation of young people
The amount and quality of the knowledge and into the workforce and measures aimed at
skills acquired initially determine not only their longer-term development The idea of
occupational and life careers, but also future lifelong learning indeed challenges the very
investments in learning This implies that notion of a single "transition" period
unless counter-measures are adopted, the between education and employment
expansion of lifelong learning opportunities in The needs and hopes of each young person
a "free marketplace" will increase inequality must be the focus of any strategy Individu-
among individuals and social groups als must have more control over their own
Enabling young people to acquire broad gen- learning and career development instead of
eral and vocational skills by means of modern being expected to follow predetermined
apprenticeship or alternance systems pathways
improves the efficiency of the transition from Early school-leaving, drop-out should be
school to work In countries where there are discouraged and school failure prevented
close links between educational institutions not only by the relevance of the curriculum
and firms, the transition is more efficient than and school-work links discussed in this
in systems where there are weak links chapter and in Chapter 3, but also by recon-
The conditions for fruitful and enduring co- sideration of the statutory age limit for com-
operation between schools and enterprises are pulsory education Pupils not attaining an
1160 specific and not easy to achieve adequate basic level of secondary education
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

could be obliged to continue in education zens, women entering or returning to

beyond the compulsory age This might be employment
part-time if they enter employment The evidence shows that skills depreciate with
Social assistance transfers and unemploy- unemployment Yet many formal training pro-
ment benefits should not pose undue obsta- grammes for unemployed workers do not
cle to people wishing to pursue studies to appear to be very efficient in upgrading or
acquire new skills and qualifications restoring these skills, or in helping them to
obtain lobs Such programmes must not be
Firms should be encouraged by appropriate
one-off but be set in a lifelong learning
tax regimes or other incentives to provide
perspective
training for their own employees and, where
practicable, for other learners Conversely, A significant proportion of employees are in
higher taxation may be applied to employ- jobs in which their skills are under-utilised
ers which do not provide or support Workers with more formal education than
training required for the lob may require less on-the-
job training than others However, the empiri-
Employers, banks and financial institutions
cal evidence on this point is ambiguous The
must be encouraged to devise accounting fact that part of the workforce has more formal
procedures so that investment in human qualifications than required raises the ques-
capital can be treated on the same grounds tion of the timing of skills investment, as well
as investment in real property, plant and
as that of appropriate government financing
securities, human capital should be useable
Might it be more efficient for individuals to
as collateral
postpone a certain part of their formal educa-
Governments should recognise the impor- tion, to take up a lob, and to return to
tance for social cohesion of non-vocational organised learning as the need arises?
adult education which tends generally to Lifelong learning systems based on enabling
raise the self-confidence, social participa- more individuals to construct their own path-
tion skills and hence employability of par- ways of learning and work will require educa-
ticipants, as well as their capacity to con- tion and career guidance to be available on a
tribute to the further development of continuing basis throughout life Much current
democratic institutions and whole societies provision is concentrated upon young people
Particular emphasis should be placed on and the unemployed A key policy issue for the
ensuring that the formal and non-formal future is how access to educational and career
learning needs of the following groups are guidance can be ensured for all adults, where
met the unemployed, both short- and long- such guidance services should be located, and
term, those with low levels of educational the respective roles of government, employers
attainment, older workers and senior citi- and individuals in paying for such services

1611
 5

MANAGING AUTONOMY AND CHOICE:

THE ROLE OF GOVERNMENT

A. INTRODUCTION B. DEVELOPMENTS IN GOVERNANCE

AND MANAGEMENT OF EDUCATION
There have been many discussions over the years
of the objectives to be met by lifelong learning, these New approaches to governance and management
are much easier to identify than the means through in education and training are emerging in response to
which it will be realised Yet, policy discussion will economic, social, political and educational develop-
remain at the level of ideas unless attention is ments Until the 1970s, there was wide acceptance of
directed to such practical considerations, which will what Wildaysky (1979) termed the "rational para-
mean to address the institutional arrangements for digm" in planning This method favoured the organi-
governance and management concerning lifelong sation of highly centralised education systems and
learning This is already a complex undertaking if it emphasised central government responsibility Dur-
can be assumed that those arrangements are the ing the 1970s, it became increasingly apparent that
exclusive province of a central government agency centrally administered reforms had not been imple-
That assumption obviously does not hold Educa- mented as planned in many areas of social policy
tional and social policies are increasingly devolved education and training included In line with
from the centre, and are founded on partnerships broader trends to loosen central direction and control
between public bodies and a wide range of other in other spheres of social and political life, arguments
interests In an area as transversal as lifelong learning were put forward in a number of countries for
- cutting across educational, labour market, social, increased decentralisation and devolution in educa-
and cultural policy responsibilities the need for tion and training - that is. a reduced role for central
attention to be paid to institutional arrangements government
and issues of governance becomes still more press- In the 1980s, the emphasis shifted once again In
ing What does it mean to devise policies for lifelong the United States and the United Kingdom (England
learning in this context') Who is responsible for what. and Wales), for example, changes in educational pol-
given the various levels and interests in play') These icy seemed to be more in the direction of greater
are the questions addressed below Specifically, this central control than autonomy at the level of the
chapter provides an analysis of the role of govern- establishment, or greater choice for individual learn-
ment in the implementation of approaches to lifelong ers In certain countries a reinforcement of responsi-
learning bilities of both central and regional authorities and
This chapter has six elements In Section B the schools took place at the same time This was the
challenges to traditional approaches to management case in Sweden, for example, where a bill passed by
and governance are presented, and key policy issues the Parliament in 1988 called for decentralisation at
identified Sections C and D analyse developments in the same time that the central school board proposed
governance and management, and indicate new direc- a set of examinations that would exert a heavy influ-
tions for government in bringing about lifelong learn- ence on the content of what was to be taught
ing, the former reviews key developments at the level These examples reveal a more general tendency
of compulsory schooling, the latter developments in Demands from economies undergoing restructuring
education and training beyond schooling Section E appeared to call for strong, centre-directed initiatives
evaluates the arguments for a government role in and renewed interest in skill requirements These new
markets for learning Conclusions and recommenda- demands, however, were seen to be more effectively
tions for policy in a lifelong learning framework are met through a boosting of management and govern-
presented in Section F ance at the level of the institution Thus, the pattern 1631
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

was for central governments to specify goals and There is a growing loss of confidence in political
directions and assess outcomes, whereas the means processes and, by extension, in the public administra-
to achieve them were left in the hands of the individ- tion put in place to give effect to policies. This
ual institution, students and their parents, and the reflects, in part, a scepticism in the public at large
local community. about the ability of public authorities to respond
The response was more complex, however. Gov-
effectively to the new challenges confronted by socie-
ties in the 1990s. The decline in public confidence in
ernments introduced expanded forms of partnership,
a wider diversity of provision within the formal educa-
government has occurred at a time of growing inter-
tion sector, and various forms of privatisation. Such est on the part of multiple groups to take part more
changes push toward a wider diffusion of responsibil- fully in decisions concerning the management and
ities, not only from the centre to the region, institu- governance of education.
tion, teacher and learner, but also to "stakeholders" Some indication of the importance of these
outside the institution parents, employers and developments may be discerned in voting patterns
municipal authorities among them. The evolution of and public opinion surveys. OECD's survey of public
markets for learning partly reflect this shift, but some attitudes to education (199511 is an example. The sur-
countries have gone further by placing publicly- vey results indicate that, for management areas in
provided education and training on the same basis as which decisions traditionally have been taken at
privately-organised learning opportunities. Impor- levels above the school (often at central level), there
tantly, however, many governments have at the same appears to be a substantial segment of the public
time strengthened their strategic roles through that favours locating the responsibility for such deci-
approaches intended to guide or steer other partners sions at the school. As shown in Chart 5.1, about two-
and providers. fifths (41 per cent) of respondents across the twelve
Recent developments have added to the pres- countries surveyed believed it was "very important"
sures for this redefinition of the role of governments. for decisions to be made by the schools themselves

Chart 5.1. Percentage of respondents who thought it was "very important" for decisions to be taken
by schools themselves, l993-94'''
Country averages, percentage

Teacher selection and promotion 42

How the school budget is spent 41

How subjects are taught 41

Amount of time spent teaching 32

each subject

What subjects are taught 28

Teachers' salaries and working

26
conditions

0 10 20 30 40 50

I. The data are derived from a questionnaire distributed to a sample of the general public in each of the participating OECD [Link] questionnaire referred
specifically to the final years of compulsory secondary education and a common set of questions were asked in all [Link] organisation of the survey was
undertaken within each country and the surveys were administered by reputable national survey [Link] recommended sample size was 000 individuals.
1

2. The average was taken with respect to: Austria, Belgium (Flemish Community), Denmark, Finland, France, the Netherlands, Portugal. Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, the
United Kingdom and the United States.
[164 Sources: OECD (19951) and OECD (1995n).
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

about how the school budget is to be spent A similar assumed to induce providers to use resources effi-
percentage (42 per cent) believed it was "very impor- ciently and to offer education services in response to
tant" for the schools to make decisions on teacher the preferences, needs and interests of learners as
selection and promotion. Although public opinion consumers It is a view of education that gives full
differs among countries on the extent to which weight to the freedom of individuals to choose, and
schools should assume decision-making responsibili- by implication minimises the direct role of
ties generally (ranging from an average government
17 per cent of those surveyed in Spain. to 60 per cent
One set of concerns raised about this "education
in the United States who believed that it was "very
as commodity" view relates to imperfections in the
important" for schools to take decisions in all of the
market for education and training, such as lack of
areas identified), survey respondents in all countries
timely and accurate information, or certain externali-
were more likely to believe that schools themselves
ties that could occur when the longer-term effects of
should take decisions in the areas of budget and
education and training are not captured solely by the
teacher selection or promotion (Annex Table A 55) A
learner (see Chapters 4 and 8) In either situation.
preference on the part of the public to locate deci-
choices may not lead to the most efficient provision
sion-making at the level of the provider weakens the
Such imperfections can be addressed with appropri-
power of the government to direct or control provi-
ate intervention from government A second set of
sion, and it also sets the context in which government
concerns relates to the broader. community-wide pur-
roles in management, governance and pedagogy are
poses education is intended to serve For example,
being redefined
free operation of the market could lead to a wide
A second recent development is the pressure for differentiation in the opportunities available to young
reform in the management of public administration people. on the basis of wealth and other socio-
This, too, is partly related to the loss of confidence in economic characteristics Again, some of the poten-
central government action, but it is also due to grow- tial adverse consequences of such a differentiation
ing competition for resources within the public can be addressed indirectly through the market, with
budget Weight is given to improving efficiency and public subsidies for education and training (targeted
increasingly, the key to improved efficiency is per- vouchers, tax expenditures), including criteria
ceived to be a relaxation of regulation by the centre attached to subsidies to encourage providers to
By the late 1980s, public sector reform strategies were respond to the preferences, needs and interests of
incorporating what seemed to be the "positive" those in target groups Intervention of this type repre-
results of new management approaches These sug- sents a departure from the "free" market philosophy
gested that the delegation of decision-making was
popular with those so empowered One particularly Other outcomes of education considered as
attractive feature of delegation was that it ensured "public good" may not be easily generated through
that the "producers" of goods or services would be the market, even if the government intervenes with
more closely and directly influenced by "consumers" subsidies and information When weight is given to
That kind of experience was widely believed to be the full range of education outcomes, a case can be
relevant in the delivery of a range of public services made for public rather than market provision Follow-
(Osborne and Gaebler, 1993) Not all countries have ing Musgrave (1959), the argument is based on the
followed this path, and for those that have done so in qualitative nature of the educational services
the field of education and training, evidence on effi- desired" Thus, "public schools may be desired
ciency effects is mixed and limited (as discussed in because they make for political and cultural toler-
Sections C and D below) ance, serve as a melting pot, and pass on a common
cultural heritage" (p 44) As Blaug noted, "all modern
Another development, closely related to the sec- societies have struck some sort of uneasy compro-
ond, is the broader policy debate about whether edu-
mise between freedom of choice in education and the
cation and training should be considered as a "public community interest in shared values" (1970, p 119)
good" or as a "commodity" to be purchased on the
To date, the compromise has permitted some private
market This debate derives in part from questions of
provision, but under considerable State control,
efficiency, but also concerns the balance to be real-
ised between individual choice and community inter- Thus, the present debate about the markets for
ests in democratic societies If education is supplied learning extends beyond the question whether mar-
as a market commodity, competitive forces are kets can improve efficiency The debate is partly ideo- 1651
r--

Table 5 I Policy instruments defined

Primary elements Expected effects Costs Benefits Examples

Mandates Rules Compliance For initiators For individuals Non-discrimination

Enforcement Specific benefits requirements
For targets For society
Compliance Long-term. diffuse
Avoidance benefits
Inducements Money (procurement) Production of value, For initiators For initiators/producers Grants-in-aid to
short-term returns Production Increased budget governments, providers
Oversight authority and individuals
Displacement In-kind grants
to individuals
For producers For clients
Overhead Value received
Matching
Avoidance
Capacity-building Money (investment) Enhancement of skill, For initiators For providers/agencies Basic research
competence Short-term costs Short-term
long-term returns specific benefits
For society
Long-term
diffuse benefits
System-changing Authority Composition of public For "old- providers For new providers Vouchers
delivery system, Loss of authority Cain in authority Desinstitutionalisation
incentives New providers
Source Adapted from McDonnell and Elmore 11987)
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

logical, concerned with the appropriate balance about reform In the perspective of lifelong learning,
between individual choice and broader interests such a role needs to balance publicly supported
Whatever the balance to be struck, there is a govern- learning, learning at the workplace and Individual
ment role in ensuring that conditions exist to support choice The issues include the selection of the most
the appropriate functioning of such markets for appropriate mix of government policies and the most
learning effective approaches to management Details and
A fourth development is the growth of learning options such as standard-setting, assessment and
opportunities outside the formal education sector evaluation, teacher development and financing
Private and voluntary efforts by individuals, commu- (among others) are analysed in-depth in Chapters 6, 7
nities and enterprises - as well as the impact of the and 8 The specific policy options manifest different
media, telecommunications, and the diffusion of new roles of government As characterised in Table 5 I
information technologies - have widened the field of these options comprise
learning Such non-formal learning is projected to - mandates, which may create uniformity as well
assume greater importance in overall lifelong learn- as adversarial relations between the govern-
ing provision The sheer breadth of that provision not ment "regulator- and the education or training
only draws government interest into learning activi- provider,
ties for which there has been little regulation or pub- - incentives, such as formula funding, demon-
lic financial involvement, but also increases the com- stration grants or performance awards.
plexity of governance and management tasks Direct - capacity-building, to include investment in
government control across this wide field seems staff development for teachers, to use a wide
neither feasible nor desirable variety of methods and environments, and to
From these perspectives, new approaches to accommodate learners with more varied inter-
management and governance are best interpreted as ests and backgrounds,
responses by governments to wider pressures for a system-changing, to include privatisation and
new balance to be struck between choice and auton- contracting out
omy and, at the same time, the complementary need
There is an apparent trend away from mandates
for overall "steering" to ensure that the outcomes of
education and training meet the needs of the econ- and towards other types of policy instruments.
Changes of this nature in the roles of government can
omy and society Thus, while authorities are counting
give rise to unpredictable and unanticipated results
on pressure from both empowered "producers" and
For example, the expected benefits of combining the
influential "consumers" to raise standards, increase
Ministries of Education and Labour, in a few coun-
efficiency and mobilise fresh efforts at the level of
providers and learners, they are acquiring greater tries, or of creating national employment and training
boards, have not yet fully emerged
experience with new strategies which seek to "steer"
such effort in formal and non-formal settings for the The key questions for policy include What are
benefit of all the new strategic roles for government in a framework
of lifelong learning'? What balance is to be realised
Further, on the basis of the analysis provided in
between central regulation, institutional autonomy,
Chapters 3 and 4, government will have a new role to
participation in decision-making by local authorities
play in fostering, within the framework of a lifelong
and other parties, and individual choice'? Does this
approach to learning, new linkages among levels and
balance differ among sectors and types of education
types of education and training Such links include
and training'? Given the new perspectives raised by
new relationships between schools and tertiary insti-
these questions, the analyses needed to provide
tutions, among tertiary institutions and programmes,
answers are limited More complete answers await
and between formal and non-formal education and
further, detailed work
training The linkages can be fostered through govern-
ment policies that enable individuals to make their
own choices, provide public funding at least partly on C. THE GOVERNANCE AND MANAGEMENT
the basis of those choices, and widen the scope for OF SCHOOLS AND SCHOOL SYSTEMS
government purchase of education and training ser- Since the mid-I980s, two trends in educational
vices from public or private entities administration can be observed across OECD coun-
The above developments describe a number of tries Firstly, authorities have increased autonomy at
1671
changes in the strategic government role in bringing the level of the school Importantly, it is now widely
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

asserted if not agreed that many attempts to Country patterns in the distribution
improve education outcomes by centrally directing of management and governance responsibilities
actions in schools have led to insufficient results
because they were too slow, patchy or imperma- If these two trends apply across most OECD
nent On the basis of work carried out into the 1990s, countries, the individual country patterns nonethe-
the OECD has called for greater attention to provider- less vary in significant ways Although international
level development including in-service education and comparisons may conceal unique and meaningful
the training of teachers (OECD, 1974, 1982, 1989, features of management and governance, a descrip-
I990a, 1992h, 19941, van Velzen et al, 1985) Sec- tion of the distribution of responsibilities is provided
ondly, there has been increased emphasis placed on by a set of indicators on decision-making in educa-
the authority of government to formulate goals, pro- tion, shown in Tables 5 2, 5.3 and 5 4 (OECD, 1993a
vide steering guidelines and monitor quality and 1995o) The data refer to the distribution of

Table 5 2 Decisions taken by level of governance, lower secondary education, 19911 2

(as percentage of all decisions)

School Intermediate Intermediate Country

level level I level 2 level

Public

North America
United States 26 71 3

Pacific Area
New Zealand 71 29
European Community
Belgium 25 50 25
Denmark 41 44 15
France 31 36 33
Germany 33 42 18 7
Ireland 73 8 19
Portugal 40 3 57
Spain 28 26 13 33
Other Europe OECD
Austria 38 8 26 28
Finland 40 47 13
Norway 32 45 23
Sweden 48 48 4
Switzerland 10 40 46
Private

North America
United States 95 5

European Community
Belgium 73 27
France 63 21 16
Portugal 88 12
Spain 65 II 2 22
Other Europe OECD
Austria 66 6 27

Note This specific decision-making level does not exist

I The indicator is based on decisions in lour areas education planning and structures (7 decisions), personnel management 112 decisions), organisation of
instruction (8 decisions), and resources (7 decisions) The measure refers to the level at which the primary decIsion-maker is located and not to
participation from another level, but in a different subsidiary role le g consulted by the primary decision-maker) For this table, the raw data have been
weighted to give equal overall weight to each of the four areas The results depend on the list of decisions that were selected for inclusion in each category
and must be interpreted within this context
2 Four levels of decision-making are distinguished School level' refemng to decisions taken by Its own governing board, the school principal or head
teachers teachers parents and students Intermediate level I", referring to the level that is institutionally closest to the school usually the local authonty
Intermediate level 2 referring to the level that is closest to the central govemment (state, province canton this may also be regional agency of the
central government) and Country level' referring to the central government, national or federal
Sources OECD 11993a) and OECD 119950)
1168
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Table 5 3 Decisions taken at the school level by decision mode, lower secondary education, 19911 2

as percentage of all decisions)

Decisions taken

Total' Jointly with Freely within

Autonomously a framework
other level

Public

North America
United States 26 5 19r
Pacific Area
New Zealand 71 38 33

European Community
Belgium 25 22 3
Denmark 41 19 9 12
France 31 12 19
Germany 33 3 4 26
Ireland 73 21 20 32
Portugal 40 9 2 29
Spain 28 10 3 15

Other Europe OECD

Austria 38 14 23
Finland 40 20 20
Norway 32 14 18
Sweden 48 15 34
Switzerland 10 9

Private

North America
United States 95 66 4 25

European Community
Belgium 73 32 17 24
France 63 44 4 16
Portugal 88 59 28
Spain 65 40 25

Other Europe OECD

Austria 66 41 3 22

Note This specific decision-making level does not exist

I see Table 5 2
2 Three decision-making modes are Identified Autonomously ', subject only to the constraint of legislation external to the education system or very
general), "lointly in consultation with another level (excludes pint decision-making at the same level) and "Freely", within a framework decided at a
,

more central level (binding legislation, regulations or a fixed budget)

3 From Table 5 2 column one
Sources OECD 1993a) and OECD 119950)

responsibilities as confirmed by public authorities, reporting on decision-making in private lower secon-

and so cannot convey the more complex range of dary education, a similar range in the distribution of
formal and informal relationships, either among formal responsibilities applies private lower secon-
levels or with partners outside the education system dary schools in the United States have principal
What is most striking is the variety of patterns As responsibility for 95 per cent of the decisions
shown in Chart 5 2, of the 34 decisions identified for examined, in France, Spain and Austria, such schools
assignment covering areas of educational planning are afforded responsibility for about two-thirds of
and structures, personnel management, organisation those decisions
of instruction and resources Irish public lower sec- The scope for decisions to be taken by the indi-
ondary schools were found to have principal respon- vidual school is limited in most countries studied
sibility for 73 per cent of decisions while, in (OECD, I995d) In 12 of the 14 countries in Table 5 3,
Switzerland, such schools exercise responsibility over public lower secondary schools have formal responsi-
1691
10 per cent of decisions Among those countries bility for less than half of the decisions Meanwhile
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Table 5.4. Decisions taken at the school level by decision domain, public lower secondary education, 1991 I

(as percentage of all decisions taken by schools)

Decision domains

Organisation
Structures Personnel management Resources
of instruction

North America
United States 73 19 8
Pacific Area
New Zealand 35 15 35 15

European Community
Belgium 72 20 29
Denmark 54 26 11 9
France 64 13 23
Germany 67 22 II
Ireland 30 23 23 24
Portugal 48 9 26 17
Spain 80 8 12

Other Europe OECD

Austria 58 13 29
Finland 39 36 16 9
Norway 56 22 22
Sweden 46 22 17 15
Switzerland 100

Note: This specific decision-making level does not exist.

I. See Table 5.2
Sources. OECD (1993a) and OECD (I095o1

Chart 5.2. Decisions taken at school level, lower secondary education, 19911
Percentage

100 100

Private

80 80

Public

60 60

40 40

20 20

0 0

0
fa 2

I. Decisions made autonomously by public or private lower secondary schools as a percentage of all decision domains considered in the respective sectors.
See notes to Table 5.3.
170 Sources: OECD (1993a), Education at a Glance OECD Indicators; OECD (1995o), Decision-Makingin 14 OECD Education Systems.
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

as displayed in the second column of Table 5 3 in organised use of volunteers and community
one-third of the countries, public lower secondary and private sector resources,
schools have formal autonomous responsibility for circumscribed autonomy in the curriculum
one-fifth or fewer of the decisions Even in private offered through regulation of obligatory and
lower secondary education, the scope for autono- optional curriculum elements, and through
mous decision-making by the school is limited In permitting sanctioned differentiation in the
four of the six countries on which comparable infor- curriculum,
mation was obtained, less than half of the decisions
the idea of school choice as a means of
examined were subject to autonomous decision-
making by the school itself This conclusion applies increasing the attention paid by schools to
parents' satisfaction, sometimes associated
more to some decision domains than to others As
with changes in school governance
can be seen in Table 5 4, in nine of the 14 countries,
more than half of decisions taken primarily at the The new focus suggests that former bureau-
level of the school concerned the organisation of cratic" concepts, based on hierarchical arrangements
instruction In contrast, in most countries less than within a school system, are becoming outmoded
one-quarter of decisions taken primarily at the level Such arrangements fail to respond to the long-stand-
of the school concerned personnel and financial ing interest of the teaching force to obtain greater
resources autonomy in order to exercise professional judge-
ment on matters of teaching and learning Other
These patterns convey a complex picture of the alternatives, such as the "de-schooled" society func-
distribution of responsibilities in school systems tioning simply to provide a set of "community
Rather than defined solely along a centre-periphery
resources" (Mich. 1968). similarly have not emerged,
continuum, responsibilities are divided between in part because they do not respond to the need for
schools and other levels of the system, but also
continuity in the early years of formal education or
shared across levels with other "stakeholders" within
the need to take account of the activities of other
and outside the school including students, parents.
partners in the society
employers, professional associations and community
groups Thus, country authorities have introduced Thus a set of relationships emerges that repre-
sents a partial drawing back from a completely auton-
governance of public schools by a plurality of omous or self-governing school To be sure, a certain
entities, with local authorities and national or amount of school autonomy may be readily extended
Jurisdictional authorities assigning important in certain areas of decision-making However, auton-
new roles to "user" bodies, while churches, omy develops within the framework of a relationship
charter-holders and client groups are also with the system and the community based on a mutu-
being encouraged to assume new roles for ality of benefits and interests In such a relationship,
example, in participation, quality review and government authorities assume the role of ensuring
inspection, the basic protection of rights for all students and
new forms of accountability undertaken within establishing frameworks for the provision of
new governance arrangements and in some resources while the community also participates, in
countries financial accountability according the sense that parents and other significant groups
to normative protocols, have a role in setting fundamental values and goals,
in supporting the teaching and learning process, and
broadened autonomy in resource management
in providing resources within the frameworks estab-
particularly as regards student and teacher
lished by the government There is also a relationship
time, but also in relation to organisational
within the school among school-based personnel, as
matters generally, such as the grouping of stu-
decision-making is shared and mutually supported In
dents, professional development or links with
return, the school (with its local partners) is provided
business and industry, sometimes with explicit
with a greater degree of autonomy in the selection
reference to the modes of decision-making
of community-related goals and improved self-
within the school,
management in the fitting of resources to the realisa-
greater possibility for a diversity of funding tion of those goals The expected result is to develop
sources, including tuition fees and contribu- improved self-management within schools, and to
tions from enterprises as well as a structure for promote better relations with the community Such a
sharing the costs of provision through the new partnership role would permit governments to 1711
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

encourage diversity of provision, tap into private solve all the key problems ( ) and there is a great
resources, give greater attention to articulation and danger in partners (such as parents, pupils, local and
transition, and provide more scope for innovation regional officials' ( ) often without realising it ( )
and creativity all of which are likely to favour the incorporating [the consequences of these delusions'
implementation of a lifelong approach to learning into their own outlook when they ought to be defend-
ing vis-a-vis the Ministry of National Education Iltl
will take some time before regional and local authori-
Country experiences
ties ( ) learn exactly lust what powers and challenges
Results with regard to the implementation of the they have to contend with"
partnership models identified have not been fully
In the Review of National Policies for Education
assessed Yet enough is known to describe the ten-
in Denmark (OECD, 1995m), the examiners note that
sions and conditions that will need to be taken into
"the government does not have the means to imple-
account if government is to develop a partnership
ment national goals ( ), essentially the government
role in support of lifelong learning A key challenge is lacks the overall co-ordination necessary for allocat-
for governments to establish a balance between ing funds and other resources in accordance with
encouraging the realisation of national and/or sys-
national policy 'Increasing' institutional autonomy is
tem-level priorities on the one hand and fostering
severely restricted in practice by the Ministry of
initiative and innovation and enabling devolved deci- Education's continued control of course procedures
sion-making on the other
and practices, and the Ministry of Finance's control of
teachers' pay and conditions"
A reorientation at the centre The above implies a reorientation in the nature
A crucial policy issue is the choice of decision- of work performed by central authorities Policy-
maker central authority, local authority, school or makers must begin to see themselves as partners and
staff governing body, markets (with or without public adjust policy to focus on goals and on the support
intervention), and individual learners Each has its necessary to secure those goals, to shift from seeking
own strengths and weaknesses The choice will administrative compliance to a role in which there is
depend partly on the capacities of various decision- scope for others to work with regional authorities in
makers to achieve the goals set down nationally and new ways, and to trust, enhance and endorse teacher
locally If the goal is standardisation, then the central professionalism in conjunction with parents and
government role is likely to be more appropriate than others in the community Such a reorientation is an
that of local institutions or private alternatives If the important condition for the implementation of life-
need is to link isolated institutions involved in life- long learning, with greater attention being paid to
long learning, then a new decision-making body such continuity and linkages, across sectors and levels of
as a stakeholder or co-ordinating board may be formal and non-formal education (OECD, 1995i) A
desirable related issue is how these strategic arrangements can
be designed, so as to ensure centrally determined or
The difficulties in establishing the necessary con-
agreed direction and equality in educational opportu-
ditions for a more "strategic" government role have
nity, and at the same time encourage local initiative
been frankly recognised in the Review of National
Arrangements must also reflect the wider sharing of
Policies for Education in France (OECD, 1996b) It is
decision-making with institutions
noted that in such a previously centralised system
there is a need for new guidelines on a wide range of Equity and high standards are often seen to be
matters Those mentioned are promoting equal assured by a central role of government in the alloca-
opportunity, and avoiding the exclusion of minorities, tion of targeted funding, specification of curriculum
improving quality and effectiveness in the context of content and assessment, and regulation of teacher
mass education provision and unavoidable public preparation and staffing But to what extent and in
spending restrictions, achieving a better match what way should diversity and initiative be
between the types of education and training available encouraged? In the United States, where there is a
and the employment prospects of graduates, and tradition in schooling of locally controlled actions,
monitoring a changing education system while pro- the Goals 2000 legislation proposed a National Edu-
moting innovation There is concern, however, about cation Standards Improvement Council to oversee the
a "technocratic delusion 'under which' decision- preparation and operation of new national content
1172 makers at the top (..) consider themselves able ( ) to and performance standards As Howe (1995) points
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

out, these standards go beyond curriculum guidelines of curriculum and assessment is an accepted feature
to include elements of the learning process in of a teacher's lob It has not proved easy in every case
schools In this regard, a question posed by Howe to build on those arrangements in order to deepen
(1994) can be put more broadly To what extent can teacher co-operation and participation in decision-
professionals at the school level be expected to making In Germany (Bavaria), for example, "teachers
adhere to more detailed central guidelines in their all reported difficulties and hindrances ( ) for oblec-
areas of competence, and yet "remain willing and tive reasons such as lack of up-to-date teaching mate-
able to put forth the kind of energy and commitment rial or the brief period for co-ordinating classroom
that are necessary to make the shift from passive to instruction with colleagues, but also for subjective
active (roles)" reasons such as a desire to retain something proven
and to avoid the challenge of something new Teach-
The management of schools A supporting role ers emphasised that teamwork cannot be prescribed.
it must develop slowly through the initiative of indi-
As more responsibilities for decision-making are vidual teachers" (OECD, I996c)
devolved or shared, governments have sought to
strengthen school management The lack of school- In countries where a more strategic role for gov-
level decision-making capacity can weaken the ability ernment has been established, teacher participation
of government to realise overall goals The roles and in decision-making has been strengthened and
leadership styles assumed by principals and head focused in part through requirements for school plans
teachers in schools successfully exercising greater and new governance arrangements (favourable expe-
responsibilities furnish good examples In the United rience is reported in the United Kingdom, the
Kingdom (England), a study of successful schools Netherlands and the United States) In two countries,
under the new structure of local management found Belgium (Flemish community) and Spain, new
that head teachers acted as initiators of proposals, in reforms established formal structures for teacher par-
schools where staff participates in resource manage- ticipation in decision-making within the school A
ment, heads also supported proposals made by recent study of the experience in Belgium (Flemish
others These two styles of leadership were also community) with participation councils in private
observed in schools in Germany (Bavaria) In most schools and local councils in community schools
schools, the principal delegated responsibility for reported that, while these new bodies were criticised
implementation to the faculty In a much smaller from several standpoints, staff agreed that participa-
number, the principals clearly understood their role tion in decision-making was important In Spain, the
to be that of a leader, or "pedagogical manager' In school-level co-ordination bodies established as a
the latter schools, the key feature is seen to be "an result of legislation seem to have improved team
openness ( ) to the fact that (new initiatives) need teaching (OECD, 1996c)
time for ( ) development"; for "those whose profes- Authorities differ in the extent to which they pro-
sion is structuring schools, this indicates less a vide advisory and staff development services to
requirement for a technical (means ofl innovation. schools In Australia, the policy framework for devolu-
more a philosophical, pedagogical consciousness" tion in one state led to the "abolition of the curricu-
(OECD. 19960 lum branch of the Ministry and of the position of
These styles of leadership are "ideal" types, in subject superintendents, leaving responsibility for the
England and Germany there are concerns that princi- management of curriculum issues to heads of depart-
pals or head teachers lack, and are perhaps unable to ments and to the development of networks between
adopt, those styles likely to be effective in schools schools" (OECD, 1996c) This fully devolved approach
having greater autonomy over academic and adminis- contrasts with the strategies adopted in Spain and
trative matters In Australia. "some schools believe Belgium (Flemish community) In Spain, the inspec-
devolution is making principals into managers tion service remains a system-level responsibility.
instead of educational leaders, and are concerned even if it has been decentralised and given a teaching
that parents now see teachers working harder at man- advisory role. Belgium (Flemish community) has
agement tasks than on educational tasks" (OECD, established a new inspectorate and pedagogical
19960 counselling service While it is not possible to com-
Experience with teacher participation in shared pare the effects of these different approaches, there
decision-making is also mixed In many countries, appears to be more uncertainty or criticism of the
teacher participation in decision-making on matters approaches taken in Australia and Spain, and initial 1731
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

indications of satisfaction with the centralised French approaches, is coherence and a community-
approach adopted in Belgium (Flemish community) wide reach However, the forms of parent and com-
Staff development also figures prominently in policy munity participation examined here were not without
and reform frameworks, and in this connection the cost In the Swedish case, new initiatives were
trend in the OECD area is to emphasise school-based financed through the "creative.' reallocation of public
or -initiated efforts (OECD, 19941) resources already available to the local authorities A
second approach, seen in a number of settings,
involves the use of time and material resources pro-
A new role for parents and communities
vided by the community itself The arrangement for
The changing relationship between parents, education priority areas in France, for example, set
communities and schools has introduced new chal- out explicit expectations for wide community support
lenges (OECD, 1994p) Among these are the ways in
which parents and communities can strengthen and
Regionafisadon
enhance the effectiveness of their contributions to
education Experiences with education priority areas If central authorities are to develop a strategic
in the Netherlands and France. and a policy frame- role, the functions of intermediate levels of govern-
work affording scope for creative and flexible action at ment merit attention There is much to be learned
the municipality level in Sweden, are concrete exam- from experiences in countries with federal structures,
ples of approaches that have elicited effective parent where the national authorities have some expressly
and community involvement (see Boxes I and 2) reserved responsibilities but must work in different
Specific approaches naturally reflect the particular ways with individual states or autonomous regional
ways in which education is organised in each of the communities Bodies comprised of representatives of
countries concerned Nonetheless, a number of prin- individual state authorities address common issues,
ciples seem to apply to each case which, by definition, have national reach Bodies such
One necessary condition would appear to be as the Australia Education Council, Council of Minis-
clarity in aims, The Dutch experience illustrates the ters of Education Canada (CMEC), the Conference of
problem that arises when objectives, particularly of Ministers of Cultural Affairs (KMK) in Germany. the
supporting authorities, are not clearly established At Conference of Cantonal Directors of Public Instruc-
the same time, it appears that local community tion (CDIP) in Switzerland, and the Council of Chief
involvement in the development of participation not State School Officers (CCSSO) in the United States,
only provides a certain responsiveness to local cir- have a largely consultative and advisory role for the
cumstances and interest, but also offers some assur- executive at state level
ance that developments are sustained Both the It is significant, however, that even in federal
Swedish and French examples demonstrate reliance systems, national authorities retain responsibilities
on local involvement in the development of initia- in a number of specified domains In Mexico,
tives A third feature, found in the Swedish and although the "National Agreement for the Modernisa-

Box I Sigtuna municipality, Sweden

Sigtuna welcomed relatively large numbers of workers from Southern Europe and Finland in the 1970s. when
development centred around Stockholm's international airport, Arlanda Financing of all education activities was
provided through government appropriations (about evenly split between the central government and the munici-
palities), with special funding for specified purposes such as home language instruction
The municipality adopted a flexible and creative approach to meet parent and community needs and interests
Categorical funding made available for the children of target minorities, for the training and lob placement of
parents in these families, and for other social support services were combined to employ counsellors from these
minorities The approach both enabled and encouraged participation by the minority communities and, impor-
tantly, addressed in a coherent way their needs and interests The approach succeeded because officials in the
municipality had the flexibility to apply funds as needed, in support of the particular goals established
1174
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Box 2 Education priority areas

Policies for education priority areas have been established in one form or another in several countries since
the 1960s These areas are established on the basis of disadvantage and risk of school failure Once a priority area
is designated, additional resources are made available The education priority area policy provides for local
initiative within a well-defined framework that is given relatively stable support
In France, the Zone d'education priontaire (ZEP) policy has as some of its key features i) promotion of the use
of facilities in ways that will reach groups that do not ordinarily use them (including museums, community centres
and so on). it) provision of regular interpretation services free of charge. for schools and other public agencies, and
nil reduction of service and activity charges None of these features are particularly new, but the ZEP policy
envisages a much broader utilisation of the community's resources The utilisation is reciprocal various commu-
nity facilities are made available for school children, while school facilities and expertise (in the technical lycees)
are made available for community use There are several other important administrative features i) the ZEP are
geographically small, ii) they establish formal links among school authorities, social service officials, parents and
local politicians, and in) they provide for a three-year cycle of funding
Evidence on the effects of the ZEP initiative is mixed In OECD's Review of National Policies for Education in
France (OECD. 19966), some positive results are noted, but it is also mentioned that the potential for the approach
to generate more substantial, long-lasting gains is inhibited by 1) the continuing use of traditional methods for
supporting students who are experiencing difficulties, ii) an insufficient targeting of resources on schools most in
need, including experienced teachers and specialists, owing both to ambiguous criteria for selection into ZEP and
rigid personnel policies, and in) insufficiently developed and creative co-ordination with new urban or social
policies
In the Netherlands, the Education Priority Policy provides extra funding for teaching facilities in schools with
disadvantaged children A second component of the policy is the education priority area The latter are local or
regional co-operative networks of schools and welfare institutions, schools can take part in the network if they have
a relatively high proportion of disadvantaged students Co-operation among schools, public libraries and institu-
tions is voluntary, funding is provided, however, only on the basis of an area plan developed and agreed by those
schools and welfare institutions taking part
Evaluation studies of the Dutch Education Priority Policy reveal mixed results (Kloprogge, 1991) One positive
indicator is that a number of initiatives have been continued in the face of tight budgets However, five weaknesses
have been identified r) it has been difficult to encourage schools of different denominations to work with each
other, ii) there was an overly bureaucratic structure for the development and implementation of the plans.
in) welfare institutions held an uncertain position in the priority areas, for two reasons lack of clear interest and
support on their part and concern from schools about their competence in educational matters, iv) the area plans
of work seemed overly ambitious, and v) there was a lack of clear direction or purpose so that resources tended to
be applied in conventional rather than creative, possibly more effective ways

tion of Education" signed in May 1992 by the national in-company vocational education, [financial' aid for
government, the 32 state governments and the teach- students and some school pupils, promotion of sci-
ers union put in place 32 state-level systems of edu- entific research, and framework legislation for the
cation, "the federal government retained ( ) a strong general principles relative to the higher education
normative and evaluative role it has exclusive powers system" (lobst, 1995) Through such responsibilities
over the content of the national curriculum and the as regulating occupational law for specific profes-
evaluation of student performance across the country sions and the civil service, including teachers, federal
It also retains an important compensatory role" (Rizo, authorities have an important, indirect impact on
1995) In Spain, the Ministry of Education and Sci- education
ences "is responsible over the country as a whole for
the functions and services which are essential to Further, the role in governance of the intermedi-
ensure basic uniformity in the educational system" ate or lower level district offices, local education
(Spanish Ministry of Education and Sciences, 1994) authorities, municipal departments of education
By contrast, in Germany, "the responsibilities of the appears to be evolving In the United Kingdom
Federation )national government! ( ) are strictly lim- (England and Wales), the United States and Canada
ited by the constitution They include, in particular, (Alberta), the importance of this level of governance 1751
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

has weakened with the vesting of greater responsibili- sent in the school systems, Ili) permits a rapid
ties at school level The reforms underway in Mexico response to new needs and facilitates experimenta-
and Spain envisage limited roles for municipal tion in new programmes; and iv) can reduce depen-
authorities In the reorientation of policy in Sweden dence on a single provider and so lessen vulnerabil-
in 1992, the new government gave emphasis to the ity To some extent, each of these considerations
freedom for the individual school to "create their own could be handled through reforms in publicly pro-
profiles" This implies that "individual municipalities vided schooling In this regard, the underlying ques-
(must) organise their school activities in such a way tion is how far market forces should be harnessed
that decentralisation does not stop at the central
municipal level" (Swedish Ministry of Education and
Implementation and reform strategies
Science, 1992)
These developments have potentially important A key policy question is how to implement and
implications for the strategic role of national govern- sustain the change needed at all levels to provide a
ments in the implementation of a lifelong approach framework of lifelong learning for all At national
to learning On the one hand, a structure for school- level, the challenge is to change what Education Min-
ing with responsibilities divided across intermediate istries do How to change from a "maintenance"
levels may "lack flexibility and transparency", a point structure to a "development" structure? In school sys-
the examiners raised in relation to the federal system tems, while much is known already about the change
in Switzerland (OECD, I993c) On the other hand, a process, it has been difficult to extend changes "sys-
strategic role for national governments might be tem-wide" The problem is made more difficult in
more effective if partners can be engaged at each systems where responsibilities are shared among
level There is the further advantage that, at the partners Why, for example, in systems with devolved
regional and local levels, governance and administra- responsibilities, should regional and local authori-
tion arrangements permit and can be used to ties, local communities and schools accept the pow-
encourage the participation of partners outside the erful overall national control which the State wishes
formal education system le g employers, social ser- to exercise through its central agencies? As devolu-
vices) and so bring about links seen as crucial for the tion may limit the call of education on the central
implementation of lifelong learning budget, it also strengthens the argument for local
autonomy in decision-making and freedom even from
national frameworks that, on other grounds, are legit-
Privatisation Contracting out
imate and persuasive Thus, local bodies and stake-
New forms of privatisation are emerging in some holders have additional leverage and, where they are
countries One of these is contracting out, in which in disagreement with the central authorities or lack
the government's role is to establish the learning out- sufficient knowledge or support to take decisions,
comes desired for school populations, and then spec- opportunities for paralysis are greatly enhanced Evi-
ify certain conditions a contractor must meet The dence of this type of difficulty may be seen, for exam-
contractor is free (within the terms) to use any ple, in the case of efforts to establish a national cur-
method to reach the specified outcomes This strat- riculum in the United States
egy differs from the decentralising trend described Government reform strategies differ among
earlier, in that the delivery function is bid competi- countries Skilbeck (1994) broadly characterises such
tively among private vendors for a specific contract strategies along a continuum ranging from "compre-
term Contract renewal depends on satisfactory per- hensive legislation to much more diffuse, less dra-
formance, and bonuses may be paid for successful matic, more participative, slower processes whereby
results beyond the minimum requirements of the local initiative is fostered" (see Table 5 5) Some-
contract where between these extremes is a Northern Euro-
The strategy has not yet been widely adopted, pean approach, evident in the Netherlands and
and experience is too limited and recent to permit Sweden, for example, usually referred to as "steering
evaluation Views on the approach tend to be as by goals" This refers to the functions of a central
much ideological as educational For example, it can government in establishing a framework of goals,
be argued that "contracting out" i) is more efficient broad curriculum outlines, monitoring, assessment
because it harnesses competitive forces, particularly and evaluation With this framework, there is enlarged
for inefficient schools, enables governments to scope for regional and local authority, school and
1176 take advantage of specialised skills not readily pre- teacher initiative and for community participation
 IJFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Table 5 5 New strategic roles of governments characterisation of reform strategies

Reform strategies Countries/systems

A
Government-imposed, comprehensive, New Zealand
legislative- backed reform Spain
England and Wales

"Steering by goals Netherlands

Sweden

Local autonomy, variety of action, plurality - nation-wide strategy in

of decision-making partnership with regional and
local authorities, professional
associations unions, parents
- loose national structures, Independent private schools
teacher professionalism Tertiary education institutions
'grass roots' participation

Source Adapted from Skilbeck (1994)

Ski lbeck (1994) places the United Kingdom (England) with priorities set on the basis of data about
further towards the model of "government-imposed, student (outcomes and) needs" (Australia)
comprehensive, legislative-backed reform" It is more
"[Through' devolution, produces a valid frame-
difficult to identify countries or systems following a
work for initiatives taken by communities
model of "local autonomy, variety of action and plu-
while taking advantage of possibilities offered
rality of decision-making" A stronger version of this
by the legal framework It is important that
model - close to "steering by goals" is a nation-
wide strategy in which government is a partner work- schools should be able to set their own objec-
ing together with regional and local authorities, pro- tives, to organise their management and cur-
fessional associations, unions, and parents A weaker ricular development processes in their own
form of this model, characterised by looser national agreed manner, and create their own ethos
structures, teacher professionalism and "grass roots" This all appears to have important conse-
participation, might be found in independent private quences for the educational climate and,
schools and tertiary education institutions through this, for the anticipated end product
of the school" (Spain)
Effects on learning "Tor' innovations in the curriculum directed
at profile development (i e schoollevel adap-
The effects of moves towards new strategic roles
tations of programmes), may lead to an
for government on student learning have not been
increase in the effectiveness of schools-
easy to gauge It has been difficult to demonstrate
(Germany, North Rhine-Westphalia)
direct links between school organisation and student
outcomes Nonetheless, to the extent that schools There is also broad agreement that an important
operating under the new policy frameworks are found dimension of such a strategic role is partnership -as
to be more likely to adopt measures known to noted in Australia, where "it makes a difference to
improve student performance, there is a priori lustift- financial resource management when the notion of
cation for such frameworks A strategic role for gov- partnership is introduced Consensus breeds greater
ernment in which schools assume responsibility for understanding and satisfaction land] effectiveness of
deciding on means (OECD, 1996c) schooling is enhanced when a partnership is devel-
"'Leads] to greater effectiveness through oped between parents, principal, staff and students in
greater flexibility and better use of resources, a school community ( ) Using the partnership to
to professional development at the school establish the membership of decision-making groups,
level, to more knowledgeable teachers and and to apply the benefits of that decision-making
parents, and so to better financial decisions, across all functional areas of the school's operations,
to whole-school planning and implementation leads to a strong sense of mutual support, a strength- 1771
IJFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

ening of purpose, a commitment to decisions made The challenge to government is to rethink its
and an empowerment of participants" (OECD. 1996c) roles in relation to tertiary, adult and continuing edu-
cation and training, with the aim of developing poli-
That the necessary conditions are not always pre-
cies to influence demand and supply New
sent is confirmed by a range of research findings
approaches involve the more strategic use of public
Meuret et al (1995) compared the OECD's indicators
financing, an opening up of regulations in the tertiary
of decision-making with upper secondary graduation education sector to accommodate diversity, new
rates and performance in reading at age 14 In com- efforts of assessment and evaluation, and targeted
paring the fourteen countries for which information support for provision which may reduce certain barri-
was available, no apparent relationship could be dis- ers to lifelong learning (see Chapter 2) New roles for
cerned between the proportion of decisions taken at government need first of all to be considered in rela-
the school, intermediate or system level and school- tion to post-school and tertiary education
ing outcomes An extensive body of research in the
United States has not persuasively demonstrated that
site-based management a strategy which calls for Post-school and tertiary education
an indirect but guiding role for government affects Although post-school and tertiary opportunities
educational outcomes one way or another Indeed, are expanding and becoming more diverse, there is
some United States research suggests that there may evidence that they are not adequately matching
be additional costs for site-based management, in demand In Germany, Chancellor Kohl has expressed
terms of both effort and possible unintended effects the concern that, overall, education at the tertiary
on children level was "too academic" There is some indication
that young people in Germany agree a survey of uni-
While the evidence remains limited, a role for
versity students found that 12 per cent would have
government which favours improved effectiveness can
enrolled in Fachhochschulen if spaces were available
be advanced, by way of hypothesis improvements in
There is evidence drawn from Australia and New
effectiveness result both from augmenting decision-
Zealand that tertiary education students are seeking
making responsibilities at the level of the school and
to align their skills and competencies with the needs
from conditions which support the informed and
of employers by obtaining "double degrees", under-
effective exercise of those responsibilities Key condi-
taking post-graduate study or, in some instances,
tions appear to be clarity in decision-making respon- returning to obtain higher vocational qualifications in
sibilities at the school level and sufficient knowledge TAFE in Australia or polytechnics in New Zealand
and expertise on the part of school staff, parents and (Committee for Quality Assurance in Higher Educa-
partners from the wider community In adopting a tion, 1995, New Zealander Ministry of Education,
more strategic role as part of a framework of lifelong 1995) The latter development has also been noted
learning, government should seek to ensure that the with regard to community colleges in the United
needed conditions are established and maintained States, and in programmes offered by special training
and to draw on and engage partners in such an effort schools (Senshu Gakko) in Japan (Box 3)
Current arrangements for the management and
D. THE GOVERNANCE AND MANAGEMENT governance of tertiary education have been found by
OF LEARNING BEYOND SCHOOLING both governments and institutions to be inadequate
Government strategies involve the use of two policy
While governments have long and substantial "levers", namely regulation and financing
experience in directing the provision of school sys-
tems, their roles in supporting non-formal learning
have been more diffuse and indirect Non-formal Regulation
learning lies generally outside the direct control of Most countries continue to regard a supportive
governments, not only because they lack the legal framework as a necessary condition for the
resources to finance provision but also because learn- effective "steering" of tertiary education Such a legal
ing patterns are determined by a complex array of framework sets down the respective responsibilities
influences and stakeholders In short, education and Yet. in some OECD countries, steps are being taken
training beyond secondary schooling are influenced to address rigidities in regulatory frameworks or
by a complex interplay of supply and demand factors uncoordinated approaches linked to them In the
1178 (OECD, 19951) United States, state-level initiatives are addressing a
 IJFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Box 3 Special training schools in Japan: a private sector response to demand

One indication of the lack of responsiveness of tertiary institutions is how many learners seek education
outside publicly organised or regulated programmes The evolution of enrolments in special training schools
(Senshu Gakko) in Japan is an example These schools are mostly private and offer education and training for work
requiring "mid-level' skills Qualifications from higher-level courses in these schools (the large majority of courses)
are recognised by employers (in some cases, the curriculum is established by' employers' e g the Health Ministry
sets down requirements for dieticians), but as the curricula do not fall under the regulatory control of Monbusho,
the schools do not confer qualifications that are recognised in tertiary education
Special training schools have developed at a very rapid rate with enrolments more than doubling since the
early 1980s in spite of the lack of academic recognition or standing Given unfavourable employment prospects
for many young adults and stagnating enrolments in tertiary education, some institutions have begun to develop
articulation arrangements which permit students in special training schools to gain advanced standing and,
eventually, to receive tertiary-level degrees in addition to their training school qualifications
There are other examples of fully private. "external" provision in the OECD area, even if the numbers involved
remain relatively modest In France and Germany, for example, such programmes are found in institutions offering
advanced studies in business and management

perceived need to streamline functions and open up ers and regional governments or municipalities in
structures which now are seen as overly inflexible decision-making In France. the contracting policy has
New Jersey has abolished its State Board of Higher sought to emphasise institutional accountability, to
Education, while the much-applauded California ensure the effective use of public funding allocated
Master Plan has been criticised for its rigidity In for international co-operation, and to stimulate pint
Sweden, while policy development until 1993 aimed effort among tertiary institutions, local and regional
to reduce government oversight of tertiary education authorities and enterprises (French Ministry of Higher
substantially (widening the scope for the establish- Education and Research, 1993, OECD, I995n) The
ment and programmes of institutions), the present experience with the development of partnership
direction is to restore some regulatory control within contracts warrants close attention as a model
through new framework conditions monitored by the to be pursued by national authorities seeking both to
National Agency for Higher Education As part of its harness support by local partners and to "steer"
reform of tertiary education, the United Kingdom provision
(England) established the Higher Education Funding Countries have also adopted different
Council which, while independent of direct govern- approaches to stimulate the supply of learning oppor-
ment control, nonetheless works to a much narrower tunities for students who do not continue on to "con-
set of specifications than the former University Grants ventional" tertiary education In Australia. the
Committee National Training Council has with the agreement
of the federal, state, employer and labour interests
The implementation of a framework of lifelong
represented provided advice on training to the
learning may call for a new balance in regulations
National Board for Employment, Education and
covering tertiary education, in which authorities will
Training and the government It also has helped
assume increased responsibilities for establishing
establish a new way to provide for training outside
means for assessment and quality assurance while
the wage-setting process Denmark makes use of a
relinquishing even more of their responsibilities for
range of governance bodies, including the Ministry.
oversight of the structure, organisation and manage-
the Council on Vocational Education which advises
ment of provision In this regard, there is a need to
the Ministry, trade committees which oversee specific
look closely at present legislation and proposed
training courses, and local education committees
reforms
which advise technical and commercial schools The
Governments have taken steps to widen the range of bodies corresponds to the diversity of train-
1791
scope for input and influence from students, employ- ing opportunities in that country Germany's dual sys-
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

tern of vocational and technical education is gov- will be encouraged to see their work in relation to the
erned by legislation The Federal Institute for efforts of the university as a whole The approach
Vocational Training, operating under the Federal Mm- adopted in recent reform in Belgium (Flemish com-
istry of Education and Science, oversees training at munity) is to lodge decision-making responsibility at
the federal level and writes guidelines which are the institution, with only indirect "steering" through
approved by the state authorities, relevant industry financing mechanisms and a broad and light regula-
chambers and trade unions tory framework
Several countries now rely on high-level bodies
to advise the Ministry about future development at Financing
the tertiary level In Australia. the Higher Education
Council responds to government requests for advice In most OECD countries, public financing is
on policy matters A similar structure has been used increasingly being used to direct tertiary education
in Japan, where the University Council, comprised of provision Box 4 illustrates the main feature of the
members drawn from within and outside tertiary edu- approaches, which is to shift the basis of funding
cation, has developed for Monbusho (Ministry of from inputs to outputs and outcomes, and thereby to
Education) recommendations for reform OECD call upon providers to justify the funds received in
examiners of tertiary education in the Czech and terms of these outputs or outcomes One example is
Slovak Republics recommended the establishment of Australia's Quality Assessment initiative, undertaken
such an advisory body, in Poland, a council estab- by the Committee for Quality Assurance in Higher
lished close to the Minister serves this purpose In Education, which provides for financial awards to
New Zealand. a Tertiary Consultative Committee institutions based on an assessment of actions and
(TCC) has been organised by the Chief Executive of achievements rather than proposed activities (Com-
the Ministry of Education in order to foster an mittee for Quality Assurance in Higher Education,
exchange of views on policy development and impact 1995) Outcome criteria are also used to allocate core
The TCC has no formal or legal status In all these funding Williams (1994) points out a key paradox in
countries, such bodies are advisory Government this new strategic approach to institutional finance
authorities retain full responsibility for decisions "IWith thel advent of output budgeting, governments
regarding the adoption of any of the recommenda- and external funding agencies become involved in at
tions In this respect, authorities in these countries least as much detailed regulation as they were in line
and in individual States in the United States have item budgeting" In this respect, the government role
reserved full scope to respond flexibly and directly to is changed, not diminished
newly-identified policy aims
In spite of these innovations, in no OECD coun-
At the tertiary level, the reduced influence of try is funding made available to tertiary institutions
"buffer bodies" and increased use of advisory bodies solely on the basis of a "free market" of choice The
may be seen as an expansion of the government role introduction of market forces - including incentives
beyond the state-institution relationship, to include a introduced through new funding formulas mask the
specific role in balancing the roles and responsibili- extent to which authorities retain responsibility for
ties of other actors, most particularly those from the allocation of direct institutional appropriations
industry. In the United Kingdom (England), for exam- Governments have retained scope for addressing
ple, co-operative financing and training and research unintended consequences of the application of
initiatives are promoted through government formula funding and market incentives, including the
policies Thus, governments may be seeking to rigidity such mechanisms may introduce over time
foster "Joint responsibility" insofar as "the sum of This flexibility does have drawbacks, however,
institutional interests is not in the public interest" because the incentives introduced through particular
(McGuinness. 1995) This wider perspective includes funding criteria and market forces are weakened if
students. as development will be influenced by the governments step in to protect programmes or insti-
choices they make
tutions that are not responsive On the other hand,
Authorities in several countries are seeking to the initiatives illustrate concerns about the ability of
bolster strategic decision-making in tertiary institu- governments to "steer" the development of tertiary
tions In Japan, recent attention is aimed at building education Issues in the finance of tertiary education
up participation in decision-making at the institution- and non-formal learning more broadly are taken up in
1180 wide level, in the hope that faculties and departments more detail in Chapter 8
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Box 4 Incentives linked to financing mechanisms

Among the methods used to allocate public subsidies to tertiary education, the following incentives may be
found in the countries indicated (Wagner, 1996)
For providers:
"rationalisation" in the Netherlands and "consolidation" in Australia and Belgium (Flemish community), in
which the number of institutions have been (or are being) reduced to permit larger enrolments per
institution,
- institutional "profiling" in Australia and "contracts" in France and Finland, in which differentiation and
specialisation among institutions permit larger average enrolments across institutions for study pro-
grammes in specific fields,
funding mechanisms which favour development in less-expensive provision, including alternatives to uni-
versities (as in Germany), part-time and distance study options, and so on,
funding mechanisms which provide for a ceiling on funding, as in the new funding formula applied in the
United Kingdom and proposed in the Czech Republic, and the allowance for a "self-financing" expectation
for institutions in Australia and New Zealand (the latter takes the form of a policy permitting institutions to
impose tuition fees to cover a planned reduction in student public funding),
funding mechanisms which tie public funds to performance indicators or service standards, including
"contracts" in France and Finland, "credit points" or units corresponding to the volume of course work
completed in Sweden and Norway, 'active students', defined as the volume of examinations passed in
Denmark, the volume of doctoral degrees in Norway, or accreditation in the United States
For learners-
- funding mechanisms which directly affect participant eligibility for support, as in limits in Germany on the
number of terms for which public support is made available (8-10 terms in universities. 6.8 terms in
Fachhochschulen), requirements for progress in the Netherlands (students must pass half of their course
work each year), and additions to the annual fees paid by students for those who do not complete their
studies within a fixed time period (proposed in Australia)
funding criteria which indirectly encourage learners to be 'efficient' in particular tuition fees (a direct
application of the market model in a number of countries),
guidance on the content and methods of participation in programmes of study, as discussed in Germany
and France
Within Institutions:
extending autonomy within institutions in which there are consequences for programmes, departments or
faculties stemming from the choices they make in organising instruction and research A number of large
private universities in the United States have adopted the approach, which includes gain-sharing' through
which a unit, faculty, department or centre keeps a portion of the surplus it generates,
"benchmarking" of costs, in order to evaluate the variation among institutions for identified services

The emerging infrastructure for learning beyond introduce a shift in the relationship between teacher
schooling and learner, towards a more "open" structure for
learning Such opportunities represent a large growth
While much of the time and resources for learn- potential for lifelong learning Governments can
ing beyond schooling is devoted to traditional tertiary encourage changes in institutional cultures in recruit-
institutions, possibilities for open and distance learn- ing and training personnel, in funding regimes and in
ing are developing rapidly Mainstream education and applying information technologies appropriately for
training continue to adapt, if not fully, to make better educational purposes A specific approach is to add a
use of the possibilities New learning opportunities "mode" of distance education to conventional tertiary
are more closely linked to work and work environ- provisions "Dual mode" institutions introduce con-
ments, are scheduled during the day and week to siderable flexibility in provision to shift emphasis
from one mode to the other, depending on changes 181
accommodate the varying needs of learners, and
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

in the pattern of demand for particular courses, to proposal for "regional" universities, such as an Asia-
open up continuing professional education at a time Pacific Industrial University (Wagner and Schnitzer,
when innovations in telecommunications are making 1991, Perraton, 1993) These international initiatives
interactive learning at a distance a realistic possibil- represent major opportunities for accommodating the
ity, to accommodate increased enrolments in a con- demand for lifelong learning
text of limited or uncertain levels of resources, to
However, the practicalities of international
permit an entrepreneurial response to market pos-
exchange and co-operation in approaches to lifelong
sibilities for off-campus learning, and to enable
learning require further development Policies now
improvements in quality for on-campus provision
would need to take into account more concrete forms
(OECD, 1995i)
of co-operation, moving beyond a general openness
In establishing flexible arrangements for learning for a sharing of experiences to cross-border funding
the main role of government is to promote the devel- of university-based research, fees (levels of subsidies)
opment of new links between formal and non-formal for tertiary students from other countries, recognition
education providers and enterprises, and more varied of qualifications and contents of degree studies in
use of new information technologies This implies other countries, and delivery of instructional services
new methods and arrangements for institutions and across borders Negotiations in the recently-
other providers, but also new patterns of participa- concluded GATT round gave attention to the trade in
tion in non-formal learning Because authorities are international services, including education Informa-
unlikely to support all such activities, a related gov- tion is accumulating on the outcomes of various
ernment role is to encourage financing arrangements types of international arrangements in teaching and
that promote widespread participation in open learning (Bremer and van der Wende, 1995, van der
learning Wende, 1995, Opper et al 1990), and on alternative
,

There are now few technical barriers to prevent approaches for the recognition of learning beyond
education and training provision from moving beyond borders
national boundaries The dimensions of the growth In sum, several emerging themes in the govern-
are well documented In the OECD area, foreign stu- ance and management of post-school education and
dents in tertiary education increased at an average training can be identified
annual rate of over 10 per cent from 1960 to 1980, and
by an average annual rate of 2 per cent from 1980 to New post-school learning opportunities are
1990 (Ebuchi. 1989) Nonetheless, with some excep- emerging in some countries. as the full range
tions, such student flows account for a small percent- of education and training providers are being
age of total tertiary enrolment, in the order of 5 per given more responsibility for determining their
cent, after the flows have been adjusted to exclude objectives and taking initiatives within broad
students who are "resident foreigners" (Gordon and policy guidelines
lallade, 1995, Wagner and Schnitzer. 1991) There has Public funding arrangements are now becom-
been rapid development of new structures and means ing more strategic. shifting from the specifica-
of provision, including ioint programmes (as in the tion of fixed inputs to the realisation of agreed
European Union's ERASMUS programme, or Univer- outcomes or outputs, at the same time, terti-
sity Mobility in the Asia-Pacific region). "split site" ary providers are expected to move towards
arrangements which divide the period of study mixed public/private funding students, partic-
between the host institution and an institution in the
ularly in graduate and continuing professional
sending country, "branch" campuses, sometimes education, are now being expected to contrib-
organised as a co-operative or pint venture with a
ute tuition fees, and institutions are being
foreign institutional, government or corporate spon-
encouraged to become more entrepreneurial
sor, local infrastructure development, as in the Com-
monwealth Higher Education Support Scheme Governments are removing barriers to private
(CHESS) established by the Commonwealth Secreta- sector initiatives as a matter of policy, some
riat, distance learning opportunities extended across authorities are encouraging private entities to
borders by individual institutions or national agen- compete for contracts, long-standing distinc-
cies (eg the German Fernumversitat linked to study tions between public and private providers are
centres in Austria, free-standing, multilateral entities becoming blurred as access and funding are
1182 such as the Commonwealth of Learning), and the made more widely available
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

There is growing interest in identifying and compulsory level, criteria such as "broadening the
assessing skills and competencies Establish- financial base" or "feasibility" are used (Eicher and
ing a national framework of qualifications and Chevallier. 1993)
standards might reduce the fragmentation of
According to the efficiency argument, a market
certification and diversify provision by render-
for learning relies on government intervention if the
ing neutral the source of learning However, no
learning activity produces benefits for persons other
country has implemented a fully developed
than the provider or learner, under the condition that
qualifications framework to date Thus, the
the net additional benefits outweigh the added costs
assumptions concerning direct and indirect
of the intervention (de Villder, 1993, Windham. 1979)
costs as well as the potential benefits emerg-
The common view is that, on balance, significant pos-
ing from such frameworks remain untested
itive externalities exist in markets for learning, which
More generally, the role of governments in guid- are manifested in better health, improved social
ing and funding learning beyond schooling remains cohesion, enhanced technological development,
an open area for policy development Even more than higher economic growth, a more balanced income
in the school sector, the trend is for governments to distribution, enhanced democracy, and more active
adopt a strategic role in those tertiary and non-formal political participation (Haveman and Wolfe. 1984,
sectors where they choose not to be, or cannot be, McMahon, 1995) There is also agreement that such
the main provider of services, but where there is externalities diminish with the level of education
nonetheless great value in "guiding" change The that is, externalities for primary schooling are
strategic role involves partnerships with providers higher than those for secondary schooling, and the
and includes regulation, finance, monitoring results latter are higher than those for post-secondary educa-
and fostering strategic development tion A further reason for government intervention is
that risk and incomplete information can lead to inef-
ficient investment (when individual learners make
E. GOVERNMENT INTERVENTION IN MARKETS
choices that are inappropriate in terms of the subse-
FOR LEARNING
quent social effects) and under-investment for a
In recent years there is increased interest in country as a whole (when the market fails to permit
"markets for learning" Markets are advocated risks to be averaged) Under such circumstances, gov-
because they "create the right incentives", that is, ernment intervention in a market for learning can be
they are seen as an effective mechanism to direct used to compensate for the risk assumed by funders
resources to their most appropriate uses The means and learners Government subsidies (explicit or
include enrolment-based funding mechanisms, implicit) in various tertiary education loan schemes
school choice, contracting arrangements, tax incen- have the effect of overcoming such uncertainty and
tives for providers, third-party payers, and learners risk
and their families, vouchers, and a mix of private and Importantly, the foregoing arguments favouring
public funds Experience with these approaches var- government intervention in markets for learning apply
ies among countries and across levels of education
also to adult education and training (Middleton et al
and training There is relatively little experience with 1993) In this case, however, employers figure more
a market approach to compulsory schooling, and the
prominently than in the case of formal schooling To
most substantial experience in adult education and the extent that adult education and training are "gen-
training In the latter case, the "market" has devel- eral" (Becker, 1962), the motivation for government
oped to an extent independently of government intervention in the market corresponds to those dis-
Yet even with increased interest in market cussed above for formal education But, even where
approaches and the long-standing possibility for pri- adult education and training programmes are "spe-
vate provision of schooling, government intervention cific", Intervention may still be warranted This is the
is observed in every OECD country Intervention takes case when there is uncertainty about turnover and
the form of either regulation or financing (usually a worker leisure, which may lead to under- investment
combination of both), and with formal education on the part of employers The training levy, in which
there is direct provision through public schools and all enterprises are obliged (as in France) to set aside
tertiary institutions So far, the motives for such inter- a certain percentage of their wage bill for training, is
vention usually have been related to efficiency and an example of government intervention which seeks
1831
equity concerns, sometimes, particularly at the post- to respond to these concerns (see Chapter 8)
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Probably the most accepted reason for govern- privatisation) At the tertiary level, the strategic role
ment intervention in any market for learning is the has called for new evaluation mechanisms and infor-
view that access to educational opportunities should mation policies, now linked more closely with finan-
not depend decisively on factors such as social back- cing mechanisms These developments signal a
ground, gender or ethnic origin Until the recent potential convergence in broad policy directions
expansion of participation at upper secondary and across the different levels of education and training,
tertiary levels of education and the growth in the and a basis for developing a more coherent lifelong
need for retaining and upgrading of skills, this view approach in the roles of government
had the greatest cogency at the primary and secon- In education at all levels, some countries appear
dary levels of education In the framework of lifelong to place the emphasis on establishing intermediary
learning for all, full access to learning opportunities bodies or consulting intermediary levels of govern-
in all forms and of all ages for the disadvantaged, un- ment for advice rather than decision-making That
or under-employed, or otherwise marginalised indi- emphasis would result in a direct link between gov-
viduals constitutes an important cornerstone ernment and its policies on the one hand, and indi-
The foregoing discussion sets out the main argu- vidual education and training providers, public and
ments for government intervention in a market for private, and learners, on the other However, through
learning However, the market-based approach as a intermediary bodies and levels of government, system
means of "steering" education and training has been authorities have scope to work with and influence
challenged since, even with government intervention, partners in support of management and financing
there is no certainty that the externalities and equity strategies The pattern is by no means uniform across
aims have been sufficiently taken into account There countries or levels of education The roles of regional
is a need for further analysis of existing policies and local authorities in education and training are
Importantly, the problems that have been identified unsettled but apparently changing in a number of
in relation to certain "higher order" values for society countries In training, different governance arrange-
as a whole are based on perspectives of social rela- ments can be seen in relation to country circum-
tionships that extend beyond those defined through stances and structures Nonetheless, the emphasis in
the market Such values may warrant direct govern- some countries on new roles for intermediary bodies
ment involvement (through regulation or public pro- and local and regional governments might be consid-
vision) as opposed to indirect influence via interven- ered as a point of departure in the development of
tion in the market (Wringe, 1994, McLaughlin, 1994, one element of a strategic policy framework for the
Henig, 1994, Chubb and Moe, 1993) implementation of lifelong learning for all
In a number of countries, a parallel approach to
F. MANAGING AUTONOMY AND CHOICE: funding is being applied across education levels and
POLICY CONCLUSIONS segments In these countries, governments directly
fund education providers, establish explicit links
In a lifelong learning approach, it is the role of between outcome criteria or evaluation and public
government to promote the development of appropri- funding (in whole or in part), and introduce more
ate "bridges" and "ladders" and to provide private participation (with in-kind contributions from
frameworks in which the various elements of educa- communities and enterprises, contracting out, and
tion and training provision can be articulated learner/family participation in funding) In a few coun-
Although such frameworks are not yet in place, recent tries, a single funding mechanism is being applied
policy developments in the OECD area reveal new across all education provision at tertiary level and is
directions in governance and management which may being extended, in part, to upper secondary educa-
offer bases for redefining the roles of government in tion Again, a convergence of financing approaches
support of lifelong learning Across the range of opens up possibilities for a more coherent approach
existing provision of education and training, a num- to the use of financing as a means to steer provision
ber of countries have moved to establish a more stra- more closely in line with a lifelong approach to
tegic role for government At school level this has learning
meant a reinforced role in specifying desired learning
outcomes and at the same time a more supportive,
less-directed role in decisions about how the out- School education
comes are to be achieved (through, for example, poh- Education Ministries should adopt and
1184 cies calling for increased school autonomy and strengthen their strategic role, to advance
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

development of a lifelong approach to learn- ship among providers and with authorities and
ing for all, such a role involves primary respon- enterprises The roles of buffer bodies and
sibility for the setting and assessment of goals intermediate agencies in monitoring perform-
and standards and the provision of a support- ance, providing support and developing part-
ive framework within which schools are nership should be strengthened
expected to meet these as well as other
Education Ministries should assume as a prin-
locally-developed goals
cipal responsibility the encouragement and
In the implementation of policies which bal- promotion of innovation in learning beyond
ance assurance of quality and opportunity with schooling Support should be provided indi-
guidance and support for the increased scope rectly, through a more flexible regulatory
for initiative at the level of the school, inter- framework which permits a range of providers
mediate bodies and levels of government and programmes to be established, and
should be encouraged to serve as the means directly, through support for innovation
to connect schools with partners outside the outside as well as within formal education
education system Curriculum guidelines as institutions and across national frontiers
well as monitoring and evaluation should
In facilitating participation in and pathways
emphasise and build on linkages in learning
through the range of post-initial learning
among levels, with non-formal learning and
opportunities, government should develop fur-
with work
ther a role in providing for an assessment of
Support systems should encourage schools to skills and competencies wherever acquired (as
build on strengths and complementanties, in a "transaction facilitator") Such a role needs
partnership with parents, communities and to be developed in partnership with providers,
enterprises Policies which establish support clients and a range of government
systems and structures should aim to departments
encourage improvement and effectiveness, not
simply replication At all levels
Schools should be able to seek funding and in-
A general principle is that provision should be
kind support from a range of sources. subject
influenced by learners as well as other "cli-
to the requirement of equal access Govern-
ents", including government representing soci-
ment retains the responsibility to ensure a fair
ety-wide interests and enterprises reflecting
distribution of resources, so that gaps and
their own interests
special needs are covered after all available
resources (public and private) are taken into In this connection, government should estab-
account lish and continue to monitor the conditions
under which markets for learning can lead to
Learning beyond schooling responsive and efficient provision Govern-
ment retains the primary responsibility for
Education Ministries should revise and further access to and equity in lifelong learning in all
refine legislative frameworks and financing forms and at all ages, whether the opportuni-
mechanisms to permit flexibility, but also to ties are afforded through the market or pro-
guide provision towards greater coherence vided directly by the government
across the range of tertiary education and to
Governments should explore possibilities for
ensure improved responsiveness Central
strengthening the linkages between employ-
authorities should retain a limited, but none-
ment and education functions to ensure that
theless direct, power to intervene (e g through
general education, training and employment
the allocation of a reserve pool of uncommit-
offer mutually reinforcing opportunities for
ted funds)
personal growth and development throughout
Education Ministries should move beyond life Linkages with health and social service
traditional State-institutional relationships to functions should also be established and
encourage and further build on local partner- strengthened 1851
 USING GOALS AND STANDARDS IN FORMAL
AND NON-FORMAL LEARNING

A. INTRODUCTION refers only to a part of the range of opportunities that

together constitute the full lifelong learning picture, it
This chapter argues that re-examining educa-
is the part that conies most within the province of the
tional goals and standards is an indispensable part of
education authorities and hence warrants such scru-
the reform process, there is currently a lack of articu-
tiny here By clarifying the goals and standards within
lation between the objectives pursued at different
education systems, the articulation between these
levels, programmes, and other components of the
and non-formal learning arrangements, as well as
education and training systems of many OECD coun-
with tertiary education and the different partners and
tries Duplication, contradictions and other forms of
organisations involved, is also likely to be facilitated
incoherence arise in part because of a lack of clarity
with regard to the goals of education and training Section B sets the stage by examining the issues
systems They also arise from the conflicting aims of that constantly re-emerge in the debate over which
different interest groups inside and outside the edu- goals are most appropriate for formal education and
cation and training sector training systems, the tensions that can arise as insti-
All countries are concerned about the quality tutional structures are reformed to meet lifelong
and relevance of their formal education and training learning goals are also considered Section C
systems. but the expression of this concern can take introduces various approaches to defining education
different forms For instance, in the English-speaking and training standards in both formal systems and
countries especially, there is debate over the "stan- non-formal networks The factors that have led to
dards" that signal high performance In Japan and increased focus on the need for performance
most European countries, there has been less anxiety standard-setting and assessment are analysed Sec-
about quality, concern has tended to focus instead on tion D explores the experiences and strategies of
issues related to curriculum and vocational and tech- Member countries in setting, assessing and monitor-
nical training, i e on input and process In some ing standards as a means of steering change towards
countries there is concern about school standards but objectives deemed compatible with the goal of life-
relative confidence in the performance of tertiary edu- long learning for all Strategies for monitoring school
cation institutions In other countries, the reverse effectiveness and promoting parental choice of
is true schools are also examined Finally, Section E offers
The starting point for the examination of these conclusions and directions for policy
issues is the analysis of what countries are currently
implementing or seeking to implement in their edu- B. SETTING EDUCATION GOALS, AND NEW
cation systems, both to clarify goals and to articulate APPROACHES TO STEERING EDUCATION
standards This shows the range of experience and SYSTEMS
varying degrees of success with which the many ten-
sions that arise have been resolved This discussion A major challenge faces national policy-makers
also warns that some of the most readily available as they set about reorienting their education systems
measures will rarely add up to a comprehensive set of to meet the challenge of lifelong learning in the
benchmarks, and may often not be the most appropri- 21st century There is currently widespread dissatis-
ate, whether from an educational or a public account- faction with the functioning of education systems in
ability viewpoint This chapter relies mainly on evi- many countries as the conclusion of a recent publi-
dence from school systems but references are also cation from the top-level European Round Table of
1871
made to tertiary education While this, of course, Industrialists (1995, p 6) makes clear
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

"In nearly all European countries there is an ment for all students, in traditional academic
ever-widening gap between the education that areas as well as in those areas that cut across
people need for today's complex world and the the familiar boundaries
education they receive Too many disillusioned To achieve lifelong learning The education
young students drop out of educational systems system intends to achieve high levels of partic-
through failure or rebellion, or come through ipation in programmes tailored to the needs of
with only minimal skills This is a major eco- learners of all ages, including early childhood
nomic and social concern particularly at a time education, adult education, and continuing
when fewer new people than before are available vocational training
to enter the labour markets It is time to raise a
cry of alarm to alert society to this educational
gap Transparency as a goal
The unavoidable conclusion is that education To attain these goals requires a refocusing of
systems are not doing enough of what is genuinely effort in national education systems, the goal of
needed, and when they are doing the right thing they achieving lifelong learning, in particular, entails a
are not doing it well enough An indispensable first much improved understanding of how the formal and
step in the urgent process of refocusing education non-formal systems in each country relate to each
systems is clarifying, explicitly, and if necessary other When goals are clear and systems transparent,
establishing new educational goals In many coun- barriers to goal attainment are easier to negotiate
tries, goals and agendas of different parts of the sys- Indeed, transparency itself needs to become a goal in
tem are implicit or have not recently been reassessed order to make the others easier to attain
and, consequently, may pull in different directions
The OECD lobs Study (OECD, 1994d) recom-
For example, Chapters 3 and 4 reviewed the reasons
mended that transparency be improved, an opinion
why conflicts arise between the goals of general and
seconded by many countries But transparency means
vocational education, and between those of secon-
different things to different people One generally
dary and tertiary education Moreover, the goals of
accepted sense is the movement towards making the
the formal education and training systems do not
management and administration of the system and
always relate clearly to those of non-formal activities
its institutions more open and accountable to the
(Colletta, 1994)
public The more specific sense used here focuses on
In spite of or perhaps because of such con- the transparency of certification For Australia.
flicts, reaching a consensus on explicit and reachable Canada, Mexico and the United States, for example,
goals is essential, if systems are to be steered in a improving transparency means working towards the
new and more productive direction The OECD coun- creation of a national framework for standards
tries have in fact already agreed on a set of general accepted and understood by all The New Zealand
goals for their education systems which broadly meet National Qualifications framework is intended to
the concerns of the industrialists quoted above unite all education and training qualifications within
(OECD, 1995p p 186) one national framework (Qualifications Authority,
To achieve equal access to educational oppor- 1995) In countries such as France and Germany,
tunity The education system intends to make which already have such frameworks, improving trans-
educational opportunities equally accessible parency means that new pathways between different
to all members of society regardless of age, levels and sectors of the education and training sys-
ethnic background, race, gender, region, lan- tem will have to be created as the range of choices
guage, religion, or disability available to learners becomes wider and more com-
To achieve basic levels of literacy throughout plex, and modular programmes become the norm
the population A "basic" level primarily But transparency itself is also a complex goal
involves reading, writing, numeracy, and other which includes a variety of elements, and is best
communication and language skills, but may assessed using three separate though related criteria
also involve familiarity with scientific and (Colardyn, 1994, Colardyn and Durand-Drouhin,
technological principles 1995)
To achieve excellencethroughout the educa- Transferability of skills and competencies This
tion system The education system intends to focuses on the use of certification within the
1188 strive for excellence and high levels of achieve- education system to qualify individuals to
 IJFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

move from one programme or level to another, parents, employers, and the local community More-
routes taken may link general and vocational over, for practitioners, it is not only a matter of put-
education, or secondary and tertiary ting the new standards into operation, they often
education have a role to play in making sure that the standards
Visibility This clarifies the value of certifica- are realistic If a system is to be refocused success-
tion outside the education system, especially fully, there must be input from all the interested
when social partners have been involved in the parties
design and assessment of skills, knowledge
and competencies. what someone knows, Common trends
understands and can do should be fairly and
clearly represented by his or her qualification Efforts to improve transparency, increase partici-
Portability on the labour market This repre- pation and devolve responsibility from the centre are
sents the economic value of certification in now under way in many countries The common
finding a lob, achieving promotion, or gener- trends identified below illustrate how goals, stan-
ally enhancing career development dards, assessment and certification are linked (OECD,
1994m, I995g, 19951, 1995v) Obviously, goals cannot
Innovations and changes in assessment and rec- be achieved everywhere through identical reforms,
ognition, leading to an improvement of transparency, because countries may already have traditional
can usefully be assessed against these criteria
national standards, a decentralised education system,
although the form they may take varies depending or a strong tradition of involving the social partners
on the country Lack of transparency in education All the same, many countries are
systems signals a major problem in relation to life-
long learning the lack of fit between formal and non- Making student performance standards more
formal provisions when it comes to certification, both explicit, and aggregating and reporting test
transferability and portability need to be improved results at various levels, especially the
Currently, there are several key issues certification is national level
rarely adequately transferable within formal educa- Involving representatives from the world of
tion systems, it is not portable enough on the labour work and local communities in the educational
market, it is not sufficiently visible for firms and other process This is especially true for vocational
employers. who often do not know what it means, and and technical education, but it is also happen-
it often does not correspond to the needs of ing in general education
individuals
Giving parents more influence and choice

Moving from goals to standards Devolving more responsibility for defining and
managing the educational process to school
The general goals outlined above need to be principals and teachers, and holding them
translated into more specific national goals Can such more accountable for outcomes
goals be encapsulated in standards for education and
training'? Is it helpful to relate goals to specified stan- Defining a new balance between general and
dards for resource provision, curriculum content, and vocational education first by aligning and,
performance) Identifying goals and improving the where possible, integrating separate tracks,
structures through which they might be achieved secondly, by creating and implementing path-
must be followed by some form of standard-setting ways between the two systems, with the aim of
which would indicate the level of performance neces- improving parity of esteem, and thirdly, by
sary in order to achieve the new goals Again, some establishing new pathways from vocational
countries are revising established standards, whereas education to tertiary education
for others the process is relatively new Diversifying the approaches to assessment and
In revising their frameworks, OECD countries certification of skills and competencies This
have shown increasing interest in linking their trend takes two inter-related forms improving
national goals and policies to new assessment and the flexibility of institutional arrangements
certification mechanisms New standards cannot sim- (pathways, modules, credit transfers), and
ply be imposed from above, it is important to develop focusing on individuals (assessing and certify-
1891
a consensual approach that unites students, teachers, ing prior learning, creating transportable stu-
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

dent portfolios, and establishing assessment core curriculum for all schools In the past,
centres) these decentralised systems commonly pro-
Less common, however, is an understanding of moted flexibility, but sometimes at the cost of
the need for professional development for teachers if fragmentation These attempts reflect a search
new goals and standards are to become a reality for explicit coherence an agreed framework in
Once new performance standards for students have which decentralised elements can be con-
been devised, teachers need to internalise them but nected to each other, and eventually com-
then they need to raise their own level of performance pared Improving coherence will in turn con-
so that they can elicit the required higher achieve- tribute to transparency in goals and standards.
as well as in assessment and certification
ment levels from their students As Selden (1994)
observed with regard to the United States "Most of Traditionally centralised systems are increas-
us feel that massive amounts of 'unprecedentedly' ingly concerned with reducing central curricu-
effective professional development of teachers is lar prescriptions, in order to give more auton-
needed to bring about significant changes in student omy to regions/municipalities, institutions, or
learning" The recently published White Paper on the both This applies in Mexico, for example,
reform of the Irish education system describes a where the national authorities agreed, in 1992,
reform plan that puts the professional development to reform the structure of basic education
of teachers at the centre of the change process (Irish Improving the transparency of pathways
Department of Education, 1995) should increase the flexibility of the system
One difficulty with large-scale initiatives of this and contribute to a better fit between its vari-
kind is that they are expensive at a time when all ous components Examining ways of accredit-
countries are trying to contain costs, and such ing skills and competencies is important in
refocusing and the restructuring it may entail assessing progress towards the attainment of
must be carried out as economically as possible (The coherence and flexibility
financial implications of such moves are addressed in Many countries with high-stakes, curriculum-
Chapter 8 ) Nevertheless, some countries (Mexico, related leaving examinations are seeking to
New Zealand, Norway, Spain, Sweden, the United modify them in order to widen access and
Kingdom) have made radical changes to the struc- diversify provision in upper secondary educa-
tures of educational administration and governance tion Meanwhile, countries such as the United
These countries and others (France, the Netherlands) States, which lack such examinations, are dis-
have also developed national systems of monitoring cussing whether they should be introduced,
student, school and system outcomes as a means of and countries such as Denmark, Norway and
measuring and evaluating progress Moreover, the Sweden, which had highly diversified upper
content of curricula and the approach to assessment secondary vocational courses, are seeking to
and certification have been reviewed and adapted in streamline them into fewer, broader routes
many OECD countries since the mid-1980s with larger general education components
Several countries (for example, England,
Flexibility and coherence in the curriculum France, Mexico, New Zealand, Sweden and
Spain) have introduced or are intending to
The above developments call attention to ten- introduce national testing for students at key
sions between flexibility and coherence Decentralisa- stages either as part of system evaluation
tion tends to promote flexibility, while centralised following major reforms, or to influence peda-
systems emphasise coherence This is especially true gogical practices (or both)
with regard to the curriculum The attempt to offer Most of these developments are occurring within
choice and diversity while at the same time raising
the formal education system How do they relate to
overall standards and avoiding fragmentation has
lifelong learning') In general they result from an
produced several types of policy reaction in Member
awareness that the rapidity of change in economies
countries
and social conditions requires more flexibility and
Some hitherto decentralised education sys- transparency in educational provision, but also higher
tems (Australia, New Zealand, the United standards of foundation learning, so that all students
Kingdom and the United States) have can be trained and retrained. However, reforms which
1190 attempted to define and implement a common start from this premise of higher standards should
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

not lose sight of the broader goal of promoting life- Sweden, there is a national competition for entry into
long learning for all by becoming overly concerned tertiary education Setting goals and standards calls
with elite selection Excessive competition between for different strategies corresponding to these
students and schools at the upper secondary level national contexts The question for countries with
can result in a narrowing of the implemented curricu- open entry requirements is whether a decentralised
lum at earlier stages (Japanese Ministry of Education, approach, allowing institutions to define their own
Sciences and Culture, 1995) missions within a national goals strategy. is compati-
In non-formal education for adults, there has ble with open entry In these systems the mainte-
been less coherence in the setting of goals, which nance of standards apparently involves high student
reflects the diversity of the field However, one trend attrition rates In those countries with a more diverse
is noticeable In the 1970s, industrialised countries range of entry standards the wastage rate appears to
became aware of the fact that a proportion of their be much lower but the corollary is that the standards
adults demonstrated low levels of literacy In due of both degrees and other tertiary qualifications vary
course, literacy evolved into the concept of profi- widely across the institutional spectrum
ciency in applying reading, writing and mathematical
Tertiary education institutions play an important
skills in daily activities, including work "Computers
role in the various forms of lifelong learning and the
literacy" was added to the functional skills thought
potential is there for even greater involvement They
necessary for adult life, and subsequently "social
can offer specialised courses designed both for those
skills" also, further extending the need for what came
who want to raise their skill level from a low base and
to be called "basic skills" Results from the Interna-
for the more highly qualified, as well as courses for
tional Adult Literacy Survey show that between
adults who seek access to tertiary education
10 and 25 per cent of the adult population aged
16-64 years have literacy skills that might be deemed Long- and short-term continuing education
insufficient, given the demands of modern life courses are found, under different names, in tertiary
education institutions in many Member countries
Goals and standards in tertiary education (including Australia, Canada, France, Germany,
Mexico, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom and
Many OECD countries are moving towards sys-
the United States) Long-term courses normally fol-
tems of mass tertiary education Traditional tertiary
low on from initial education, adult students tend to
goals and standards are challenged by the need to
be either self-funded or government-supported Pri-
cater for a more heterogeneous student body and a
vate sector employers are in certain cases enlarging
proliferation of courses designed to meet new
their support as well Admission typically depends on
demands These developments are occurring in a con-
conventional standards and initial formal qualifica-
text of budgetary constraints on public expenditure
tions (although some institutions do offer access
Not surprisingly in these circumstances, there is
courses, or base some of their admission criteria on
growing public concern in some countries about the
portfolios, interviews or other evidence of prior learn-
quality of tertiary education To clarify the goals and
ing) Pursuit of this type of education can also be
set standards for the tertiary education sector may be
facilitated by flexible institutional arrangements such
a useful strategy in those countries where concern
as single - subject courses or modules, part-time stud-
with the quality of tertiary education is most acute
ies, and distance learning Short-term education
Countries with "open" entry requirements for includes courses, seminars, workshops and confer-
tertiary education, such as France, Germany and Italy, ences lasting from a few days to a month or so,
where institutions have little control over the selec-
admission requirements may be flexible or highly
tion process, are most severely affected At the other
specific, and such courses are usually subsidised by
end of the spectrum, the United States with its
employers
mixture of private and state universities and its
diverse range of institutions has been able to offer a Post-graduate programmes are growing in popu-
wide range of courses to a very heterogeneous stu- larity as a way of consolidating previous academic
dent body The Canadian and Japanese tertiary sys- studies, increasing the depth of a student's specialist
tems closely resemble the American one, with com- knowledge, and enhancing his or her chances on the
petitive entrance examinations In the United labour market In these cases, tertiary education is
Kingdom, although there are very few private tertiary aimed mainly at young adults, and clearly fits into the
institutions, universities can select their students In framework of initial education 1911
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Co-ordination between Initial and continuing ter- foundation learning, but more important in
tiary education needs to be of two types, since there the socialisation of many young students due
are two characteristic forms of traditional tertiary to changes in family structure Education sys-
education Courses tend to be either long and thor- tems are casting around for indicators of civic
ough, producing graduates who are fully trained in and social learning to reflect this role (OECD.
their particular discipline and aware of the latest 19951), which is crucially important for lifelong
developments, or short and specialised, producing a learning
less technically accomplished but more adaptable
Governance devolved responsibilities are
graduate who appreciates diversity and can cope with
often an acknowledgement of the need for
unforeseeable changes in the organisation of work
increased professional autonomy for schools
The choice of one or the other type of course and teachers in complex educational
affects not only the length and content of initial edu- processes but the stress on accountability
cation, but the balance between general and special- for outcomes and on new supervisory
ised education It also has implications for the recog-
processes may inhibit creative and flexible
nition of initial degrees and continuing professional professional responses to new needs
education, and the balance between the professional.
social and cultural experience of the individual No Curriculum on the one hand, there is stress
single model, however, can meet all employers' on raising general standards, encouraging
needs parental aspirations, and elite selection, on
There is still a great deal of work to be done in the other, social and civic values, core compe-
co-ordinating traditional and continuing tertiary edu- tencies for lifelong learning, opportunities for
cation which is where lifelong learning often takes all to succeed and cross-curricular initiatives
place Goals at this level are rarely properly articu- are increasingly recognised as important for
lated, and common standards need to be evolved society as a whole Curriculum frameworks
across the two sectors, but universities in particular often reflect these tensions, which question
are often fiercely independent, and there are powerful the continued relevance for all students of
vested interests involved traditional subject disciplines Tertiary educa-
tion, with its traditional disciplines and com-
petitive entrance examinations in certain
Tensions countries that stress traditional cognitive
Several main categories of conflicts or tensions knowledge, can exert powerful effects on the
have already been identified These arise both from secondary education curriculum General sec-
efforts to reform traditional systems and from ondary schools in countries with high-stakes
attempts to bring non-formal provision Into a more curriculum-related examinations for advance-
structured relationship with the formal education sys- ment to tertiary education, such as Japan,
tem Such tensions should be reviewed in the process tend, in response to public demand, to con-
of designing and Implementing links between formal centrate on teaching those academic subjects
and non-formal provision, they can form the basis for that are tested As school performance is
policy action (OECD. 1996e) judged in relation to students' performance on
such tests, schools are prevented from experi-
Systems formal and non-formal provision
both offer learning opportunities, but they menting with approaches that might prove
work within very different perspectives and more meaningful in a lifelong learning
pursue distinct goals Globalisation and tech- perspective
nological changes have contributed to the Assessment national testing of student popu-
development of non-formal provision, whose lations is increasingly employed as a means
new values often contrast with those of the and gauge for system accountability stu-
more traditional formal systems Until now, dents' attainments as a measure of school and
there have been few attempts to develop links system performance Assessment is under-
between formal systems and non-formal taken in order to track and guide students, for
provision diagnostic/pedagogic purposes, or to certify
Schools schools and teachers are perhaps student competencies and performance in
1192 becoming less important as the sole source of learning, sometimes these aims are combined
 UFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

There is a danger of over-assessment in some ships among the various people involved in the learn-
systems and confusion of purpose in others ing encounter A more operational definition is that
Standards there is some tension between the formal system refers to all those aspects of educa-
medium- and long-term goals and immediate tion within the sphere of responsibilities and influ-
priorities In formal education systems, stan- ence of the Minister of Education, together with pri-
dards are formulated to apply over a relatively vate schools. universities and other institutions which
long period Non-formal approaches, in con- prepare students for Ministry-recognised qualifica-
trast, tend to pursue more immediate goals tions The non-formal sector comprises learning activ-
as exemplified by the competency-based ities taking place outside this formal system, such as
approach, which is evolving at a rapid pace those carried out within companies, by professional
associations, or independently by self-motivated
Accreditation systems recognition of skills
adult learners
and competencies can result either from a
long structured learning process, or from a Today, a great deal of learning is already taking
competency-based approach focusing only on place in the non-formal sector In many countries it is
outcomes Recognising and certifying prereq- the formal sector that needs to adapt in order to find
uisite and acquired knowledge and competen- its proper role within a lifelong approach to learning
cies is one of the major problems for tertiary for all However, the formal sector in many ways rep-
education institutions confronting lifelong resents the "education system", and is currently by
learning These institutions award socially and far the most important agency for educating and
professionally recognised degrees and diplo- training populations As Chapter I makes clear, there
mas and therefore have a major impact on is also far less systematic information concerning the
certain sectors of working life In some facul- non-formal sector Inevitably, then, this section will
ties medicine, engineering, education, law be somewhat uneven in its treatment of the two sec-
universities have made substantial contribu- tors although the non-formal sector clearly has very
tions to linking academic research and learn- important implications for lifelong learning, and
ing to real-life situations In other faculties, many of the most fruitful developments with regard
teaching and research take little account of to establishing relevant standards are taking place
students' skills and competencies acquired there
outside formal education There is a real eco- Both the nature of educational standards and the
nomic and professional need for new types of definition of the term vary across OECD countries
certification that link them to work experience Indeed, in some languages there is no exact
That need, together with the rise of education equivalent of the English word "standards" or the
and training in the non-formal sectors, will concepts it conveys One definition is related to the
create pressure for change Certificates ought use of standards in industry as norms to which manu-
to become "transferable" or "portable" from facturers must conform Standards can also be
one work situation to another, from an aca- benchmarks against which performances can be mea-
demic to a professional position and vice sured, as in sports, for example There is also a
versa, and new elements can be added to politicised connotation, as in the "standards move-
existing evaluation schemes to reflect ment" which has become such a feature of educa-
advancement over time, learning performed in tional debate in certain English-speaking countries
different places, and the individualisation of Standards in education can refer to curriculum, per-
learning geared to employment and career formance, teaching, or accommodation and
development resources, generally there are four types
Input (or process) standards, which specify the
C. STANDARDS IN THE FORMAL
nature and level of resources allocated to the
AND NON-FORMAL SECTORS
educational process, including those that
For the purposes of this section, a policy- impact on the quality of teaching In the
relevant definition of the "formal" and "non-formal" United States such standards are often
sectors of education and training provision is needed referred to as "opportunity to learn" stan-
The distinction between formal and non-formal learn- dards, in the United Kingdom they are known
ing is a function of the degree of institutionalisation. as "process" standards, in order to distinguish
the structuring of the curriculum, and the relation- those measures which govern the teaching and 1931
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

learning process from those which are related The formal system
to levels of performance and outcomes
OECD Member countries differ sharply in the use
Content standards, which define those areas of they make of standards in educational policy What
the curriculum all students should master are the experiences of Member countries in externally
setting and monitoring input, context and perform-
Performance standards, which describe how
ance standards in pursuit of high-quality formal edu-
well students are expected to perform in those
cation and training provision') Why have some
content areas
Member countries with recognised high-quality edu-
Outcome standards, which refer to the results cation systems eschewed this approach') This section
achieved by institutions and the system as a reviews policy and practice in Member countries,
whole Often, these results are evaluated on drawing particularly on recent OECD studies (OECD,
the basis of aggregate measures of student 1995k. 1995q, 1995v, 1996d)
performance The degree and direction of public concern for
In educational policy terms, the focus in many
educational standards vary sharply (OECD. 19951) In
Denmark. Norway and the German-speaking coun-
countries has shifted from standards of input or pro-
cess to those of student performance and system out- tries, and to some extent in japan. public confidence
in educational professionals is relatively high, and
come a clear signal of doubt that higher standards
concern for standards is directed mainly at ensuring
of provision, whether material or human, can in
themselves guarantee higher achievement selection and training of high-quality teachers and
the provision of adequate resources By contrast, con-
As to setting standards, there are in the main fidence is relatively low in Australia, Canada, Mexico,
two approaches The inputs approach can be New Zealand, the United Kingdom and the United
characterised as the provision of a structured learning States, where there is political pressure for setting
setting in which, as a rule, content and organisation explicit standards against which students will be
of curriculum are predefined, in other words, the assessed and, in some cases, institutions and staff
duration and place of study are specified. and held accountable
organised assessments of various kinds lead to an The debate has also been fuelled in many
accredited certification The specifics of this approach Member countries by reference to the allegedly better
vary, since school and post-school curricula, organi- performance of students in other countries though
sation and examinations differ greatly among coun- until now the only sources of evidence for such state-
tries In most Member countries, there has been sub- ments are the International Association for the Evalu-
stantial curriculum development in primary and ation of Educational Achievement (IEA) and the Inter-
secondary education, and regulation of initial voca- national Assessment of Educational Progress (IAEP)
tional training Much attention has also been directed Despite consistent progress in the development of
to the professional development of teachers measurement technology, problems of reliability and
The outcomes approach recognises the results of validity still beset such studies, especially when the
a learning process which can take place at school or context is an international comparative setting where
in any other setting (at home, at work, or through accounting for external factors is particularly difficult
community activities) The focus is on proof of learn- !EA and IAEP data have sometimes been invoked in a
ing No single predefined structured setting is partisan or ideological way (OECD, 1995p)
needed, the outcome will be considered without In the European tradition, and in Japan. an indi-
regard to the duration of education or training, or cation of expectations of student performance is usu-
even where the learning took place "Conventional" ally incorporated into the national syllabuses. Stu-
examinations or forms of continuous assessment may dent performance standards can be defined, a priori,
be replaced by a competency-based approach which as those expected at a particular stage of education,
draws on learning modules and leads to the recogni- or a posteriori, when cut-off points are established on
tion of units of competencies, these can sometimes student achievement scales in order to differentiate
be pined to form the basis for new learning systems between levels of performance (pass/fail, gradations
It is thus easier for individual students to move in between) (Tu 'Inman and Postlethwaite, 1994) In
between the formal and non-formal sectors for exam- practice. the establishment of standards has been an
ple, a student with accredited competencies gained at a posteriori or normative process, especially for the
1194 work may negotiate entry into university secondary leaving examinations often associated with
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

university selection There is a tension here between sometimes the process is organised by inspectors or
the beneficial effects of upper secondary academic officials, or by free-standing examination boards
examinations such as high standards, links with However, these traditional approaches to standard-
university scholarship, trickle-down effects on the rest setting have been increasingly strained by the growth
of the school and the less desirable effects, which in student numbers, especially in upper secondary
include early tracking of students, downgrading of courses, and the increasing heterogeneity of the stu-
non-academic vocational routes, and rigid sublect dent population While there is little evidence that
demarcation Addressing the inequities that arise outcome standards are falling, there is concern that
from these selection processes has been a major con- rising expectations from parents and employers are
cern of post-war governments in many OECD coun- not being met The acute problem of young people
tries From a lifelong learning perspective they are who are excluded from participation in employment
still a serious problem, especially in those countries by the collapse of traditional occupations requiring
where no structured vocational pathways exist (see low levels of literacy and numeracy, and who cannot
Chapter 4) meet the requirements of new technologies, has
The traditional curriculum-related approach to sharpened the focus on this issue The problem is not
setting standards still applies in most European simply how to raise traditional standards although
countries Well-defined sublect boundaries are moni- that is an important aim but how to assess key
tored by inspectorates and university specialists competencies and attitudes such as willingness and
Hierarchies of subject knowledge are embedded in capacity to learn, and the ability to work in teams and
national curriculum and assessment criteria indicat- to communicate The data in Annex Table A 56 show
ing expected student performance levels Standards that the general public in all OECD countries sur-
in upper secondary examinations are set a posteriori veyed feels that such "cross-curriculum" competen-
in a combination of overall pass/fail and cut-off cies and qualities are developed less well than tradi-
ranges for certification and selection purposes tional subject-matter knowledge
Examination systems are most demanding when Chart 62 reports on a recent survey of public
students bear a heavy load of required subjects and expectations and attitudes to lower secondary educa-
undergo lengthy tests, and when as in Germany and tion (OECD, 1995/) It was found that the general
France the test questions call for high-level cogni- public in countries with highly demanding exit exami-
tive skills as well as broad and detailed knowledge In nations, such as Austria, France and Switzerland,
their survey of examination systems. Eckstein and were on average much more confident that central
Noah (1993) found that examinations in France and subjects featuring in those examinations were well
Germany stand out among the seven countries stud- taught, compared to the lower public expectations in
ied as placing the heaviest burdens on candidates countries such as Sweden and the United States,
Chart 6I shows that, by contrast, examinees in which according to Eckstein and Noah (1993) do
Sweden and the United States face far lighter tasks not have such a demanding examination system, per-
In countries with a national curriculum, examina- haps partly because in the latter countries entrance
tions are organised and monitored by State officials into tertiary education is governed not by perform-
Marking is usually done by secondary teachers, some- ance on exit examinations but by nationally or insti-
times the latter work more or less autonomously, and tutionally determined entry tests, such as the Scho-

Chart 6 I Overall difficulty of examinations: comparative scale

(ex) Soviet Japan France

United States Sweden Union England Germany
I I I I I

Less More
difficult difficult

Source. Eckstein and Noah (1993), p 167 1951

LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Chart 6.2. Perceived confidence in important school subjects,' 1993-94

Percentage

100 100

84
80 76 77 78 80
75
72

63 63 64
60 58 60

46
40 40 40

20 20

0
E 6'
oo
0 LL LL

I. Percentage of respondents who viewed subjects as important and who thought they were taught well in schools. See Annex Table A.56.
Source: OECD (1995f), Public Expectations of the Final Stage of Compulsory Education, Table C23, p. 132.

lastic Aptitude Test (SAT) or the American College teachers and inspectors. There is a State core curricu-
Board's Test (ACT) in the United States. lum in Japan. In Germany, although the individual
Lander control education, there is a substantial
One of the features dividing those countries
degree of national consensus about curriculum and
where there is public debate and anxiety about out-
assessment. Teacher selection and training and
come standards from others is the status of teachers.
national or State approval of textbooks are instru-
Table 6.1 presents subjective indicators of teacher
ments for the standardisation of student performance
respect and perceptions regarding the quality of
and teaching in both countries. Marking of examina-
teaching in mathematics and foreign languages. It
tion papers and determination of the level of student
might be suggested that where teacher status is high,
performance are left to individual teachers in
concern tends to be lower and performance standards
Germany, with some moderation from colleagues and
are left in the hands of professionals but the data are
State officials. This power of certification adds greatly
as yet insufficient to shed full light on this assump-
to teacher status, but it also raises questions of inter-
tion. However, it seems likely that high standards of
rating reliability and hence of equity. In Japan also,
learning and teaching cannot be imposed. Content
assessment and certification are largely in the hands
and performance standards have to be interpreted by
of teachers, but it could be said that a degree of
teachers in various contexts. An approach which
meritocracy is ensured by the fact that students have
defines standards too inflexibly and measures per-
to take national university entrance examinations
formance in too narrow a way will interfere with the
professional process and may even lower standards, before they enrol for specific admission examinations
set by the individual universities.
particularly in those areas which relate most closely
to lifelong learning many of which are not easily In the United States, which has neither a
assessable. national curriculum nor curriculum-based national
examinations, the approach to standard-setting has
In Germany and Japan, standards are curriculum- necessarily been different. Curriculum and assess-
related and set by educational professionals, mainly ment policies and frameworks vary from state to
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Table 6 I Respect for teachers and the quality of teaching in secondary education, 1993-94
Foreign languages
Teacher salary index' Respect for teachers' Mathematics well taught3
well taught'

Austria 2 3 74 87 10 8) 79 (1 0)
Finland I 8 58 84(1 1) 81 (1 2)
France 55 92 (0 7) 87 (09)
Netherlands 2 0 61 71 (I 5) 73 (1 5)
Portugal 3 7 59 58 ( I 4) 61 (1 4)
Sweden 12 48 49 (I 6) 43 (1 6)
United Kingdom 24 56 65 (I 4) 51 ( 4)
1

United States I 6 68 70 11 3) 53 (1 4)

Notes Data not available Standard errors in parentheses

I Ratio of maximum lower secondary teachers salaries to per capita GDP converted using purchasing power parities, 1992
2 Percentage of respondents who answered very respected or "fairly respected" to the survey question 'How respected are lower secondary teachers as a
profession' N993-19941
3 Percentage of respondents who were very confident' or 'fairly confident that the subiect was well taught in secondary schools, 1993-94
Sources OECD 119951) and OECD 11995d1

state, although some common ground is established In France, the Netherlands. Japan, Spain, Sweden
by the use of nationally distributed textbooks. and England and Wales, testing based on a national
Despite the passing of the Goals 2000 legislation in curriculum co-exists with traditional secondary leav-
1994 (United States Department of Education, ing/university entrance examinations The former is
1994b), there is still no specific federal role in imple- usually directed at whole cohorts of students and
menting a national curriculum framework, although a may prove a better instrument of monitoring, evalua-
degree of national consensus over content standards tion and guidance in the hands of teachers Its pur-
in mathematics and science is beginning to emerge pose varies across countries from pedagogical espe-
Standards have commonly been set a posteriori on cially in France, where the tests are taken at the
the basis of multiple-choice testing However, such beginning of the school year to make clear their diag-
testing cannot influence classroom practice or serve nostic function to the monitoring of student and
as an indicator of teaching/learning outcomes in the school performance for example in England and
way that curriculum-related examinations do Real- Wales, where their primary function seems to be
isation that outcomes-based approaches to standards monitoring student and school performance The
have little impact on teaching and learning has led to degree to which the tests are set and marked by
the growth in the United States of portfolio or per- teachers or by external bodies also varies The latter
formance assessment This puts assessment in the (A-levels, baccalaureat) are being forced to adapt to
hands of teachers and makes it "formative", that is, a increasing numbers of students and heterogeneity of
useful tool in promoting learning But there may be pathways, but retain their selective function In gen-
some loss of reliability in measuring and reporting eral, at this level, testing is primarily external, though
standards The great diversity of standards of student sometimes associated with teacher assessment
performances between schools, districts and states
Although the empirical data to support this
has also led to greater emphasis on opportunity-to-
claim are disparate and insufficient, it may be postu-
learn standards This is less an issue in those coun-
lated that the teachers' responsibility for assessment
tries where content standards are not so diverse and
and certification the implementation of standards
are set out in national curricular frameworks
is thus a central issue in the public's perception of
Similar concerns have led both Australia and their status and confidence in their judgements
Canada to revise content and student performance Where the latter is high, there will be less pressure for
standards at state/province level, and at interstate the external monitoring of students' performance,
level in Australia, where de facto national curriculum except possibly at the level of selection for university
frameworks are being established for most states Where it has traditionally been low, assessment is
Public concern over outcome standards led the taken out of the hands of teachers, lowering their
United Kingdom government to introduce a national status and making it more difficult for testing to be
used to improve teaching and learning Trusting the 1971
curriculum and assessment system in the late 1980s
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

of both "input" course design, and recognition of sometimes make adaptation to new approaches to
learning outcomes Also, these concepts are intended curriculum and learning difficult They may also be
to serve the age group 16-19 which raises questions used to exclude groups of students from access to
about the foundations of learning and equal accessi- further education or training
bility to tertiary education and employment, as well Competency-based practices are among the
as to further education and training in working life innovations that can lead to widening access and
Australia and New Zealand are undergoing help avoid duplication in learning, for they recognise
similar developments, with a stronger emphasis that learning takes place outside the formal educa-
on the training market approach which permits tion system as well as within it Competency-based
a more rapid increase of education and training assessment emphasises outcomes. meaning that
supply In New Zealand this approach is expected neither the place of learning nor the learning process
to be implemented fully by 1997 It is based on two is regulated The conventional course is broken down
principles first, national qualifications have been into discrete, easily assessed skills and competen-
developed by a recognised national standards-setting cies, and candidates simply have to demonstrate that
body, and the New Zealand Qualifications Authority they can do what is required Outside the formal sys-
(NZQA) is responsible for managing them Secondly, tem, firms and public enterprises can develop assess-
education and training provision can take place any- ment and certification procedures so as to link them
where in the workplace through self-managed learn- more easily to lob classification and remuneration
ing protects, or in educational institutions and can mechanisms
be assessed in the workplace or by the institutions
This competency-based approach represents an
Assessment leads to the awarding of credits culmi-
important challenge to more traditional forms of
nating in final certification This national structure
assessment, recognition and certification However,
does not differentiate between vocational and aca-
while modularisation has facilitated the assessment
demic qualifications it is a national credit transfer
of easily assessed skills, it is still a matter of debate
system Accredited providers and workplace assessors
how far it can be extended into the domain of existing
record student results on a national database Leav-
secondary and tertiary provision The conventional
ers receive an annual printout as they accumulate
certification approach remains the main benchmark
credits towards a desired qualification or skills
for tertiary education as well as for labour markets
profile
Nevertheless, a shift in emphasis to competency-
The approach, if it proves successful, will address
based assessment practices may help change the cur-
both the problem of temporary shortages in the
rent limited focus of accreditation Sources of learn-
labour force and the limits imposed on public author-
ing other than conventional institutions will be finally
ities in providing ever-increasing amounts of formal
recognised, Open College and Open University in the
education and training It will also help individuals to
have their skills and competencies recognised an United Kingdom, TV Ong in France. in-house training
incentive for lifelong learning programmes in firms, professional associations and
non-profit associations, are among the examples
That recognition should prove particularly advan-
Assessment
tageous when it comes to promoting lifelong learn-
Assessment is a key component in the mainte- ing, because these other learning modes are often
nance of standards In most systems at primary and concentrated in the non-formal sector As was indi-
lower secondary levels assessment is in the hands of cated in Chapter 3, the goals associated with lifelong
professionals, and its purpose is mainly pedagogical learning are increasingly acknowledged in formal edu-
to diagnose weaknesses in students' understanding cation, and are reflected in the emerging focus on
and facilitate lesson planning by teachers (Smith and core competencies first-language literacy, mathe-
Levin, 1995) However, national testing for system matics, study skills, communication skills as provid-
accountability is becoming more widespread at these ing the foundations for later learning, and on the
levels At upper secondary level, assessment for importance of coherence between initial and further
selection and certification, often conducted exter- education The goals must also address the problem
nally, is the norm in OECD countries These examina- of individuals having to prove not once but several
tions are a means of maintaining, and perhaps rais- times in their life and career that they have acquired a
199
ing, standards in conventional disciplines but they basic knowledge and set of useful skills
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

D. STEERING CHANGE BY THE USE often focus not on outcomes, but on the essential
OF STANDARDS inputs particularly monitoring procedures without
which the outcomes presumably would not be
Monitoring and evaluation achievable
This section addresses the problems likely to be The governments of all OECD countries keep
encountered in integrating standard-setting, monitor- track of financial inputs into their education and
ing, and the evaluation of schools and education sys- training systems through their normal accounting
tems, into a strategy for steering reform and improv- procedures, although different degrees of decentral-
ing the equity, quality and efficiency of the isation mean that the systems vary greatly in the
development of human resources Member country degree of control they have over how the money is
experiences support the theoretical analysis spent or indeed in how much knowledge they have
A distinction can be made between monitoring of local spending decisions
education systems and evaluating them, although fre- As far as performance outcomes are concerned.
quently the two concepts and practices as well the authorities in France, Scotland, Spain, New
merge Essentially, monitoring involves ensuring that Zealand, and England and Wales have set up mass
regulations and legislation are being complied with, testing systems of various kinds that aim to deter-
and keeping track of, both inputs and outcomes over mine the level at which students across the country
time Monitoring for the purpose of tracking develop- are performing, and to compare results over time
ment over time does not necessarily require explicit These countries are exploring the possibility of link-
standards or criteria ing their testing systems in ways that would allow
- Evaluation may include monitoring activities, them to produce comparable information for use in
but the crucial difference is that it involves qualitative the construction of international indicators of student
iudgement by professionals and others who are performance (OECD, 1995p and 19956
asking whether a given level of resourcmg or perform- International indicators are another way in which
ance is good enough Evaluation may utilise explicit governments can both monitor and evaluate different
or implicit standards or criteria, or may form part of aspects of their education systems inputs and out-
the development of such standards or criteria comes can be looked at over time, or be compared
A second distinction should be made, between with those of other nations (OECD, 1994m) Interna-
procedures that monitor or evaluate the standards of tional comparisons can highlight differences in rela-
a whole education system and those approaches
tion to other countries, however, such comparisons
which focus on individual schools or other educa- need careful interpretation, and performance out-
tional establishments In some countries, recent anxi- comes what policy-makers are often most interested
ety over students' levels of performance has led to in are especially difficult to compare in a meaning-
increasing emphasis on evaluating the schools them- ful way (OECD, 1994m)
selves frequently in the context of more general National inspectorates may also have a monitor-
educational reform Several countries, notably ing role to perform, especially in relation to reform, in
Sweden, Mexico, the Netherlands and the United Spain, for example, school inspectors are asked to
Kingdom have set up arrangements for evaluating ter- report on how the implementation of the new educa-
tiary courses and institutions based on peer review tion law is progressing in schools across the country
and self-evaluation In some cases these evaluations They are also sometimes asked by governments to
have financial consequences Ridge whether the entire education system is per-
forming sufficiently well Although most inspector-
ates focus on the performance of individual schools
Monitoring and evaluating education systems or teachers, it is widespread practice for government
In a framework of lifelong learning, as new stan- to ask them to evaluate specific aspects of the sys-
dards or targets are set often through changes in tem, or its workings as a whole identifying strengths
the curriculum or in the content and form of tests and and weaknesses, and perhaps prescribing solutions to
examinations it becomes increasingly necessary to problems
monitor progress towards achieving them At the Following the evaluation of a specific aspect of
same time, systems of quality assurance, adapted the system for example, pathways in vocational and
from the private sector, have become more wide- technical education governments may devise stan-
1200 spread in the public sector in some countries These dards in the form of targets that must be met in order
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

to raise the general level of performance A good examination which accurately reflect achievements
example is the national assessment of vocational Countries such as Belgium. France and the United
education in the United States (US Department of Kingdom. which have well-established public exami-
Education, 1994b) nation systems, are using information derived from
these results as an index of school quality The "value
added" performance indicators developed by the
Monitoring and evaluating the performance French, which are based on the BaccalaurEat results
of schools and attempt to identify those lycees that offer a wide
The main reasons for focusing on the perform- range of pupils the best chances of success rather
ance of individual schools can broadly be divided into than simply producing the highest raw pass rate by
two categories The first is accountability the idea ruthlessly selecting their pupils, seem to be the most
that since society pays for them, public sector schools well-developed indicators currently in use
should fulfil the purposes society defines for them (DEP, 1994)
and reach the standards that society requires, the Many OECD countries have some form of
second is school improvement, for a school's per- national inspectorate, and consider that there is no
formance must be assessed if it is to be analysed and substitute for actually visiting schools to see if the
improved, and if expert advice and services such as standards are being met In national efforts to raise
staff development are to be offered where they are the performance of individual schools, both objective
most needed evaluation from external inspectors and "friendly"
In the past. inspectorates in most countries were advice from professionals or peers who know the
largely concerned with monitoring compliance within school well are important An evaluation system
schools In line with the current general trend, there needs to have credibility in the outside world, while
is a tendency to have them focus more explicitly on at the same time enabling schools to improve their
school performance in terms of outcomes, although performance by taking their particular situation into
they still perform an important monitoring function, account
notably in the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, New As hinted at above, performance evaluation of
Zealand and Germany individual schools may be undertaken for different
Accountability is a complex concept, schools in purposes
different countries are accountable in many ways, to identify the strengths and weaknesses of
sometimes to more than one stakeholder The term individual schools as part of a national
itself has a number of different senses, all closely Improvement strategy aimed at raising stan-
related to the goals of the education system and the dards of performance,
standards it is charged with achieving (Kogan, 1988) to identify those schools with serious
Simply making schools "accountable" (whether to the problems and attempt to address those
State, parents, the community, or to others) is problems,
unlikely on its own to lead to improvements in stan-
to assess the professional competence of
dards of performance It is, however, a desirable pol-
teachers,
icy in the interests of transparency and democracy in
education to impose or encourage new or more effective
ways of operating,
School improvement. too, is intimately related to
the setting and monitoring of standards, since to encourage the creation of "learning
schools which are trying to improve their performance organisations" institutions that embody a
need first to raise their expectations This entails culture of self-managed improvement and
evaluating their strengths and weaknesses, identify- evaluation,
ing areas which need improvement, and agreeing on to raise levels of student performance whether
an action plan which incorporates higher levels of at the national, local or individual level
performance Hence, "monitoring" standards is not enough if a
The two main methods used for externally evalu- strategy has not been devised for identifying
ating schools are performance indicators and inspec- strengths and weaknesses against a clear set of crite-
tion of various kinds Currently, a number of countries ria, enabling those schools which are not reaching a
are engaged in a search for reliable performance satisfactory level to improve their performance Pro-
indicators mostly based on the results of tests or cedures which differ from country to country need 2011
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

to be followed up to make sure that recommenda- steer the development of education systems, the
tions are taken, and that any weaknesses are effec- experience of those countries where central power is
tively addressed In this way, the new standards can strong (England and Wales, France and New Zealand)
become progressively more embedded in the system has been on balance positive However, the appropri-
ate balance between central direction, local authority
and institutional autonomy is still a matter of some
Member country experiences
controversy Limits have been placed on federal initi-
To some extent, the experiences of Member ative in Australia, Canada and the United States
countries in using goals and standards for the explicit Interstate consensus on limited objectives has been
steering of their education systems are determined by effective to varying degrees in Canada and Germany
the nature of their political system In certain political To some extent, public opinion about educa-
systems, there has been a move towards setting tional standards is an important factor in govern-
national goals and standards for achievement by ments' ability to change the system Indeed, in some
schools, even though the latter operate with countries concern about standards has been used to
increased autonomy over processes (Sweden, France, make reform of the system publicly or politically
England), and monitoring by national testing and a acceptable, as have international comparisons more
focus on outcomes in terms of student and school generally The problem here is that public percep-
performance standards The powers of local or inter- tions may not relate to future - oriented or lifelong
mediary authorities have been redefined reduced in learning goals The role of pressure groups in divert-
the United Kingdom and increased in France, Mexico, ing the course of change is also a matter of concern
Spain and Sweden Generally this has narrowed the
In some countries, especially the United States,
differences between these countries in the distribu-
sharper focus on academic standards and student
tion of control and in defining national responsibili- performance through curriculum-related testing
ties more clearly especially if linked to high stakes (for graduation.
Most federal systems have been working to university entrance) may jeopardise the older aim of
define an agreed national core curriculum of content promoting the educational and social inclusion of
and performance standards A spectrum of interstate minority groups The question of how to reconcile
co-operation and federal initiative ranges from academic standards with wider access and greater
Canada where there is least central control emphasis on practical competencies remains largely
through Australia and the United States, in the latter unanswered
country the federal initiatives have been thwarted by
states' rights movements At the other end of the
spectrum is Germany, where aspects of a central tra- E. USING GOALS AND STANDARDS: POLICY
dition continue to operate by consensus among CONCLUSIONS
autonomous Lander The question that arises from the foregoing dis-
This division into federal or nationally central- cussion of Member countries' experience in this area
ised systems does not fit all Member countries com- is whether the goals, standards and methods of qual-
fortably, some might best be described as "quasi- ity control now used to govern education and training
federal" Belgium has evolved into an effectively fed- systems are consistent with a lifelong approach to
eral system based on language, as far as education is learning
concerned, whereas Spain shows some of the charac- Redehning goals for education systems is an
teristics of both unitary and federal systems Within urgent policy requirement in the light of social
the hybrid United Kingdom political system, Scotland and economic developments and in the per-
and Northern Ireland enjoy a degree of autonomy in spective of lifelong learning Setting out coher-
educational matters comparable to regions within the ent purposes and redefining links with non-
Spanish quasi-federal system formal educational processes can enhance sys-
In each of the three broad categories, central or tem performance and improve access for
state governments operate with varying degrees of individuals
power and with a range of means Some have There is currently a danger that what can be
national or local inspectorates (or both), some have most reliably assessed will become the crite-
agencies for national testing and monitoring In the non of quality Other skills and areas of knowl-
1202 matter of using standards to raise performance and edge that are vital in establishing a foundation
 uFEL0NG LEARNING FOR ALL

for lifelong learning may consequently be gence of new social and economic needs and
neglected Performance in key competencies skills, can serve as useful frameworks for
that will enable students to respond to the teachers, and for teacher development
exigencies of economic and social change programmes
needs to be assessed validly and reliably Until
Student performance standards, whether a pri-
such an assessment is possible, these skills
ori statements of expected levels of perform-
and competencies will not be given the place
ance or a posteriori analyses of national test
in educational provision that their importance
results, can serve as useful indicators for
in the broader economic and social environ-
schools and teachers in their own self-
ment warrants
assessments Such data can also serve govern-
New approaches to assessment and certifica- ments in their steering of the system revision
tion are therefore a high priority To ensure of curriculum statements, allocation of
that these are related to the world of work, resources and planning of teacher develop-
continuing consultation with the social part- ment programmes can all be usefully informed
ners and the various professions and trade by analysis of the strengths and weaknesses of
associations is called for In many cases, cur- student performance
rent standards of educational resource provi-
sion are not adequate to meet these - Standards related to inputs (teachers' qualifi-
challenges cations, pay and conditions of work, textbooks,
physical resources) and processes (curriculum
- But the identification and assessment of qual-
and assessment frameworks) are also useful in
ity is too complex to be reflected adequately
steering the system In countries where cen-
by a set of quantitative indicators, however
trally-directed education systems have existed
wide-ranging Indeed, some approaches may
for many years, this approach has sometimes
hinder the quest of improving quality, which
ossified and requires more flexible and decen-
should be at the heart of the education
tralised administration without losing the nor-
process
mative standards of provision which it has
The goal of improving quality must engage usually ensured Other countries could benefit
those most centrally involved teachers and from more equitable implementation of
students Measures to help teachers and stu- opportunity-to-learn standards which can only
dents evaluate their own performances effec- be achieved within national frameworks In
tively are those most likely to improve quality federal systems a coherent national approach
This suggests that the continuing professional is difficult to achieve, but not necessarily
development of teachers is likely to be an incompatible with state or local control of
effective approach to steering education sys- education
tems Professional development should have
two important goals to acquaint teachers with Clearly expressed standards, and related mon-
the nature of changes in the social and eco- itoring, can also serve the purpose of demo-
nomic environment in which their students cratic regulation and accountability at the
will live and work, and with the desired educa- macro level of nationally aggregated perform-
tional outcomes which this environment ance In this context, the publication of per-
requires of students in a lifelong learning per- formance outcomes is of crucial importance
spective, and to develop in teachers a forma- Schools and teachers identified as not meet-
tive approach to assessment that can serve to ing "standards" (expressed as a cut-off point
promote all students' capacity to learn and to in aggregated student performance data) need
evaluate their own progress across the entire professional help
range of curricular and extra-curricular activi- - Such applications of "standards" raise a fur-
ties These considerations, which are devel- ther question about comparability and the
oped more fully in Chapter 7, also apply to "value added" to student learning by schools
training that occurs outside the formal and individual teachers Put simply, standards
systems alone cannot adequately reflect quality, either
Curriculum standards, regularly revised to of teaching or learning, given the huge variety
2031
reflect advances in knowledge and the emer- of student backgrounds and social contexts in
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR All

which teaching occurs in contemporary soci- cally, governments need to introduce a

ety As part of a broader strategy, in some national credit transfer system In the best of
Member countries inspectorates are finding a outcomes, these non-formal approaches can
new role as mediators between schools and help overcome the major problem of exclusion
governments, interpreting student perform- of students and adults from the benefits of
ance data in the light of their own professional lifelong learning In the worst, they may inten-
evaluation of the quality of teaching and learn- sify and prolong the inequities which to vary-
ing, and the context in which it occurs The ing degrees are a feature of current national
crucial question facing inspectors in these cir- education and training systems
cumstances is whether they can go beyond The need is not for new bureaucratic structures
diagnosis to promote improvement Identifica- or procedures, but rather for a new focus
tion of failure, whether by individual students, within formal structures on the needs of all
teachers or schools, is not in itself an ade- students in a lifelong learning perspective, for
quate strategy for improvement recognition of the value of knowledge and
Opportunities to learn outside the formal sys- skills acquired elsewhere, and, perhaps, for a
tem of education and training will continue to new emphasis on underpinning civic values to
develop They need to be recognised and offset the negative effects of the current
articulated with the formal systems Specifi- emphasis on individual performance

1204
 7

STRENGTHENING EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES

A. INTRODUCTION ers/ Specifically, what are the implications for profes-

sional training of the new information and instruc-
This chapter discusses the implications of the
tional technologies?
trends, issues and policy shifts mentioned in the pre-
vious chapters for the human and physical as well as The transformation of education and training in
intangible "assets" and resources of education sys- response to social and economic processes has wide-
tems (teachers, principals and other staff, governors ranging implications for the duties and tasks of teach-
and managers, buildings and equipment and the sup- ers and all those concerned with education The insti-
ply of useful information of various kinds) Section B tution of a lifelong learning framework will only be
examines the implications - not only for the teachers possible if all educators are committed to maximising
themselves, but for education authorities, administra- their own professional development New policies are
tors, teacher training institutes, and professional needed for upgrading or retraining personnel and
-
organisations of the shift towards lifelong learning reforming initial education and training in order to
Section C focuses on the proper uses of new informa- ensure that everyone is ready to accept and promote
tion media and instructional technologies in facilitat- innovation
ing learning Section D deals with the implications for
school buildings and the physical "assets" of the sys- A career for teachers
tem Section E reviews the information needs of gov-
Thoroughly professional teaching remains at the
ernments and their partners in education The neces-
heart of nearly every endeavour to improve the qual-
sity for policy-making itself to be grounded in a solid
ity of education As already stated many schools still
knowledge base is also examined Section F advances
inculcate knowledge and skills in old-fashioned ways
suggestions for possible policy directions
in spite of all the "progressive" efforts to improve the
quality and efficiency of teaching and learning Stud-
B. TEACHERS AND OTHER KEY ACTORS ies show that "frontal instruction" is still preponder-
ant in many schools (Goodlad, 1984; Slavin, 1995)
Good teachers and school leaders remain the key
Lectures and the question-and-answer method often
to efficient education systems It is false to imply that
take up most of the time while independent work,
the new technologies to be studied in a subsequent
whether by individuals or small groups, is limited
section will remove the need for teachers, although
they doubtless call for some changes in teaching The new policies recommended in previous
styles, methods and techniques The policy questions chapters heighten public expectations of teaching
raised are fundamental What are the new teaching competence and call for a wider interpretation of the
and learning roles predicted by high-quality educa- tasks and duties of teachers and their relations with
tion systems that are well prepared to meet the chal- education authorities, parents and local communi-
lenges implied by a lifelong learning framework? How ties They should become accustomed to taking on
can teachers, trainers, administrators and all those new tasks and seeing others disappear Thus, they
concerned be helped to perform these roles effec- must respond to the need for whole-school
tively? The experience of recent years shows that approaches to organisation, school-based innovation,
many new educational goals have not been attained and curricular design, and for new learning strategies,
because comprehensive initial and in-service training including developing personal development plans
programmes for teachers have not been an integral with students, mastering learning, cross-age learning,
component of reform In what ways should training be and group learning
tailored to the changing roles of teachers/ What kind Initial teacher education and training have not
2051
of training is required for school leaders and manag- always aroused concern Today, however, the pace
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

and breadth of change within and outside schools classroom practice. A major issue over many years
have led to demands for their comprehensive reform. has been how to achieve a proper balance between
OECD studies have recommended that teacher train- subject mastery and teaching skills. In many coun-
ing institutions should get rid of traditionalist tries, primary school teachers have been deemed
courses and outdated theories that inhibit change competent to teach all the subjects in the curriculum,
and prepare teachers who are adaptable and keen on with the possible exception of music or gymnastics.
innovation (OECD, 1990a and I9941). Aspiring teach- For secondary school teachers priority has been given
ers must be given not only a solid grounding in the to subject-matter preparation in specific disciplines.
relevant subject-matter, pedagogical techniques and Today, the balance between the two fields of compe-
classroom management, but also an awareness of the tence is affected by the increasing specialisation of
overall developmental needs of pupils. some disciplines, and the overwhelming flow of new
Greater attention is being paid in some countries information.
to the induction of newly-trained teachers on taking In some instances, due to the difficulty of recruit-
up their first posts. In Australia, for example, the ing a sufficient number of teachers, there has been a
Schools Council has recommended a comprehensive tendency to reduce the extent of subject-matter prep-
review of current practices with a view to ascertaining
aration of teachers in primary and especially secon-
what induction methods work best. In some coun-
dary education. One proposed solution is to remould
tries, experienced teachers are being asked to extend
the teaching profession to allow outstanding teachers
their traditional supervision of student teachers and
to do nothing but teach. Today, highly-qualified
to be responsible for guiding and counselling newly-
teachers must carry out many routine duties both
appointed teachers over a period of one or more
inside and outside the classroom which do not
years.
require pedagogical competence. If teaching assist-
Historically, teacher training has consisted of ants were to be employed on a part- or full-time
three main elements: mastering a discipline or set of basis, there would be more scope for individualisa-
disciplines, learning and pedagogical theory, and tion, and experienced teachers would be able to

Chart 7.1. Number of teaching hours per year, by level of public education, 1992

CI Primary education El Lower secondary education Upper secondary education (general)

I 200 1 200

1 000 1 000

800

600 600

fti
400 400

200 200

0
C ar 2
a C C C
a
O
2oo
z u- N
E

Note: See Annex Table A.57.

206 Source: OECD ( I 995d), Education at a Glance OECD Indicators.
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

devote more time to their primary tasks. Experiments framework using the concept of a teaching career as
in which more advanced students have been in the foundation.
charge of teaching their less advanced peers have If essential reforms are to be implemented the
yielded encouraging results, not least in terms of sav- main challenge is how to retrain or orientate the
ing teachers' time and reducing costs. teachers already in service, especially given that the
Chart 7.1 shows substantial cross-national varia- rate of entry of new recruits into the teaching profes-
tion in the number of teaching hours per year by level sion remains modest in many countries. Chart 7.2
of public education. In primary education, the wor- shows the size of teaching staff relative to other edu-
kload is above average for teachers in France, Ireland,
cation staff, as a percentage of the labour force, in
1992. It can be inferred from the data that many
the Netherlands, Spain, Turkey and the United States.
established teachers were educated and profession-
In upper secondary education, the spread is from
ally trained before the electronic revolution, and
I 080 hours in Turkey and 019 hours in the United
some are very firmly set in their ways. In order to keep
1

States to 612 in Italy and Portugal, and 528 hours in

all teachers motivated and responsive it is essential
Sweden. There may be scope, therefore, in certain
to promote teaching as an attractive as well as secure
countries for teachers to have more contact hours. career and to offer stimulating incentives for profes-
Quality and efficiency could be improved in this way, sional development. It is especially important to
and costs kept down. Moreover, it could be envisaged enable many of the best teachers to stay in the class-
that teachers in certain countries would be asked to room rather than seek others posts.
teach more hours, in exchange for periods of educa-
tional leave to be used for pursuing their professional
development. The most valuable return from In-service training
increased investment in the education and training of For years education authorities have declared in-
teachers will come from the careful planning and con- service training to be a high priority. In practice, it is
struction of a system-wide induction and in-service still weakly organised and under-funded in a majority

Chart 7.2. Staff employed in education, 19921'2

Percentage of the labour force

Teachers Pedagogical staff Support staff El Other than teachers

Japan

United
States

Australia

Finland

France

Denmark

Italy

Belgium

0 2 3 4 5 6 7

Notes: See Annex Table A.58.

I. Data refer to full-time equivalent staff.
2. Public and private education; primary, secondary and tertiary levels of education.
Source: OECD (1995d), Education at a Glance OECD Indicators. 2071
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

of countries Yet all teachers can benefit from further nal training should include a component on the use
training and it is imperative for those who are not up of information technologies based on the present
to standard Instead of regarding the continuing pro- practices identified in schools, only a few countries
fessional development of teachers as an optional and have taken appropriate action This is a grave defi-
voluntary experience, education authorities, teachers ciency since nearly all teachers will be faced sooner or
themselves and communities should regard it as nec- later by the challenge of how to apply technologies
essary and normal Existing in-service training usually consists of short
The delivery of in-service training can be made courses organised away from the school or through
by an array of providers and interest groups Tertiary formal arrangements within schools (the "cascade
institutions already offer some courses but make model" where experienced teachers are expected to
much greater provision if financially enabled to do so train their colleagues) But this type of familiarisation
The availability of advanced diploma or certificate is not sufficient The real need is to train teachers in
courses in special educational fields and of courses the use of interactive technologies for practical appli-
leading to post-graduate degrees could be increased cation in the classroom, such as simulation and
Teachers' centres for professional development could model-building, problem-solving, complex
offer ad hoc courses on topical matters and facilities microworlds or exploration and discovery and even
for meetings and the conduct of practical projects judicious use of basic software packages such as
word-processing, spreadsheets or databases
It is essential to link in-service training with
research and development programmes (see Sec- The required training is demanding because
tion D) Universities and other tertiary institutions knowledge about what a given student could learn
should be the major partners of schools in contribut- and how he or she learns when using software is only
ing to the in-service training of teachers through col- slowly being revealed It is being introduced at the
laborative research Universities have acquired con- classroom level mainly by teachers acting as
siderable knowledge of learning and teaching researchers who analyse the effects of different
processes and techniques including computer- software packages and experiment with alternative
assisted learning Their service function requires ways of using them Hence the need for collaboration
them to share that knowledge with schools between schools and all the institutions, apart from
Co-operative projects between universities and universities, where research on learning with the aid
schools, which have revealed the great potential of of information technologies is being conducted
"action research" for in-service teacher training and There has been widespread debate in several
the contribution to university research of learning and OECD countries on whether a national council is
teaching experiences anchored in real classroom situ- required to oversee the education and training of
ations, should be expanded However, there are diffi- teachers, reporting to the Minister of Education or
culties inherent in such co-operation Firstly, the two another nominated authority, and representing a
partners have different skills and expectations It wide range of educational interests apart from those
takes time to nurture trust and collaboration on an of teachers Most educationists welcome the Idea It
equal footing based upon recognition of complemen- is hard to see how initial training, induction, and in-
tary competencies and reciprocal benefits Secondly, service training can be strengthened and harmonised
each partner is confronted with specific issues and
in the absence of an effective planning and co-
problems In schools, teachers require more free time ordinating centre at the national or regional level,
from classroom duties and better compensation for supplemented by some mechanism at the local level
the extra hours devoted to joint projects Many would
such as a teaching centre for the provision of courses,
also like to see action-research more widely con-
materials, advice, seminars and conferences
ducted within their schools and classrooms In uni-
versities, researchers demand increased resources for
school-based activities undertaken in collaboration Promoting the teacher's commitment to lifelong
with teachers learning

Many barriers inhibit teachers from welcoming

Teachers and new technologies the lifelong learning model
A recent report by the Center for Educational The segmented organisation of many schools
1208 Research and Innovation concludes that whereas ini- discourages interdisciplinary learning, team
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

teaching and greater use of the learning those hard-pressed schools that do not match the
resources, externally available criteria and conditions of high-performing schools
Teacher training provides little experience of That challenge may appear excessively ambitious but
"real life" activities and problems it only follows from the radical agenda represented by
lifelong learning Meeting it calls for hard scrutiny of
The links between schools and communities
the arrangements now in place
are often few and fragile
Methods of assessment are often at odds with The costs of retraining such a large labour force
as that of teachers may be assumed to be substantial,
the development of meta-cognitive and learn-
ing-to-learn skills although there is a lack of comparative data on the
amount of time already devoted to in-service training
If teachers are not actively Interested in adopting
in Member countries, some of which at least could be
new methods, students are apt to react to them nega-
devoted to preparation for the lifelong learning
tively OECD (19940 found that whereas some teach-
approach The financial implications of training are
ers are independently inquiring and innovative,
taken up in Chapter 8
others felt comfortable only when working with col-
leagues Encouraging a school climate that fosters
collaboration without stifling the creativity of teach- School leadership and effective schools
ers who prefer to work alone is one of the challenges
Especially in certain English-speaking countries
for school improvement strategies Suitable measures
in recent years, guidelines and policies for schools
include forming semi-autonomous teams to over-
have made extensive reference to the models offered
come the cellular structure of teaching, allocating
by business and the market place Detractors have
time for planning, development, reflection and nego-
sought to reject the comparisons, claiming that
tiation, using training modules to make teachers
familiar with relevant research findings and exper- teaching children is a very different undertaking from
iences available outside the school
manufacturing, buying and selling As a result, many
valuable aspects of the comparison have not been
A large-scale staff development policy presup- widely developed One obvious parallel is with the
poses, however, improvements in incentives and in current widespread promotion of enterprises and
the general status and esteem accorded to schools offices as flexible "learning organisations"
and teachers Many of the conditions and factors
associated with modern and "positive" learning envi- Like the "effective school", the exact list of desir-
ronments reviewed in detail in Chapter 3 have a able characteristics of a "learning organisation" may
much stronger likelihood of coming into being if vary A standard characterisation might, however,
teachers are appreciated and supported by parents include such defining features as high levels of pro-
and the larger community International comparisons fessional commitment and teamwork, flexible and
support this systemic approach the countries that multi-skilled personnel, flat organisational structures
are commonly regarded as setting the pace includ- grouped around problems rather than hierarchical
ing Germany, Finland, France. Japan and Switzerland structures, very strong emphasis on learning, training
are distinct more in the regard and esteem accorded and staff development The "learning organisation"
to teachers and the enterprise of schooling than in recognises the importance of the "human factor".
the specific organisational practices that are difficult both in its emphasis on staff development and in
to translate into other national and cultural settings incorporating an understanding of human relations
This suggests that a major perhaps principal role into its corporate culture This is not at the expense
of the education authorities is to help increase and of organisational efficiency, it is simply a means to a
enhance public support for the school system more comprehensive realisation of efficiency Bureau-
Criticising the standards achieved by students, teach- cratic constraints are minimised, and the time and
ers and schools may prove counter-productive in the attention devoted to the main business of the organi-
long run To the extent that high esteem and expecta- sation are maximised ("time on task")
tions are extended to schools and teachers, this can While such parallels between schools and enter-
be passed on to the many students, parents and com- prises may not hold in every detail, there is much to
munities who themselves have only modest expecta- be learned from the comparison That can be done
tions An outstanding policy challenge is thus to raise both in terms of analysing where the model is an
expectations as well as the general attractiveness of appropriate one for education and of identifying
the system, and especially to ensure that this is felt in where current policies and practices appear to be 2091
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

working in counter direction The professional com-

a things go wrong, Where this is so, it has become clear
munities of educationists and management analysts. that principals require intensive training in leadership
far from belonging to entirely different traditions of and management skills before taking up their posts
learning and business with no common reference and occasional opportunities for continuing training
points, may actually engage in a very useful dialogue when fully established, especially whenever they are
Schools organised in this way would not be required to assume new responsibilities Some coun-
plagued with the constant doubts about standards tries have also realised that school board members or
now experienced in some countries The inflation of governors can also profit from courses devoted to
"credentialism" would be halted or even reversed if their powers and duties
employers were confident that all who come from the For the benefit of school leaders, teachers with
school system have received a solid foundation of the special responsibilities and managers, education
highest quality Sufficiently high levels of Investment authorities can issue guidelines and set up national
and professionalism would obviate the need for bur- advisory centres offering practical advice on how to
densome quality checks Assessment could then cope with the problems arising from major reforms or
focus on the important educational matters of provid- specific innovations Some countries have a "tele-
ing formative information for diagnostic purposes phone help line" Education authorities can also pro-
and recording student achievement towards qualifica- vide opportunities for experiencing management in
tions Concerns about teacher quality and relicensing other sectors of society such as industry and services
requirements would diminish if the profession were and in other schools that have conspicuously suc-
such an attractive one to enter and schools were able ceeded in handling complex managerial problems
to devote substantial time and resources to staff Education authorities can also develop among inter-
development ested teachers an interest in middle management by
offering appropriate in-service courses
In many education systems the key responsibili-
ties are being increasingly concentrated at the school
level Schools are taking on managerial tasks from C. THE USE OF NEW TECHNOLOGIES
above (national, regional and local authorities) and When Richard W Riley. the US Secretary of Edu-
below (the individual teacher) When responsibility cation, testified before the Senate in May 1994 on
for determining whole-school goals and priorities for educational technology and, more specifically, on the
designing the curriculum in detail, for relocating and role of the "National Information Infrastructure" (NH),
placing personnel, for allocating the budget, and for he made a strong statement about the potential of
evaluating pupil and teacher performance is shifted new technologies
to the school level, all principals and responsible
")Information and communication' technologies
teachers must possess administrative and manage-
are a way to individualise instruction, a powerful
ment skills
resource for supporting teachers and their pro-
In some systems the new managerial tasks cover fessional development, a vehicle to connect stu-
only specific areas and their application is confined dent learning to the real world, a way to connect
to experimental schools In others, however, these schools to the home and community, and a
tasks have begun to cover wide areas of governance. means to extend learning beyond the traditional
finance and administration and to apply to all 9 to 3 school day The National Education Com-
schools or, at least, to all schools within certain mission on Time and Learning recently pub-
defined categories All this depends on the capacity lished a report showing that we must increase
of school managers (board members, principals, both the amount and the quality of instructional
teachers with special responsibilities and committed time for our students, and the Nil will help to
parents) to provide leadership and organisational make this possible by allowing students to learn
skills in homes, libraries and other sites, both during
Many OECD countries are paying particular and after school Small schools, schools in
attention to the capacity of school principals or head remote rural areas, and schools wracked by pov-
teachers to offer "positive" school leadership In a few erty would all have access to the same rich learn-
countries the latter are still regarded as primus Inter ing resources It will be absolutely impossible to
pares but in a number they are considered as the give a world class education to every American
main guarantees of high standards, the manager of child without the proper use of these new infor-
1210 innovations and the person to be held accountable if mation tools
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

optimism surrounds the introduction of

If such and 9 (Tuilnman and Brummelhuis, 1993, Brum-
new technologies in education, there is a certain melhuis. 1995) Germany. Japan and the Netherlands
scepticism as well In the past, there were high expec- show similar increases in use In 1989. the United
tations each time technological innovation such as States was far ahead of the other countries, and only
television, video or language laboratories was a minor increase took place until 1992 The situation
brought into the schools Advocates predicted that was the opposite in Austria, where as a result of
the organisation of schooling and teaching methods massive government intervention computer use in
would be transformed Results have often not mea- the four subjects increased dramatically in only three
sured up to the expectations Will this not always be years, from about 28 per cent in 1989 to 74 per cent
so') in 1992
The answer is in the negative The new technolo- However, barriers remain (OECD, 1995,) There
gies are increasingly cheap, fast, flexible and interac- are three kinds of obstacles to the full use of new
tive and there is widening access to global networks information and communication technologies in the
Technology-based assessment of prior learning (APL) provision of education First, there are those specific
is becoming slowly a reality in OECD countries to the technologies in question Difficulties stem less
Table 7 I compares the older devices with newer from the cost, quality and reliability of hardware than
learning tools and resources from the lack of appropriate software, although that is
Personal computers have invaded the school also a major constraint To contain costs and ensure
Table 7 2 shows the percentage of secondary schools that new learning resources become more rapidly and
that use computers for instruction in five OECD coun- more widely available, OECD countries should
tries In Austria, Germany, Netherlands and the explore ways of intensifying co-operation in the
United States, all secondary schools use computers development of educational software They also
for instruction Chart 7 3 shows an index of computer should make the private sector better aware of the
use for instruction in secondary education calculated new opportunities for product development Sec-
for five OECD countries The index is based on the ondly, obstacles arise at the interface of technology,
proportion of schools that have computers and actu- education and society, which involve attitudes, values
ally use them for instructional purposes in four sub- and beliefs Thirdly. the major obstacles to be over-
jects mathematics, science, mother tongue, and come are those inherent in the education system,
technology or computer education in grades 7, 8 including the resistance of management and staff,

Table 7 I "Older" and "newer" learning resources and tools

Learning resources
Function
Older technologies Newer technologies

Live conversation Classroom with round table and blackboard Audio conferencing
Audiographic conferencing
I-way live video with audio talkback 2-way video
Other real time writing
Time-delayed conversation Mail regular and express Fax
E-mail and computer conferencing
videotape
Learning by doing Typewriter Computer for designing, composing, simulating
Library (research material) and analysing results
Laboratory Use of authentic video from a foreign country
studio to study that country's language and culture
Internship programme On-line use of distant libraries, computer-based
research tools, and data
Directed instruction Lecture hall Live and taped video
Slide protector Computer tutorial, drill
Textbook
Source OECD I1995o
2111
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Table 7.2. Schools using personal computers for instruction, 1982-92

Percentage of lower IL) and upper (UI secondary schools

1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992

Austria 5 13 29 50 92 100
U 7 21 40 62 99
Germany 10 40 70 86 96 99
U 20 59 79 92 99
japan 0 9 18 45 71
U 7 12 31 58
Netherlands 8 45 76 89 98 100
U 15 64 83 94 100
United States 40 70 86 95 100 100
U 55 80 91 98 100

Note: .. Data not available.

Source: Brummelhuis 11995), p. 40.

inappropriate infrastructures, inflexible timetables, The impact of new technologies on educational

financial constraints, and an array of practical difficul- settings
ties. For example, the allocation of staff to educa-
tional institutions at all levels is still largely based Every formal educational institution will increas-
on outdated concepts of classrooms, class groups, ingly need to relate to external sources of knowledge
9-to-4 timetables and teacher:student ratios that and information. Libraries will continue their trans-
assume all students are in direct contact with a formation into learning resource centres. Many fami-
teacher at all times. lies and individuals will have access to information

Chart 7.3. Index of computer use for instruction in four subjects, 1989 and 1992"

D 1989 1N 1992
100 100

80 80

60 60

40 40

20 20

Japan Germany Netherlands United States Austria

Notes: See Table A.59.

I. The subjects are mathematics, science, mother tongue and technology or computer education.
2. The index is based on a yield score that shows the degree of computer use in four subjects in grades 7,8 and 9 of lower secondary schools using computers.
1212 Source: Brummelhuis (1995), p. 53.
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

through their own networked computers Education options and methods is thus available to individuals,
authorities will have the responsibility of extending enabling them to become "autonomous" learners
that access to everyone, lust as in the past public
The fact that learning opportunities can be
libraries made books available to those who could
enriched and extended at low marginal costs with the
not afford to buy them So far, the most frequent
aid of these new instruction technologies should
response has been to set up the equivalent of a
mean that everyone has the possibility of achieving
"reading room" where simple but functional excellence, defined in terms of individual benchmarks
machines and software are available for use by learn-
of progress in learning rather than measured against
ers on a scheduled basis The equivalent of "com-
a group norm The new information and communica-
puter rooms" serves a similar purpose tion technologies thus provide both the rationale and
The introduction of new technologies inevitably the means of building tomorrow's learning society
leads to modifications in the educational setting one that is networked, with ample and equal access
Thus, when buildings are linked by interactive net- to knowledge and information, and made up of com-
works, including video, it makes little sense to con- munities and individuals who are in charge of their
tinue to regard them as separate institutions The own learning environments (Stuebing, 1995) The
question of what modifications may be needed is learning society is seen by many as a worthwhile goal,
considered in Section D below however, it is equally important to proceed in stages
rather than attempt wholesale changes for which the
Increasingly, students in secondary schools will teachers are not prepared nor the resources available
have access to personal portable computers There Its realisation will require a close examination of the
will be a concomitant increase in the demand for content, style and organisation of modern methods
individual and small-group work-spaces A larger and technologies of learning, particularly in respect of
socialising space for approximately 100 students and the new possibilities offered by student-centred and
a self-contained unit or "neighbourhood" for approxi- self-directed modes of progression together with an
mately 400 students are also required This larger site examination of the purpose and function of educa-
offers a range of spaces designed to accommodate tional institutions and their use of electronic technol-
student activities rather than teacher or content- ogies to meet new educational needs
oriented activities The concept of the "dispersed
school" with specialised learning spaces separate
from the main school buildings and attached to cen- D. PHYSICAL SETTINGS FOR LIFELONG
tres provided by local employers, office complexes or LEARNING
the community library is neither new nor likely to be
widely adopted, but it does gain from the power of lust as there is sometimes a misconception that
information and communication technologies to new forms of learning reduce the importance of
make distances much less important (OECD, I992h) teachers, so the observation that new forms of deliv-
ery coexist with traditional, fixed-site schools can be
Individuals can now work together in learning misunderstood to imply that schools themselves no
and production through information technology As longer matter This again is quite false reasoning lust
the OECD Programme on Educational Building (PEB) as learning often is directed and mediated through
stated in its 1992 seminar "Learning will become a teachers, so does it mostly occur in particular places
more diverse networked activity for all ages of stu- designed for the purpose It is thus now most impor-
dents and only part of it will take place in permanent tant to ask, following the issues of teaching and
community facilities, designed to provide a social and learning raised above, what sorts of institutions are
resource focus in the form of a welcoming and tech- available, whether they are equipped for the tasks and
nologically democratic architecture" (OECD, 19921) new forms of educational organisation being
The use of buildings for educational purposes thus demanded, and whether more can be achieved within
needs to be more flexible, in light of the new the existing physical resources that are available
demands and new possibilities of supplying learning How far, for instance, have countries developed
opportunities The main point is that the new com- "community learning centres", open to the commu-
munication technologies allow organised learning to nity as a whole, serving a wide range of learning
occur in increasingly varied settings that are often needs with resources of the highest quality) And,
separate from schools and teachers, and in ways that what are the implications of "the information age" for
2131
were open to very few in the past A greater choice of the institutions that specialise in learning?
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Learning takes place in a great variety of settings for "all ages" is part of the vision of lifelong learning
other than schools in art galleries and museums, at Institutions, or parts of them, will be encouraged to
home, and during excursions but for most young stay "open at all hours" Equipment and facilities
people the school is the principal centre of learning made available for one purpose can be used for
The physical setting of schools influences the quality others It has never made sense to keep machines
and effectiveness of education in a number of ways and rooms idle when they could be used by others,
Buildings must not only be safe, weatherproof, and but administrative complications have stood in the
conducive to work, but also appropriate for the activi- way of better utilisation Where schools and other
ties occurring within them The traditional classroom, institutions have devolved responsibility for their
with desks in rows, emphasised the teacher's domi- budgets, they are far more likely to take steps to
nant didactic role and discourage interaction between ensure that funds are used to best effect Thus, uni-
pupils Windows were often positioned high on the versities today commonly use their lecture rooms for
wall, to allow daylight in but make it difficult for summer schools, and their residences for holiday
pupils to see out accommodation Some schools are used as activity
The 1960s saw the introduction of open plan lay- centres in the summer, or as centres for evening clas-
outs in some schools with a view to encouraging use ses However, this intensive use of space remains rare
of a wider range of teaching methods Not surpris- for a variety of reasons including the typical difficul-
ingly, some teachers were unmoved Today's school ties of shared use cost-sharing, managerial problems
buildings are the product of a different emphasis, as and the allocation of responsibilities for cleaning,
flexibility of use and adaptability of design have access and security
become watchwords for architects in recent years The relative importance of the several levels of
Thus, a secondary school typically consists of a num-
education varies from country to country and accord-
ber of classrooms of a standard size, some spaces for
ing to the age of the learner Even in the context of
special purposes, and some multi-purpose spaces lifelong learning, there are good reasons for separat-
designed to offer flexibility
ing learners of different ages, at least for some of the
The school of the future will continue to be time Under other circumstances, however, there are
designed to match real learning requirements (OECD, good educational and organisational reasons for
1995s) Schools must be places where children like to bringing them together There already exist centres
be and where they feel secure and safe At the current where school classes, adult education courses, child
rate of replacement it will be at least 50 years before care. small business advice centres and other services
the educational facilities already in use are decom- are together under one roof These may be the fore-
missioned The renovation, reorganisation and re- runners of the "community learning centres" of the
equipping of existing buildings will therefore be an future The potential advantages of bringing together
important element in implementing lifelong learning different services at one community centre are sev-
The scope for making better use of what already exists eral many common services and facilities (heating
Is considerable plant, kitchens, car parking, computer centres) can be
shared, thus reducing the overall cost, the facilities
themselves may be more intensively and effectively
Using facilities efficiently used, parents, especially mothers of young children,
Many educational buildings are left unused at can pursue their own studies while their children are
weekends and during holiday periods The barriers to being educated close by, children, as part of their
their wider use are more frequently administrative general development, can contribute to the case of
and bureaucratic than structural Tax-payers are elderly and disabled people (OECD, 1995t)
proving less and less willing to accept the under- The process that is seeing teachers become
utilisation of public assets In countries where educa- "facilitators", "managers of learning" or "guides in a
tional facilities are controlled by local rather than forest of information" will continue The advantage of
national authorities, schools are more likely to be schools is that they facilitate learning in groups over
regarded as community facilities available to all
a long period Increasing numbers of lobs demand
(OECD. 1995t) people who can work in teams and co-
As learning becomes more individualised and operate with others Learning spaces will become still
less teacher-centred, the idea of flexible hours will more varied Schools will contain a mix of small work
1214 become increasingly attractive The idea of schools stations, group rooms, and large classrooms, and will
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

have access to spaces where hundreds of people can - Implementing an "open all hours" approach as
meet for larger events learner-centred programmes complement
teacher-centred ones
Similar arguments apply to ternary education
institutions, which also have a wider function as cen- Encouraging institutions to develop distinctive
tres of lifelong learning open to adult learners specialisations, which may necessitate pur-
Already, more flexible provision has expanded the pose-designed buildings
pattern of learning beyond full-time courses for young In recent times, architects and managers of edu-
adults The increase in the diversity and quantity of cational buildings have had to learn to live with the
learning is reflected in the spread of a modular increasing pace of change They cannot predict how
approach with recognition of prior learning Adults the buildings for which they are responsible will be
are thereby enabled to return to take up new studies used in the future The forces that have led them to
as to pursue refresher courses in the disciplines pre- co-operate more closely with other agencies will con-
viously studied tinue The educational institution of the future must
Wastage of tertiary education resources may be provide a sophisticated, functional, efficient, conve-
assisted by a modular approach but financial arrange- nient and attractive working environment if it is to
ments should nonetheless provide incentives for the survive in the face of competition from other provid-
completion of courses by learners Greater attention ers of knowledge and learning programmes
to the intensive exploitation of the physical resources The implication for policy is that the mainte-
of tertiary education institutions, through nance of the building stock can no longer be regarded
co-operation with secondary schools and employers, as an optional extra In many countries the condition
might also be fostered of schools has been allowed to deteriorate to unac-
ceptable levels If dangerous buildings are rare, those
There is the likelihood that employers will
in which teaching and learning are hindered or lim-
increase investment in general adult education, as
ited by poor maintenance are common Apart from
they come to understand that provision which pro-
educational considerations, it is uneconomic to allow
motes personal development and satisfaction can
facilities to deteriorate to the point where expensive
also enhance lob performance and productivity Gov-
repairs become necessary A second point is that, as
ernments can also be expected to continue to sup-
the management of school buildings is gradually
port that part of lifelong learning which relates to
devolved to the immediate users, and as educational
non-economic objectives, such as personal develop-
institutions in certain countries hnd themselves in
ment and leisure interests Such provision will thus
competition for pupils, there may well be efforts to
be centred, as at present, on the physical facilities of
improve the appearance of buildings It is, however,
many schools and tertiary education institutions
the substantial backlog of deferred major mainte-
However, governments cannot meet total demand
nance. particularly on the many buildings constructed
through the institutions over which they have control,
during the 1960s and 1970s, that will need to be
and other providers should be welcomed subject to
remedied
the safeguards over quality discussed in Chapter 6
To sum up it is a question of redeveloping and
transforming existing educational buildings in order E. INFORMATION FOR TEACHING, LEARNING
to be able to take advantage of the new learning AND POLICY-MAKING
technologies, and to respond flexibly to such likely Information is not "external" to the education
trends on the following system and mediated through it, information about
- Declining requirement for "computer rooms" and for education itself is a key part of such a
as each learner has access to a laptop dynamic, high-quality system The information and
computer the knowledge base for teaching, learning and policy-
making, and the R&D that generates them, are thus
Locating specialised facilities such as science essential elements for the dynamism and quality to
laboratories in the "real world", linked elec- be sustained It would be unthinkable in other
tronically rather than on site "knowledge industries", which are as subject to con-
Emphasising the provision of personal work- stant change and decentralised as schools and clas-
stations, small group interaction areas and ses, for there not to be substantial investment in the
2151
large social spaces generation of knowledge, information and innovation
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Given the extent of the decentralisation in education, agenda can be changed by government action New
there are thus strategic questions about realising policies lead to new R&D agendas The shift in policy
economies of scale so that a substantial up-to-date towards lifelong learning will lead to new information
knowledge base is generated that is widely accessi- needs in several fields, and R&D should shift its pri-
ble There are questions about the roles of the differ- orities accordingly Knowledge about the state of the
ent partners, and especially the education authori- art in relevant fields is a prerequisite for ensuring that
ties, in a situation of policy partnerships where either changes in the orientation of policy towards lifelong
no party may feel responsible for generating and sus- learning objectives are grounded on reliable evidence
taining the information base or else there may be a and systematically evaluated Research on research,
proliferation of competing sources of professional or "meta-analysis", is particularly important in this
information How can countries, in times of budgetary context, because it involves policy change at all levels
stringency, generate the R&D on the scale appropri- of systems, institutions, practitioners and clients
ate for lifelong learning societies") And what informa- (Walberg et al, 1993)
tion, for whom, is relevant to lifelong learning when
information needs potentially cover such a vast field" Elements of a national knowledge base
Is focus needed, and how can priorities be decided>
for education
The information base for teaching, learning and
Countries exercise a wide range of choices in the
policy-making varies according to national traditions
ways they resource, staff and administer their educa-
and priorities and the level of expenditure on data
tional knowledge bases, which are strongly anchored
collection and R&D (OECD, 1995u, Appendix A) In
in national, political and social contexts, and intellec-
most countries the level is certainly small in relation
tual traditions Yet some policy needs are common to
to the volume of educational activity In countries for
almost all countries, even if their detailed resolution
which figures are available, R&D accounts for only
ultimately assumes different forms Governments
around a quarter of I per cent of educational expendi-
need information in order to develop and implement
ture, a percentage far lower than in any respectable
current and new policies and to steer and manage
branch of private industry Yet, in all countries today
educational change in a context of accountability,
new policies and strategies call for reliable and com-
choice and responsibilities shared with groups in the
prehensive information The shift towards lifelong
larger society They must generate both information
learning certainly requires a mass of intelligence on
to inform their own strategies and to help meet the
the reform of structures, curriculum, pedagogy, finan-
requirements of other stakeholders a process that
cing and control and management, particularly in
involves sensitive negotiations between government
view of the general trend towards decentralisa tion
and practitioners in different competing positions
and autonomous schools
Education authorities will have a dominant role in
Although there is no clear-cut relationship determining the R&D agenda, while seeking the views
between educational reforms and the demand for of skilled practitioners and respecting the right of
knowledge and information, policy shifts do affect the researchers to incorporate scholarly and theoretical
demand for research-based knowledge During the considerations into their inquiries They should
1950s and 1960s, policy-making was primarily con- regard the process of negotiation on agendas as part
cerned with inputs During the 1970s, the concern of the data conditioning both their agendas and their
shifted towards structures and processes From the methods
mid-1980s, student and system outcomes in prefera- A national knowledge base for educational
bly measurable form became the focus of attention policy-making comprises elements such as
(OECD, 1992i) In the 1950s and 1960s, the central
Knowledge derived from the collation of statis-
value endorsed was that of equality, until the 1980s,
the assumption was that education would be largely tics and indicators that enable national,
led by professionals In the 1990s, there is an insis-
regional and local systems to monitor inputs
tence on efficiency, quality and accountability with and outputs, depending on the degree of
the devolution of powers to institutions and client desegregation required The data can be used
groups for a multiplicity of purposes including deter-
mining the rates and composition of participa-
If R&D traditions are affected by modes of gov- tion in initial and post-initial education and
ernment, cultural traditions and existing institutional training, the allocation of funds by levels and
1216 structures, it is also true, as in Sweden, that the functions, the composition of the teaching
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

force, student performance standards, and within the following broad categories (OECD. I995u,
education and labour market outcomes pp 173-175)
Knowledge derived from research and develop- Studies of learning and teaching particular
ment Research should raise questions and concerns here may be the institutional
identify problems The practical usefulness of arrangements, for curriculum and outputs of
R&D in education is strongly affected by the early childhood education, and measures to
degree to which its conditions are negotiated combat school failure and drop-out
with those being researched and those who
Teacher training and staff development an
sponsor it (OECD, 1995u)
example could be the time and resources
Assessment and evaluation, which provide the already devoted to in-service training
basis for action either for system-wide policy-
making or for individual development and Government and policy the effects on budget
which can result from rigorous investigative expenditure of administrative decentralisation
methods so that findings can be subjected to according to categories might be examined
objective professional appraisal or interactive under this heading
and intuitive ly inspired iudgements Structural issues such concerns as the rela-
At the national level these three forms of knowl- tionship between the streaming of pupils and
edge creation are complementary, although research- school failure might be investigated
ers, in practice, may well resort to all three forms of Tertiary education and employment the
enquiry But the findings are seldom brought together equity. efficiency and effectiveness of tertiary
for improving or evaluating policy or pedagogical education in meeting labour market require-
action In particular, the results of inspections and ments are examples of topics that might use-
other forms of monitoring are not always collated to fully be studied
influence assessment needs and, often, allocation of
International issues comparative data on
resources Data generated by evaluation are insuffi-
adult education supply and demand are
ciently synthesised to be of use in policy planning All
largely lacking
too often, the evaluation of the capacity of existing
educational provision to meet the requirements of a Methodologies. longitudinal studies could be
lifelong learning model is unsophisticated and of lim- exploited more fully in policy-making, which is
ited usefulness Policy-makers at the different levels subject to many short- and medium-term
of control and management should be able to draw exigencies
upon all three kinds of knowledge for a variety of In the area of lifelong learning, much of the R&D
purposes might take place away from the formal sector Infor-
The knowledge base in most OECD countries is mation on needs and "what works" derives less from
not only insufficiently synthesised, but also heavily theory than from sustained enquiry among, and inter-
biased in its coverage towards mainstream schooling action with, users, employers and trade unions This
There is lack of R&D in the early childhood and adult will call for the application of a wide range of research
education and training sectors Whereas empirical and enquiry methods and for active feedback and
comparative studies of school systems have been effective dissemination of the findings Its use for
undertaken since the early 1960s, the first such study professional development is not well exploited A
directed at adults became available only in 1995 proper balance between the several forms of enquiry
(OECD and Statistics Canada, 1995) A further weak- at the national level will ensure that adequate atten-
ness is the lack of systematic information about per- tion is paid to outcomes as well as to the creation of
formance standards both in schools and in education optimum conditions for good educational practice
and training, partly because of the technical difficul-
ties of securing comprehensive and reliable data and
partly because of opposition from many of the actors Co-operation at the International level
(OECD, 1995v) There are many areas where comparative studies
The agenda for R&D is potentially very long, and could be conducted fruitfully by researchers from a
the various stakeholders always order the priorities number of countries The findings of one country can
differently (Gruber. 1995) Governments will therefore sometimes be applied in another Many international
need to decide which are the greatest areas of need associations of researchers already promote 2171
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

0 4 per cent in the United Kingdom Government is government action and by establishing an appropri-
the principal source of funds for educational R&D in ate framework The potential of the information age
all countries, either directly through its own research can be tapped both centrally and by individual educa-
units or through grants to tertiary institutions There tional and training institutions Changes in the con-
is little funding for educational R&D from non-gov- sequent role of teachers will demand an extensive
ernment sources, although these can be important national programme of teacher training, both to raise
sponsors of independent critical or developmental the quality of teaching and to prepare teachers to
R&D cope with the consequences of a lifelong approach to
Educational R&D is a highly labour-intensive learning and greater stress on individual learning
process For this reason, it is important to ensure paths Greater knowledge of educational provision
cost-effective work through the high-quality training and performance is needed by learners, teachers,
of researchers and productive use of their time The providers and government so that the enterprise of
scale of the resources allocated for personnel is a lifelong learning is purposefully and effectively
second indicator of a country's commitment to R&D managed
Relevant data, available for eight OECD countries The resources for lifelong learning are very
(OECD. 1995W, show that the full-time equivalent largely already in place However, changes in the way
personnel involved in R&D on education constitute they are used. in attitudes among teachers and
only a small part of the total allocated to R&D on administrators, and extensive continuing consulta-
average, I I per cent tion are required There are particular implications for
In short, the scale of financing for educational access to, and exploitation of, school buildings, for
R&D, which varies among countries, is generally a teacher training, and for the expansion of the national
small proportion of the amount spent on education knowledge base
or on research as a whole Since many countries are
facing the same problems relating to policy and prac-
Educational institutions as community learning
tice, this large disparity implies an ignorance of or
centres
indifference to knowledge requirements Countries
should thus review their priorities with a view to Educational institutions, particularly schools
increasing their expenditure on R&D and directing it and junior colleges should be encouraged by
to areas of rising importance such as lifelong learn- government action to forge closer links with
ing Having teachers and other practitioners loin in their surrounding communities, not only
the pursuit of knowledge will help strengthen the through learning with production schemes,
resource base of an otherwise weakly nourished activ- partnerships with employers and sponsors.
ity It will also increase the capacity of practitioners to and the presence of returning adult learners,
identify obstacles to school improvement and ways of as proposed in previous chapters, but also by
securing beneficial change Teacher training should opening the doors to the voluntary assistance
introduce this possibility to prospective teachers, and of adults with teaching and other functions, to
broaden professional interests to include lifelong workers who can demonstrate the realities of
learning Many countries should review the career different occupations, to recruitment agencies,
paths of educational R&D personnel in order to to cultural groups and organisations in the
ensure that the returns to public and individual civil society
investment in training are maximised Educational libraries should become mul-
timedia learning resource centres Access for
F. STRENGTHENING THE RESOURCES: POLICY local communities, in association with public
CONCLUSIONS library services, would ensure full exploitation
Such a development would require govern-
It has been implicit in the arguments proposed
in earlier chapters that educational resources need to ment stimulation to ensure the necessary co-
be both expanded and more effectively exploited
operation, and reasonable equity of provision
Input of advice, materials, work experience, technol- throughout the system
ogy and cultural activities is needed from many and Educational institutions at all levels should
varied sources in order to turn schools into commu- also be encouraged to develop interactive
nity learning centres Outside schools, a wide range electronic network links with other providers of
2191
of providers of education has to be encouraged by education and research centres, including
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

enterprises Appropriate incentives should be the art of managing learning resources of all
offered to firms to provide input into institu- kinds
tions, particularly in the fields of science and
technology
- Teachers should be encouraged to work in
teams, not obligatorily within classrooms or
- School buildings should be adequately main- for teaching specific subjects, but for the pur-
tained in the interests of security and continu- pose of ensuring mutual professional support
ing efficiency Any redesign of an existing in the face of challenging tasks
building or new construction should take into
account the need for flexible teaching spaces - Governments may wish to consider how non-
teaching staff might take over some of the
as young people stay longer in education and
administrative and supervisory duties pres-
increasing numbers of adults wish to complete
their secondary education ently performed by teachers, so that they can
concentrate on meeting the new demands on
their knowledge and skills In certain coun-
Teacher training tries, teachers' regular contact hours could be
- Initial teacher preparation should be the first increased through a process of consultation
stage of a continuing staff development pro- Within schools and other learning institutions,
gramme that gives teachers professional sup- more advanced learners can play a part in the
port in the classroom teaching of other learners, thereby deepening
As foreshadowed particularly in Chapters 3, 5 their understanding, increasing social solidar-
and 6, a major retraining effort is required to ity and relieving teachers of part of their
equip teachers and administrators, particularly burden
in primary and secondary education, to face
the challenges of the lifelong education Knowledge base
approach Governments should make provi-
sion for this in advance, while carrying out the - The long-term role of government in fostering
consultations necessary for its effective and managing lifelong learning will need to be
delivery underpinned by the collation and synthesis of
- Given the present and impending changes in information from a variety of sources teach-
national curricula, a rolling programme of ers, principals and other administrators, non-
training in knowledge about, and teaching of, formal education providers, school and post-
learning-to-learn and information retrieval school inspectorates, client groups, social
skills will be needed Teachers themselves will partners, and the wider civil society A review
require such skills in increasing measure in of information-processing systems will be
order to keep abreast of developments in tech- required, possibly by outside analysts
nologies and cognitive knowledge in all sub- It will be particularly important to gather infor-
jects Such training should take place both mation on early childhood education, adult
outside and within schools, through the allo- education, and continuing vocational training
cation of time for team reflection and internal
development and planning
- At the same time, the reporting requirements
placed on education providers in receipt of
Subject-specific training will need to be public funding or being officially accredited,
updated at regular intervals, possibly by a pro- will need to be kept within bounds New
gramme of refresher training attached to the frameworks need to be drawn up, therefore, so
initial training package that providers can analyse their own needs
An integral part of teacher training will be con- and performance, making use of local knowl-
cerned with ways and means of establishing edge, can take appropriate local action and
links with local communities and importing report in summary form to government The
outside knowledge into schools The effects of principle should be followed that information
the presence of larger numbers of adults in should only be demanded where its exact pur-
schools will also need to be anticipated This pose is known Information retained locally
does not imply a threat to the professionalism can be requested subsequently if the need
1220 of teaching, but a redefinition of teaching as arises
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Information should not only flow upwards, but - Knowledge production and knowledge applica-
also downwards, so that education providers tion have been so far poorly articulated In
know whether they are. in the view of govern- many countries, there is a lack of mechanisms
ment, meeting standards and fulfilling goals to ensure that relevant knowledge is presented
Statistical comparisons between institutions to policy-makers when critical decisions have
should, however, make allowances for the to be taken Close co-ordination is called for
"value added" factor as discussed in Chap- between the production of research and its
ter 6 School and post-school inspectorates potential users, so as to ensure that relevant
will have a significant role to play in providing and up-to-date knowledge is available at the
more qualitative feedback One of the criteria appropriate time Policy-makers should influ-
of inspection should be to seek and process ence the orientation of research, and research-
external as well as internal information, and to ers should heed the requirements of policy-
advance understanding Similarly, information makers This will increase the demand for
about provision and performance must reach short-cycle investigations and reinforce the
the general public, all being potential learners case for developing new modes of knowledge
The educational guidance and counselling ser- production Governments should also ensure
vices referred to in Chapter 4 will be a major that the social partners and other interested
provider of such information Governments groups in civil society are aware of the chan-
may also consider promoting education and nels for making their views known at local as
training through the media, as has been done well as national level
for national literacy campaigns

2211
 HOW TO PAY FOR LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL?

A. INTRODUCTION of instrumental interest, not least because they influ-

ence the thinking about the possible ways of sharing
Previous chapters argued that because of rapid the costs of the initial investments Section ID then
technological change, knowledge and skills tend to examines the principal cost implications of
depreciate at a faster rate than ever before This reorienting current provision into a lifelong learning
increased turnover of skills makes that workers need perspective Section E explores the alternative
to be flexible in order to stay productive Adapting to options for the financing of adequate learning oppor-
technological and societal change calls for opportuni- tunities for all The lead question undergirding this
ties for learning new skills Present-day provision of analysis is what priorities and distribution of sources
educational services is not in line with this concern of funds, costs and benefits might best promote
The best option presently available to achieve flexibil- coherence, fairness and efficiency in implementing
ity is an arrangement of lifelong learning Actions that approaches to lifelong learning for all
stimulate lifelong learning are therefore likely to
increase both personal well-being and economic
growth Although this point is being recognised by B. THE POLICY CONTEXT
OECD countries, most current institutional arrange-
So far, formal education and training systems in
ments clearly discriminate against lifelong learning
the OECD countries have proven to be investments
and favours "its now or never" initial schooling
that to a large extent pay for themselves They yield
Lifelong learning defines a broad principle that. substantial and measurable returns in the form of
while all can agree to its desirability, it can appear rising standards of living, economic competitiveness,
quite unrealistic in its demands on resources and its and security for society and individuals Initial and
need for institutional reform This chapter does not continuing education are seen to contribute to pro-
avoid the conclusion that the sums involved may well moting social cohesion and progress, and developing
be high, lust as it proposes that the potential benefits a strong base of shared values that are vital to demo-
are also enormous In order that these questions can cratic pluralism
be addressed, and the policy debate move beyond the However, these formal systems of mostly initial
level of assertion and counter-assertion, it is neces- education and training are limited in their capacity to
sary to clarify as far as possible the following ques- meet the variety of learning needs that people face at
tions What are the costs and benefits of lifelong the close of the twentieth century Although nearly
learning, who is enjoying the benefits and who is universal in their coverage at the foundation levels,
paying the bills? What are the implications for both there remain sizeable minorities whose basic learning
financial arrangements and public education budg- needs are not met Equally crucial, although lifelong
ets? Radical solutions will have to be considered learning is already a reality for a select group of indi-
These are the issues contained in this chapter viduals, the systems have not sufficiently extended
Section B summarises the policy context in access beyond the "front-end" model of schooling
which the issue of resources needs to be addressed and initial mass tertiary education, to make lifelong
Section C offers a sample of evidence, collected from learning a reality for all Thus, current systems are
a variety of data sources available in a few Member still characterised largely as providing education and
countries, on the benefits accruing to investments in training to all "school age" children, youth, and an
education, training and learning, To the possible increasing proportion of young adults Societal, tech-
extent, evidence on the non-monetary and social ben- nological and labour market developments notwith-
efits of education and training is also presented standing, this approach remains biased towards a
These insights into the distribution of the returns are "once-and-for-all" educational career 2231
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

In this context, the actual and potential returns sures may limit the amount that government
from lifelong learning need to be contrasted with the can contribute
rising economic and social costs of the lack of access The third problem is the need for partnerships
to lifelong learning opportunities The data analysis This arises from the fad that lifelong learning
presented in Chapter I has shown that where the embraces much more than the initial educa-
updating of knowledge, skills and competencies is tion and training systems that lie within the
not possible. individuals face increased risks of low usual area of authority of Ministers Thus, even
earnings, high unemployment and even social if Ministers had the resources to pay for an
marginalisation extended approach to lifelong learning for all,
Renewed and widespread agreement about the they would not have the full leverage or
importance of lifelong learning notwithstanding, it is accountability to affect what happens in
not yet a reality for all people regardless of labour labour market programmes, enterprises, trade
market status and age There are important barriers to unions, or the home where much lifelong
its implementation Aside from those impeding the learning takes place
effort to make lifelong learning more accessible, there A fourth problem concerns the necessary insti-
is the vital question of human and financial tutional reform Institutional arrangements are
resources Can OECD countries afford lifelong learn- not well adapted for lifelong learning, current
ing, and how can they pay for it, The other side of this provision is delivered through an outdated set
question is whether OECD countries can afford not to of institutions In order to address the social
pay for lifelong learning"' and economic challenges facing the OECD
countries, institutions must be re-thought and
Even with the firmest political commitment to
re-designed This applies to curriculum. educa-
making lifelong learning a reality for all, Education
tional infrastructure, teaching methods and. as
Ministers face particularly thorny problems in trying importantly, financial arrangements
to resolve the resource questions
Ultimately, ensuring that lifelong learning is
- The first problem is accountability In order to affordable and can be implemented depends on three
make informed policy decisions, based on conditions increasing the level and predictability of
cost-benefit and cost-effectiveness considera- its benefits, holding its costs down, and creating
tions, it is of utmost importance to have finance mechanisms and regulations that provide the
access to information on the distribution of right incentives for public authorities, individuals and
both cost and benefits Although there is social partners to invest in it The purpose of the
strong evidence that expenditures on further discussion in this chapter is to shed light on possible
education and training, both formal and non- ways of overcoming these tensions In the main, the
formal, are "productive investments", the chapter aims at answering three broad questions
returns are spread over time, and often they - What is the evidence that lifelong learning
take the form of private returns (profits to
yields substantial benefits' Making lifelong
employers and wage premiums to individuals), learning a reality for all will extend the bene-
as opposed to the substantial social returns
fits of initial and subsequent learning to those
that accrue to much initial schooling Further- who are underserved But what is the nature
more, returns are generally insecure, and past and magnitude of these benefits, and who
returns may not be an accurate guide to future enjoys them"' To what extent are they depen-
returns, for example, in expanding systems of dent on institutional arrangements and other
mass tertiary education factors"' How will the extension of learning
The second problem is budgetary pressure As opportunities in a lifelong perspective affect
it was expressed in the most recent OECD the social and individual rates of return"? Might
Council Ministerial meeting, there is a need "over-education" be likely?
for "fiscal consolidation and sustainable fiscal - What are the short-term costs of extending
positions in order to free national savings for lifelong learning' Time - series information on
more productive investment" (Ministers' Com- the costs of education and training provision
muniqué, May 1995) Even when lifelong learn- at different levels offers one basis for estimat-
ing can be shown to be a "more productive -
ing the costs particularly for public budgets -
1224 investment", the sheer weight of fiscal pres- of making lifelong learning a reality for all But
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

how reliable a guide are they? To what extent at this level says nothing about the distribution of the
should the obiective of achieving lifelong returns to individual actors, or about the presence of
learning for all be accomplished through the benefits or costs of education and training that occur
expansion of existing arrangements? To what to someone other than the person who paid for it
extent might they be achieved through a ("externalities"), or more generally, about the incen-
departure from the "front-end" model of edu- tives and disincentives facing individual participants
cation') How might the cost-effectiveness of Another study of interest that examines eco-
different components of education and train- nomic growth is Mankiw et al (1992) In this study an
ing systems otherwise be improved'' augmented Solow growth model is estimated Both
Who is going to pay for lifelong learning? Even physical and human capital are specified, the latter is
if lifelong learning can be shown to be a measured by the percentage of the working-age popu-
"worthwhile investment", there may be less- lation attending secondary school The effect of this
than-optimal resources devoted to it, because variable on productivity levels is significant for the
of the difficulty of public budgets to internalise whole sample of countries and for a sub-sample of
long-term benefits as an offset to current 22 OECD countries This implies that investment in
expenditure More generally, market failures human capital generates economic growth Pencavel
may also lead to under-investment There also (1990) decomposes the effect of education on eco-
may be over-spending on certain parts of the nomic growth into the contributions of tertiary and
system due to subsidies or factors that distort non-tertiary education For several countries it can be
the incentives for various actors to pay for it concluded that the contribution of tertiary education
falls short to the contribution of non-tertiary educa-
C. THE BENEFITS OF LIFELONG LEARNING
tion, pointing to diminishing social returns to
education
The affordability of lifelong learning depends, in
part, on what the benefits from it are In principle, Monetary returns to formal education
governments, individuals, and employers will pay for and training
lifelong learning insofar as it is "worthwhile insofar
as the anticipated marginal benefits are greater than An approach more useful for capturing the possi-
the expected marginal costs But what is worthwhile ble returns from lifelong learning is to focus on the
depends on how and from whose perspective "worth" "micro level", and to consider the returns falling to
is defined and measured This section considers evi- individuals from different levels of education and
dence on the nature and magnitude of the benefits training The most readily observed returns are
accruing to lifelong learning investments In present- obtained using cross-sectional data to compare the
ing and analysing the data, lifelong learning is con- earnings of individuals by level of educational attain-
sidered in its component parts ment Chart 8 I provides a first approximation of the
monetary returns to various levels of education It
suggests that the negative consequences of failing to
A macroeconomic view of the benefits complete upper secondary education is substantial in
One crude approach to evaluating the benefits of some countries (in the United States, average earn-
lifelong learning is growth accounting, by which the ings of those with a lower secondary education or less
contribution of education to productivity, output and are more than a third lower than for those who have
growth is compared across countries Because of its completed high school) Earnings for those who have
aggregate perspective, its value in the context of this acquired tertiary-level qualifications university qual-
discussion is to signal the importance of worker qual- ifications especially are typically half again higher
ifications to overall economic performance and stan- than for those with lust a secondary education This
dards of living For example, one study of 29 countries approach is weakened by the fact that it fails to take
found education accounting for up to a quarter of account of individual characteristics other than edu-
economic growth (Psacharopoulos, 1984, cational attainment and employment experience in
pp 340-346) A more recent study of 24 countries, trying to explain differences in earnings, and would
seven of which are OECD countries, reached similar therefore over-estimate the returns to schooling
conclusions (OECD, 1994d, Part II, pp. 115-116) This Another way of assessing the returns to educa-
suggests that investment in education and training tion is by comparing the "private" with the "social"
produces a substantial economic return But analysis returns to lifelong learning The first is based on 2251
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Chart 8.1. Relative differences in earnings from work by level of education, 1992'. 2. 3. 4
Mean earnings ratios relative to the earnings of upper secondary graduates; percentage difference

1:3 Early childhood, primary and lower secondary education 0 Non-university tertiary education

140
0 University education Difference tertiary and up to lower secondary education
140

Men
120 120

100 100

80 80

60 60

40 40

20 20

0 0

-20 -20

-40 -40
-6" E 7-
5 2 ;5
v, z7,

`ci LL
-o
0
vii c

140 140

Women
120 120

100 100

80 80

60 60

40 40

20 20

0 0

-20 -20

J
-40
. 0
-40

,
act
!' E -0 c>t, c E
5 d
<7.

at
.2
aa
13 ta
c
1-1

g ? -2
1
E
.
ti;..
1

'2 9,
.i s ,., Z CO -0 0 Ill
(9
CL
d_6
2
iD
..r
.0.'

72

I. Ratio of mean annual earnings by level of educational attainment to mean annual earnings at upper secondary level (x 100) in the population 25 to 64 years of age,
by gender.
2. Data for non-university tertiary education is included in the data for university education for Austria, Italy, the Netherlands and Spain.
3. 1991 data for Australia, Canada, Denmark, Finland, Italy and Spain.
4. 1993 data for Portugal.
Source: OECD (1995d), Education at a Glance OECD Indicators, p. 233.

1226
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

comparing the net income gains accruing to an indi- the United Kingdom, the evidence is more mixed with
vidual that are attributable to education with the regard to the experience of men relative to women,
costs of acquiring it Ideally, the social rate of return though broadly consistent in showing rising returns
is based on comparing the net increase in gross earn- for men over time, and rising returns with higher
ings from more education to the public and private levels of education Factors influencing the size of
costs of acquiring it Private and social rates of return rates of return include the industry and occupation in
should indicate the period of time over which earn- which individuals are employed. as well as detailed
ings are counted This can be done by incorporating a measures of performance in education, such as grade
"discount rate" by which the stream over time of point averages (Cohn and Addison. 1995)
benefits and costs can be discounted to a "present
Table 8 3 reviews some studies on the private
value" which can then be compared (Alsalam and
return to schooling in the Netherlands. again based
Conley, 1995, pp 86-88)
on Mincer-type wage equations (Mincer, 1974)
Much of the literature on rates of return to edu- Returns in the Netherlands appear to vary between
cation and training is constrained by a lack of data 3 and 9 per cent There are three key findings Firstly,
and the resulting need to make unrealistic assump- Hartog and Oosterbeek (1988) find that there is a
tions Costs are often limited to estimates of foregone significant return to "over-schooling" Secondly,
earnings, while this may be a reasonable approxima- Oosterbeek and Van Ophem (1995) find additional
tion for adults in training, the value of direct costs of evidence for decreasing returns to schooling Thirdly,
formal education relative to the opportunity costs returns on human capital declined during the 1980s
is much higher at the primary and secondary levels. This is at odds with expectations and with the rising
and tends to be important even at the tertiary level return to human capital in the United States, but it is
This lack of data on direct costs explains, at least a well-documented phenomenon (see Hartog et al,
partly, why the "rate of return" literature has tended 1994)
to emphasise private instead of social rates of return
Usually, skill-intensive technological change and.
The result has been that the social rates of return
therefore, increased demand for skills are seen as
have often been overstated Private rate of return
explanations for the increased returns to human capi-
studies tend to be based on before-tax earnings, such
tal observed in the United States (Bound and John-
studies overestimate the returns in countries with
son, 1992, luhn et a1. 1993) The decreasing returns to
high average and marginal tax rates on income
human capital during the 1980s in the Netherlands
Table 8 I reports social rates of return that have contradict these expectations Teulings (1995) offers
been calculated for selected countries Included into an alternative explanation for the Dutch experience
the data analysis are the direct costs, based on aver- increased skill levels and stable lob complexities have
age unit costs, and estimates of foregone earnings, led to decreasing returns to education during the
though earnings gains and foregone earnings are 1980s Accordingly, the rising returns to education in
assumed to equal the average earnings of persons of the United States might not be due to technological
the same age who did not go on to that level of change Teulings (1995) suggests another, more
education The average earnings of persons aged stringent explanation the rising return to skill should
16 to 24 were imputed (Alsalam and Conley, 1995, be associated with a declining level of skill for a given
pp 99-100) industry or occupation" This supply-side argument
Another approach is to estimate individuals' covers both the Dutch and the American experience
earnings using cross-sectional data for different age Whichever is the correct explanation, the supply or
groups, or data from longitudinal panels, in wage demand-side argument, the inevitable conclusion is
equations that take account of educational attain- the same there is a constant need for up-skilling in
ment as well as labour market experience and a vari- economies pursuing growth and equity goals
ety of factors Table 8 2 summarises the findings from There is a widespread agreement that the social
more recent research based on this approach con- rates of return to primary and secondary education
ducted in two countries In the United States, such are higher than the social rate of return to tertiary
analyses show rates of return in the order of 5 to education (Psacharopoulos. 1993) Moreover, it is
10 per cent for additional years of schooling, increas- also found that private rates of return are generally
ing with higher levels of education Though the higher than social rates of return, especially for higher
returns for males compared with females are mixed, levels of education OECD countries spend a major
returns for Blacks tend to be lower than for Whites In part of their education budgets on tertiary education. 2271
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

with expenditure per tertiary student being on aver- Non-monetary returns to formal education
age 2 5 times as high as in primary education and and training
nearly twice as high compared to secondary educa-
Despite the caveats noted previously, the "true"
tion (OECD, 1995d) This, and the continuing growth
returns to initial education and training are most
of mass tertiary systems, calls into doubt the desira-
likely underestimated Although the monetary returns
bility and sustainability of current arrangements of
from initial education are more readily observed.
education finance
there are important non-monetary or "non-market"
Certain important observations can be made on returns, including "externalities" (costs or benefits
the basis of the analyses of rates of return to formal that are passed on to someone other than whoever
education finances education) Jorgenson and Fraumeni (1989)
estimate that these benefits, which include house-
- First, the returns to various levels of formal
hold work, travel, and leisure, are double the
education and training are substantial in virtu-
observed monetary returns for men, and five times
ally all countries, comparing favourably with
those for women
rates of return observed in alternative forms of
investment More generally, the consumption value of educa-
tion, though it is not necessarily reflected in either
- Rates of return vary according to the occupa- the monetary or social returns to education, should
tion and industry in which individuals work count among the benefits This takes the form of
Rates of return for women frequently are below education as a leisure pastime in and of itself, and
those for men, suggesting that their lower education that is used in leisure or related activities
rates of labour force participation, and higher (reading a book or a newspaper) that are not linked to
likelihood of withdrawing from the labour wages or earnings Citing a survey of studies on
force to raise children, have a negative impact returns to education, Schultz (1967) noted that "[all]
on lifetime earnings patterns these studies omit the consumption value of educa-
tion It is a serious omission ( )" The available esti-
- There are sufficient exceptions to the above mates of the benefits of education in this respect all
generalisations to suggest that the patterns underestimate the value of education (McMahon,
are not uniform The estimates obtained for 1995, p 9) While estimating the consumption value
Belgium, Finland, France, Spain and the of education is difficult to do empirically, its presence
United States give rise to the possibility that or absence should be accounted for Thus, while
alternative patterns of labour force participa- monetary returns from a basic literacy programme
tion and lifelong learning may be consistent and a trade training programme may be similar, the
with earnings gains for individuals and others higher "consumption value" of the former (enabling
Rates of return decrease with higher levels of persons to read after work, and during retirement)
education might imply higher overall returns
Other recent studies suggest that education and
- All of the above is confirmation that formal
training do yield returns in terms of positive impacts
education is iustified as an investment in the
on environmental quality, crime and health, although
OECD countries
the magnitude of such impacts is difficult to estimate
However, it does not necessarily follow that the Grossman and Kaestner (1995) review the literature
rates of return calculated for current programmes will on the impact of schooling on health In their conclu-
also be observed in the future Returns may decline, sions they state "Our interpretation of the extensive
for example, if education participation rates are literature dealing with the first issue (does schooling
increased Because of factors that are inadequately have a positive causal impact on good health?! is that
-
captured in rate of return analyses individual ability the weight of evidence suggests that more schooling
or discrimination by employers the correct rate of does in fact cause better health" The impact of edu-
returns may be less than studies tend to show How- cation on crime is less clear cut Witte (1995) states
ever, the opposite may be true as well, since the costs "Neither years of schooling completed nor receipt of
of not educating and training those who are at risk a high-school degree has a significant effect on an
are very substantial As shown in Chapter I, these individual's level of criminal activity However, greater
costs take the form of higher rates of unemployment amounts of time in school are associated with lower
1228 and higher incidence of economic dependency levels of criminal activity" The literature on the
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

effects of education on environmental quality is very appropriate data are available One approximation of
limited Smith (1995) reviews some evidence and con- such returns can be obtained by examining the expe-
siders how education might influence the environ- rience of adults participating in education and train-
mental quality people experience He states "The les- ing programmes not leading to a degree or other
sons from my selective review of links between measurable outcome that corresponds to the qualifi-
education and people's behaviour in learning about cations recognised in the ISCED system An analysis
sources of environmental externalities and what peo- of longitudinal data in the United States suggests
ple can do to protect themselves from these hazards, that studies in vocational subjects yield
confirms education's role as enhancing learning" higher returns than those in academic subjects (see
The implication is that rates of return based lust Chapter 4) Further, there seem to be important dif-
on monetary costs and benefits probably lead to ferences according to the kind of institution in which
results that understate "true" rates of return, insofar such studies were pursued Those taken in four-year
as the non-monetary benefits are greater than the colleges or universities appear to produce substan-
non-monetary costs tially higher returns than those undertaken elsewhere
(Grubb, 1992 and 1995)
The returns from non- formal education Another approach is to examine the post-
and training training experience of unemployed adults Table 84
shows the results of one such evaluation study of
Evaluating the returns from non-formal educa- labour market programmes in the United States The
tion and training, or more broadly, from all the learn- evidence shows that among adults, classroom train-
ing activities that are undertaken in adult life both ing produced higher wage-returns for females than for
within formal institutions of adult education and con- males, but on-the-lob training and/or job search
tinuing vocational training, and informally at home assistance produced still higher returns for both
and at the workplace, is a very complex endeavour for males and females
at least four reasons Firstly, the content of what is
learned is more difficult to define and measure In Table 8 5 gives an overview of the outcomes of
contrast to the rates of return analyses reviewed active labour market programmes in a number of
above, there exist no recognisable benchmarks, such
countries A number of studies investigate the effect
as ISCED level or years of education that can be
of the Comprehensive Employment and Training Act
defined as the input (see OECD, 1995d, Lynch, 1995) programme (CETA) in the United States There seems
Secondly, the costs of such learning are difficult to
to be a clear indication that enrolment in this pro-
evaluate Even if costs are restricted to the value of gramme has a significant positive effect on both earn-
foregone income or lost production, they are difficult ings and the probability of being employed In gen-
eral the results for the United States suggest that
to estimate insofar as the learning process itself is
active labour market programmes are effective The
difficult to observe Thirdly, the returns to several
forms of lifelong learning, such as courses undertaken outcomes for the European countries listed in
for personal enrichment and development, yield non- Table 8 5 are mixed There seems to be an indication
monetary returns or are more purely classified as that training programmes are more beneficial for
learning for its own sake The difficulty of separating those who had relatively good initial employment
consumptive and productive learning is, however, conditions There are, however, positive effects, espe-
acknowledged Finally, the returns to lifelong learning cially for employment programmes in the
for older persons, including those retired, may appear
Netherlands
to be more limited because they are less likely to Because of the interest in evaluating the returns
reflect a change in wages or earnings to employers from enterprise-based training one
For all these reasons the literature on returns to major aspect of lifelong learning a rather separate
both formal and non-formal learning beyond school- line of analysis has emerged recently, focusing on
ing and initial tertiary education is sparse, tending to productivity This work has been hindered by the diffi-
focus on particular cases or otherwise being con- culty of linking data on training occurrence to produc-
strained in the extent to which they might be general- tivity measures One analysis (Bartel, 1991) estimated
ised To the extent that adult learning takes place in that an increase in training expenditure yielded a
16 per cent return after a certain period of time
formally organised and structured programmes, often
with public subsidies attached to them, calculating More recent studies, undertaken as part of an
the rates of return may be feasible, provided that ongoing effort to evaluate the relationship between 2291
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

training, technological change and productivity, as 20 per cent The effects of on-the-lob training on
found that for manufacturing firms in the United productivity are positive, and there is also a clear
States, a 10 per cent increase in the proportion of indication that the effects of training on productivity
workers trained led to a 14 per cent increase in total exceed those on wages This is not surprising,
sales within 3 years. Importantly, though, the benefi- because it is unlikely that employers would invest in
cial effects of training are found to depend on collat- non-profitable training As a direct consequence, only
eral investment in technology (Lynch, 1995) those are trained who are likely to be "good" learners
Table 86 shows the results of a more detailed analy- This is observed in practice, since training incidence
sis of similar kinds of data for the case of a non-OECD increases with educational attainment Selectivity
country, Chinese Taipei, where the productivity plays therefore a major part in training decisions
impact of training varies greatly by industry in which a
firm operates, and by how advanced a firm's technol-
Concluding remarks on returns to lifelong
ogy is (Aw and Tan, 1995) Similar conclusions were
learning
found to apply for Mexico (Lima, 1995) All of this is
constant with and amplifies on earlier evidence from Evidence on the returns to lifelong learning is
the United States that the more technologically confined largely to the monetary returns to formal
advanced an industry is, the more likely employees education and training, and to a variety of forms of
are to be trained, and the more likely workers are to firm-based training The evidence, as far is it goes,
enjoy higher rates of return on initial formal educa- supports the assumption of lifelong learning as an
tion (Lillard and Tan, 1992) investment that more than pays for itself However,
However, high as the productivity (and eventual the evidence provides only limited guidance as to the
wage) returns from firm-based training might be, par- likely future returns from expanded participation in
ticipation is not universal The likelihood of individu- lifelong learning There are a number of reasons for
als receiving such training depends heavily on their
this Firstly, the returns from increasing participation
in formal education and training, as well as firm-
level of initial educational attainment the more qual-
ified they are, the more likely they are to receive more based training may not be as high as past observed
training (OECD, 1994d) It also depends on the indus- returns, insofar as expanded enrolments occur among
try and occupation in which an individual is persons who have greater difficulty learning There is
evidence (Biorklund and Moffitt, 1987, Groot et al,
employed This suggests that, as in the case of formal
1994) that selection is very important in this respect,
education and training, the returns from expanded
participation in at least the firm-based component of implying that those who did not receive any training
lifelong learning may differ from those observed in would not benefit from it, or the benefits would be
the past less than the costs If training would prove to be
beneficial (from an economic or social point of view)
One complication in the consideration of returns for those who are presently not trained, government
to firm-based training is the fact that the wage and action might be needed to create incentives for
productivity returns to training are not always congru- employers Secondly, there is no evidence on the
ent For example. Table 8 7 shows that comparing monetary or non-monetary returns to lifelong learn-
returns to training according to where it occurred ing that is not firm-based or otherwise aimed at
shows that gains from training in connection with improving productivity and earnings This absence of
previous employment are less than those from train- evidence is particularly troubling since it concerns
ing provided by a current employer, or through precisely the kind of learning that could prove so
apprenticeship Another analysis finds that although crucial in ensuring that citizens are well-informed and
the wage returns from training in a previous lob had active participants in social and cultural life, even
no effect on initial wages for individuals, their initial after retirement
productivity was 9 5 per cent higher, and their train-
The implication is that these latter forms of life-
ing requirements were reduced by 17 3 per cent
long learning may be difficult to justify as invest-
(Bishop, 1994)
ments, either because the returns'are empirically dif-
Table 8 8 offers an extensive overview of studies ficult to measure, or because such forms of learning
that examine the effects of on-the-lob training on have a high value in their own right (essentially, they
wages and productivity Results overwhelmingly point can be seen as "consumption") Either case could be
to substantial positive effects on wages, typically used to lustily individuals assuming a greater share of
1230 ranging from 5 to 15 per cent, but sometimes as high the costs
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

D. WHAT ARE THE COSTS OF LIFELONG vides the necessary foundation for subsequent learn-
LEARNING? ing The second is the cost of extending and deepen-
ing those subsequent opportunities
Even if lifelong learning attracts broad political
support and yields substantial rates of return, the that follows, cost scenarios are
In the analysis
costs are important because resources are limited presented for changes within the systems of educa-
Thus, within a given resource constraint, the extent to tion and training that currently are within or closely
which governments or employers, or individuals - related to the areas of competence of Education Min-
can expand opportunities for lifelong learning isters early childhood education, secondary educa-
depends on how much it costs to provide an addi- tion, tertiary education The next sub-section exam-
tional "unit", whether it is one more place in a pre- ines the main components of these costs, and
school programme for young children, an additional considers evidence on where cost reductions might
place in university, or an opening in adult basic edu- be achieved, through improved efficiency or by recon-
cation classes figuring various inputs A third sub-section surveys in
a more cursory manner cost scenarios related to
Marginal costs (rather than rates of return) are
extending opportunities for lifelong learning beyond
even more important as a determinant of the oppor-
the system of initial formal education and training
tunity to participate in lifelong learning insofar as
This last sub-section is the least detailed owing to the
such learning yields non-monetary returns Yet costs
lack of appropriate data
are not easy to measure reliably Unit costs for class-
room instruction are "lumpy" in the sense that the
extra cost of adding one more student to a half-empty The cost of the foundations for lifelong learning
class is far less than the extra cost of adding an
additional teacher and classroom Comparisons of The discussion below reviews estimates of the
unit costs across countries are complicated by the cost of providing an adequate foundation for lifelong
fact that national data include varying levels of learning, within the framework of formal education
administrative (non-teaching) costs More fundamen- and training systems These costs are presented in
tally, measured current unit costs may not be reliable terms of their impact on overall education and train-
indicators of future unit costs, insofar as costs might ing expenditure The analysis then examines the main
be reduced, on the one hand, through the elimination components of costs, and considers how cost scena-
of inefficiencies On the other hand, some compo- rios might vary in response to different policies and
nents of unit costs for reaching at-risk children and programmes and other actions by public authorities
youth might be pushed higher because of the addi- What constitutes an "adequate foundation" for
tion of guidance and support services, for example, lifelong learning is dependent on country-specific tra-
whereas other components of unit costs may be ditions, such as the patterns of educational attain-
reduced through the reconfiguration of various teach- ment reviewed in Chapter I, and the extent of
ing and learning inputs (e g the mix of fully qualified arrangements for adult education and continuing
instructional staff and assistants, or the use of teach- vocational training, mentioned in Chapter 4 But, as
ing and learning technology) The OECD Jobs Study (OECD, I994d) and the preced-
The use of unit costs as the building block for ing chapters suggest, at the individual level, educa-
estimating the overall costs of lifelong learning, tional attainment corresponding to the completion of
therefore, provides only a first approximation of such upper secondary education (or its vocational
costs However, they do provide an estimate that is equivalent) seems a bare prerequisite From the point
historically based Insofar as the extension of lifelong of view of national education and training systems,
learning requires expanding elements of existing this translates into educational attainment patterns
institutional arrangements, estimates derived from characterised by relatively few early school-leavers,
unit costs are a reasonable guide to orders of magni- and substantial numbers of persons participating in
tude for future cost scenarios They also provide a academic and vocational programmes at the tertiary
baseline for the consideration of policy measures that level
could fundamentally alter unit costs With this in mind, an approximation of the first
The additional costs of pursuing policies to make element of the cost of lifelong learning is the cost of
lifelong learning a reality for all consists of two main bringing participation rates in national education sys-
components The first is the cost of changing existing tems roughly in line with this overall pattern Thus,
23 11
education and training practice to ensure that it pro- the cost of raising participation rates can be approxi-
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

mated by a function of the "unit cost" of educating reflect "good" practice, are roughly equal to the aver-
persons at different levels of education, and the age enrolment rates by single years of age achieved
"enrolment gap" the number of persons who by the two best performing countries. For pre-primary
remain to be brought up to given participation and secondary education, the target rate is set at
targets. Chart 8.2 provides estimates of the unit cost 90 per cent, whereas for tertiary education, the target
at the pre-primary, secondary and full-time tertiary has been set at 25 per cent for 18- to 21-year-olds and
levels of education. 16 per cent for 22- to 25-year-olds.

Table 8.9 estimates the number of student-years The enrolment gap is defined as the number of
by which enrolment levels must be increased in order additional persons that ought to be enrolled in order
to reach the participation targets. These target rates to raise the net enrolment rate to the target rate. It
must be met by the age cohorts that correspond to should be noted that the outcomes are sensitive to
the assumed enrolment ages for the different levels of the assumptions about enrolment ages. National def-
education. For early childhood education the initions differ. The gaps presented in Table 8.9 are
assumed enrolment ages are 3 to 6 years. The target therefore rough estimates. They indicate which coun-
is set in this way, because in some countries primary tries face large enrolment gaps if the targets are to be
education starts at 7. In certain countries the enrol- attained. They also show which countries are close to
ment gap will be zero at age 6 because primary edu- achieving the targets.
cation is mandatory from that age. Enrolment ages Table 8.9 suggests that Belgium and France have
for secondary education are assumed to be 14 to reached the target rate in early childhood education.
17 years. The target for tertiary enrolments is split up The other OECD countries all face considerable enrol-
in two age groups: 18- to 2I-year-olds and 22- to ment gaps ranging from about 4.1 per cent of the
25-year-olds. This is the case because tertiary educa- target group (the number of persons aged 3 to 6) for
tion enrolments occur at a later age in the Nordic New Zealand to about 86 per cent for Turkey. Coun-
countries. The participation targets, intended to tries that face above average enrolment gaps are

Chart 8.2. Unit costs per student by level of education, 19921' 2' 3

El Early childhood CI Secondary MI Tertiary (full-time)

16 000 16 000

14 000 14 000

12 000 12 000

10 000 10 000

8 000 8 000

nut t
6 000 6 000

4 000 4 000

2 000 2 000

0
E C -o
C
.2 0 C
C
0
C LL
o
co Sn U
C

I. Expressed in US dollars, adjusted using purchasing power parities (PPP). Rounded to nearest 100 dollars.
2. Public institutions only.
3. Data refer to public and government dependent private institutions for the Netherlands.
L232 Source: OECD (1995d), Education at a Glance OECD Indicators, Table E03, pp. 88-92.
 IJFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Australia, Finland, Switzerland and Turkey Seven power parity, and as a percentage of public education
countries have an enrolment gap of one-third of the expenditure, total public expenditure and GDP
age group Canada, Denmark. Greece, Ireland, In interpreting the cost estimates given in
Norway, Sweden and the United States Tables 8 10.8 II and 8 12, the same caution besetting
In secondary education enrolments are high for the data on enrolment gaps should be applied An
all countries except Turkey Enrolment gaps range additional reservation has to be made because of the
from about Ito 10 per cent of the target group to be assumption about the cost structure What is clear,
enrolled The enrolment gaps for Australia and the however, is that the costliest element of improving
the foundation of lifelong learning is likely to be
United Kingdom are relatively high because the calcu-
lations are based only on full-time equivalents, expanding the provision of early childhood education
Cost increases are in general more than twice as high
whereas part-time enrolments are high in these coun-
than the cost of raising secondary education enrol-
tries However, no distinction is made between lower
ments The costs of increased enrolments in tertiary
and upper secondary education
education are less clear-cut, largely due to the
As regards tertiary education for 18- to 21-year- problems in calculating the enrolment gaps, but
olds, the United States and Belgium reach the target would be in the region of I per cent of the public
enrolment rate of 25 per cent As with secondary edu- education budget The countries with zero enrolment
cation, there is little variation between countries gaps and therefore zero costs are on the lower end of
Except for Denmark, Sweden, Austria, Switzerland, the cost spectrum For most countries the cost of
Norway and to a lesser extent the United Kingdom, living up to the three targets raising enrolments to
the countries face enrolment gaps up to IS per cent 90 per cent in pre-primary and secondary and to
of the target population However, in the Nordic 25 per cent in full-time tertiary education for 18- to
countries and Switzerland enrolments in tertiary edu- 21- year -olds and 16 per cent for 22- to 25-year-olds
cation tend to be high in the age range above 21 will, according to the crude methodology used here,
Some countries have a significant share of part-time range from 0 I to 5 per cent of GDP
1

enrolment which, if counted, would reduce the enrol- More generally, without trying to produce exact
ment gaps considerably The main examples are numbers, providing OECD societies with a firm base
Australia. the United States (already a zero gap at for lifelong learning will require increases in educa-
full-time enrolments, but there is considerable part- tion resources Although some countries are closer to
time enrolment in the system as well) and New the goal than others, the costs involved could still be
Zealand In calculating the gap, upper secondary considerable, and more importantly, be politically
enrolment is not taken into account in order to get infeasible It is therefore necessary to carefully design
comparable results Among the 22- to 25-year-olds policies so as not only to provide participants with
the enrolment target of 16 per cent is reached by adequate incentives to invest in their own learning
Denmark and Finland For the remaining countries but also allocate the costs to those who benefit most
enrolment gaps range from less than 1 per cent in There is a growing need for lowering foundation
Austria and Norway to 10 per cent or more in costs, pursuing accountability and putting financial
Australia, Greece, Ireland, the United Kingdom and arrangements into place that are cost-effective, equi-
Turkey table and do not preclude lifelong learning
When calculating the cost of raising enrolments,
the assumption is made that cost only have a variable Lowering foundation costs
component When assessing the cost it is clear that The decision of whether the foundation costs for
economies of scale could keep costs relatively low. lifelong learning are "affordable" is essentially a
whereas the fact that providing additional infrastruc- political one It depends on the overall fiscal stance
ture could require large starting investments which of public authorities, the room for manoeuvre in real-
could weigh heavily on government budgets These locating expenditure between different levels of edu-
dimensions are not accounted for, as information on cation, as well as the priority attached to lifelong
the cost of education is sparse and mixed, and learning relative to other areas of public expenditure
accounting practices differ The cost of filling the Whatever the political position may be on what con-
enrolment gaps is therefore assumed to be equal to stitutes an "appropriate" level of expenditure, how-
the gap multiplied by the unit cost The costs are ever, there are recurring technical questions These
expressed in US dollars, adjusted for purchasing concern what comprises such costs and how they 2331
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

might be lowered in order for public authorities to countries for which data are available, the non-teach-
achieve greater impacts, given fixed resources, or to ing share of recurrent expenditure in tertiary educa-
improve efficiency to offset the loss of resources') tion exceeds that share at the primary and secondary
What are the main components of education levels At least part of the difference in overhead may
costs today' Although the relative importance of dif- be a statistical artefact, related to differences in the
ferent cost components varies considerably across administration of community-based schools (in which
countries (see Table 8 13), it is fair to say that educa- certain maintenance costs might be shared), as com-
tion expenditures are dominated by the "labour- pared to more self-contained and self-managed uni-
intensive" nature of the typical schooling model versity institutions. But some of the cost differences
Recurrent expenditures typically comprise nine- must reflect genuine variation in the provision of edu-
tenths of total expenditures, nearly two-thirds of cational services and the management of institutions,
recurrent expenditures are taken by compensation of these differences may, for example, relate to the
education staff Capital expenditures take up less shares of research and administrative personnel
than 10 per cent in most countries (OECD, 1995d) A third factor in explaining the larger unit costs
However, detailed comparisons of expenditure found in tertiary education is the relatively larger
composition across countries are hindered by varia- share of expenditures devoted to capital costs This is
tions in definitions and the allocation of costs For in part a function of high-cost special-use tertiary
example, high salary costs for personnel other than education teaching and research facilities combined
teachers in the United States reflect not only the use with high capital outlays for student residential hous-
of teacher assistants and other support personnel, ing But the two are pushed along by the increases in
including health, social services, and counselling, but capital expenditure that have been undertaken to
also the high costs associated with student transpor- increase physical capacity in response to the dramatic
tation provided by schools in rural and suburban growth in enrolments at the tertiary level (see Chap-
areas In other countries, such costs may not be ter 4)
incurred or they may appear in other parts of the Differences in unit costs can be explained by
public budget Capital expenditure tend to be even examining how they vary across countries This will
more difficult to compare Some countries fund it as show whether there are country-specific institutional
current expenditure (leading to high levels during arrangements or circumstances that contribute to
construction, and negligible levels at other times). particularly high or low unit costs Besides certain
other countries take account of repayment schedules exceptions discussed below, there tends to be rela-
for borrowed funds Accordingly international cost tively little variation across countries in the unit costs
data are only crude indicators of cost With this at the pre-school and tertiary education levels In
caveat in mind, the discussion below considers fac- most countries. the unit costs for the former are
tors that might have an effect on costs by examining around US$ 3 000, and double that for the latter The
differences in the structure of costs at different levels exceptions tend to reinforce the point For example,
of education and across countries while Denmark stands out with one of the highest
The first point to consider concerns the factors unit costs for early childhood education, it is also
that might explain the differences in unit costs that characterised by having the smallest ratio of pupils to
are observed at different levels of formal education teaching staff at that level (OECD, 1995d) The oppo-
and training Unit costs in tertiary education exceed site pattern exists in the United Kingdom, with the
those in early childhood and secondary education lowest unit costs and the highest pupil teacher ratio
often by margins of 100 per cent or more in all At the level of tertiary education, among the five
countries for which data are available, except Austria countries that stand out with exceptionally high unit
Annex Table A 62 and Chart 8 2 have shown that unit costs, those in japan and the United States are less
costs in secondary education exceed those in early constrained because they are financed to a much
childhood education in three-quarters of the coun- greater extent than anywhere else by private sources
tries The larger unit costs found in tertiary education Those in Switzerland and the United Kingdom are
appear to derive from at least three factors One is the systems that include heavily resourced cores that
relatively high salary cost of education personnel in have been made affordable by comparatively low
tertiary-level institutions A second is the relatively enrolments. Canada stands alone as a country with
high ratio of non-teaching/teaching personnel that is one of the highest unit costs in tertiary education, the
1234 supported by such institutions In two-thirds of the highest participation rate at that level, and a system
 IJFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

that is nearly completely state-supported As a conse- tries is earning the maximum salary, historical unit
quence, Canada has, by a wide margin, the highest costs may be significantly higher than the actual cost
share of GDP taken up by direct public expenditure of accommodating expanded enrolments
for education institutions (OECD, 1995d, p 75) Another factor that may reduce teachers' costs in
The patterns of cross-country consistency in unit some countries is the expected decline in school age
costs break down at the level of secondary education, populations (see Chart 14 in Chapter I) In more than
suggesting that there are important variations in the half of the OECD countries, including those with
organisation and provision of education at this level some of the lowest secondary education completion
There are a number of factors that may explain these rates, declines in the number of 10-14 year-olds will
variations Class sizes and teacher qualifications tend at least partially offset the cost of increasing secon-
to be more variable across countries at that school dary education completion rates
level than at either the pre-school or tertiary educa- Finally, it is important not to overlook the possi-
tion level There are also important differences bility that some substitution of "technology for teach-
among countries in the mix of vocational and general ers" might occur (see Chapters 3 and 7) The bulk of
studies, the year at which vocational studies begin, as experience in this respect has been with the delivery
well as differences in post-compulsory schooling of distance learning at the tertiary level Distance
patterns education and distance learning techniques, well
How might unit costs be reduced, or cost- established in a number of countries, based on tech-
effectiveness increased' The cost scenarios presented nologies ranging from print modules and correspon-
above are intended to provide a first estimate of the dence courses, to video cassettes and television
cost implications of increasing enrolments in the ini- broadcasts, interactive video and video conferenang,
tial education system as a step towards strengthening tend to be cost-effective, especially for governments
the foundations for lifelong learning They are based Experience with distance learning has demon-
on the assumption, which may be questioned, of unit strated the feasibility not only of sharply lower unit
costs staying the same over time In fact, one obrec- costs, but, for some methods. of powerful economies
tive in setting the overall policy framework for lifelong of scale. Using such technologies, the input of teach-
learning might be how to control the generally rising ers is focused on curriculum development, on the
trend in unit costs But for that, there is a need for front end, and, to varying degrees, on student assess-
more detailed information than is currently available ment and feedback throughout the course Once
on the costs of different strategies material is developed, however, the number of stu-
In reflecting on ways to control or reduce costs, a dents that can be handled is, depending on the
certain number of observations are worth keeping in approach used. limited only by the costs of delivering
mind One is the labour-intensive character of initial courseware For more traditional methods, involving
formal education and training The largest single print material as well as approaches delivered
component of education expenditure is for teachers through video and audio cassettes, the unit cost of
Because there are limits to how much that compo- adding students (the "marginal cost") depends on the
nent can be reduced through the substitution of recurrent cost of production and distribution of mate-
lower-cost teacher assistants or technology (see rial Table 8 14 shows the results of one analysis of
Chapter 7), formal education is susceptible to a "cost the Open University in the United Kingdom, which
disease", in which unit costs depend largely on trends found that unit costs declined by more than 85 per
in teachers' salaries However, to the extent that the cent. with a ten-fold increase in students (Bates,
1995) For more flexible approaches based on radio
expansion of enrolments in foundation learning
requires a proportional expansion in the teaching and television broadcast and video conferenang, the
workforce, the cost scenarios presented above may unit costs of additional students, though higher, also
overstate costs, at least over the first few years, decline steeply with large increases in students Thus.
because of the considerable differences between unlike classroom-based methods in which unit costs
starting salaries of newly hired teachers, and the sala- are fairly constant, whether one is adding 300 or
3 000 students, unit costs for distance learning
ries of experienced teachers The average ratio of
maximum to starting salaries in OECD countries is decline sharply with larger numbers of students
2 I (OECD. 1995d, p 189), meaning that a newly hired Another analysis of a distance education centre
teacher is half as expensive as an experienced one in Australia compared costs for the off-campus (dis-
tance learning) mode of instruction, the on-campus 2351
Since three-fifths of the teaching force in OECD coun-
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

(face-to-face) mode, and a mixed mode Table 8 15 opportunities for individuals to continue formal edu-
shows that the difference in total costs between the cation and training during adulthood
off-campus and face-to-face mode is negligible How-
ever, the difference in marginal costs, the costs of
The costs of expanded lifelong learning outside
adding students (reflected in the delivery costs) are
formal systems
substantial, with the face-to-face mode being over a
third more costly (Taylor and White, 1991) Estimating the costs of ensuring access for all to
Even at the level of primary and secondary edu-
lifelong learning outside the formal education and
cation, different configurations of computer-based training systems is a formidable task It is made diffi-
teaching and learning technologies show promise of cult partly by the scarcity of time-series information
on cost development This owes to the diverse nature
lowering unit costs or limiting the increase in unit
of institutions and settings public and private prov-
costs that might otherwise occur One approach to
iders, the workplace, the home as well as to the
reducing unit costs, or at least improving cost-
conceptual difficulty of defining such costs, when
effectiveness, is by using computer-based instruc-
they may entail costs of foregone production, income,
tional technology to shift away from the traditional
or leisure time
one-teacher to one-classroom configuration In
Canada it is estimated that introducing such technol- In a more profound sense, however, estimating
ogy in primary and secondary schools would require a the costs is impossible because of the open-ended
3- to 4-fold increase in expenditure on instructional nature of the objectives of lifelong learning In con-
supplies (Stager, 1995) The offsetting benefits were trast to the case of initial education and training sys-
not estimated, though it was expected that this tech- tems, where the criteria for adequate foundations can
nology would reduce learning time and allow more be specified, the objectives elsewhere are indetermi-
flexible use of facilities Moreover, although the initial nate There are two sources of this indeterminate
costs would be substantial, unit costs could be nature One is the uncertainty around the additional
"much less than for traditional methods", because of number of persons needing access to "learning
the possibility of reaching large numbers of students beyond initial education" The second is uncertainty
about the "volume" of lifelong learning that is
How realistic are participation rate targets'? needed to achieve certain outcomes, because desired
Another factor to take into account in evaluating the outcomes themselves are so elastic In the "real
costs of improving the foundations for lifelong learn- world", the "optimum" level of lifelong learning will
ing is to reconsider the target participation rates for be variable, depending both on costs and on the
various levels of educational attainment, used for the usefulness of it for purposes of investment (generat-
calculations in Tables 89 through 8 12 Those targets ing economic returns) and consumption (generating
are based on "best practice" among OECD countries personal satisfaction and other returns in line with
But it should be remembered that insofar as Member individuals' preferences)
countries are heterogeneous in their structure and
However, it is a fact that a certain amount of
circumstances, the notion of a best practice bench-
lifelong learning occurs, that there are certain costs
mark may be of only limited usefulness Thus, not
that are incurred and observed, and that there are
only would it be expensive for the United Kingdom or identifiable population sub-groups who are likely
Switzerland to increase the number of university grad- targets of subsidised opportunities for lifelong learn-
uates to the level found in the United States, but it ing It is useful, therefore, to martial the available
might also pose a shock to their labour markets to evidence and to establish, within the constraints of
have such an increased supply of highly-qualified lob- explicit assumptions, a baseline of cost estimates.
seekers and then to consider the implications of changes in
Rather, the participation rate targets are better the breadth and depth of opportunities for lifelong
seen as a first option for a change in policy Such learning
options need to be considered not only in the light of As a first step in approximating the costs of
their costs, but in the light of alternative approaches extending lifelong learning opportunities beyond the
for achieving similar ends Thus, it might be possible initial phases outlined above, Table 8 16 provides an
to set lower targets for the completion of upper sec- estimate of the number of persons who might be
ondary education, if a smoothly functioning appren- priority targets for new lifelong learning opportuni-
1236 ticeship system is put in place, or if there are ample ties, measured in terms The table provides a break-
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

down of the number of working-age persons who have tainty, since transparent unit cost data are even more
at most obtained a lower secondary education or difficult to come by here than in the area of formal
equivalent education One crude estimate for selected countries
is presented in Table 818 These estimates are
If lifelong learning should be accessible for all
based on "per-participant" costs, rather than
persons, the estimates in Table 8 16 understate the
"training-years", for example The result is that they
number of persons that might be covered in one way
over- or under-estimate costs if the actual duration of
or another by lifelong learning arrangements How-
training were to be shorter or longer than the average
ever, lifelong learning is already a reality to some
in the year reported These estimates are also dis-
degree, for many persons Surveys in a number of
torted for the reasons discussed previously, in con-
countries in the early 1990s found that between a
nection with the costs of formal initial education and
quarter and a half of adults had participated in lob-
training
related training in the preceding year (OECD, 1995k)
The total number having access to lust job-related Two stylised cost scenarios are presented. on the
training on a regular basis (perhaps less than every basis of different assumptions, in Tables 8 19 and
year). is therefore somewhat above those figures 8 20 Crude as these estimates are, they suggest that
However, whereas a significant number of persons the scale of the problems posed by large numbers of
participate already, their likelihood of doing so is adults in need of lifelong learning, is likely to dwarf
conditioned to some extent on their level of initial that found at the levels of pre-primary, secondary and
qualifications In this respect, persons with a lower tertiary education
secondary education or less are systematically less
In making even stylised estimates of costs at the
likely to participate Thus, the figures presented in
Table 8 16 provide what is probably a credible lower
different levels at which lifelong learning occurs.
boundary for the focus of eventual policy action in "indirect costs" loom large in importance with
respect to learning that occurs above the foundation
this area
level These costs are over and above the costs to
A recent survey of adult literacy and numeracy government, for example, in providing classrooms.
levels in the populations of seven OECD countries teachers and administrative support They include the
(OECD and Statistics Canada, 1995) demonstrated "opportunity costs" of earnings that are foregone
that over 20 per cent of adults in some of the world's when an individual stops work to participate in train-
richest countries have literacy and numeracy skills at ing For employers, such opportunity costs include
only the most basic levels Chart 8 3 shows the per- the value of the goods and services that are foregone
centage of adults who perform at each literacy and when workers are trained Regardless of the direct
numeracy level on the 5-point scale in the countries costs to government of such lifelong learning. the
surveyed (countries are ranked by the percentage of opportunity costs to individuals and employers
adults scoring at Level I. in ascending order) The impose an additional cost on government in the form
pattern of distribution is not consistent in various of tax revenues that are lost because of the foregone
countries or in the different domains The countries earnings and output Estimating these costs is diffi-
with the highest percentage of people scoring at the cult at any level above that of the individual in the
basic level (Level I) do not necessarily have the low- workplace Aggregation depends very much on partic-
est percentage performing at the top end (Level 4/5) ular working conditions such as the availability of
Some countries perform considerably differently on -
training leave and work organisation to what extent
both scales do colleagues and supervisors participate in the train-
Table 8 17 estimates the universe of need for a ing and learning process?
limited number of countries on the basis of demon- Given the bias in the accessibility of lifelong
strated performance on the literacy test, which was
learning away from the least qualified, it can be
administered in 1994 (OECD and Statistics Canada,
assumed that the indirect costs of extending lifelong
1995), rather than nominal educational attainment
learning would be less than the costs that are already
levels This method yields estimates that range from
incurred for those who presently receive it Two prin-
being only slightly greater in Sweden. to more than
cipal reasons are the higher likelihood of unemploy-
5 times larger in the United States
ment and lower average earnings among the least
Estimating costs from these crude estimates of qualified - the ones most in need of expanded oppor-
the "universe of need" adds one more level of uncer- tunities for lifelong learning 237j
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Chart 8.3. Comparative distribution of adult literacy' and

numeracy2skills, 1994

Proportion of population aged 16-65 scoring at the lowest two literacy levels,3 prose scale

100
Mi Level I El Level 2 0 Level 3 El Level 4/5
100

80 80
77.1

60 60
55.0
51.3
48.6
46.6
40.6 42.2
40 40

27.8

20 20

0 0
Sweden Netherlands Germany Canada Switzerland Switzerland United States Poland
(French) German)

Proportion of population 3
aged 16-65 scoring at the lowest two numeracy levels, quantitative scale

100
Level I El Level 2 El Level 3 0 Level 45
100

80 80

69.2

60 60

46.3
43.0
40 40.4 40
35.8 37.4
33.3

20 _ 25.2

20

0
Sweden Germany Netherlands Switzerland Switzerland Canada United States Poland
(French) (German)

I. Literacy (prose scale) is defined as the knowledge and skills needed to understand and use information derived from texts, such as editorials, news stories, poems and
fiction.
2. Numeracy (quantitative scale) is defined as the knowledge and skills required to apply arithmetic operations, either alone or sequentially, to numbers embedded in
printed materials, such as balancing a chequebook. figuring ou a tip, completing an order form or determining the amount of interest on a loan from an advertisement
3. Within the literacy domains a scale from 0 to 500 was constructed, upon which tasks of varying difficulty were placed.A person's literacy ability in each domain can be
expressed by a score, defined as the point at which he or she has an 80 per cent chance of successfully performing a given task. People are grouped into five levels of
literacy, corresponding to the following ranges for scores achieved: level I, 0 to 225; level 2, 226 to 275; level 3.276 to 325, level 4/5,326 to [Link] measurement
system is described in more detail in OECD and Statistics Canada (1995).
Source: OECD and Statistics Canada (1995).
1238
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR All

Concluding comments on costs are possible Secondly, historic cost patterns

fail to reflect the cost structures of innovations
This section has provided a first approximation
in teaching and learning
of the costs of making lifelong learning a reality for
all This analysis complements the preceding section Externalities are widespread There is broad
on rates of return by providing separate detail on acceptance of public support for elementary
costs, and a basis for exploring alternative strategies and secondary education because of the social
by which they might be reduced The main focus has gains from foundation learning This has been
been on the costs of changes in the foundations of the principle underlying public finance of uni-
lifelong learning This focus is due partly to the fact versal compulsory education in the OECD
that public cost data, for all their shortcomings, are countries as society benefits from having an
more comparable across countries than data from educated population, society should pay
other sectors in which lifelong learning opportunities However, this consensus breaks down at the
exist But the focus also reflects the fact that regard- tertiary level In the case of tertiary education,
less of the role which non-public providers might high levels of public subsidy often lead to
eventually play in providing lifelong learning, the large private earnings gains for individuals
public role will be central in providing the founda- The fact that the productivity gains from
tions for lifelong learning, and as a main actor in employer-sponsored training are not neces-
creating the opportunities for the post-foundation sarily captured in the wages of individuals sug-
forms of lifelong learning gests that there are "externalities" that arise
from such training (see Chapter 4) Another
E. WHAT IS NEEDED TO ENSURE SUFFICIENT point to note is that some employers benefit
RESOURCES FOR LIFELONG LEARNING? from the training provided to workers by their
previous employers
Even if lifelong learning is iudged to be "worth-
There is lag between when costs are paid and
while" insofar as it leads to monetary and non-
monetary returns that more than offset its costs, its when benefits are realised Although some
affordability hinges on limiting the size of the invest- lifelong learning is undertaken for its own
ment required by keeping costs under control, and on sake, as a form of leisure or to serve other than
financing it in such a way as to ensure that there is work-related purposes, much of it is a form of
reasonable symmetry between the benefits enjoyed investment It is undertaken at a particular
by each actor, and the respective share that each time (when most or all of the costs are paid),
pays and the benefits are reaped later This creates
difficulties where capital markets or other
In this regard, there are a number of points that
institutional arrangements, such as public
can be noted about past and current patterns of pro-
budgeting practices, do not allow the compari-
vision and participation in lifelong learning
son of costs and benefits across time periods
Historic costs are of limited use as indicators It has the effect of squeezing out lifelong
of future costs The costs of making lifelong learning activities that do not produce benefits
learning a reality for all are a function of quickly and, by implication, rationing lifelong
extending the education foundation to a larger learning opportunities to those individuals
number of persons than are served in most who are likely to demonstrate the desired ben-
countries, and expanding opportunities efits most quickly, or who are capable of finan-
beyond the foundation, throughout the indi- cing the costs on their own
viduals' lives Past cost patterns provide the
basis for first approximations of the cost of In this context, the key to progress in making
expanded provision But they are limited, lifelong learning affordable, is to ensure that there
firstly, by the fact that they measure average exist the framework conditions that i) encourage
rather than marginal costs Thus they may innovation in the provision of learning opportunities
understate "true- future costs if it proves more so as to keep costs under control, rt) overcome the
expensive to satisfy the learning needs of problems arising from the presence of externalities,
those who are presently underserved, con- and the delay between when the costs of lifelong
versely. they may understate future costs to learning are incurred, and when the benefits are
2391
the extent that significant economies of scale realised
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

tiary education. But a countervailing argument is that, Quebec Province of Canada. Of the courses with brief
regardless of marginal tax rates on earnings gains, duration, between 45 and 66 per cent were employer-
high levels of public support for tertiary education are supported. Of the high-duration, learning activities,
hard to justify on the grounds that, in contrast to 0 (Quebec) to 23 (Poland) per cent were employer-
elementary or secondary education, participation is supported.
far from universal. Thus, public support leads to a net Table 8.21 shows the course duration by type of
transfer from the less educated and less well-off, to support. Consistent with the data in Annex
the better-educated and higher-paid individuals. Table A.63, employers sponsor mainly brief courses;
The finance of lifelong learning opportunities 66 to 86 per cent of the courses are in this category.
beyond formal, initial education is more ambiguous. Non-employer-supported learning activities are dis-
"Active labour market policies" as they are practised tributed more evenly in terms of duration, even
in OECD countries, are based on high levels of State though, the bulk of them are short-term. Of the non-
support for training aimed at compensating for defi- employer supported training courses, 23 to 45 per
ciencies in the basic skills of the unemployed (OECD, cent are long-term, compared to 0 to 15 per cent of
1992g). Training undertaken by enterprises, or in con- employer-supported learning activities.
nection with employment, is generally financed by It is more difficult to evaluate financing burdens
employers and, sometimes, employees. Only in for lifelong learning that are not linked to work or do
exceptional circumstances, such as risk of redun- not have clear consequences for employment per-
dancy, is public support available for enterprise- formance. This can include learning undertaken by
based training. Chart 8.4 shows the share of individuals for the purposes of cultural enrichment or
employer-supported adult education, by length of the self-development. The Nordic traditions of the Folk
activity. Between 30 and 51 per cent of the learning High School or Study Circles, though relatively cheap,
activities were employer-supported, the highest fre- involve some degree of State support. But that finan-
quency being in the United States and the lowest in cing burden is offset to an extent by direct contribu-

Chart 8.4. Percentage of adult education and training courses that are employer-supported, 19941'2
By duration of training

Low El Medium High Total

70 70

60

50

40

30

20

10

Fs
O C

ea

I. Based on the first reported course being taken in the six months preceding the interview.
2. Low:0-59 hours. Medium: 60-300 hours. High: > 300 hours.
Source: OECD and Statistics Canada (1995). 24
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

and the preference for current consumption How- elaborate and consistent plan is apparently the
ever, even if lifelong learning is treated more as model proposed by Levin (1983 and 1995) Among the
investment, because of externalities and institutional unique features of this model are its comprehensive-
rigidities in capital markets, the lag between the tim- ness it addresses the finance of upper secondary and
ing of costs and benefits of lifelong learning may tertiary education as well as the markets for adult
inhibit provision Measures such as changes in finan- education and training, and it influences both the
cial accounting and reporting practices may overcome supply and demand side of learning The most diffi-
some of these problems at the level of the enterprise, cult aspect of the proposed voucher scheme is to
where cost can be spread over time through deprecia- achieve a good balance between the grants and loans
tion But the problems that individuals face in finan- parts of the entitlement There is a case for increasing
cing their lifelong learning opportunities may require the loans part if the demands for learning increase
a greater government role, either in setting the "rules and enrolments rise The reasoning behind this is
of the game" governing financing practices by actors that high enrolment levels indicate high expected
in capital markets, or by acting as lenders These rates of return, hence the students should bear a
might be addressed by various approaches to finan- larger share of the total costs
cing lifelong learning, reviewed in the next sub-
A variant of the entitlements model called the
section
franchise model has been proposed by Van Ravens
(1994) It is aimed at stimulating non-formal learning
Models for financing lifelong learning at the expense of prolonged initial education In this
Several basic models for the financing of lifelong arrangement each individual with the proper qualifi-
learning and its elements have been proposed in the cations receives a lump sum that can be used to
literature (lohnes, 1993, Levin, 1983, Timmermann, cover the costs of educational services and, if neces-
1994 and 1995. Oosterbeek, 1995) t) individual draw- sary, costs of living The subsidy is made up of differ-
ing rights, ii) individual entitlements or vouchers, ent equally-sized layers The individual can spend the
in) auctions, iv) single-employer financing, v) self- subsidy, but the allowed coverage of the costs
financing and particularly the "income-contingent decreases with each subsequent layer In the case of
loans" variant, and vi) parafiscal funds five layers, the first layer may cover all costs The
second layer may cover 90 per cent of the costs, so
The drawing rights model is based on a general
that the remaining 10 per cent must be covered by
income-transfer insurance system which aims at regu-
other (private) sources Coverage subsequently
lating, allocating and financing an individual's work,
decreases to 75, 50 and finally to 25 per cent. in the
education and leisure, including retirement (Rehn,
latter case the individual has to pay for three-quarters
1983) The model was part of the blue-print for recur-
of the total cost In Van Ravens' view this arrange-
rent education proposed by the OECD in the 1970s
ment will stimulate the combination of learning while
(OECD. 1973, SchUtze and (stance, 1987) The model
working One advantage of this model is that it can be
has a number of possible advantages, for example in
implemented gradually by starting with the final layer
terms of flexibility, scope for individual choice, incen-
and then (if desirable) expanding the system to the
tive effects, and the comprehensiveness of the
remaining layers
approach envisaged The main reasons why it failed
to catch on in practice are believed to be its inability Auction plans for educational services are based
to address the problem of price distortions at particu- on the idea that institutions supplying education and
larly the tertiary level of education, its continued reli- training, for example universities. make bids to the
ance on an extensive role for governments in legisla- government in order to attract and enrol students
tion and finance, and the difficulty of overcoming the The institutions can bid at a given price, or they can
co-ordination problems posed by the separation of make their own bids, or they can bid a combination of
government into different Ministries and price, quantity and quality. In the United Kingdom,
departments universities are invited to bid for funded students at
prices at or below predetermined guide levels
The basic idea behind educational entitlements
is that instead of providing the suppliers of education Single-employer financing of post-secondary
and training with a subsidy, the government allocates education and training has both advantages and dis-
vouchers or individual entitlements to students or, in advantages Although such an approach might tap
the case of foundation learning, to their parents additional resources, it hinges on the willingness of
Applied to post-compulsory education, the most employers to put up the resources needed, with the 2431
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

participation of concerned workers Because this education, both of a general and a vocational nature
approach risks limiting the post-secondary system to Maier problems are connected to the choice of a
specific vocational training, and to certain categories basis for calculating the levy A value-added approach
of personnel, under-investment and market failures might be the least discriminating among different
are the likely result employers, but raises the question whether small-
and medium-sized firms should be exempted Apart
Self-financing approaches require individuals to
from problems of administration and questions con-
pay for the their post-compulsory education and
cerning the allocation of the funds should specific
training using their own resources, whether these
programmes be financed, or individual learners, or
may be household savings, current income or loans
would the lump-sum financing of institutions be a
which have to be repaid out of future revenue Self-
better solution) - this approach has the important
financing models depend on mechanisms that raise
drawback that it might not encourage the demand for
revenues, for example tuition fees Many OECD coun-
learning, especially among disadvantaged groups, the
tries are experimenting with different approaches to
unemployed and those not in the labour force
levying tuition fees in tertiary education Common to
Another shortcoming is that parafiscal funds would
these approaches is that the fee falls short of the full
not address the finance of secondary and tertiary
cost of the study programme, so that public subsidies
education
remain in place Williams (1990) identifies five differ-
ent possibilities for using tuition fees in tertiary edu- The continuing segmentation of education and
cation Tuition fees and other self-financing training sub-systems is reflected in the ways educa-
approaches are attractive because they raise new rev- tion and training systems are currently financed
enue and because they play on incentives and moti- Debates refer either to the problems of financing
vation to learn But such approaches also have major schools, or financing vocational training, or financing
drawbacks Firstly, there is the difficulty and cost of tertiary education A coherent strategy for lifelong
administrating the system Secondly, they assume learning supposes that a rational financing mode be
- quite falsely so that well-functioning education devised that addresses all of these sub-systems The
and capital markets exist, that educational services foundations, tertiary education and adult learning
are competitively priced, and that people are willing cannot be considered as entirely separate entities
to pay for them Thirdly, self-financing models tend to Given the complexity of the systems and the level of
focus on the supply and demand for formal education resources that is required in order to pay for lifelong
in tertiary institutions, they leave open the question learning, there can be no doubt that the solution is to
of how to pay for adult learning in other settings rely on "mixed" models of finance that combine cer-
Price distortions are particularly pronounced in terti- tain features of all six models described above It
ary education, and they tend to be aggravated by loan seems also clear that governments should take the
provisions Finally, there is a strong disincentive lead in devising an appropriate strategy that incorpo-
effect on the demand for further learning by poor rates the concerns and needs of employers, institu-
youths and other disadvantaged groups Equality of tions and individual learners
opportunity is thus adversely affected, and under-
Table 8 22 gives a comprehensive summary of
investment might result To counter these problems
the different financing schemes in terms of two crite-
many OECD countries operate a mixed "loan-grant
ria, efficiency and equity The financial arrangement
model", so that the participation of certain target
that is best suited to support lifelong learning.
groups can be encouraged through public subsidies
according to these criteria, is a combination of indi-
While problems of equity might thus be addressed, at
vidual entitlements and substantial income-contin-
least to some extent, the other drawbacks continue to
gent loans (ICLs) The attractiveness lies both in the
work against a coherent strategy of encouraging life-
possibility of including non-formal learning opportu-
long learning by all and in diverse settings
nities and securing equity Government funding of
The parahscal funds model requires private and institutions may resolve equity issues, but it creates
public employers to pay a levy based, for example, on inefficiencies in both the labour and education mar-
the payroll, on labour turnover, capital value or on ket At the same time it is mainly focused on initial
profits, into training funds administered jointly by education As is clear from Table 8 22, different oblec-
government and autonomous foundations The funds tives require different solutions Education systems
can be used to cover the costs of post-initial voca- differ, as do policy objectives Education Ministers
[244 tronal education and training as well as continuing are most likely to look for an arrangement that is
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

tailored to their constituency and specific interests cate where high social rates of return justify a sub-
However, a commitment to lifelong learning implies a stantial public role in financing, and where high
commitment to institutional reform Financial private rates of return justify a greater private role
arrangements are crucial in this respect, both from a
distributional point of view and in terms of providing
Improving estimates of unit costs
the players (students, parents, employers, govern-
in the expansion of lifelong learning
ments) with the proper incentives
There are important gaps in knowledge on the
direct and indirect costs of various teaching and
F. FINANCING LIFELONG LEARNING:
learning approaches Presently available cost data are
POLICY CONCLUSIONS
highly aggregated, and provide little basis for esti-
There is evidence that various forms of education mating marginal costs in general, and for particular
and training yield economic returns that more than population sub-groups New work that evaluates the
offset their initial costs This evidence is most com- relative effectiveness of different curricula and learn-
prehensive in its coverage of formal education and ing settings, for example, should also evaluate vari-
training, although some covers non-formal, ous aspects of costs
enterprise-based training as well The evidence is
thinnest with respect to the rates of return on educa-
tion and training for persons who are most at risk". Adopting a proactive approach to controlling
costs of lifelong learning
and who are targets for high priority attention How-
ever, these are precisely the persons for whom the Aside from evaluating current costs more accu-
social benefits of lifelong learning may be substantial rately, there is a need to more aggressively control
and, conversely, for whom the social costs of not the cost trajectory of lifelong learning by finding ways
participating in lifelong learning may be steepest of reducing costs One way is to make sure that any
Substantial returns notwithstanding, the analysis of cost-effectiveness of existing programmes
affordability of lifelong learning is constrained by its and approaches also examines evidence on how costs
high upfront costs, the presence of externalities that might be reduced, or how cost-effectiveness of differ-
contribute to asymmetry between who pays and who ent interventions might be improved, for example
benefits, and the fact that there is considerable time through better targeting of services or changes in gov-
lag between the moment when the costs of various ernance arrangements A more general approach is to
phases of lifelong learning are incurred, and the investigate the functioning of markets for lifelong
moment when the benefits are realised The fact that learning and to determine how they might be made to
investment in lifelong learning incurs immediate operate more smoothly
costs in return for benefits that accrue over time
means that individuals, in particular, as well as gov- Improving estimates of the universe of need
ernments and employers may under-invest Measures
that reduce externalities may help resolve this prob- Estimating the costs of lifelong learning also
lem insofar as they reduce the risks inherent in such depends on assumptions about the numbers of per-
investments But additional work is needed to evalu- sons involved Early school-leaving rates or the inci-
ate the feasibility of other financing measures that dence of literacy deficits in the adult population may
may make it possible to effectively spread financing provide crude benchmarks by which to estimate num-
burdens over the life-cycle bers of persons whose needs should be addressed, as
part of a comprehensive strategy for lifelong learning
But such first-order approximations need to be linked
Evaluating rates of return to lifelong learning to more detailed methods for evaluating such factors
There is a need for better evidence on the cost- as labour market experience, and personal develop-
effectiveness of different modes of lifelong learning, ment plans
and for more particular sub-groups in the population
than is presently available There is also a clear need
Addressing externalities
to better estimate the full range of pecuniary and
non-pecuniary costs and benefits Such work is Aside from controlling costs, another key to
needed to evaluate where resources are likely to pro- improving the finance of lifelong learning is to ensure
2451
duce the most important benefits, but also to indi- that there are suitable incentives for the various
IJFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

actors to undertake the necessary investments Strat- qualifications acquired in lifelong learning in
egies in this area should address three main factors such a manner as to reflect the timing of costs
improving the transparency of learning out- and benefits,
comes so that individuals and employers know evaluating the feasibility and effectiveness of
what they are gaining from lifelong learning, training inducements such as levies and tax
better protecting the lifelong learning invest- credit, as mechanisms for encouraging the effi-
ment by ensuring that markets capital mar- cient allocation of resources to lifelong
kets included treat the costs and value of learning

1246
 Table 8 I Social rates of return to levels of education In selected OECD countries, by gender and 1SCED level, 1992
(percentage)

Men Women

Lower Upper Tertiary Tertiary Lower Upper Tertiary Tertiary

secondary secondary education education secondary secondary education, education
education education short duration long duration education education short duration long duration

Belgium' 3 5 15 7 7 5 26 57 129
Denmark I I 4 38 109 II 2 36 82
Finland 7 b 12 8 15 1 59 136 144
France 5 9 17 6 15 9 92 18 119
Germany 11 3 16 5 13 9 71 67 93
Netherlands' 88 11 2 69 99 95 154 17 76
Spain2 11 2 104 10 8 135 98 129
Sweden 69 82 118 6 74 10
Switzerland 13 2 12 8 7 5 18 86 49
United States 108 19 10 5 12 9 51 186 125 122

Note Data not available

I 1989 data
2 1991 data
Source Alsalam and Conley 119951 p
 Table 8 2 Private return to schooling In United States and United Kingdom, based on Mincer-type wage equations
United States
Author(s)/date Sample/year Rates of return Percentage Notes

Angrist and Krueger 1980 Census (men) Cohort born during Employ ordinary least squares (OLS) and
(1991)
1940-49 (all) 60 to 71 two-stage least squares (TSLS).
1930.39 (all) 63 to 93
1930-39 (black) 40 to 67
Ashenfelter and Sample of 495 twins. 84 to 179 Use a variety of techniques, including OLS.
Krueger (1994) surveyed in 1991 generalized least squares (GLS), and
instrumental variables (IV)
Card and Krueger 1980 Census Cohort born during Average rates of return Returns vary by State due partly to
( 1992a) 1920-29 differences
5 07
1930 -39 6 27 in the quality of education Returns are
1940-49 7 44 higher
for younger workers
Card and Krueger Census data for 1960. 1970, Year Black white Black/White differences due in large part
(19926) and 1980 to differences in the quality of education
1960 3 04 6 04
1970 3 91 6 58
1980 4 33 5 80

Cohn and Khan 1985 wave of the Michigan Required schooling 7 7-9 8 Employ definitions of required, over- and
(1995) Panel Study Income Dynamics Overschooling 4 9-5 9 underschooling suggested by - and obtain
IPSID) Underschooling -3 8--4 4 results similar to those of - Sicherman
(1991) and Verdugo & Verdugo (1989)

Hersch (1991) 414 male and female Males Females ns = not statistically significant
employees of warehouse Required school 6I 64
and manufacturing firms Overschooling 2 3 2 2 Ins)
in Eugene Oregon, 1986 Underschooling -06 (ns) -39 Ins)

Heywood (1994) 1989 Current Population Years of schooling completed Rates vary by union status Rates for
Survey (CPS) 8 83 'sheepskin years are higher than what
12 13 2 would be expected from rates for the two
16 20 3 previous years
 Table 8 2 Private return to schooling in United States and United Kingdom, based on Mincer-type wage equations front
United States

Author(s)/date Sample/year Rates of return Percentage Notes

Kroch and Sioblon (1994) 1973 (CPS) and PSID, Sample/Race-Sex group White While Black Black Malor focus of study is on 'screening'
panel data 1967-80 men women men women Includes in some equations the variable
CPS rank included 78 68 42 88 "rank" (' the individual's position in the
PSID rank included 69 78 59 64 distribution of educational attainment
PSID, rank included 94 3 9 2 8 5 I for his/her cohort") The screening
argument is relected

Low and Ormiston National Longitudinal Men Women Focus on role of risk in returns to
(1991) Survey Youth, 1981 Standard Mincerian schooling Show that the returns decline
coefficients 5 86 4 71 as the degree of risk aversion rises
Including risk
and risk aversion 064 to 5 27 0 45 to 4 35

Neumark and Korenman National Longitudinal Standard OLS Focus on biases in returns to education
(1994) Survey Youth, and fixed effects 5 1-7 caused by heterogeneity and
1982-Sisters TSLS White females 2 0-8 I endogeneity Argue that bias may not be
Black females 2 7-7 0 noticed unless both effects are
considered together

Wellington (1993) PSID, 1976 and 1985 Year/Group White White Also includes data on returns to
males females training
1976 5 2 8 1

1985 57 82
 Table 8 2 Private return to schooling in United States and United Kingdom, based on Mincer-type wage equations (cont )
United Kingdom

Author(s)/date Sample/year Rates of return Percentage Notes

Bennett et al (1993) General household Males Females Rates vary by father s education Higher
survey, 1985-88 A-Levels 6 10 returns to vocational schooling
Higher Education 7 6

Griffiths and Survey of earnings of Males Males Females Females Calculate an Alpha of 068 for males and
Saunders (1979) qualified manpower, 1967 1973 1967 1973 076 for females
1966-67, and various Internal rates of return
sources for 1973 Private 82 108 121 89
Social 53 83 110 66
Harmon and Walker Family expenditure Dummy variable coefficients in wage equation for Returns differ by manual versus non-
(19931 survey, 1978-86 School leaving age Males Females manual lobs the latter doing much better
16 11 06
Returns to voluntary schooling at age 16
are much lower for males and slightly
17 12 09
18 17 17
higher for females Also estimate an
19 20 16
equation with a cubic function of the
20 23 23
variable years of schooling beyond
21 and higher 37 29
compulsory age"

Moghadam (1990), Unknown 1978-85 Year ercent Implied rate Percent differential refers to the
cited in lohnes ifferential of return differential "between those who left full-
(1993), p 36 978 28 4 7 time education at 21 years and those
979 28 4 7 (otherwise identical) persons who left full-
980 39 65 time education at 15 years
981 22 3 7
982 46 7 7
983 92 15 3
984 65 10 9

Source Cohn and Addison (1995)

 Table 8 3 Private rate of return to schooling In the Netherlands, based on Mincer-type wage equations

Authons)/date Sample/year Rates of return Percentage Notes

Hartog and Oosterbeek Representative sample Males Females Required schooling is reported by the worker,
(1988) of labour force, 1982 Required schooling 7 6 5 2 over/underschooling is defined as the difference
Overschooling 65 37 between required and actual schooling
Underschooling 19 -40
Groot and Oosterbeek Brabant survey 1983, sample Males Females Controlled for estimated cognitive ability 1101
(1994) of persons born in the Dutch Actual years 4 3 83 Effective years are defined as the theoretical
province of North-Brabant in Effective years 65 12 3 duration of the education attained Inefficient
1940 Skipping years 89 ns years are defined as the years in excess of the
Repeating years ns ns shortest period necessary to obtain a certain
Inefficient years ns ns qualification Drop-out years are defined as the
Drop-out years 5 0 ns number of years enrolled in a certain type of
education without completion

Oosterbeek and Van Ophem Brabant survey 1983, Actual years Maximum likelihood estimates obtained in a
(1995) subsample of males 6 90 model where schooling is endogenous and the
7 83 returns
8 82 to schooling interact with estimated cognitive
9 8 I ability 110)
10 75
11-12 70
13-16 5 7
> 16 34

Oosterbeek 119921 Representative sample of 1985 4 3 OLS estimates using only years of schooling, work
males in the labour force, 1986 4 2 experience and work experience squared as
1985. 1986, 1988 1988 4 5 regressors

Hartog Oosterbeek and Representative survey of 1979 89 Weighted Least Squares estimates using data
Teulings (1994) males in the labour force, 1985 72 grouped by level of education and age
1979, 1985, 1989 1989 73

Gelderblom, 't Hoen Representative sample of Effective years 3 0 Includes also contractual hours and contractual
and De Koning (1994) labour force, 1990 hours squared

ns = not statistically significant

Source Oosterbeek 119951
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Table 8 4 Returns to labour market programmes, United States, I987-891 2

(US dollars and annual percentage increase)

Adult males Adult females

Strategy service subgroup
S impact Per cent S impact Per cent

Classroom training 378 4 I 1 214 139

(608) (566)
On-the-lob training/
lob search assistance I 214 13 9 1 064 171
(I 4181 (I 409)
Other services 20 02 148 2 4
(463) (773)

I Figures in parentheses show actual earnings impact over the full 18-month follow-up period
2 Impact of Title-IIA of the lob Training Partnership Act during the last two quarters of the I8-mon h follow-up period
Source Cohn and Addison (1995)

1252
 Table 8 5 Effectiveness of active labour market programmes

Study Data Training programme Results

United States Card and Sullivan A cohort of male participants in The Comprehensive Employment Participation in CETA increases the probability of employment in
(1988) the Comprehensive Employment and Training Act programme the three years after training by 2 to 5 percentage points
and Training Act programme (CETA) Classroom training programmes appear to have had significantly
larger effects than on-the-lob programmes although the estimated
effects of both kinds of programmes are positive CETA
participation appears to have increased both the probability of
moving into employment and the probability of continuing
employment

United States Bassi (1984) A sample of CETA participants The Comprehensive Employment Women appear to benefit substantially from manpower training
from the Continuous Longitudinal nEdTTAriaining Act programme programmes, while no significant earnings effect were found for
Manpower Survey
ry 1975-76 male participants There is evidence of non-random selection or
creaming" in training programmes

United States Ashenfelter and Adult males and females from the The Comprehensive Employment The training effects for adult males who participated in CETA in
Card (1985) 1976 Current Population Survey and Training Act programme 1976 are small at most in the order of 300 current dollars per year
(CETA) For adult females the effect is unambiguously positive and in the
order of 800 -I 500 current dollars per year

United States Lalonde (19861 Disadvantaged workers lacking The National Supported Work The earnings of AFDC females were 851 dollars higher than they
basic lob skills, including women Demonstration (NSW) a work would have been without the NSW programme while the earnings
on AFDC (Aid for Families with experience and counselling of male participants were 886 dollars higher
Dependent Children), ex-drug programme
addicts, ex-criminal offenders and
high school drop-outs from both
sexes

United States Haveman and Survey of impact studies of Various training programmes in A survey of studies shows that in general employment and training
Hollister (1991) training programmes the United States programmes have had their greatest impact and largest social
returns for those who have had the least previous labour market
experience and are the most disadvantaged Intensive, residential
skill-training programmes for youth may be very effective For
seriously disadvantaged males, there is little evidence pointing to
any particular employment and training policy as effective
 Table 8 5 Effectiveness of active labour market programmes (con! )

Study Data Training programme Results

United States Bell and Orr 11994) Data from the AFDC Homemaker- Four to eight weeks of training for The training and subsidised employment programmes produced
Home Health Aid Demonstrations, families receiving AFDC significant increases in earnings and reductions in welfare
1983-86 dependence in at least one of the first two post-demonstration
years in six out of the seven demonstration States The estimated
earnings gains ranged from over I 200 dollars per year to nearly
2 600 dollars in 1984

United states Bartel 11995) Personnel records of a large Days spent in formal training in Training increases wage growth and lob performance The rate of
manufacturing firm 1986-90 the past year return of training for the company is about 20 to 35%

Netherlands Ridder 11986) A survey of participants in training Several training, recruitment and Females and minorities benefit from training programmes and still
programmes in 1979 who were employment programmes in 1979 more from employment programmes Recruitment programmes
surveyed in 1982 have a favourable effect on the average employment spell of young
workers and women Minority workers do not benefit from these
programmes Employment programmes lengthen the spell of
employment of young workers female and minorities 1in this
order) Employment programmes are more effective than
recruitment programmes, and these are more effective than training
programmes The labour market position of participants in training
programmes is better than that of participants in recruitment
programmes, which again is better than that of participants in
employment programmes

Denmark Jensen, Pedersen. Information from public registers All training programmes offered by The effects of training on subsequent wages are rather small For
Smith and in the Danish Longitudinal the Labour Market Training Board, groups with good initial employment conditions a significantly
Westergard-Nielsen Database mainly directed towards the low- positive effect is found on wages, while a negative wage effect is
11990) skill manual labour market found for participants with high initial unemployment The same
strong dependency on initial employment conditions are found for
the effects of training on subsequent unemployment

Sweden Brorklund and Data from the Swedish Level of Government manpower training The expected wage gain of training for participants is 10% while
Moffitt 119871 Living Surveys 1974 and 1981 programme classroom and other the expected wage gains for non-participants is negative Expansion
forms of training in a large variety of the training programme would lower the effects, a reduction of
of fields the programme would increase its efficiency
Source OECD
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Table 86 The productivity of training In high-tech and low-tech regimes In selected manufacturing Industries
In Chinese Taipei, 1986

Ratio of marginal product

Output elasticity Marginal product of training'
Industry? in high-tech versus low-tech
H h-tech Low-tech High-tech Low-tech manufacturing industries

Textiles 15 08 44 73 26 39 170
Apparel 12 10 16 02 13 29 1 21
Paper and publishing 13 14 55 10 34 08 162
Chemicals 14 11 94 56 67 99 139
Plastics 14 08 62 35 34 38 181
Electric/electronics 24 09 74 56 32 39 2 30
Transportation equipment 13 09 58 10 34 47 169

I The apparently high marginal products of training reflect the tact that the training variable measures spending in the current year thus, the outcome
(marginal product) is the result of current spending plus earlier spending This fuller measure of training effort was not possible because of the cross-
sectional nature of the data used
2 Based on 2-digit International Standard Industry Classihcation
Source Aw and Tan (19951 Table 7 p 23

Table 8 7 Returns to training at work for young workers, 1980s

Type of training Return (%) Author

Formal employer provided training 7 Lynch (1992)

108 Lillard and Tan (1986) Mincer (1988)
95
Previous employer provided training 0 Lynch (1992)
Previous off-the-lob training 5 Lynch (1992)
Apprenticeship 13 Lynch (1992),
Blanchflower and Lynch
(1994)

Source Cohn and Addison 119951, Table 7

2551
 Table 8 8 Returns to on-the-lob training
Study Data Definition of training Results

United States Duncan and Heads of households and spouses aged 18-64 On-the-job training Time spent in training increases earnings by
Hoffman (1978. who worked at least 500 hours in 1975 data 6 to 10% with returns similar for men and
1979) from Panel Studies on Income Dynamics women. Blacks and Whites

United States Mincer (1988) Data on employees taken from the Panel Information on the length of time of training The effect of a year with training on wage
Survey of Income Dynamics 1968-82 required during the current lob growth was 4 4% The effect of training on wage
growth was greater (9 5%) at younger ages than
at older ages (3 6%)

United States Brown (1989) Data on employees taken from the Panel The amount of training on the lob needed to On average training increases wages by I I to
Survey of Income Dynamics 1976 and 1978 become qualified 20%

United States Barron. Black Data on young male new hires at low wages at Training in hours by new hires and by their In a two-year period, training raised wages by
and firm level taken from Employment Opportunity supervisors and co-workers during the first 7 5% to 15% per year
Loewenstein Pilot Prolect survey three months of employment at the firm
(1989)

United States Holzer (1990) Data on young male new hires at low wages at Training in hours by new hires and by their Training positively related to supervisor's
firm level taken from Employment Opportunity supervisors and co-workers during the first productivity growth ratings and wage growth
Pilot Project survey three months of employment at the firm ratings

United States Bishop (1991) Data on young male new hires at low wages at Training in hours by new hires and by their On average training increases productivity by
firm level taken from Employment Opportunity supervisors and co-workers during the first 22% Training has a smaller effect on wage
Pilot Protect survey three months of employment at the firm growth than on productivity growth

United States Bartel (1991) A survey of human resources policies and The percentage of occupations in the business Formal training has a positive and significant
practices in American businesses the for which formal training is conducted effect on labour productivity only when no
Columbia Business School Human Resources account is taken of capital intensity
Survey

United States Lynch (1992) Individuals who were between 14 and 21 years Company training, apprenticeship, and training All types of training significantly increase
old in 1979 the National Longitudinal Survey outside the firm wages of young workers A week of training
1979-1985 increases wages by around 0 3%

United States Blanchflower Sample of young workers from the National Company training, apprenticeship and training Training provided by previous employers has
and Lynch Longitudinal Survey Youth Cohort 1979-88 obtained outside the firm no effect on wages, company training with
119941 current employer increases wages by 8% Off -
the-lob training increases wages by 4%
Apprenticeship increases wages for men by 20%
but has no effect on female wages

United States Bishop (1994) Data on young male new hires at low wages at Training in hours by new hires and by their Formal training at previous employers
firm level taken from Employment Opportunity supervisors and co-workers during the first increases initial productivity by 9 5%, but has
Pilot Protect survey three months of employment at the firm no effect on wages
 Table 8 8 Returns to on-the-lob training front
Study Data Definition of training Results

Great Britain Booth (1991) Data on employees taken from the British Formal lob-related training courses and seven For men the participation in training increases
Social Attitudes Survey 1987 types of informal training during the two years earnings by 112% For women participation in
prior to the survey training increases earnings by 18 1% An extra
two weeks of training increases male earnings
by 8 8% and female earnings by 15 1%

Great Britain Blanch flower A longitudinal survey of 23-year-old persons Company sponsored training and Company sponsored training increases wages
and Lynch born in 1958 the National Child Development apprenticeship by 2%. apprenticeship training increases wages
(1994) Survey 1958-81 by 5%

Great Britain Dolton, Young people aged 16 who completed their Youth Training Scheme (YTS). off-the-lob YTS lowers earnings for women, but increases
Makepeace and compulsory schooling during the year 1985-86 training and on-the-lob training earnings by around 5% for men On-the-lob
Treble 119941 the Youth Cohort Study training increases earnings for men by 7% and
for women by 3% Off-the-lob training increases
male earnings by 6% and Female earnings by
7 5%

Great Britain Blundell. A longitudinal survey of 33-year-old persons On- and off-the-lob employer provided courses Employer provided training, particularly on-
Dearden and born in 1958 the National Child Development and privately initiated training courses and off-the-lob employer provided training with
Meghir (19941 Survey 1958-91 a person's current employer significantly
increases earnings Earnings effects of training
are between 8 to 15%

Great Britain Elias. Hernaes Same as Blundell, Dearden and Meghir (19941 Formal apprenticeships, qualifications obtained Completion of apprenticeship training
and Baker while employed and other educational courses significantly increases wages for men but not
(19941 taken since leaving school for women No other training variable has any
significant effect on wages

Great Britain Higgins (19921 Longitudinal data for people who reached the Youth Training Scheme (YTS) Youth training reduces individual wages by
minimum school-leaving age in 1984 the around 8%
National Youth Cohort Study 1985-86

Great Britain Theodossiou Full-time employees aged 20-60 in 1986 the Training received from employer There is a significant effect of tenure on the
and Williams Social and Economic Life Initiative data pay of employees who are heavily trained by
11995) the employer

Great Britain Groot and Employees in 1991 taken from the British Training that was part of present employment On-the-lob training increases wages by 15%
Oosterbeek Household Panel Survey and any other training during the past year
119951
 Table 8 8 Returns to on-the-lob training (con[ )

Study Data Definition of training Results

France Lau Ihe (1990) Employees aged 15 and over in 1985 data from Employer-sponsered training Persons who received some training were much
1985 Survey of Professional Oualihcations less likely to go from employment to
Training unemployment and more likely to experience
occupational mobility

Netherlands Groot, Hartog Employees aged 43 in 1983 the Brabant cohort Company-related training The unconditional wage effect of training is 8%
and Oosterbeek data For participants in training the average wage
(1994) gain is 21% For non-participants the wage
gains would have been negative

Netherlands Groot (1994) Survey among employers about training for Enterprise-related training On average training increases productivity by
workers, 1992 16% and wages by 12%

Norway Elias Hernaes A sample drawn from the birth cohorts of Educational careers after completion of Training does not significantly increase
and Baker 1956-58, interviewed in 1975 and 1981 compulsory school earnings
(1994)

Spain Alba-Ramirez Data on companies with 200 or more workers How many workers have attended training Training significantly increases labour
(1994) the Collective Bargaining in Large Firms data courses in 1988 productivity and wages
1979

Source OECD
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Table 8 9 Enrolment gaps bylevel of education and age group, 1992

(thousands)

Level of education

Early childhood Secondary Tertiary

3-6 year-olds 14-17 year-olds 18-21 year-olds 22-25 year-olds Total

North America
Canada 508 65 4 70 74
United States 3 753 614 0 824 824
Pacific Area
Australia 494 114 47 119 166
lapan1 0
New Zealand 9 15 9 20 29
European Community
Belgium 0 0 0 41 41
Denmark 68 7 47 0 47
France 0 23 42 127 169
Greece 135 49 21 71 92
Ireland 68 15 7 22 29
Netherlands 169 0 46 28 75
Spain 217 246 61 66 128
United Kingdom 427 357 297 432 729
Other Europe OECD
Austria 80 53 4 57
Finland 135 3 23 0 23
Norway 64 2 29 2 31
Sweden 124 4 66 16 82
Switzerland 127 10 66 21 87
Turkey 4 714 2 525 795 453 1 249

Note Data not available

I Enrolment in early childhood education and development programmes occurs in different types of institutions that fall under the authority of different
Ministries Consequently the exact enrolment gap cannot readily be estimated
Source OECD Education Database

Table 8 10 Estimated costs of closing the enrolment gaps in early childhood education, 1992
(3-6 years-olds)

Total cost As a percentage of gross As a percentage of total As a percentage of public

l million USS1 domestic product public expenditure education expenditure

North America
United States 12 065 021 054 384
Pacific Area
Japan'
New Zealand 17 0 04 0 54
European Community
Belgium 0 0 0 0
Denmark 429 0 46 0 74 5 99
France 0 0 0 0
Ireland 118 0 25 0 58 4 50
Netherlands 393 0 15 0 25 265
Spain 456 009 019 192
United Kingdom 797 008 020 167
Other Europe OECD
Austria 263 0 18 0 35 3 10
Finland 847 I 12 184 13 47
Norway 468 060
Sweden 753 0 51 0 77 6 71
Switzerland 240 0 15 044 265
Note Data not available
I See note to Table 8 9
Source OECD Education Database
2591
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Table 8 I I Estimated costs of closing the enrolment gaps In lower and upper secondary education, 1992
114-17 year-olds)

Total cost As a percentage of gross Asa percentage of total As a percentage of public

lmillion US$) domestic product public expenditure education expenditure

North America
United States 3 970 0 07 0 18 1 26
Pacific Area
lapan 0 0 0 0
New Zealand 38 0 08 122
European Community
Belgium 0 0 0 0
Denmark 35 004 006 049
France 134 0 01 0 02 0 22
Ireland 42 009 020 159
Netherlands 0 0 0 0
Spain 773 0 15 0 33 3 26
United Kingdom 1 565 0 17 038 327
Other Europe OECD
Finland 12 002 003 020
Norway 13 002
Sweden 26 0 02 0 03 0 23

Note Data not available

Source OECD Education Database

1_260
 Table 8 12 Estimated costs of closing the enrolmen gaps in both university and non-university tertiary education (full-time), 1992

Total cost As a percentage As a percentage As a percentage

(million 0551 of gross domestic product of total public expenditure of public education expenditure
18-21 22-25 18-21 22-25 18-21 22-25 18-21 22.25
Total Total Total Total
year-olds year-olds year-olds year-olds year-olds year-olds year-olds year-olds

North America
Canada 49 869 918 0 01 0 16 0 17 0 02 0 32 0 34 0 13 2 29 2 42
United States 0 9 786 9 786 0 0 17 0 17 0 0 44 0 44 0 3 12 3 12

Pacific Area
Australia 308 787 1095 0 1 1 027 038 027 069 095 191 489 680
New Zealand 52 123 175 0 II 0 26 0 36 166 3 92 5 57
European Community
Belgium 0 281 281 0 0 15 0 15 0 0 26 0 26 0 2 47 2 47
Denmark 315 0 315 034 0 034 055 0 055 440 0 440
France 253 766 1 019 002 007 009 004 013 018 042 126 168
Ireland 52 160 212 011 034 045 026 078 104 198 607 806
Netherlands 501 303 804 0 19 0 II 0 30 0 32 0 19 0 51 3 38 2 04 5 42
Spain 232 250 482 004 005 009 010 0I1 020 098 105 203
united Kingdom 4 468 6 507 10 975 0 48 0 69 1 17 1 10 1 60 2 69 9 34 13 60 22 94

Other Europe OECD

Austria 310 21 331 021 001 022 041 003 044 366 024 390
Finland 201 0 201 027 0 027 044 0 044 319 0 319
Norway 250 20 269 0 32 0 03 0 35
Sweden 471 115 586 0 32 0 08 0 39 0 48 0 12 060 4 19 1 03 5 22
Switzerland 849 275 1 125 0 54 0 17 0 71 1 56 0 50 2 06 9 38 3 04 12 43

Note Data not available

Source OECD Education Database

O
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Table 8 13 Education expenditure by function', 1992

Percentage of total expenditure Percentage of current expenditure

Compensation Compensation Compensation Other current

Current Capital
of teachers of other staff of all staff expenditure

North America
Canada 93 1 69 54 1 20 2 74 3 25 7
United States 916 84 584 246 830 170
Pacific Area
Australia
lapan2 849 151 509 150 659 341
New Zealand
European Community
Belgium 989 I 1 757 26 784 216
Denmark2 929 71 478 239 717 283
France 916 84 835 165
Germany IFTFRI2 909 91 834 166
Greece
Ireland2 951 49 778 85 863 137
Italy2 918 82 647 167 814 186
Luxembourg
Netherlands 94 6 5 4 76 5 23 5
Portugal2 934 66 921 79
Spain 89 7 10 3 86 0 14 0
United Kingdom 949 51 577 177 754 246
Other Europe - OECD
Austria 880 120 533 162 695 305
Finland 960 40 589 180 769 231
Iceland
Norway? 93 3 6 7 76 3 23 7
Sweden
Switzerland2 843 157 71 5 144 859 141
Turkey
Country mean 92.1 7.9 61 0 16.2 79.2 20.8
OECD total 91.0 90 57.7 21.1 79.8 20.2
Note Data not available
I Public and government-dependent private institutions
2 Public institutions only
Source OECD (1995d), Education at a Glance OECD Indicators, p 105

Table 8 14 Examples of higher education cost functions

Index of unit costs for distance learning methods.
Open University. United Kingdom
(the cost of print methods for 125 students = 100)

Number of students per annum

Method
125 625 1 250

Print 100 0 24 0 14
Audio cassettes 134 0 50 0 39
Audio conferencing 2 73 I 57 141
Radio 5 70 1 14 0 57
Educational television
broadcast 43 10 8 42 4 21

Source Bates 119951

1262
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Table 8 15 Examples of higher education cost functions

comparison of teaching costs for different modes of instruction, Australia, 1989-90'
Costs by mode of study Australian dollars

Activity On-campus On-campus

Olf-campus mixed mode
lace-to-face

Preparation
Academic input 59 No cost 59
Editing 28 28
Text input 10 10
Distance Education Centre infrastructure 40 40
Subtotal 137 137
Production
Audio 10
Video 0 No cost Costs recovered
Computer Managed Learning 0
Printing/Binding 34
Subtotal 44
Delivery
Teaching 208 308 246
Examination 12 4 4

Postage/Handling 31 0 I

Student support 17 20 20
Library 10 30 30
Capital 34 50 50
Equipment 53 80 80
University managementAnfrastructure 147 210 210
Subtotal 512 700 641

Total 693 700 778

I Estimates based on 90 students

Source Taylor and While 119911, p 33

Table 8 16 Adults likely to be In need of basic education and training:

numbers of 25-64 year-olds in the labour force with lower secondary education or less, 1992'
Men Women Total

North America
Canada 1 572 000 1 002 000 2 574 000
United States 7 784 000 4 750 000 12 535 000
Pacific Area
New Zealand 253 000 228 000 481 000

European Community
Belgium 1 040 000 595 000 1 635 000
Denmark 405 000 428 000 833 000
France 4 866 000 4 132 000 8 997 000
Germany 1 853 000 2 276 000 4 129 000
Ireland 401 000 127 000 528 000
Italy 8 535 000 4 157 000 12 692 000
Netherlands 1 161 000 747 000 I 908 000

Spain 5 762 000 2 694 000 8 457 000

United Kingdom 3 010 000 2 996 000 6 006 000
Other Europe OECD
Austria 331 000 372 000 703 000
Finland 393 000 345 000 737 000
Norway 166 000 128 000 294 000
Sweden 596 000 478 000 1 074 000
Switzerland 223 000 289 000 512 000
Turkey 8 476 000 3 311 000 11 787 000

Total 46 826 000 29 055 000 75 880 000

I Refers to ISCED 0 plus ISCED I plus ISCED 2

Source OECD Education Database 2631
 UFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Table 8 17 Adults likely to be In need of basic education and training, 1994

126- to 65-year-olds with low literacy proficiency')

Age Percentage Number

Canada 26-35 38 8 1 938 448

36-45 35 8 I 713 030
46-55 54 0 1 884 600
56-65 67 5 I 652 585
26-65 100 0 7 188 663
Germany 26-35 35 I 4 971 915
36-45 40 I 4 688 091
46-55 42 4 4 364 656
56-65 58 6 5 832 458
26-65 100 0 19 857 120
Netherlands 26-35 25 1 661 385
36-45 33 4 797 258
46-55 48 3 971 313
56-65 63 I 911 795
26-65 100 0 3 341 751

Sweden 26-35 14 3 176 319

36-45 24 8 293 136
46-55 26 5 323 300
56-65 45 5 382 200
26-65 100 0 1 174 955
United States 26-35 44 5 18 649 505
36-45 43 2 17 928 432
46-55 496 14 921 664
56-65 62 2 13 008 508
26-65 100 0 64 508 109

I Document literacy levels I and 2 combined as implemented by the International Adult Literacy Survey
Sources OECD and Statistics Canada (1995)

Table 8 18 Unit costs of selected labour market training programmes

Costs Participant Costs/Participant

Imillion
local currency) (starting) (local currency) US$

France (1993)
Training programmes for the unemployed 27 494 585 694 46 943 7 142
Training of employed because of structural
adjustment 349 225 112 1550 236
Adult education 3 619 391 920 9 234 1 405
Germany (1994)
Training for unemployed adults and those at risk 13 397 713 893 18 766 8 924
Further education and training 504 25 502 19 763 9 398
Netherlands (1994)
Vocational training centres 232 24 100 9 627 4 510
Framework regulation for training 199 59 000 3 373 1 580
Vocational guidance and training centres 42 10 600 3 962 I 856
Women's vocational training institutions 10 I 000 10 0001 4 685
Industry-based (sectorial) training 50 8 000 6 250 2 928
New Zealand (1991/1992)
Training for unemployed adults and those at risk
(ACCESS) 156 68 070 2 287 1 484
Sweden (1990/1991)
Training for unemployed adults and those at risk
(course costs) 3 335 77 900 42 811 4 644
Training for employed adults 175 20 700 8 454 917
I 1993 data
Source OECD, Active Labour Market Programme Database
1264
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Table 8 19 Cost scenarios for extending lifelong learning to the least qualified'

Scenario A2 Scenario B3

Unit costs Total costs Unit costs Total costs

CUSS) As % GDP (US$) As % GDP

Germany (FTFR) 8 924 2 7 4 300 13

Netherlands 4 142 29 4300 3 0
New Zealand 2 700 2 7

Sweden 4 644 3 3 6 100 44

Note Data not available
I See estimates in Table 8 16
2 Scenario A Costs based on labour market programme costs Source Table 818
3 Scenario B Costs based on secondary education unit costs Source Annex Table A 62

Table 8 20 Cost scenarios for extending lifelong learning to adults with low literacy proficiency'

Scenario A2 Scenario B3

Unit costs Total costs Unit costs Total costs

(USSI As % GDP (USS) As % GDP

Germany 8 924 1 1 8 4 300 57

Netherlands 4 142 5I 4 300 53
New Zealand 2 700
Sweden 4 644 3 7 6 100 48
Note Data not available
I See estimates in Table 8 17
2 Scenario A Costs based on labour market programme costs Source Table 8 18
3 Scenario B Costs based on secondary education unit costs Source Annex Table A62

Table 8 21 Duration' of adult education and training courses, 19942

(by type of financial support)

Duration
Employer supported ' Low Medium High

Canada (English) Yes 84 13 3

No 36 19 45
Canada (French) Yes 72 28 0
No 37 18 45

Germany Yes 70 20 10
No 50 25 25

Netherlands Yes 74 18 9
No 43 19 38

Poland Yes 66 24 10
No 40 33 27

Switzerland (French) Yes 68 17 15

No 51 25 24

Switzerland (German) Yes 74 16 10

No 60 17 23

United States Yes 86 I I 2

No 54 17 30

1 Low 0-59 hours Medium 60-300 hours High > 300 hours
2 Based on the first reported course being taken in the six months preceding the interview
Sources OECD and Statistics Canada (1995)
2651
 Table 8 22 Evaluation of financing schemes for lifelong learning
Promotes efficiency Promotes spreading
Model in the education
Promotes efficiency Lifts liquidity Takes account Promotes equal Results in net subsidies
in the labour market2
learning activities
market' constraints' of externalities° access° towards highly educated
over the life -time'

Drawing rights No No, because of taxes Yes Yes, but very Perhaps Yes No
crude

Entitlements without No No, because of taxes Yes Yes, but very Yes Yes Yes, if some persons
loans crude do not use their entire
entitlement
Entitlements with Yes Yes, but disincentive'to Yes Yes Yes Yes, but some No
substantial ICL7 work for low-income reservations
earners

Franchise Only in later years No, because of taxes Only in first years Yes in a very Yes Yes, but only Yes, if some persons
elegant way in first years do not use their entire
franchise

Auctions Yes na 8 n a8 n a 8 n a b na 8 n a b

Single employer Yes, but not in Yes Only to the extent No Yes No No
formal education that training is
specific and
workers have
a low probability
to quit

Self-financing without Yes Yes No No No No No

loans

Self-financing with ICL Yes Yes but disincentive to Yes No No Yes but some No
work for low income reservations
earners

Self-financing with Yes No. disincentive to Yes No No Yes No

graduate tax work for low income
earners and
disincentive to accept
lob with high salary

Self-financing with Yes Yes but disincentive Not really No No Yes Yes
mortgage loans and for low income earners
income dependent
grants
 Table 8 22 Evaluation of financing schemes for lifelong learning (cont )

Promotes efficiency Promotes spreading

Promotes efficiency Lifts liquidity Takes account Promotes equal Results in net subsidies
Model in the education learning activities
in the labour market2 constraints' of externalities° access° towards highly educated
market) over the life -time 5

Parahscal funds Yes, butnot in No, because a payroll Not really To some extent Yes No Yes
formal education tax is levied

Government funding No No. because of taxes Yes Yes. but very No Yes Yes
of Institutions crude

I Efficiency in education This is a broad concept but for an economist It requires equality of social marginal revenue and social marginal cost This In turn requires that the tuition fees charged to students
equal marginal cost of production minus the value of externalities IA slightly weaker rule is that tuition fees are proportionate Instead of equal to marginal costs minus the value of externalities I
2 Efficiency In the labour market Some of the arrangements affect the conditions for efficiency In the labour market One mechanism is that the repayment of loans gives disincentives to work or to accept a lob
with a high salary The other mechanism is that public financing of education requires taxes and, except for lump sum taxation, levying taxes increases the difference between gross cost of labour to an
employer and the net earnings of a worker
3 Lifting liquidity constraints One of the most Important reasons for governments to intervene in post-compulsory education is that without intervention many people may face serious liquidity constraints
They may have no access to funds or only against very unfavourable terms With mortgage loans, the constraint is not really lifted since repayment is due within 10 or 15 years This merely shifts the liquidity
constraint from the education years to the period immediately after education is finished With parahscal funds, payroll taxes are levied from the employer However, to the extent that the employer can
shift the tax to the workers, the workers bear the burden of the payroll tax The extent to which the tax is shifted depends in the elasticities of labour demand and labour supply
4 Externalities The only reason to provide general subsidies to post-compulsory education is the existence of externalities Many observers are rather cynic with regard to this point Most if not all, of the
revenues of post-compulsory education are received by the persons who attained it Nevertheless, for some studies or courses externalities are plausible A financing scheme can take account of that by
differentiating subsidies according to the perceived externalities
5 Stimulating lifelong learning
6 Equity in education has two dimensions The first is that a poor social background is no hindrance to enrol (equal access), the second is that on a lifetime basis the persons who received more education are
not subsidised by the persons that received less education
7 1CLs = Income Conugent Loans
8 Not applicable the auction model is a partial model and no conclusions can be drawn with regard to most of the criteria
Source Oosterbeek 119951
 Annex

EVIDENCE AND KEY STATISTICS

 Table A I Proportion of 0-14, 25-34 and 25-44 year-olds In the population, 1960-2010
(percentage of population)

19601 19701 19801 19901 20002 20102

Australia 3 0 to 14 30 I 28 8 25 3 21 9 20 8 19 4
25 to 34 136 133 162 165 151 133
25 to 44 274 253 283 316 304 276
Belgium 0 to 14 235 236 201 182 177 169
25to 34 139 12 1 150 159 139 120
25to 44 26 5 25 4 26 7 30 5 29 6 25 8

Canada 0 to 14 335 302 227 207 206 195

25 to 34 139 13 I 173 185 14 1 128
25 to 44 27 0 25 1 29 2 34 2 31 2 26 2

Czech Republic° 0 to 14 254 21 3 234 21 5 166 133

25 to 34 136 130 165 135 149 156
25 to 44 25 7 25 9 28 5 29 5 28 3 30 7
Denmark 0 to 14 252 233 208 170 180 168
25 to 34 124 137 154 150 149 I 1 5
25 to 44 25 7 25 2 28 5 30 1 29 6 26 4
France 0 to 14 264 248 223 202 189 176
25 to 34 14 1 12 1 158 15 2 144 128
25 to 44 257 252 270 300 290 268
Germany 0 to 14 21 3 232 185 161 153 132
25 to 34 133 15 1 134 164 149 12 I

25 to 44 24 4 27 8 28 2 29 7 31 6 27 5
Italy 0 to 14 248 246 223 167 145 135
25 to 34 154 137 138 152 160 120
25 to 44 280 275 267 286 31 1 282
Japan 0 to 14 302 240 236 184 153 153
25 to 34 168 168 170 129 148 126
25 to 44 28 5 31 8 32 0 28 9 27 3 27 3
Spain 0 to 14 274 279 266 197 150 141
25 to 34 157 125 134 155 167 142
25 to 44 29 0 26 4 25 1 28 2 32 0 30 9
Sweden 0 to 14 220 208 196 179 200 189
25 to 34 12 I 136 151 138 136 11 2

25 to 44 26 3 25 1 28 0 28 4 27 0 24 5

United Kingdom 0 to 14 233 243 209 190 195 182

25 to 34 128 125 142 153 148 123
25 to 44 264 242 261 291 296 267
United States 0 to 14 31 0 28 3 22 5 21 7 21 8 20 3
25 to 34 127 124 165 173 14 1 129
25 to 44 26 1 23 6 27 9 32 4 30 1 26 3

I Data are United Nations demographic estimates

2 Data are horn the United Nations Populations Division s medium vanant population proiections
3 Australian Bureau of Statistics, 1995, Series A Population Protections data Reference month lune
4 See Note 3 Table 1 2
Source United Nations (19941 World Population Prospects 1950-2010 Data for the Czech Republic were provided by the Czech Statistical Office

2711
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Table A 2 Indicators of growth and dispersion of communication technologies, 1982 and 1992
Penetration
Business mainlines Cellular mobile
Telephone mainlines of laisinule
per 100 employees subscribers CAGR
per 100 inhabitants machines CAGR
in labour force I%)
(%)

1982 1992 1982 1992 1988-921 1988-921

North America
Canada 42 0 59 2 16 I 39 8 55 1 41 4
United States 462 565 29 5 42 6 520 732
Pacific Area
Australia 368 487 22 9 37 9 64 3 33 3
Japan 347 464 24 3 28 5 63 0 28 9
New Zealand 36 9 44 4 160 25 4 47 6 35 I
European Community
Belgium 278 425 25 2 32 5 58 I
Denmark 45 9 58 1 22 9 193 48 5
France 35 7 52 5 145 45 0 65 0
Germany 368 439 147 77 6 64 7
Greece 259 436 21 7 37 I 406
Ireland 167 314 20 I 32 0 52 4 65 5
Italy 259 410 169 23 9 120 0 83 6
Luxembourg 379 606 38 2 35 7 35 I
Netherlands 369 487 95 22 5 49 8 54 7
Portugal 122 306 85 133 137 5 688
Spain 21 I 40 5 24 4 29 0 98 4 38 I
United Kingdom 33 9 45 2 145 24 I 53 8 28 4
Other Europe OECD
Austria 32 2 43 9 46 9 36 0
Finland 39 9 54 4 31 7 36 2 57 9
Iceland 38 9 53 9 26 5 25 0 32 4
Norway 346 529 29 3 178 29 3
Sweden 59 6 68 2 21 3 31 0 29 6
Switzerland 465 603 23 5 32 5 62 6 47 I

Turkey 32 161 35 14 2 58 0 43 I

OECD average 35.32 47 52 15 03 27 73 52 5 48.8

Note Data not available
I Compound annual growth rate (CAGR) calculated In constant 1990 prices deflated the purchasing power parities IPPPi index
2 Weighted average
3 simple average of available data Weighted average is slightly lower for both years
Source OECD (1995a) Communications Outlook Tables 4 2, 4 3, 4 7 and 7 6

12 72
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Table A 3 Shares of high-technology industries In total manufacturing, 1970 and 1992

(percentage)

Exports Value added

1970 1992 1970 1992

North America
Canada 90 13 7 102 I I 2
United States 25 9 37 7 182 23 72
Padflc Area
Australia 28 963 89 10 42
Japan 20 2 36 I 164 22 22
New Zealand 07 44
European Community
Belgium 7 2 10 0
Denmark 1 1 9 18 2 93 123
France 140 234 128 188
Germany 158 206 153 20 8
Greece 24 4 3
Ireland I I 7 39 4
Italy 12 7 15 13 133 13 22
Luxembourg 7 2 10 0
Netherlands 16 0 19 8 15 1 186
Portugal 7 6 12 1

Spain 6 1 14 0
United Kingdom 171 309 164 145
Other Europe OECD
Austria II 4 17 7
Finland 3 2 13 4 59 107
Iceland 0 I 07
Norway 4 7 10 3 66 94
Sweden 12 0 21 0 128 14 5
Switzerland 30 2 32 9
Turkey 18 58
Note Data not available
I 1989
2 1990
3 1991
Source OECD 1199441, The OECD lobs Study Evidence and Explanations Part I Table 4 12 p 149

2 731
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Table A 4 Employment shares for blue- and white-collar workers, 1981 and 19911
(per cent of total employment)

Blue collar white collar

1981 1991 1981 1991

North America
Canada 295 245 65 71 1

United States2 282 260 68 71 I

Pacific Area
Australia3 363 356 56 6 59 4
Japan 378 350 52 57 9
New Zealand° 290 24 9 59 9 64 3
European Community
Belgium5 353 329 61 I 63 4
Denmark 2 316 298 65 4 65 I
Germanya 354 319 58 4 61 2
Greece' 308 295 39 5 47 5
Ireland2 289 276 53 6 58 0
Netherlands 8 246 242 68 1 70 5
Portugal 373 326 33 8 47 6
Spain 39 0 37 I 42 8 51 7
United Kingdom9 307 284 65 3 68 6
Other Europe OECD
Austria lo 36 4 34 8 54 I 57 1

Finland' 295 252 585 647

Norway' 31 9 261 58 5 65 9
Sweden 31 2 28 3 632 682
Turkey 25 3 28 2
Unweighted average 324 295 53 9 60 I

Note Data not available

I See OECD (199441, Annex 2 B for definitions of blue- and white-collar workers
2 Data refer to 1983 and 1991
3 Data for 1991 refer to Australian Standards Classrhcation of Occupations 1986
4 Data refer to 1987 and 1990
5 Data refer to 1983 and 1990
6 Data refer to 1982 and 1991 and to the Former Territory of the Federal Republic
7 Data refer to 1982 and 1991
8 Data refer to 1987 and 1991
9 Data refer to 1984 and 1990
10 Data refer to 1984 and 1991
Source OECD (199441, Employment Outlook, Table 2 3, p 82

12 74
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Table A 5 Annual hours worked per person per year, 1870-1992

1870 1880 1890 1909 1913 1929 1938 1950 1960 19701 1983 1992

Canada 2 964 2 871 2 789 2 707 2 605 2 399 2 240 I 967 I 877 I 890 1 730 1 719
France 2 945 2852 2 770 2 688 2 588 2 297 1 848 1 989 1 983 1 962 I 711 I 666
Germany 2 941 2 848 2 765 2 684 2 584 2 284 2 316 2 316 2 083 1 949 1 733 I 588
Italy 2 886 2 795 2 714 2 634 2 536 2 228 I 927 1 997 2 059 1 969 I 764
Japan 2 945 2 852 2 770 2 688 2 588 2 364 2 391 2 272 2 432 2 201 2 095 I 965
United Kingdom 2 984 2 890 2 807 2 725 2 624 2 286 2 267 1 958 1 913 I 735 1 607
United States 2 964 2 871 2 789 2 707 2 605 2 342 2 062 1 867 1 794 1 889 1 787 1 776

Note Data not available

I Break in series for all countries except lapan (break occurs in 1983 figure) and United Kingdom (historical series throughout) New series include part-time
work
Sources The data for 1870 to 1960 are from Carnoy and Castells (1995) From 1970 onwards the data are from OECD (19940 Employment Outlook Table B p
196

2751
 Table A 7 The relative size of the population aged 5 to 14, I970-941
(percentage)

1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994

North America
Canada 215 210 205 199 192 185 178 17 I 165 159 154 150 147 145 143 141 140 139 139 138 138 137 136 136 135
United States 199 196 192 187 182 177 172 167 162 157 153 150 147 145 143 142 141 141 14 1 141 141 142 142 142 143
Weighted mean 200 197 193 188 183 178 173 167 162 157 153 150 147 145 143 142 141 141 141 141 141 141 141 142 142
Mexico 27 9 27 9 28 0 80 281 282 284 286 288 289 89 287 284 280 276 271 265 260 254 249 245 242 239 37 235
Pacific Area
Australia 194 192 190 88 186 184 82 18 1 80 178 76 72 169 165 61 58 54 52 49 47 46 45 44 43 43
lapan 15 5 15 4 15 3 52 153 154 56 158 60 16 I 62 62 16 I 159 57 53 50 45 40 35 3I 27 23 19 16
New Zealand 212 21 209
I 07 20 4 20 2 99 197 94 19 I 88 84 180 175 71 67 63 60 57 55 52 51 50 49 49
Weighted mean 61 59 158 58 58 58 59 161 63 164 64 64 162 160 57 54 51 46 42 37 33 29 26 23 20
European Community
Belgium 6 I 6 I 16 0 59 57 55 53 150 47 143 40 37 134 13 I 29 27 25 24 23 22 21 20 20 19 19
Denmark 5 4 5 4 15 5 55 55 55 54 153 5I 149 47 45 14 2 139 36 33 29 24 20 I7 14 I 1 I 0 09 09
France 65 65 164 63 62 61 60 159 57 156 54 52 150 148 45 43 41 40 38 37 36 35 34 33 33
Germany (FTFR) 56 58 160 61 61 60 57 152 46 140 34 27 12 I II 5 10 07 05 04 04 04 05 07 08 I 0 I I

Greece 6 I 6 1 16 1 62 63 62 62 160 58 156 54 52 149 147 45 44 42 41 40 39 37 34 30 26 22

Ireland 206 206 205 04 03 03 03 20 3 04 20 4 04 203 20 I 20 0 98 97 96 96 96 95 93 90 86 82 77
Italy 160 162 63 64 64 64 64 63 62 61 59 56 53 50 47 42 38 33 28 23 I8 14 10 07 04
Luxembourg 15 0 15 2 4 9 53 53 52 48 45 42 37 35 29 26 23 18 14 14 13 12 14 13 12 I0 09 10
Netherlands 18 2 18 2 8 1 81 80 78 76 73 69 65 61 56 50 45 39 34 30 26 24 21 20 19 19 19 19
Portugal 189 190 90 91 90 89 87 84 80 77 74 71 69 67 65 63 61 59 56 53 50 46 41 37 33
Spain 184 185 85 84 84 83 82 81 79 78 76 75 73 71 69 66 63 58 54 49 43 38 32 27 22
United Kingdom 161 163 64 64 64 63 61 59 56 53 49 45 40 36 32 29 26 25 24 23 23 24 25 27 28
Weighted mean 165 166 67 67 67 66 64 62 59 56 52 49 45 42 38 35 32 30 28 26 24 23 22 21 20
Other Europe - OECD
Austria 162 165 66 68 68 67 64 61 57 52 47 42 36 31 26 22 20 18 17 16 16 16 17 17 I8
Czech Republic? 14 3 14 I 3 8 36 3 6 3 7 3 8 4 0 4 2 45 48 53 57 61 65 66 66 65 62 57 52 46 41 36 32
Finland 170 168 65 63 59 56 52 48 44 40 36 33 31 29 28 28 28 29 30 31 31 30 30 28 27
Iceland 225 217 214 I I 205 202 200 94 92 86 84 82 80 78 76 74 72 70 69 67 65 63 62 60 58
Norway 160 160 160 60 160 161 161 61 61 60 58 55 52 47 43 39 35 31 28 25 24 22 22 23 23
Sweden 136 137 39 138 139 140 140 40 40 39 37 35 33 30 27 24 22 19 17 16 15 15 15 16 18
Switzerland 156 157 59 159 157
158 156 53 49 46 41 36 31 26 22 1 8 1 5 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 4
Turkey 257 257 255 54 253 253 254 256 258 258 257 25 4 25 0 24 5 23 9 23 5 23 0 22 6 22 2 21 9 21 7 21 6 21 7 21 7 21 8
Weighted mean 201 202 201 201 201 201 202 203 203 203 203 20 1 199 196 193 189 187 184 181 179 178 177 177 177 178
1 Percentage of 5- to 14-year-old people in the total population The total population Includes all persons residing in the country regardless of citizenship educational or labour market status Data for the
1970-94 period are united Nations demographic estimates
2 The data for 1970-1994 are from the demographic yearbook published by the Czech Statistical Office
Source United Nations 119941, World Population Prospects 1950-2010 and national data submissions
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Table A 8 The relative size of the population aged 5 to 14 and 15 to 24, 19941
(percentage)

Age group

5 to m 15 to 24

North America
Canada 13 5 13 5
United States 14 3 13 8

Weighted mean 14 2 13 7
Mexico 23 5 21 4

Pacific Area
Austral ia2 14 3 15 5
lapan 11 6 15 1

New Zealand 14 9 15 8

Weighted mean 20 5 I

European Community
Belgium 1 9 2 8
Denmark 0 9 3 7
France 3 3 4 2
Germany I FTFRI 1 I 2 0
Greece 2 2 4 2
Ireland 7 7 8 1

Italy 0 4 4 6
Luxembourg 1 0 2 7
Netherlands I 9 3 5
Portugal 3 3 60
Spain 2 2 6 5
United Kingdom 2 8 3 3

Weighted mean 12 0 39
Other Europe OECD
Austria I 8 2 9
Czech Republica 3 2 6 4
Finland 2 7 2 4
Iceland 5 8 5 8
Norway 2 3 3 9
Sweden 1 8 2 6
Switzerland 1 4 2 1

Turkey 21 8 9 1

Weighted mean 178 168

Weighted mean of all countries 14 3 15 0

I Data are United Nations demographic estimates

2 Australian Bureau of Statistics 1995 Series A Population Projections data Reference month lune
'3 The data are from the demographic yearbook published by the Czech Statistical Office
Source United Nations 11994) World Population Prospects 1950-2010

[278
 Table A 9 The relative size of the population aged 5 to 14, forecast 1994-20101
(percentage)

1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

North America
Canada 135 135 135 135 136 136 137 137 138 138 137 137 136 135 133 132 130
United States 143 143 144 144 145 146 146 146 146 145 144 143 142 140 138 136 135
Weighted mean 142 142 143 144 144 145 145 145 145 144 144 142 141 139 138 136 134
Mexico 235 233 231 229 227 224 222 220 217 214 21 1 208 204 200 197 193 189
Pacific Area
Australia? 143 143 142 142 141 140 139 138 138 137 137 136 135 134 133 132 13 I

lapan 116 II 3 110 107 104 102 101 100 100 100 100 100 101 101 102 103 103
New Zealand 149 150 151 152 154 155 156 156 156 156 154 153 152 150 148 146 144
Weighted mean 20 17 15 12 10 09 07 07 106 106 106 107 107 107 108 108 108
European Community
Belgium I 9 I 9 I 9 I 9 1 9 I 9 I 8 I 8 I I 8 I I 8 1 I 7 I I 7 I I 6 1 6 1 I I 5 I 1 4 II 4
Denmark 09 09 1 1 13 I5 18 20 21 122 123 123 123 122 121 120 II 8 II 6
France 33 32 31 31 29 28 27 26 125 124 124 123 122 121 120 119 II 8-
Germany (FTF121 I I I I I I I I 10 08 07 05 103 102 100 98 96 95 93 92 90
Greece 22 I8 14 I 1 07 04 02 00 99 99 98 98 98 97 97 97 97
Ireland 77 72 67 62 57 52 48 45 143 142 142 141 142 142 143 144 145
Italy 04 02 01 99 99 98 98 97 97 97 97 97 97 96 95 95 94
Luxembourg 10 08 07 09 08 09 08 10 III 111 113 112 114 116 116 116 116
Netherlands 19 20 21 22 22 23 24 24 124 124 123 122 12 I 120 II 8 II6 II 4
Portugal 33 29 26 23 21 20 18 18 118 118 118 118 117 117 116 115 114
Spain 22 17 13 09 06 03 01 99 98 97 97 96 96 96 96 96 96
United Kingdom 28 29 30 31 31 31 31 31 131 130 130 129 128 126 125 124 122
Weighted mean 20 19 18 17 16 15 114 13 112 12 1 1 110 09 108 107 06 105
Other Europe OECD
Austria I 8 I 8 I 9 1 9 I 9 1 8 11 8 I 8 II 8 I 8 1 7 II 7 I 6 II 5 II 3 1 2 1 1 I

Czech Republica 32 30 28 26 25 23 120 16 II 3 10 07 104 01 98 95 93 92

Finland 27 26 25 25 25 24 125 24 125 25 25 124 24 123 122 22 12 1

Iceland 58 56 59 57 55 57 156 58 157 55 57 156 55 153 152 51 150

Norway 23 25 26 28 30 31 133 34 135 36 37 137 37 136 135 35 133
Sweden 18 20 22 25 28 30 132 34 135 35 35 135 34 133 132 30 129
Switzerland 14 I5 16 17 18 19 120 20 121 21 21 121 21 120 118 17 116
Turkey 218 218 218 218 217 216 215 213 21 I 208 206 203 200 197 194 91 188
Weighted mean 178 179 179 179 180 179 179 178 177 175 174 172 170 168 166 163 161

I Data for 1994 are United Nations demographic promotions Data for the 1995-2010 period are from the United Nations Populations Division s medium-variant population protections
2 Australian Bureau of Statistics, 1995, Series A Population Projections data Reference month lune
3 The data for 1995-2010 are from promotion made by the Czech Statistical Office (Promotion of the population of the Czech Republic until the year 2020, Czech Statistical Office, Praha, 19951 The data for 1994
are from the demographic yearbook published by the Czech Statistical Office
Source United Nations (19944 World Population Prospects 1950-2010, and national data submissions
LIFELONG WARNING FOR ALL

Table A 10 Population aged 25-64 that has attained a specific highest education level, 1981-921 2 3

(percentage)

Men and women Women

0/1/2 3 5 6/7 0/1/2 3 5 6/7

Australia 1989 45 25 21 10 52 12 28 8
1991 44 25 21 10 52 13 28 8
1993 48 29 10 13 58 20 10 12

Austria 1989 35 60 x 5 45 50 x 5
1992 32 61 x 7 42 52 x 6

Belgium 1989 63 20 10 7 65 19 11 4
1992 55 25 II 9 56 24 14 6

Canada 1981 40 37 12 II 39 40 13 9
1989 29 41 15 15 28 43 16 13
1992 29 30 26 15 28 33 26 13

Denmark 1981 50 36 4 II 56 30 5 9
1988 43 40 7 II 48 35 9 8
1992 41 40 6 13 46 35 7 13

Finland 1982 55 31 7 8 56 31 6 6
1989 42 40 8 10 43 42 8 7
1992 38 43 8 10 38 45 9 9

France 1981 61 29 3 7 65 24 4 6
1989 52 34 7 7 56 30 8 5
1992 48 36 6 10 52 33 6 9

Germany (FTFR) 1989 22 61 7 10 31 59 3 7

1992 18 61 10 12 25 60 7 8

Greece 1981 76 16 2 6 79 16 2 3

Ireland 1989 62 23 7 7 59 27 8 6
1992 58 25 9 8 54 29 9 7

Italy 1989 74 20 6 77 19 5
1992 72 22 6 74 21 5

Netherlands 1990 45 36 13 6 52 32 13 3
1992 42 37 x 21 48 34 x 18

New Zealand 1981 67 12 16 5 72 8 17 3

1990 43 25 22 9 49 17 27 7
1992 44 33 1 3 I 1 49 25 17 9

Norway 1981 34 51 8 7 37 50 9 4
1989 23 55 12 II 24 56 12 8
1992 21 54 13 12 22 55 13 10

Portugal 1989 92 2 2 4 91 2 4 3
1991 86 8 2 5 86 7 2 5

Spain 1981 90 5 6 93 3 4
1989 80 10 9 83 9 8
1992 77 10 3 10 80 9 2 9

Sweden 1981 51 33 6 10 52 31 7 9
1992 30 45 13 13 29 45 14 12

Switzerland 1989 21 53 16 10 27 58 9 6
1992 19 60 13 8 25 63 7 5

Turkey 1992 86 9 5 91 6 3

United Kingdom 1984 46 40 6 8 52 34 9 5

1989 37 48 7 9 43 42 8 6
1992 32 50 8 II 38 45 9 8

United States 1981 20 45 14 22 20 49 13 18

1989 18 46 12 23 18 49 12 20
1280 1992 16 54 7 24 16 56 7 21
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Notes to Table A 10

Notes Data not available x Data included in another category

I For the classification by level of education, the ISCED standard is used as applied by national authorities The points in time for which data is presented
differ between countries due to data availability
2 ISCED refers to the International Standard Classification for Education This classification developed principally by UNESCO, is used by countries and
international agencies as a means of compiling internationally comparable statistics on education According to ISCED educational programmes may be
classified as follows (OECD, Education at a Glance, 1995d p 3671
- SCED 0 Education preceding the first level (early childhood education)
- SCED Education at the first level IprimarY)
I

SCED 2 Education at the lower secondary level

SCED 3 Education at the upper secondary level
- SCED 5 Education at the tertiary level, first stage of the type that leads to an award not equivalent to a first university degree
SCED 6 Education at the tertiary level, first stage of the type that leads to a university degree or equivalent
SCED 7 Education at the tertiary level, second stage, of the type that leads to a post-graduate university degree or equivalent
SCED 9 Education not definable by level
3 The data are from the Census 11 3 19911

Definitions are as follows

Australia
The data do not refer to the age group 25 to 64 but to the group 25 to 69
1989 06 per cent of total omitted due to missing classification by level
1993 The classification of education has been made according to the new ABS Classifications of Qualifications, which corresponds better to ISCED than
the old classification In order to enable the use of this classification, data are reported for 1993 instead of 1992 The main difference to the data for 1991
is that some educational programmes have been reclassified from ISCED 5 to ISCED 3 ISCED 0/1/2 reported as ISCED 2 Reference month February
Austria
1989 ISCED 5 graduates are reported at ISCED 6/7 level
1992 Classifications for ISCED levels 3 to 6/7 are based on the highest diploma received ISCED levels 0 I and 2 refer to the number of years of schooling
obtained Because of the data structure ISCED 5 graduates are reported at ISCED 6/7 level
Belgium
1992 The unemployed are defined as people who are full-time" unemployed and who receive unemployment benefits On average B per cent of the
unemployed are not classified by ISCED level
Canada
1981 1989 ISCED 3 was not explicitly coded prior to 1991 Estimates for ISCED 3 were calculated using persons with 12 or more years of school and
having not post-secondary credentials for all provinces except Quebec where persons with I I or more years of schooling were used This may produce a
slight over-estimate for ISCED 3
1992 Classification is based on the average number of years of schooling for ISCED levels 0/I and 2 ISCED 3 includes those who report having received a
secondary school certificate or diploma Classification for ISCED levels 5 and 617 is based on actually obtained diplomas and degrees The increase of the
ratio of the population with ISCED 5 is partly a result of ongoing efforts to improve the classification of post-secondary educational programmes
Denmark
1981 1988 and 1992 Classification for ISCED 0/1/2 is based on the number of years of schooling obtained, completed compulsory education is classified
as ISCED 2 ISCED levels 3 5, 6 and 7 are based on the highest diploma and degree received Criteria for the national classification correspond to ISCED
e final qualifications, years of schooling and qualifications required for admission Data are for the total population and based on actual information
from institutions on completion except for a part of the 50-64 year-olds where data are self-reported census survey data In 1991, a number of studies were
classified from ISCED 5 to ISCED 6
Finland
Adult education and apprenticeship programmes are excluded
1982 1989 1992 ISCED 0/1/2 reported as ISCED 2

France
Classification is based on diplomas for all levels except ISCED 0/I ISCED level 3 is very complex as it refers to general, vocational and professional
education The professional programmes at ISCED level 3 lead to three separate diplomas
1989 3 2 per cent of total omitted due to missing classification by level
1992 To avoid underestimation of the number of people in the higher ISCED categories the number of people with higher qualifications than suggested
by their diploma has been estimated The estimates have been adjusted accordingly 0 I per cent of total omitted due to missing classification by level
Germany
1989 The survey data refer to the population living in the former territory of the Federal Republic of Germany IFTFR1 Only obtained diplomas or degrees
are considered in classifying persons at ISCED levels 3 to 7
1992 The survey data refer to the populations living in the territory of the former German Democratic Republic (TFGDR1 as well as in the former territory
of the Federal Republic of Germany IFTFRI Only obtained diplomas or degrees are considered in classifying persons at ISCED levels 3 to 7 The data
include I I I per cent non-response, which was proportionally redistributed across the ISCED levels
Ireland
Classification to ISCED level is made by level of certificate with the exception of levels 0 and where the number of years of schooling is used A
1

significant number of people who have completed apprenticeship programmes equivalent to upper secondary education are classified at ISCED level 2
Post-secondary vocational courses are classified at ISCED level 3 and non-university tertiary education at ISCED level 5 The proportion of women with
upper secondary education is likely to be over-estimated due to the classification of a predominantly male population with apprenticeship classifications at
ISCED 2 level
1989 0 7 per cent of total omitted due to missing classification by level
1992 04 pet cent of total omitted due to missing classification by level
Netherlands
Classification is based on self-reported information collected by means of a labour force survey concerning the highest diploma or degree obtained in
regular as well as in adult education Senior secondary vocational education is totally classihed at the ISCED 3 level A new scheme currently under
development proposes to classify the 3- and 4-year programmes (XABO) as non-university tertiary education
1990 0 2 per cent of total omitted due to missing classification by level
281
1992 All post-secondary education is classified as ISCED 6/7
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

New Zealand
The data do not refer to the age group 45 to 54 but to the group 45-64 years of age
1990 0 7 per cent of total omitted due to missing classification by level
1992 5 per cent of total omitted due to missing classification by level
1

Norway
1989 18 per cent of total omitted due to missing classification by level
1992 Persons for whom the level of educational attainment is unknown have been allocated to ISCED 0/I The figures given for these categories are
therefore equivalent to 'unknown'
Portugal
1991 One per cent or less of the total is not classified by level Missing data were proportionally redistributed
Spain
1981 ISCED 5/6/7 reported as ISCED 6/7 ISCED 5 is of little significance
1989 ISCED 5/6/7 reported as ISCED 617 ISCED 5 is of little significance
1992 ISCED 5/07 reported as ISCED 6/7 In this year the programmes of 'Formacion Profesional de Segundo Grade' have been reclassified from ISCED 3
to ISCED 5
Sweden
1992 The data are based on the national register of population and educational attainment which contains information about issued certificates at ISCED
levels 5 and 6/7 Around 20 per cent of the classifications at level 5 and 10 per cent at level 6/7 are based on self-reported information Until 1968 persons
who had passed an examination of a general programme at ISCED level 3 were awarded a diploma The classification of persons educated at a later date IS
not based on diplomas but on the completion of ISCED levels 2 and 3 ISCED 0/1/2 reported as ISCED 2 4 9 per cent of total omitted due to missing
classihcation by level
Switzerland
1989 5 5 per cent of total omitted due to missing classification by level
1992 Apprentices have been defined as being in full-time education In previous years they were defined as lull -time employed 1 4 per cent of total
omitted due to missing classification by level
Turkey
1992 Classification is based on latest diploma or degree obtained ISCED level 0 is excluded The uneven gender distribution of the total population may
to some extent be due to this
United Kingdom
Data on females are based on the age group 55-59 instead of 55-64 and on the age group 25-59 instead of 25-64
1989 0 per cent of total omitted due to missing classification by level
1

1992 ISCED level 3 (defined as beginning at about 14 to 15 years of age and lasting about 3 years) is interpreted for the United Kingdom as covering all
persons with 0 level or A level examination passes, or their equivalent Most vocational qualifications are included in ISCED level 3 0 I per cent of total
omitted due to missing classification by level
United States
1992 In 1992 the educational attainment question in the Current Populations Survey was changed ISCED 3 now excludes a small number of individuals
who have completed grade 12 but did not receive a diploma or its equivalent In addition ISCED 3 includes a large number of people with some tertiary
education but no credential ISCED 5 only includes individuals who received an Associate degree, a credential awarded in programmes normally requiring
two years of full-time study Compared to statistics published in earlier editions of Education at a Glance (OECD) the change will increase the percentage
of the population whose highest educational attainment is ISCED 3 and will decrease the percentage whose highest educational attainment is ISCED 5

Sources are as follows

Australia
1989 OECD Education Database
1991 Database on labour force status and educational attainment, February 1991
1993 Australian Bureau of Statistics, Labour Force Status and Educational Attainment in Australia

Austria
1989 Micro-census of the Austrian Central Statistics Office, averages for 1989
1992 Micro-census of the Austrian Central Statistics Office, averages for 1992

Belgium
1989 OECD Education Database
1992 Labour Force Survey 1992 The unemployment register in April 1992 has been used for data on the number of unemployed

Canada
1981 OECD Education Database
1989 OECD Education Database
1992 Canadian Labour Force Survey

Denmark
1981 1988 and 1992 Statistical register of the labour force and register of statistics on unemployment
Finland
1982 OECD Education Database
1989 OECD Education Database
1992 The Register of Completed Educational Programmes and Degrees Labour Force Survey 1992

France
1981 OECD Education Database
1989 OECD Education Database
1992 Labour Force Survey, March 1992

Germany
1989 OECD Education Database
1282 1992 Labour Force Survey 1992
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Greece
1981 OECD Education Database
Ireland
1989 OECD Education Database
1992 Labour Force Survey 1992
Italy
1989 OECD Education Database
1992 Labour Force Survey, 1992
Netherlands
1990 OECD Education Database
1992 Labour Force Survey, 1992
New Zealand
1981 OECD Education Database
1990 OECD Education Database
1992 Household Labour Force Survey, 1992
Norway
1981 OECD Education Database
1989 OECD Education Database
1992 Labour Force Survey, 1992
Portugal
1989 OECD Education Database Average figure from four quarterly labour force surveys conducted in 1991
Spain
1981 Labour Force Survey, 1981
1989 Labour Force Survey 1989
1992 Labour Force Survey 1992
Sweden
1981 OECD Education Database
1992 The Register of Educational Attainment for the Population Labour Force Survey, 1992
Switzerland
1989 OECD Education Database
1992 Labour Force Survey, 1992
Turkey
1992 Household Labour Force Survey, 1992

United Kingdom
1984 OECD Education Database
1989 OECD Education Database
1992 Labour Force Survey 1992
United States
1981 OECD Education Database
1989 OECD Education Database
1992 Current Population Survey March 1992

2831
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Table A I I Average annual change in educational attainment for the population aged 25 to 64, 1981-921 2

(percentage)

Men and women Women

0/12 3 5 6/7 0/1/2 3 5 6/7

Canada
Difference 1981-92
Average annual change
III
10
71
06
145
13
36
03
109
10
-69
06
13
12
1 47
04
Denmark
Difference 1981-92 86 42 17 28 103 48 22 34
Average annual change 08 04 02 03 09 04 02 03
Finland
Difference 1982-92 16 3 11 8 1 6 2 8 18 3 13 1 2 1 3 1

Average annual change 16 11 02 03 18 13 02 03

France
Difference 1981-92 128 78 22 28 138 88 22 28
Average annual change 12 07 02 03 13 08 02 03
New Zealand
Difference 1981-92 23 4 20 8 37 63 23 0 17 3 00 5 7
Average annual change 21 19 03 06 21 16 00 05
Norway

Spain
Difference 1981-92
Average annual change II
125 28
03
44
04
52
05
149
14
50
05
40
04
59
05

126
Difference 1981-92
Average annual change
Sweden
II 52
05
30
03
44
04
130
12
57
05
20
02
52
05

Difference 1981-92 210 118 67 25 240 14 I 71 28

Average annual change 19 I1 06 02 22 13 06 03
United Kingdom
Difference 1984-92
Average annual change
United States
13 7
17
99
12
1

02
3 2 5
03 I
14 5
8
11 2
14
07
01
2 5
03

Difference 1981-92 37 92 70 17 39 66 -61 34

Average annual change 03 08 06 02 04 06 06 03
I This table shows the estimated average annual changes in population shares for below upper secondary education for upper secondary education for non-
university tertiary education, and for university tertiary education Included are all persons in the age group 25.64 Annual changes have been calculated
over the period indicated For countries for which the available data covered less than 5 years no annual changes were calculated
2 For the definitions of the education levels see note 2 in Annex Table A 10
Source See Annex Table A 10

1284
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Table A 12 Proportion of the population In four age groups that had attained at least upper secondary education,
1992
(percentage)

25 to 34 35 to 44 45 to 54 55 to 64

North America
Canada 81 78 65 49
United States 86 88 83 73

Pacific Area
Australia' 57 56 51 42
New Zealand 60 58 55 49

European Community
Belgium 60 51 38 24
Denmark2 67 61 58 44
France 67 57 47 29
Germany 89 87 81 69
Ireland 56 44 35 25
Italy 42 34 21 12
Netherlands 68 61 52 42
Portugal3 21 17 10 7
Spain 41 24 14 8
United Kingdom 81 71 62 51

Other Europe OECD

Austria 79 71 65 50
Finland 82 69 52 31
Norway 88 83 75 61
Sweden 85 78 63 46
Switzerland 87 84 77 70
Turkey 21 14 9 5

Weighted mean OECD 72 69 60 48

I 1993
2 Of the 25- to 34-year-olds a relatively large number are still enrolled in education Data may therefore understate the true values
3 1991
Source OECD Education Database see Annex Table A 10

2851
IJFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Table A 13 Educational attainment of women and men, aged 25-34 and 55-64, 19921
(percentage differences)

Age 25-34 Age 55-64 Difference (in %11

Men Women Men Women Age 25-34 Age 55-64

North America
Canada 39 40 30 27 14 94
United States 38 38 35 32 1 3 79
Pacific Area
Australia? 33 31 29 26 -44 114
New Zealand 30 30 26 23 23 103
European Community
Belgium 32 32 21 18 18 161
Denmark 32 33 30 27 20 100
France 33 33 21 17 01 153
Germany 35 34 35 27 43 217
Ireland 29 30 20 20 38 00
Italy 26 26 17 14 -01 147
Netherlands 34 34 29 23 22 21 9
Portugal3 17 19 13 12 94 93
Spain 28 29 15 13 28 154
United Kingdom 35 33 30 27 36 101
Other Europe OECD
Austria 31 30 28 24 32 -136
Finland 34 34 27 26 66 51
Norway 36 37 31 28 21 101
Sweden 35 36 30 29 I 0 28
Switzerland 37 32 35 28 125 193
Turkey 19 15 13 1 I 210 136
The data indicate the difference in the expected level of educational attainment between men and women in the age group 25-34 and 55-64 years of age
The dilferences are expressed in percentage points The underlying metric for the calculation of the expected level of educational attainment is the ISCED
level obtained ISCED level 0/1 Is assigned a scale value of I ISCED level 5/6/7 is assigned a scale value of 6 and ISCED level 6/7 is assigned a scale value
of 6 5
2 1993
3 MI
Source See Annex Table A 10

1286
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Table A 14 Labour force participation rate by level of education for persons between 25 and 64 years of age,
1981-921

Men and women Women

Primary Lower Upper Primary Lower Upper

Tertiary Tertiary
or less secondary secondary or less secondary secondary

North America
Canada 1981 604 700 771 856 377 504 624 731
1989 563 712 807 885 381 565 708 819
1992 52 0 68 8 79 9 87 0 37 3 55 4 72 0 81 2
United States 1981 533 628 736 829 345 464 613 71 I

1989 55 2 64 4 78 5 87 1 38 5 50 3 69 2 79 3
1992 53 9 64 2 79 7 88 1 38 2 49 7 70 7 81 9

Pacific Area
Australia 1989 51 9 67 1 82 5 79 9 34 6 52 8 58 9 70 3
1991 48 1 62 9 79 8 79 8 34 4 50 0 59 5 71 6
1993 x 651 802 863 x 534 622 790
New Zealand 1981 674 740 821 819 473 573 558 659
1990 638 768 789 816 519 672 613 732
1992 63 4 77 2 79 1 84 8 50 3 68 8 65 8 77 6
European Community
Belgium 1989 41 I 689 787 885 260 499 662 820
1992 45 8 67 1 78 8 86 9 31 2 50 3 67 5 81 3
Denmark 1981 733 878 918 646 799 879
1988 73 9 90 2 94 2 68 4 87 3 92 1

1992 73 0 88 9 93 6 68 3 86 6 92 4
France 1981 60 4 75 2 84 3 88 2 45 3 60 1 70 6 80 7
1989 56 I 75 1 83 8 89 2 45 8 62 3 73 3 83 8
1992 55 1 76 9 83 5 87 8 45 3 65 6 74 9 83 1

Germany 1989 502 734 879 384 598 745

1992 570 767 883 461 673 818
Ireland 1989 518 636 678 846 205 326 487 724
1992 50 5 65 5 70 7 84 9 22 8 36 9 54 3 75 0
Italy 1989 469 713 801 906 267 486 685 862
1992 45 6 71 7 79 8 90 7 26 0 50 2 69 3 86 4
Netherlands 1990 45 5 61 3 76 1 85 4 27 9 43 0 60 6 75 8
1992 45 1 62 1 77 0 85 4 28 8 44 8 63 2 77 4
Portugal 1989 69 9 72 4 72 6 72 7 59 8 65 5 65 7 65 7
1991 63 3 82 1 88 4 94 2 46 0 73 7 85 2 93 3
Spain 1981 545 697 780 851 241 429 471 748
1989 53 2 73 4 81 8 86 5 28 1 50 3 64 8 81 4
1992 534 736 802 870 305 528 659 810
United Kingdom 1984 696 822 861 580 668 761
1989 68 7 83 5 88 7 59 8 72 3 81 7
1992 645 821 877 542 714 804
Other Europe OECD
Austria 1989 53 0 74 6 89 2 41 1 58 2 84 0
1992 557 762 895 450 632 832
Finland 1982 x 769 882 916 x 715 835 864
1989 x 71 I 87 2 90 7 x 67 6 84 0 87 0
1992 x 69 8 84 7 89 1 x 66 4 80 1 86 0
Norway 1981 581 688 819 898 453 549 692 832
1989 69 0 84 2 92 7 57 9 76 6 89 3
1992 664 832 910 564 767 877
Sweden 1981 77 0 85 3 90 0 93 0 67 7 78 4 84 5 91 I

1989 84 6 93 2 95 7 78 8 91 0 94 9
1992 x 86 2 93 0 94 8 x 81 0 91 2 94 0
Switzerland 1989 70 6 80 3 90 1 57 8 66 2 75 6
1991 723 813 917 612 682 768
1992 71 7 82 2 92 2 61 3 70 2 80 2
Turkey 1992 57 3 70 3 74 7 90 2 31 9 21 0 41 3 82 2
Notes Data not available x Data included in another category
I The labour force participation rate is calculated as the percentage of the population that belongs o the labour force The labour force is defined in
accordance with OECD Labour Force Sratistics
Source See Annex Table A 10

2871
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Table A 15 Number of full-time students In all levels (except pre - primary), 1975-921 2 3

(per 100 persons in the population aged 5-291

Total enrolment

1975 1980 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992

North America
Canada 54 5 49 2 52 7 53 2 53 7 54 3 54 9 55 6 56 9 58 0
United States 55 6 51 7 50 2 50 3 50 7 51 3 51 7 52 6 53 1 54 2
Pacific Area
Australia 521 525 530 531 539
Japan 476 537 576 571 565 557
New Zealand 551 556 509 509 51 4 516 527 535 546 556
European Community
Belgium 51 5 52 1 51 8 513 52 3 52 6 52 9 53 9
Denmark 532 548 556 556 557 556- 555 552 548 549
France 51 3 52 6 55 1 55 2 55 4 56 1 56 9 57 1 57 7 58 4
Germany ( FTFR) 513 526 i 530 519 509 508 504 496 498 503
Greece 50 0
Ireland 51 I 50 0 52 4 52 8 53 3 54 1 55 0 55 9 56 1 56 4
Italy 508 508 484 478 471 470 483 489 484 500
Luxembourg 407 404 41 2 407
Netherlands 510 526 523 525 521 518 512 51 1 512 544
Portugal 45 6 44 4
Spain 539 546 550 554 559 564 566 569
United Kingdom 485 479 472 468 510 471 480 519
Other Europe OECD
Austria 40 5 43 1 49 2 49 7 49 2 49 1 49 1 49 4 49 1 50 5
Finland 492 516 532 538 546 555 568 583 604 608
Norway 49 5 51 5 52 6 51 9 51 4 50 7 49 7 53 6 54 2 54 6
Sweden 51.2 52 2 51 5 50 9 50 7 50 3 49 8 49 7 50 2
Switzerland 41 2 42 8 49 4 48 7 48 2 47 8 47 8 48 0 48 I 49 1

Turkey 36 1 34 2 37 7 31 3 37 3 38 I 38 2 38 8 39 3 39 7

Note Data not available

I Due to the revision of the OECD Education Statistics questionnaire in 1985 there may be some differences in coverage pnor to that date
2 Students enrolled in primary, secondary or tertiary education are counted regardless of their ages Students enrolled in early childhood education are
excluded even if they are 5 years or older
3 Enrolment in public and private institutions
Source OECD Education Database

288
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Table A 16 Schooling expectancy for a 5-year-old child', 1985442

(head counts)

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1994

North America
Canada 7 I

United States 150 151 152 154 153 155 155 156 56
'Pacific Area
Australia 152 59
New Zealand 144 148 156 51 58
European Community
Belgium 65 69
Denmark 145 146 147 147 148 148 149 56 62
France 148 149 150 15 1 154 155 156 59 62
Germany (FTFR)3 156 156 156 59 64
Greece 3 7 3 9
Ireland 48 51
Luxembourg 13 0 13 1 13 3 13 1

Netherlands 152 152 153 154 155 155 157 62 68

Portugal 131
Spain 6 I

United Kingdom 148 152 149 149 141 153 153 148 48
Other Europe OECD
Austria 4 9
Czech Republic 139 140 138 138 137 136 37
Finland 140 148 154 59
Norway 140 141 142 143 145 151 154 157 62
Sweden 134 135 134 134 134 134 134 151 57
Switzerland 143 144 144 145 146 147 148 152 53
Turkey 62 68 83 83 89
Note Data not available
I The expectation of participation is obtained by adding the net enrolment rates for each year of age from 5 to 29 and dividing the result by 100 The indicator
therefore presents the hypothetical duration of schooling for a 5-year-old child, assuming a constant length of studies during the ensuing years Expectancy
rates are calculated using head counts Note that the results would be slightly affected if part-time schooling was not taken into account the loss would be
hall a year or more for New Zealand, Norway, the United Kingdom and the United States
2 No data available for 1993
3 1994 covers the whole of Germany
Source OECD Education Database

289!
 Table A 17 Net rates of participation In full-time secondary education, 19851
(percentage of year group)

Age

14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

North America
Canada 974 978 938 690 310 94 73 -
United States 100 9 910 896 793 189 34 18 05 06 02
Pacific Area
Australia 104 7 77 5 13 9 1 4 05 07 - - -
Japan 986 954 922 942
New Zealand 101 7 891 676 329 64 22 01 - - -
European Community
Belgium 982 966 900 809 404 17,9 95 23 03 02
Denmark 996 981 895 739 649 448 245 128 70 42
France 94 8 94 9 89 5 77 2 40 2 15 0 2 8 04 0 2 0 1

Germany (FTFR) 948 954 958 92I 764 455 217 103 109 10
Ireland 950 907 790 572 210 37
Italy 805 632 522 444 338 102- 36 15 08 07
Luxembourg
Netherlands 983 984 927 774 508 264 124 51 21 08
Portugal 422 403 396 354 285 218 197 87 59 52
Spain 862 735 580 507 266 140 62 53 43 33
United Kingdom 992 990 487 309 87 23 I 1 06 05 03
Other Europe - OECD
Austria 948 882 855 780 429 136 48 26 18 19
Finland 948 959 881 816 653 219 138 138 107 70
Norway 99 4 99 9 83 8 75 3 60 2 22 9 11 2 8 2 6 1 4 2
Sweden 98 6 94 8 90 3 82 3 45 9 10 2 4 6 3 5 2 8 2 5
Switzerland 93 3 92 4 84 2 82 2 73 3 49 2 21 3 87 4 1 26
Turkey 402 316 290 131 89 46 21 13 00 00
Notes Data not available Magnitude is either negligible or zero
1 For the methodology for the calculation of net enrolment rates see Table 110
Source OECD Education Database
 Table A 18 Net rates of participationI In full-time secondary education, 14-23 year-olds, 1994
(percentage of year group)

Age

14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

North America
Canada 965 962 938 720 401 162 146
United States 968 968 950 829 263 71 14 08 04 02
Mexico 562 465 389 299 178 85 52 33 22 16
Pacific Area
Australia 980 927 815 616 157 45 44 09 06 06
lapan 100 0 985 951 919 13 - - - - -
New Zealand 997 100 0 899 708 266 88 42 26 19 17
European Community
Belgium 989 100 7 100 5 971 520 270 141 34 13 05
Denmark 947 980 937 786 626 437 272 168 105 68
France 983 968 960 900 609 341 147 48 17 04
Germany 983 977 958 912 819 573 312 159 212 21
Greece 857 809 816 570 175 84 61 37 26 16
Ireland 969 937 922 748 343 1 1 0 39
Netherlands 989 986 968 872 647 418 258 144 81 48
Spain 100 0 939 818 743 429 252 191 120 77 37
United Kingdom 980 949 730 573 184 57 27 18 14 1 1

Other Europe - OECD

Austria 988 950 922 864 555 215 78 41 12 10
Czech Republic 997 998 881 625 249 36 09 04 - -
Finland 996 996 959 913 803 239 175 161 136 91
Norway 989 992 937 897 814 346 199 139 103 '71
Sweden 99 4 96 6 96 2 95 5 82 2 21 0 5 9 2 7 2 2 1 7
Switzerland 979 959 863 821 745 515 223 86 44 27
Notes Data not available- Magnitude is either nil or negllgeable
I For the methodology for the calculation of net enrolment rates see Table 110 It should be noted that the enrolment rates in this table refer only to secondary education There are additional enrolments
in tertiary education especially at ages not matching the typical age range for secondary education enrolment For net enrolment rates in tertiary education, see Table 110
Source OECD Education Database

O
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Table A 19 Number of full-time students In upper secondary education, 1975-92' 2 3

(per 100 persons in the population aged 5-29)

1975 1980 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992

North America
Canada 125 112 106 106 106 108 108 109 11 1 116
United States 73 72 103 104 105 104 100 97 96 95
Pacific Area
Australia 69 65 68 74 79 79 83 I 62
Japan 97 105 120 122 124 128 132 135 135 32
New Zealand 66 78 75 78 83 88 93 95 99 04
,European Community
Belgium 153 54
Denmark 74 105 121 123 126 127 129 128 128 30
France 87 98 96 99 102 108 116 120 123 23
Germany IFITRI 88 109 152 153 149 146 139 130 123 20
Greece 68 81 12
Ireland 61 66 85 87 89 92 95 101 102 05
Italy 100 113 118 121 125 129 146 155 153 60
Luxembourg 83 87 109 108 107 100
Netherlands 51 67 87 91 93 94 94 93 91 I 27
Portugal 54 50 55 61 77
Spain 90 121 124 129 32 41 48 57 64 72
United Kingdom 11 2 127 127 126 25 22 62 17 17 27
Other Europe OECD
Austria 80 93 164 165 61 57 51 51 46 45
Finland 94 122 132 130 29 29 28 32 43 44
Norway 92 104 124 127 23 22 24 47 50 51
Sweden 74 92 11 1 107 04 04 05 04 05 07
Switzerland 32 42 139 138 38 36 35 32 28 I 17
Turkey 33 37 38 39 41 43 44 46 49 54
Notes Data not available Vertical bars indicate a break in the series
I Due to the revision of the OECD Education Statistics questionnaire in 1985 there may be some differences in coverage prior to that date
2 Students enrolled in primary secondary or tertiary education are counted regardless of their ages Students enrolled at the pre-primary level of education
are excluded, even if they are 5 years or older
3 Enrolment in public and private institutions
Source OECD Education Database

1292
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Table A 20 Number of full-time students In tertiary education, 1975-921 2 3

(per 100 persons in the population aged 5-29)

1975 1980 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992

North America
Canada 67 59 86 89 90 91 92 93 98 101
United States 66 70 74 74 75 77 79 82 83 87
Pacific Area
Australia 45 51 39 43 47 49 56 69
Japan 43 47 60 62 65 68 71 74 78
New Zealand 25 29 30 32 35 39 45 48 53 59
European Community
Belgium 42 51 60 62 63 65 67 71 73 75
Denmark° 61 65 68 70 71 74 77 82 86 94
France 49 49 64 66 66 68 72 77 83 90
Germany (FIER) 36 42 71 73 75 78 81 82 85 89
Greece 34 34 49
Ireland 24 27 33 35 36 38 41 44 46 51
Italy 46 52 55 56 54 58 62 66 71 78
Luxembourg 07 07 08 08
Netherlands 49 62 55 56 57 61 62 65 69 74
Portugal 03 03 30 28 28 29 40
Spain 37 44 54 59 62 67 71 75 80 86
United Kingdom 25 32 29 29 30 30 32 34 37 42
Other Europe OECD
Austria5 32 34 65 69 72 76 79 84 87 93
Finland 50 62 73 77 81 86 92 98 104 104
Norway 38 38 49 47 52 54 50 69 76 82
Sweden 56 62 65 64 64 65 66 67 70 75
Switzerland 31 36 40 41 43 44 46 47 49 50
Turkey 15 10 16 17 18 19 21 24 26 28

Note Data not available

I Due to the revision of the OECD Education Statistics questionnaire in 1985 there may be some differences in coverage prior to that date
2 Students enrolled are counted regardless of their ages
3 Enrolment In public and private institutions
4 Enrolment at October Ist 1991 and 1992
5 The number of students at ISCED level 6/7 is slightly overestimated due to multiple counts
Source OECD Education Database

Table A 21 Employees who received training I and Its duration, 1994

(percentage)

Length of training
Received
training 1 week 1-4 weeks 1-6 months > 6 months

Canada 38 32 12 24 33
Netherlands 38 18 8 35 39
Poland 15 30 23 29 18

Sweden 43 49 33 13 6
Switzerland 42 25 17 28 30
United States 42 41 15 25 20

I Percentage of the employed population Since the previous six months

Sources OECD and Statistics Canada 119951

2931
UFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Table A 22 Sweden: number of employees who received training by age, 1982-941

(percentage of the employed population)

Age group 1982 1986 1987 1989 1990 1992 1993 1990

16-24 II 16 20 26 27 23 14 23
25-34 17 24 27 32 32 34 22 37
35-44 18 27 29 38 38 41 27 43
45-54 17 23 28 34 37 37 25 44
55-64 II 26 18 24 27 30 20 36
Total 15 22 25 3! 33 34 23 38

I Refers to the first six months of the year

Source Statistics Sweden, Persona tutbildningsregastret

Table A 23 United Kingdom: participation in lob-related training' by age, 1984-90

(percentage of the employed population) 2

Age group 1984 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990

16-19 202 223 213 230 229 252

20-24 13 5 16 I 16 8 18 7 19 3 20 5
25-29 114 135 139 159 167 177
30-39 93 109 126 139 153 158
40-49 62 74 89 105 12 1 135
50-59 15 43 49 60 75 83
60-64 3 2 0 2 3 1 9 2 7 3 2 4 1

Total 9 I 10 8 11 7 13 3 14 4 15 4

I 'Training' includes both on-the-lob and off-the-lob training lour-week reference period
1 Excluding the sell-employed and people on government schemes
3 Men only
Source Labour Force Survey 1989, 1986-90 (preliminary estimates For 1990)

1294
 Table A 24 Denmark: students In public adult education and continuing vocational training, 1980-93
(full-time equivalents enrolments, head counts)

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993

General programmes 22 300 22 600 22 800 23 300 23 100 23 300 22 600 22 000 23 200 23 100 24 500 24 800 24 700 24 500
Folk high school 5 400 5 900 6 400 6 600 6 600 6 400 6 000 5 900 6 000 6 300 6 400 6 600 6 800 6 900
Day" high school 100 200 400 500 600 700 1000 1 200 1 800 2 400 3 000 3 600 4 900 6 300
Immigrant education 5 200 5 300 5 200 5 200 5 700 5 700 5 200
Open University 15 600 15 700 15 800 16 000 16 600 17 100 18 300 19 000 19 100 19200 22 900 21 400 21 500 21 200
Adult vocational training/short programmes 7 300 8 600 9 800 9 400 9 000 9 000 8 800 8 600 8 800 8 300 7 800 7 900 8 400 9 200
Adult vocational training/long programmes 100 500 700 600 400 500 600 400 400
Pre-vocational training 2 600 2 600 2 600 2 600 2 700 2 400 1800 1 700 1 600 1 700 1 800 1800 1 600 1 600
Leisure-time education 18 800 19 000 20 700 21 500 21 600 21 800 21 900 20 900 20 900 21 500 21 700 21 900 23 100 24 300
Other 6 300 6 500 6 800 7 000 7 000 7 000 7 000 7 400 7 600 7 700 8 200 8 200 8 500 8 700
Total of above 78 400 81 100 85 300 86 900 87 200 87 800 87 900 92 600 94 900 95 800 102 000 102 500 105 600 108 300
Adults in regular formal education 13 600 14 000 14 400 15 100 15 800 17 100 18 500 19 800 21 200 21 700 22 200 22 700 23 200 24 000
Total adults in public adult education,
in continuing training and in regular
education 92 000 95 100 99 700 102 000 103 000 104 900 106 400 112 400 116 100 117 500 124 200 125 200 128 800 132 300

Note Data not available

Source Statistics Denmark, Ministry of Education Denmark

G
mT

a
 Table A 25 Denmark: public expenditure on adult education and training, 1980-93
(million DKr, 1993 prices('

1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993

General programmes 654 679 713 709 694 699 702 711 741 771 800 827 845 840
Folk high school 542 652 555 586 594 624 641 653 647 706 717 744 764 778
Day" high school 7 15 20 28 35 40 55 70 100 135 170 200 266 315
Immigrant education 307 276 270 276 270 267 261
Open University 260 262 265 270 272 260 270 280 282 284 338 318 328 354
Adult vocational training/short programmes 733 855 906 930 898 940 995 980 1 049 996 960 984 1 064 1 159
Adult vocational training/long programmes 8 38 43 43 38 37 38 35 36
Pre-vocational training 194 194 194 194 199 202 183 180 171 155 155 150 141 141
Leisure-time education 1 005 1 063 1 078 1 050 1 038 1 073 1 065 I 084 1 058 1 073 1 063 1 065 1 066 I 200
Other 346 379 381 384 380 392 403 439 445 452 461 469 487 518
Total 3 741 4 099 4 112 4 151 4 HO 4 238 4 352 4 747 4 812 4 880 4 977 5 065 5 263 5 602
Adults in regular formal education 598 616 634 665 698 752 814 870 933 954 976 998 1 014 1 062
Total public expenditure 4 339 4 715 4 746 4 816 4 808 4 990 5 166 5 617 5 745 5 834 5 953 6 063 6 277 6 664
Note Data not available
I Expenditure include tuition fees, which in 1993 amounted to about 3 per cent of total expenditure for general programmes, 37 per cent for folk high schools, 30 per cent for Open university and 54 per cent for
leisure-time adult education
Source Statistics Denmark, Ministry of Education, Denmark
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Table A 26 Germany (FTFR): institutions,

courses and enrolments In adult education, 1965-93

Institutions' Courses Enrolments 2

965 5 870 77 837 1 695 7

970 5 237 109 881 2 227 3
975 4 289 195 546 3 761 0
980 4 817 301 444 4 633 0
981 4 906 308 380 4 676 8
982 5 050 303 215 4 551 9
983 4 919 311 427 4 606 6
984 4 834 327 167 4 773 5
985 4 801 334 993 4 826 3
986 4 683 360 463 5 184 3
987 4 762 377 877 5 336 9
988 4 910 398 792 5 568 0
989 4 805 409 975 5 595 7
990 4 837 415 973 5 581 3
991 3
4 884 427 657 5680 7
9923 4 801 441 443 5893 1

9933 4 613 456 243 6 023 4

Including external departments

2 Thousands
3 Including lecture series
Source Federal Ministry of Education, Science, Research and Technology 1994-95, Basic and Structural Data, Education Statistics for the Federal Republic of
Germany

Table A 27 Germany. expenditure on education

by the federal government, the Lender and local authorities according to expenditure areas, 1965-92
(om billion)

Expenditure on education and training'

Total Further education and training

965 15 676 293

970 27 759 581
971 34 876 697
972 39 255 820
973 44 624 965
974 52 130 928
975 56 835 1 054
976 58 093 1 284
977 60 407 1 517
978 64 674 1 831
979 69 936 2 124
980 77 127 2 291
981 80 873 2 374
982 81 832 2 379
983 82 605 2 411
984 83 151 2 636
985 85 264 2 951
986 88 722 3 137
987 91 893 3 216
988 93 113 2 894
989 96 254 2 986
990 102 795 3 217
991 112 152 3 654
9922 118 727 3 999

Net expenditure Former territory of the Federal Republic only

By the federal government and the LUnder
Source Federal Ministry of Education Science Research and Technology, 1994-95, Basic and Structural Data, Education Statistics for the Federal Republic of
Germany
2971
 Table A 28 France: development of private sector' continuing training financed by public authorities and enterprises, 1984-93
(Metropolitan France)

1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993

Students (millions)
National government 849 871 881 900 1 191 1 228 1 431 1 400 1 523 1 595
Regional government 320 385 353 391 418' 432 426 466 439 422
Enterprises 2 343 2 386 2 689 2 828 3 077 3 270 3 390 3 464 3 586 3 695
Total 3 512 3 642 3 864 4 043 4 522 4 930 5 247 5 330 5 548 5 712
Training hours2 (millions)
National government 221 243 227 262 324 346 348 412 409 475
Regional government 82 79 80 96 108 113 124 136 126 123
Enterprises 132 142 191 206 201 252 272 301 300 301
Total 435 464 494 550 614 711 744 849 835 899
Expenditure (millions)
National government 11 000 12 500 14 000 13 500 17 300 19 600 21 500 22 400 23 800 24 100
Regional government 2 500 2 800 3 000 3300 3 400 3 100 3 400 3 400 4 000 4 300
Enterprises 18 900 20 700 24 800 27 000 30 700 35 200 39 100 41 900 44 900 44 800
UNEDIC3 800 2 400 3 300 5 000 7 600 12 900
Total 32 400 36 000 41 800 43 800 51 200 60 300 67 300 72 700 80 300 86 100
I Not included training of civil servants, apprentices and entry into employment programmes for 16- to 25-years-olds
2 Number of students multiplied by training duration
3 Union nationale pour I emplol dans !Industrie et le commerce
Source Ministry of Education, Higher Education, Research and Vocational Integration (1995) Reperes et references stansuques sur les enseignements et la formation, Pans
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Table A 29 Direct expenditure per student In pre- primary education from public sources, 1985-921. 2

(constant 1992 US dollars)

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992

North America
United States 2 928 2 967 3 224 3 309 3 511 3 933 4 127 I 3 210

Pacific Area
Japan 3 020
New Zealand
European Community
Belgium 2 245 2 278 2 248 2 235 2 276 2 265 2 308 2 350
Denmark 2 571 2 646 2 814 3 358 3 402 I 6 300
France 2 224 2 580

Germany (ITER) 3 350

Ireland 1 327 1 267 1 370 I 278 1 302 1 399 1 566 1 750

Italy 3 280
Netherlands 2 230
Portugal 1 548
Spain 912 905 949 1028 1 145 1 414 1 827 2 090
United Kingdom I 726 2 048 2 163 2 209 2 225 2 160 2 296 I 1 860

Other Europe OECD

Austria 2 369 2 365 2 271 2 179 2 250 2 290 2 467 3 280
Czech Republic 1 240
Finland 6 280
Norway 4 4 I0 5 272 5 960 6 359 6 344 6 027 6 462 7 350
Sweden 2 804 2 868 2 751 2 634 2 587 2 571 I 61 809700

Switzerland 2 074

Country average 2 311 2 506 2 652 2 745 2 788 2 759 2 679 3 335

Notes Data not available Vertical lines denote break in series

I The number of students used to calculate expenditure per student from public sources is the number enrolled In public schools or in private schools that
are predominantly publicly funded
2 Direct expenditure per student from public sources is calculated by dividing direct government expenditures for educational Institutions at the
corresponding level of education by the corresponding full-time equivalent enrolment The result is converted into US dollars using the purchasing power
parity (PPP) exchange rate for GDP
Source OECD Education Database for enrolment and expenditure data The PPP exchange rates are published in OECD National Accounts

2991
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Table A 30 Direct expenditure per student in primary education from public sources, 1985-92 2

(constant 1992 US dollars)

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992

North America
United States 4 356 4 585 4 872 4 994 5 259 5 213 5 322 5 600
Pacific Area
Japan 3 530
New Zealand 2 030
European Community
Belgium 2 227 2 212 2 144 2 132 2 117 2 127 2 202 2 390
Denmark 3 563 3 531 3 924 4 123 4 188 4 437 4 520 0 220
France 2 664 2 900
Germany (FTFR) 2 980
Ireland 1 320 1 332 1 414 1 352 1 370 1 426 1 585 1 770
Italy 4 050
Netherlands 2 560
Portugal 1 327 1 368 I 495 1 817 I 927 2 169
Spain 1 436 1 440 I 496 1 643 1 799 I 797 1 913 2 030
United Kingdom 2 331 2 484 2 655 2 726 2 788 2 891 2 872 3 120
Other Europe OECD
Austria 3 444 3 511 3 597 3 539 3 487 3 519 3 673 4 010
Finland 3 850
Norway 3 397 3 878 4 264 4 384 4 253 3 871 3 994 4 480
Sweden 5 094 5 272 5 529 5 266 5 260 5 623 4 840
Switzerland 5 600 3 560
Turkey 581
Country average 2 600 2 944 3 113 3 224 3 392 3 247 3 286 3 407

Note Data not available

I The number of students used to calculate expenditure per student from public sources is the number enrolled in public schools or in pnvate schools that
are predominantly publicly funded
2 See Note 2, Annex Table A 29
Source OECD Education Database for enrolment and expenditure data and OECD National Accounts

1300
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Table A 31 Direct expenditure per student in secondary education from public sources, 1985-921 2

(constant 1992 US dollars)

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992

North America
United States 5 271 5 520 5 705 5 839 6 067 6 533 6 653 6 470
Pacific Area
lapan 3 900
New Zealand 2 620

European Community
Belgium 5 269 5 165 4 938 5 050 4 973 4 795 5 140 5 150
Denmark 5 035 4 984 5 276 5 479 5 534 5 290 5 529 4 940
France 4 770 5 430
Germany (FTFR) 4 260
Ireland 2 273 2 255 2 416 2 339 2 359 2 399 2 558 2 770
Italy 4 700
Netherlands 3 310

Portugal I 755 1 798 1 862 1 887 2 430

Spain I 994 2 015 2 128 2 375 2 591 2 701 2 807 I 2 790
United Kingdom 3 856 4 325 4 660 4 973 2 788 2 891 4 374 4 390

Other Europe OECD

Austria 3 935 4 055 4 244 4 310 4 441 4 623 4 811 I 6 420
Finland 4 820
Norway 4 807 5 240 5 500 5 668 5 674 5 142 5 527 6 200
Sweden 6 227 6 219 5 949 5 987 6 279 6 050
Switzerland 6 747
Turkey 518

Country average 3 799 4 158 4 295 4 387 4 703 4 720 4 322 4 639

Notes Data not available Vertical lines denote break in series

I The number of students used to calculate expenditure per student from public sources is the number enrolled in public schools or in private schools that
are predominantly publicly funded
2 See Note 2 Annex Table A 29
Source OECD Education Database for enrolment and expenditure data and OECD National Accounts

3011
 IJFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Table A 32 Direct expenditure per student in tertiary education from public sources, 1985-921 2

(constant 1992 US dollars)

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992

North America
Canada 9 915 112 350
United States 10 201 10 958 I 1 185 II 277 9 743 I1 989 12 133 11 880

Pacific Area
Australia 6 600
lapan II 850
New Zealand 6 080
European Community
Belgium 7 084 7 216 6 897 6 447 6 165 640100 6 590
Denmark 8 552 8 756 8 326 8 788 8 809 8 315 6 710
France 4 893 6 020
Germany (FTFR) 6 550
Ireland 5 162 5 262 5 892 5 269 4 979 5 516 5 744 7 270
Italy 5 850
Netherlands 8 720
Portugal 3 725 4 958 6 320584 6 989 6 816
Spain 1 903 2 007 2 474 1 769 3 150 3 770
United Kingdom 10 370
Other Europe - OECD
Austria 6 544 7 359 6 947 6 820 6 702 6 356 6 622 5 820
Czech Republic 3 590
Finland . 8 650
Norway 7 841 9 232 9 397 9 556 105
10 4100 8 611 8 64
8011 8 720
Sweden 8 652
Switzerland 15 094 1I 127 910200

Turkey 2 873
Country average 6 377 6 969 7 151 7 310 7 092 7 344 7 756 7 871

Notes Data not available Vertical lines denote break in series

I The number of students used to calculate expenditure per student from public sources is the number enrolled in public institutions or in private ones that
are predominantly publicly funded -
2 See Note 2 Annex Table A 29
Source OECD Education Database for enrolment and expenditure data and OECD National Accounts

1302
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Table A 33 Ratio of students to teaching staff In early childhood education, 1985-921 2. 3

1985 1986 1987 .

1988 1989 1990 1991 1992

North America
Canada 17 9 17 7 17 7 17 2 16 6 16 9
Pacific Area
lapan 19 5 19 3 18 9 18 5

European Community
Belgium 18 4
Denmark 184 177 165 158 157 141 136 1 107
France 275 260
Germany (FTFR) 238 239
Ireland 289 284 292 289 279 272
Italy 148 150 145 139 139 139 133
Netherlands 202 195 199 196 203 209 212 I 259
Portugal 22 2
Spain 295 285 277 267 259 257 248 234
United Kingdom 272 278 289 284 278 I 381
Other Europe OECD
Austria 21 8 22 3 22 2 22 0 21 7 21 3 20 9 18 3
Finland 12 5
Turkey 198 165 166 167 162 155 168 166

Notes Data not available Vertical bars indicate a break in the series
I The student teacher ratio is obtained by dividing the number of full-time equivalent students at a given level of education by the number of lull-time
equivalent teachers at the same level
2 Note that the student teacher ratio is not an indicator of class size The fact that one country has a lower ratio of students to teachers does therefore not
necessarily mean that classes are smaller or that pupils receive larger amounts of instruction The relationship between the student teacher ratio and either
average class size or the amount of instruction per student is complicated by variations among countries in the length of the school year, the number of
hours that a student attends class each day the length of a teacher s working day the number of classes or students for which a teacher is responsible, and
the division of the teachers time between teaching and other duties
3 Note further that all children in early childhood education are counted as full-time even though they may attend school only hall-day
Source OECD Education Database

Table A 34 Ratio of students to teaching staff In primary and secondary education, 1985-921

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992

North America
Canada 169 166 165 162 159 159
United States 15 3 15 3

Pacific Area
Australia 15 6
Japan 207 206 203 199 195 190 185 179
New Zealand 19 4 19 4 19 0 18 1

European Community
Belgium 98
Denmark 12 2 I 1 9 1 I 6 I I 3 11 1 II 0 10 9 10 2
France 16 3
Germany 1FTFRI 19 4 18 8 18 4 18 0 17 8 17 5 17 5 17 1

Ireland 20 8
Italy 1 I 1 109 106 101 101 101 99 95
Netherlands 16 3 160 15 3 15 3 15 4
Spain 217 213 213 208 200 190 186 180
United Kingdom 171 172 167 173 172 174
Other Europe OECD
Austria II 4 11 2 10 7 10 5 10 3 10 2 10 I 10 2
Sweden 1 1 7 1 1 5 I 1 4 11 3 1 1 0 10 8 10 5 11 6

Turkey 27 1 27 3 27 3 27 6 27 7 27 3 27 7 26 8

Note Data not available

I See notes to Annex Table A 33
Source OECD Education Database 3031
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Table A 35 Ratio of students to teaching staff In tertiary education, 1985-92'

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992

North America
United States 156 158
Pacific Area
Australia 94 I 143
Japan 1 1 7 I 1 4 II 5 11 7 11 8 11 8 12 1 12 2
New Zealand 13 8

European Community
Belgium 13 1
I 17 5
France 17 8
Germany (FTFIZI 10 7 10 9 10 9 10 8 10 8 II 0 10 8 10 7
Ireland 107 108 126 131 136 142 143 150
Italy 292 283 259 268 288 294 317
Netherlands 10 2 10 3 10 4 10 6 10 6 12 0 13 2 13 9
Portugal 11 4
Spain 220 237 250 248 241 240 234 226
United Kingdom 11 4 12 2 12 8 14 0

Other Europe OECD

Austria? 155 158 163 167 166 164 165 I 138
Turkey 190 205 207 194 206 214 218 231

Notes Data not available Breaks in series are indicated by a vertical line
I See notes to Annex Table A 33
Source OECD Education Database

Table A 36 Graduation rates' In upper secondary education, 1985-92

(percentage)

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992

North America
Canada 703 722 698 661 668 694 715 684
United States 73 5 73 5 74 I 74 6 73 1 72 2 73 8 75 7
Pacific Area
Australia 87 8
Japan 905 916 900 908 922 919 922
New Zealand
European Community
Belgium 77 I

Denmark 872 817 969 997 100 7 977 100 8 991

France 64 1 68 0 68 5 71 0 71 6 71 4 74 8 78 2
Germany IFTFRI 102 6 106 4 107 1 107 1 110 1 107 3 108 1 109 8
Greece 84 3
Ireland 816 806 821 I 103 8
Italy 393 396 408 433 464 459 506 589
Luxembourg
Netherlands 576 684 658 678 725 768 820 I 956
Portugal 22 5 19 5 22 7 50 2
Spain 524 517 512 559 560 625 638 I 749
United Kingdom 81 7
Other Europe OECD
Austria 808 881 881 884 916
Norway 72 5 74 3 75 2 77 2 79 0 81 2 91 0 95 6
Sweden 79 5 79 3 77 7 83 3 83 4 79 5 80 2 83 0
Switzerland 853 868 875 886 893 888 893 826
Turkey 19 1 20 9 21 I 22 2 22 1 23 8 27 9 29 2

Notes Data not available Vertical bars indicate a break in series

I Graduation rates are calculated as the ratio of upper secondary graduates to the number of persons in the population who are at the typical age at which
persons in that country complete the corresponding educational programme Upper secondary graduates are persons who successfully complete the final
year of upper secondary education (success may or may not be established through a hnal examination) As a consequence graduation rates may exceed
100 per cent because graduation can occur before or aver the theoretical age of graduation
Source OECD Education Database
1304
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Table A 37 Graduation rates' in general upper secondary education, 1985-92

(percentage)

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992

North America
Canada 703 722 698 661 668 694 715
United States 73 5 73 5 74 1 74 6 73 1 72 2 73 8
Pacific Area
Australia
Japan 638 655 643 653 668 670 674
New Zealand 161 190 236 258 303 31 1 348
European Community
Belgium 34 9
Denmark 30 2 28 7 28 1 29 7 30 2 32 8 32 1 I 48 7
France 199 212 220 245 260 277 304 323
Germany (FTFR) 197 197 200 205 205 21 0 223 243
Greece 60 I

Ireland 669 667 701 695 725 717 731 766

Italy 156 152 15 1 158 168 166 181 218
Luxembourg
Netherlands 29 3 29 6 28 6 29 4 30 0 30 8 31 6 35 4
Portugal 180 161 177 436
Spain 259 254 263 279 305 333 336 I 436
United Kingdom 63 6
Other Europe OECD
Austria 145 143 145 144 152 142 138 150
Finland 429 425 436 426 438 443 447 454
Norway 35 6 34 5 34 6 34 7 33 7 35 8 40 3 40 3
Sweden 208 196 178 178 182 189 197 218
Switzerland 16 6 16 1 16 1 15 5 16 0 16 8 17 5 16 1

Turkey 108 12 1 117 126 127 132 158 168

Notes Data not available Vertical bars indicate a break in series
I The methodology used for the calculation of graduation rates is explained in Annex Table A 36
Source OECD Education Database

3051
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Table A 38 Graduation rates' in vocational and technical upper secondary education,1985-92

{percentage)

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992

North America
Canada
United States
Pacific Area
Australia
lapan 267 261 257 254 254 249 248
New Zealand 27 6

European Community
Belgium 41 3
Denmark 570 530 690 702 705 650 687 1
504
France 44 2 46 7 46 5 46 6 45 7 43 7 44 4 45 9
Germany (FTFR) 829 867 871 866 896 863 858 85,5
Greece 24 2
Ireland 91 89 90 1
272
Italy 237 244 258 275 296 293 325 371
Luxembourg
Netherlands 28 3 38 8 37 2 38 3 42 5 46 0 50 4 1 60 3
Portugal 45 33 50 66
Spain 266 262 249 280 255 292 302 31 3
United Kingdom 166
Other Europe OECD _

Austria 66 3 72 8 73 9 74 7 76 6
Finland 799 765 769 733 739 752 778 841
Norway 36 9 39 7 40 6 42 5 45 3 45 4 50 7 55 4
Sweden 58 8 59 7 59 9 65 6 65 2 60 6 60 5 61 1

Switzerland 687 707 714 731 733 721 718 666

Turkey 83 88 94 96 94 106 121 125

Notes Data not available Vertical bars indicate a break in series

I The methodology used for the calculation of graduation rates is explained in Annex Table A 36 Vocational education includes technical and apprenticeship
programmes To obtain the number of graduates for general and vocational programmes, countries with differentiated upper secondary institutions have
reported the number of graduates by type of institutions attended
Source OECD Education Database

1306
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Table A 39 . Graduation rates in tertiary university education, 1985-92

I

(percentage)

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992

North America
Canada 27 0 28 7 31 3 33 3 35 8 37 3 38 7 37 7
United States 326 336 349 368 389 402 413 391
Pacific Area
Australia 256 277 286 336 364
Japan 24 9 24 6 23 8 25 6 24 9 23 7 25 2 25 3
New Zealand 168 192 203 193 187 205 218 251
European Community
Belgium 127 1 1 3 107 126 176 176 134 147
Denmark 165 164 160 158 187 213 238 1
313
France 1 1 4 1 1 5 122 129 138 148 162
Germany (FTFRI 15 3 15 0 15 I 15 2 14 9 14 5 14 7 14 6
Greece 12 3
Ireland 155 178 184 200 193 196 192 213
Italy 90 90 91 95 105 103 109 123
Luxembourg
Netherlands 2 70 75 88 120 1 I I 89 90 I 274
Portugal 63 54 66
Spain 144 150 164 175 184 193 204 209
United Kingdom 287
Other Europe OECD
Austria 72 69 74 79 73 85 86 88
Finland 154 159 162 199 188 194 203 222
Norway 266 239 292 296 313 341 380 1
264
Sweden 168 15 I 152 146 141 133 139 153
Switzerland 93 94 97 99 98 99 100 107
Turkey 36 46 57 59 65 67 67 66
Notes Data not available Vertical bars indicate a break in series
I The methodology used for the calculation of graduation rates is explained in Annex Table A 36
2 Data in 1992 include non-university tertiary graduates
Source OECD Education Database

3071
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Table A 40 United States: mean verbal and mathematics proficiency scores on Scholastic Aptitude Test, 1976-931
(college-bound high school seniors)

1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993

Verbal 431 429 429 427 424 424 426 425 426 431 431 430 428 427 424 422 423 424
Mathematics 472 470 468 467 466 466 467 468 471 475 475 476 476 476 476 474 476 478

I See Chart 136 for explanations

Source National Center In Education Statistics (1994), The Condition of Education, p 64 and p 228

Table A 41 United States: mean science proficiency scores, by sex and age, 1970-921
Total Male Female

Age 9 Age 13 Age 17 Age 9 Age 13 Age 17 Age 9 Age 13 Age 17

970 225 255 305 228 257 314 223 253 297
973 220 250 296 223 252 304 218 247 288
977 220 247 290 222 251 297 218 244 282
982 221 250 283 221 256 292 221 245 275
986 224 251 288 227 256 295 221 247 282
990 229 255 290 230 258 296 227 252 285
992 231 258 294 235 260 299 227 256 289

The science proficiency scale has a range from 0 to 500 The sewn e tests are administered as part of the National Assessment of Educational Progress
since 1970
Source National Center of Education Statistics 19941, The Condition of Education p 56
1

1308
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Table A 42 Rados of mean annual earnings by educational qualifications, early 1970s-90s I. 2 3' 4

(population 25 to 64 years of age)

ive-year
Five -year
Mrdd le/late
Country/education level Early 1970s Late 1970s Early 1980s Early 1990s change 1980s/
1980s change 1970s
early 1990s

Australia, men
Level E/Level A 2 03 1 87 1 74 1 70 1 79 -0 16 0 02
Level E/Level B 1 95 1 72 1 65 1 52 1 62 -0 23 -0 02
Level E/Level C 1 83 1 67 1 61 1 49 160 -0 16 -001
Level E/Level D 127 1 36 128 1 19 1 33 0 09 0 03

Australia, women
Level EJLevel A 2 07 1 74 1 70 1 70 1 71 -0 33 0 01
Level E/Level B 1 94 1 55 1 52 1 51 1 61 -0 39 0 05
Level E/Level C 1 88 1 56 1 70 1 49 1 70 -0 32 0 00
Level E/Level D 1 27 1 34 1 37 1 32 1 33 007 -002
Austria, men
Level E/Level A 1 74
Level E/Level B 1 26
Level EJLevel C 136
Austria, women
Level E/Level A 1 58
Level E/Level B 1 14
Level EJLevel C 1 20

Canada, men
Level E/Level A 2 09 1 69 1 90 2 08 -0 33 0 16
Level E/Level B 1 75 1 54 1 70 1 71 -020 007
Level E/Level D 1 49 1 37 1 52 1 51 -0 10 006
Canada, women
Level E/Level A 2 44 2 00 2 22 2 23 -0 36 0 10
Level EJLevel B 1 85 1 65 1 82 1 80 -0 17 006
Level E/Level D 142 1 42 159 1 53 000 005
Denmark, men
Level E/Level A 1 58 159 1 61 002
Level EJLevel B 1 39 1 42 1 31 -004
Level E/Level C 1 37 1 40 1 42 003
Level E/Level D 1 32 1 31 134 001
Denmark, women
Level E/Level A 1 46 1 39 136 -006
Level E/Level B 133 1 27 1 21 -007
Level E/Level C 1 35 1 28 1 26 -0 05
Level E/Level D 115 1 17 I 15 000
France, men
Level E/Level A 3 85 4 23 3 81 0 27 -0 26
Level E/Level B 1 88 2 38 2 42 0 36 0 03
Level E/Level C 3 08 3 47 3 20 0 28 -0 17
Level E/Level D 1 74 2 46 2 35 0 51 -0 07
France, women
Level E/Level A 3 11 3 20 3 11 006 -0 06
Level E/Level B 167 202 213 025 007
Level E/Level C 2 36 2 53 2 49 0 12 -0 03
Level E/Level D 1 45 1 77 1 71 023 -004
Germany, men
Levels D and E/Level A 2 00 194 -0 06
Levels D and E/Level C 1 64 164 0 00
Levels B, D and E/Level A I 50 195 2 02 0 37
Levels B, D and E/Level C 1 25 1 29 1 27 0 01

Germany, women
Levels B, D and E/Level A 1 77 2 26 2 01 0 17
Levels B, D and EJLevel C 1 76 170 146 -0 21

3091
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Table A 42 Ratios of mean annual earnings by educational qualifications, early 1970s-90s I 2 3 4 (corn 1
(population 25 to 64 years of age)

Five-year
Middle/late Five-year
Country/education level Early 1970s Late 1970s Early 1980s Early 1990s change 1980s/
19805 change 1970s
early 1990s

japan, men
Level E/Level A 1 32 1 30 1 36 1 36 -002 002
Level E/Level B 1 31 1 25 1 28 128 -005 001
Level E/Level D 098 I 1 1 1 34 1 36 0 1 1 010
Japan, women
Level E/Level A 165 159 159 162 -005 001
Level E/Level B 1 40 1 32 1 36 1 38 -007 002
Level F/Level D I 11 1 21 1 22 1 24 008 001
Netherlands, men
Level E/Level A 196 186 0 10
Level E/Level B 156 152 -004
Level F/Level C 168 164 0 04
Level F/Level D 134 1 23 0 11

Netherlands, women
Level E/Level A 2 20 187 0 32
Level E/Level B 2 00 162 0 38
Level E/Level C 190 162 0 38
Level E/Level D 1 50 127 0 23
Norway, men
Level E/Level A 1 43 1 32 135 0 05
Level E/Level B 1 35 125 126 -007
Norway, women
Level E/Level A 1 26 1 31 125 0 01
Level E/Level B 119 126 126 004
Sweden, men
Level E/Level A 168 37 1 57 155 -022 009
0
1

Level E/Level B 44 22 1 30 1 36 16 007

0
1 1

Level E/Level C 54 31 1 40 134 16 001

0 21
1 1

Level E/Level D 1 27 1 55 1 12 I 13 0 20
Sweden, women
Level E/Level A 76 49 36 51 0 19 001
0
1 1 1 1

Level E/Level B 67 47 34 54 14 004

0
1 1 1 1

Level E/Level C 1 59 1 40 1 24 1 37 14 -001

Level E/Level D 1 31 1 24 1 13 1 16 0 04 0 04
United Kingdom, men
Level E/Level A 1 83 69 1 87 2 04 0 14 0 17
0 20
1

Level E/Level B 1 52 132 1 47 1 53 0 09

Level E/Level C 1 51 1 55 1 65 1 79 0 04 0 10
Level E/Level D 1 22 1 29 1 27 1 31 0 07 0 01

United States, men

Level E/Level A 1 92 1 94 2 33 2 47 0 02 0 20
Level E/Level B 1 55 1 57 I 73 1 89 -002 012
Level E/Level D 1 36 1 41 1 48 1 58 0 04 0 07
Unites States, women
Level E/Level A 1 85 1 78 2 15 2 32 0 07 0 21
Level E/Level B 1 49 1 47 1 64 1 83 0 02 0 14
Level E/Level D 1 29 1 29 1 36 1 46 0 00 0 07

Note Data not available

I Ratios are multiplied by 100
2 Relative earnings from work are defined as the mean annual earnings from work of individuals with a certain level of educational attainment divided by the
mean annual earnings from work of individuals with the respective other level of education Calculations are based solely on persons with incomes from
work during the reference period
3 Portions of the disparities are due to differences in the number of working hours between the educational groups On average, persons with higher levels of
educational attainment tend to have more working hours per year than those with lower levels of education which may have to do with differences in
propensity to take on and ability to find full-time work
4 In many cases the national levels of education used for this indicator do not strictly correspond to the standard ISCED definition for the levels of
education An explanation of the national classifications of educational levels is given below

1310
UFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Austria
Level A = Elementary school without apprenticeship
Level B = Completed education in school offering higher general education
Level C = Completed education in schools offering medium level vocational training
Level E = University

Canada
Level A = 0 to 8 years of education
Level B = Some or completed high school (beginning with the 1990 survey, a distinction has been made between some high school and completed high
school)
Level D = Some post-secondary or post-secondary certificate or diploma
Level E = University degree

Denmark
Level A = Basic elementary (Grundskole), pre-vocational education and no schooling
Level B = Gymnasium or equivalent
Level C = Non-academic vocational education/training
Level D = Short post-secondary schooling
Level E = University degree and medium length post-secondary schooling

France
Level A = No diploma or initial education
Level B = Baccalaureat general
Level C = CAP or BEP
Level D = Dacca laureat plus 2 years
Level E = Grande &tale

Germany
For full-time, full-year males only
Level A = No qualifications including graduates of Hauptschule or Realschule who did not complete either an apprenticeship or graduated from a full-
time vocational school
Level C = Completed apprenticeship or graduated from a full-time vocational school or technical training
Level E = Completed either Hochschule or Fachhochschule
Other German data
Level A = No certificate and no occupational training
Level C = Elementary certificate (Hauptschule or Realschule) or lower level apprenticeship training
Level B/D/E = Abitur degree, higher occupational training (Fachhochschule) or university degree

!anon
Level A = Elementary and lower secondary education
Level B = Upper secondary education
Level D = lunior college or college of technology
Level E = University

Netherlands
Level A = Lager ondervais (less than lower secondary), Uitgebreid to algemeen (secondary, first level of general education track) and Vitgebreid lo beroeps
(secondary, first level of vocational track)
Level B = Midde /bear onderwils algemeen (upper secondary general track)
Level C = Middelbaar ondertwis beroeps [upper secondary vocational track)
Level D = Huger beroeps onderwus (higher-level technical studies)
Level E = Wetenschappeluk ondenviiMuniversityl

Norway
Level A = Ungdomsskolenive (primary school) and Gymnasnwi (secondary school level I)
Level B = Gymnasnnui (secondary school level 21
Level E = University level

Sweden
Level A = Completed old compulsory schooling level (6-8 years) or old compulsory schooling and one year of vocational training or completed new
compulsory schooling igrundskola of 9 years) or an older counterpart (realskola of 9.10 years)
Level B = High school degree (old student examen and new gymnasium of 12 years)
Level C = Completed new compulsory schooling and at least one year of vocational training
Level D = High school degree and at least one year of post-secondary vocational education
Level E = University degree

United Kingdom
Level A = No qualifications miscellaneous non-vocational qualifications (including CSE grades 2-5), miscellaneous apprenticeships clerical or commercial
qualifications without 0 levels, less than five 0 levels
Level B = GCE A level
Level C = Less than five 0 levels with clerical or commercial qualifications City and Guilds Craft or Ordinary Certificate, more than five 0 levels, and
Advanced or final City and Guilds Certificates, Ordinary National Certificate or diploma BEOTEC National, General or Ordinary
Level D = Nursing or teaching (non-graduate) qualifications, and Higher National Certificate or Diploma, BEC/TEC Higher certificate or diploma, City and
Guilds full technological certificate and qualifications from colleges or professional institutions above GCE A level but below degree level

United States
LevelA = Less than 4 years of high school
LevelB = 4 years of high school
LevelD = Less than 4 years of college or university
LevelE = At least 4 years of college or university
1312 Source OECD (1994d), The OECD lobs Study Evidence and Explanations, Table 7 A I, pp 160-161
 Table A 43 Earnings differentials by educational attainment of young and older men, early 1970s-90s
(ratio of mean annual earnings by qualifications ages 25 to 34 and 45 to 541

Five-year
Differentials by age group Early 1970s Late 1970s Early 1980s Middle/late 1980s Early 1990s Five-year change 1970s change 1980s/
early 1990s

Level ElLevel A
Australia 25-34 1 78 155 1 39 1 44 I 54 0 23 0 08
45-54 2 21 2 00 193 197 198 -021 003
Japan 25-34 16 1 15 121 124 -001 003
0 05
1

40-49 175 1 75 162 1 61 0 00

Netherlands 23.34 1 58 1 52 0 06
45-64 228 215 -013
United States 25-34 160 169 2 08 221 0 09 0 20
45-54 2 14 2 02 2 53 2 50 -015 0 18

Level ElLevel B
Australia 25-34 163 I 41 120 137 135 -022 008
45.54 2 04 1 81 2 20 2 01 1 67 0 23 0 30
Japan 25-34 I II 10 115 16 -001 002
0 01 0 03
1 1

40.49 1 46 1 44 1 36 1 36
Netherlands 23-34 40 1 38 0 01
45-64 69 1 69 0 00

United States 25-34 1 28 1 27 1 53 1 64 0 01 0 14

45-54 1 60 162 1 79 1 84 0 02 0 08

Level ElLevel D
Australia 25.34 1 27 129 1 08 1 21 1 28 0 02 0 12
45.54 148 149 1 38 1 31 1 43 0 01 0 03

Japan 25-34 1 11 1 09 1 12 1 12 0 01 0 01
40-49 1 21 1 24 1 28 1 24 0 02 0 00

Netherlands 23-34 28 117 -011

45.64 135 125 -010
United States 25-34 17 18 132 140 001 008
0 II
1 1

45-54 141 132 159 171 015

Level ElLevel C
Australia 25-34 60 44 31 125 1 38 0 16 0 04
0 0 04
1 1 1

45-54 2 14 1 93 1 88 1 81 1 81 21

Note Data not available

For the Netherlands educational Level B includes upper secondary vocational 1dehned as Level C in Table A 421 and general upper secondary education
Source See Annex Table A42
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Table A 44 Percentage of children with special learning needs who are enrolled in schools outside
the mainsteam education system, late 1980s1
Early childhood education Primary education Secondary education

Pacific Area
Japan 0 33 0 44
European Community
Belgium 0 55 3 90 3 40
France 0 30 2 00 3 70
Greece 0 10 1 40 0 12
Ireland 1 00 0 90
Netherlands 0 71 5 64 2 48
Spain 0 50 0 90 0 20
Other Europe OECD
Finland 6 21 3 70
Norway 0 21 0 38

Notes Data not available

I Data refer to selected years from 1987 to 1991
Source OECD (1995h) p 41

Table A 45 Federal budget allocations for Head Start and enrolments in the programme, United States, 1975-95

Federal
Enrolments
expenditure
(millions US$) (thousands)

975 404
980 735 376
985 I 075 452
990 1 448 541
991 1 952 584
992 2 202 621
993 2 776 713
994 3 326 741
995 752
Note Data not available
Source United States Department of Education (1994a) Digest of Education Statistics Tables 349 and 360

1314
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Table A 46 Distribution of 9-year-olds in various types of grouping for reading instruction, 19911 2

(percentage distribution)

No grouping Ability groups Interest groups Age groups Other

North America
Canada (British Columbia) 57 19 7 2 15
United States 31 45 4 12 7

Pacific Area
New Zealand 6 83 4 0 7

European Community
Belgium (French community) 71 16 9 I 3

Denmark3 26 38 17 0 19
Germany (TFGDR) 24 55 9 0 12

Germany (FTFR) 63 32 3 0 2

Greece 84 9 4 I 2
Ireland 49 49 i I 0
Netherlands 9 87 0 2 2

Portugal 69 14 13 0 4
Spain 89 8 1 I I

Other Europe OECD

Finland 66 13 14 I 6
Iceland 41 48 3 I 7
Switzerland 52 16 12 I 20

I Based on data collected for the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational Achievement reading literacy study
2 Standard errors of estimates are given in OECD I1995d) p 359
3 No grouping is probably underestimated due to an inaccurate translation in the Danish survey
Sources Elley 119921 and OECD I1995d) Education at a Glance OECD Indicators, p 172

3151
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Table A 47 Transitions In initial education and training, 1985 and 19921

(total, net full-time enrolment rates by age)

Age 16 Age 17 Age 18

1985 1992 1985 1992 1985 1992

North America
Canada 94 96 69 72 31 37
United States 90 91 79 72 19 21
Pacific Area
Australia 14 79 59 14
Japan 92 95 94 90
New Zealand 68 88 33 66 6 21

European Community
Belgium 90 97 81 94 40 50
Denmark 90 92 74 80 65 69
France 90 92 77 87 40 59
Germany (FTFR) 96 95 92 93 76 82
Ireland? 79 88 57 70 21 33
Italy 52 44 34
Netherlands 93 97 77 91 51 68
Portugal 40 35 29
Spain? 58 76 51 67 27 36
United Kingdom° 49 75 31 55 9 19
Other Europe OECD
Austria 86 90 78 85 43 54
Finland? 88 95 82 86 65 80
Norway 84 93 75 87 60 77
Sweden 90 89 82 87 46 60
Switzerland 84 85 82 82 73 74
Turkey 29 39 13 34 9 20

Note Data not available

I Total enrolments in secondary and tertiary education
2 Figures by single age are estimates
3 Participation rates do not take into account the students whose age is unknown about 3 per cent in upper secondary education
4 If part-time students are considered the enrolment rates are substantially higher In 1992, 15 per cent of 16-year-olds 20 per cent of 17-year-olds, and
17 per cent of 18- year-olds were enrolled on a part-time basis
Source OECD Education Database

1316
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Table A 48 Youth labour force participation and unemployment, 1983 and 19941
(percentage of labour force and population)

Youth labour force Youth

Youth unemployment rate participation rate employment/population rano

1983 1994 1983 1994 1983 1994

North America
Canada 19 7 165 66 7 62 9 53 6 52 5
United States 172 125 671 664 556 581

Pacific Area
Australia 179 162 69 I 68 4 56 7 57 3
lapan 45 55 44 2 47 6 42 2 45 0
New Zealand 150 660 56 I

European Community
Belgium' 239 184 43 9 34 4 33 4 28 I

Denmark2 189 146 65 3 70 5 52 9 60 2

France 197 275 45 7 30 7 36 7 22 3

Germany2 110 82 58 0 56 9 51 6 52 2

Greece2 23 1 28 8 42 7 38 6 32 9 27 5

Ireland2 201 251 58 6 46 9 46 9 35 I

Italy' 305 306 44 6 39 9 31 0 27 7

Luxembourg 68 44 60 2 47 7 56 I 45 6
Netherlands 249 1 102 51 5 61 7 38 7 55 4
Portugal2 183 120 67 5 48 3 55 I 42 4
Spain 376 428 57 6 49 I 35 9 28 I
United Kingdom2 173 71 I 58 8

Other Europe OECD

Finland 105 30 9 57 I 44 6 51 I 30 9
Norway 77 74 61 8 55 4 57 I 51 3

Sweden 80 166 65 4 49 6 60 2 41 4

Switzerland 57 63 7 60 I

Note Data not available

I Youth refers to ages 15-24 Unemployment and labour force participation rates are defined in accordance with OECD Labour Force Statistics Vertical bar
indicates a break in the series
2 1994 is 1993
Soulce OECD 1199511 Employment Outlook Table B p 205

3171
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Table A 49 Monthly flows into and out of unemployment

Inflow' 2 OtanOW2 3

Total 15-24 Total 15-24

North America
Canada 994 2 3 4 1 27 5 36 4
United States 994 1 7 3 8 37 6 46 4
Pacific Area
Australia 994 09 19 144 170
Japan 994 04 08 144 25 5
New Zealand 994 1 1 2 3 177 21 5
European Community
Belgium 993 04 09 86 II 7
Denmark 993 18 35 214 294
France 994 04 0 5 30 44
Germany 993 06 08 90 139
Greece 993 0 3 10 47 61
Ireland 992 06 09 38 55
Italy 992 04 08 95 96
Netherlands 993 02 04 64 114
Portugal 993 03 06 153 192
Spain 994 06 1 1 27 39
United Kingdom 993 07 I 7 93 114
Other Europe OECD
Finland 993 2 8 42 136 22 6
Norway 994 07 12 216 38 8
Sweden 994 1 I 2 3 184 28 2
I Inflows refer to those unemployed for less than one month two months in the case of Finland)
2 Working-age population (15-64 years) less the unemployed for inflows total unemployment for outflows
3 The number of outflows is estimated on the basis of the difference between the average monthly level of inflows and the monthly average change in
unemployment (calculated over one year)
Source OECD 11995/1 Table 19, pp 27-28

131E1
 Table A 50 Distribution of employment by enterprise tenure, 19911

United United Unweighted

Australia Canada Finland France Germany? Moan? Netherlands? Norway3 Spain° Switzerland
Kingdom States average

Current tenure I%)

Total 100 0 100 0 100 0 100 0 100 0 100 0 100 0 100 0 1000 100 0 100 0 100 0 100 0
Under year
1 21 4 235 110 157 128 98 240 14 96 239 176 186 288 186
1-2 years 132 2005 128 107 103 16 15 155 1106 7 7 I I 7 124 116
2-5 years 25 9 II 9' 24 5 15 6 17 9 11 5' 22 9 18 06 14 8 20 7 23 9 21 3
Under 5 years 606 554 492 420 410 374 624 43 96 464 499 548 617 504
5-10 years 162 152 167 162 178 197 11 4 197 140 168 161 117 160
10-20 years 152 194 214 256 245 236 152 241 213 188 193 178 205
20 and more 81 100 128 158 167 193 110 123 184 138 96 88 130
Unknown 04 08 01
Median tenure (years)
All persons 35 41 52 75 75 82 31 65 63 50 44 30 54
Average tenure (years)
All persons 68 78 90 101 104 109 70 94 98 88 79 67 87

Note Data not available

I The data are not perfectly comparable across countnes, because of differences in data sources population and sector coverage, reference years, and definitions For more details, consult the source
2 1990
3 1989
4 1992
5 One year and under three years, three years and under five years
6 Under 21 months, 21 months and under 33 months 33 months and under 57 months under 57 months
Source OECD 1199361, Table 4 p 121
1

L
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Table A 51 Transition systems and youth unemployment, 19921

Youth unemployment Youth unemployment,

Adult unemployment rate,
Type of vocational education percentage of workforce
percentage of population percentage of labour force
25-64 years

Predominantly work-based
Austria 27 36
Germany 32 72 62
Switzerland 32 25
Hybrid
Denmark 75 152 106
Predominantly Institution-based
France 71 20 8 88
lapan 20 38
Netherlands 65 78 56
Sweden 63 II 5 38
United Kingdom 1 1 2 154 84
United States 89 142 66
Note Data not available
I Youth unemployment is measured both as a percentage of all persons in the population aged 15 -24 years and as a percentage of the labour force aged
15-24 years Because of the differences in the enrolment rates among countries the labour force p articipation rates differ significantly It is for this reason
that youth unemployment is expressed not only as a percentage of the labour force which is the conventional approach, but also as a percentage of the
whole cohort aged 15 to 24 years
Sources OECD 11995d1 Education at a Glance OECD Indicators Table C1202), p 42 and OECD 11 99511, Employment Outlook, Table Pi p 218

320
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Table A 52 Participants in labour market training programmes

(percentage of the labour force)

Training for unemployed adults Support of apprenticeship

Training for employed adults
and those at risk and related general youth training

1990/91 1993/94 1990/91 1993/94 1990/91 1993/94

North America
Canada 12 28 07 02
United States' 09 07 01 01
Pacific Area
Australia 19 36 04 07 08
New Zealand 50 53 03 03
European Community
Belgium 19 25 56 60
Denmark' 13 42 54 79
France 25 32 19 16 20 19
Germanys 37 19 05 01 02 02
Greece 01 02 09 1 I 03 03
Ireland' 16 I8 07
Italy 33 21
Netherlands 16 14 08 07
Portugal 01 06 10 21 08 06
Spain 15 04 04 02
United Kingdoms 1 1 09 08 05
Other Europe OECD
Austria 13
Finland 14 33 03 06
Norway 27 36
Sweden 17 30 05 05
Switzerland 01 01 01
Notes Data not available.- Nil or less than half of the last digit used
I 1993/94 is 1992/93
2 1990/91 is 1990, 1993/94 is 1994
3 1990/91 is 1991 1993/94 is 1994 Figures refer to the whole of Germany
4 1990/91 is 1991
5 Excluding Northern Ireland
Source OECD 1199511, Employment Outlook Table T pp 222-229

3211
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Table A 53 Participation In lob-related continuing education and training'

(percentage of the employed population aged 25-64, by level of education)

Lower secondary Upper secondary Total

Tertiary education
education or less education

During the 12-month period preceding the survey

Canada 991 13 25 40 30
Finland 990 28 47 74 46
Fra nce2 992 13 31 46 27
Germany) 991 11 23 41 27
Norway 991 17 33 57 37
Sweden° 993 21 34 53 36
Switzerland 993 16 39 52 38
United States5 991 10 30 54 38

During the 4-week period preceding the survey

Denmark 991 6 14 25 15

Ireland° 992 2 4 8 4

Spain 992 I 6 7 3

United Kingdom 992 4 1 0 1 9 I I

I A definition of lob-related continuing education and training for adults is given in OECD 11995/0 p 148
2 The data on continuing education and training are related to training provided or financed by the employers Due to employers legal obligation to provide
continuing education and training, there are administrative data sources available that give the number of employed who have participated in training
during a given year The labour force surveys give data on the number of participants in continuing education and training on the day of the survey
3 Training of students over 25 years old in vocational schools and in the dual system in the framework of initial training is not considered to be continuing
vocational education Forms of continuing vocational education other than courses are also not considered
4 The data refer to continuing education and training provided or sponsored by the employer The data were collected in the Labour Force Survey of lune
1993 The reference period in the survey was six months The number of people involved in training during a I2-month period is assumed to be 150 per cent
of the training rate during six months Labour market training is not included
5 Respondents were asked to list up to four adult education activities or courses taken in the past 12 months, and to indicate whether or not they were taken
for credit towards a degree and whether or not they were completed The data are restricted to those who indicated that the main reason for participation
was al to improve, advance, or keep up to date on the current lob bi to train for a new lob or a new career and, cl for other employment or career-related
reasons
6 lob-related training for the employed includes training related to employment in the workplace and in an educational institution
Source OECD I I 995d) Education at a Glance OECD Indicators

Table A 54 Participation by age in lob-related continuing education and training'

(percentage of the employed population aged 25 to 64, by age groups)

Age groups
Total
2534 years 35-44 years 45-64 years

During the I2-month period preceding the survey

Canada 991 32 35 23 30
Finland 990 51 49 40 46
France 992 43 27 II 27
Germany 991 33 29 21 27
Norway 991 40 42 30 37
Sweden 993 36 33 41 36
Switzerland 993 42 41 34 38
United States 991 37 43 33 38

During the 4-week period preceding the survey

Denmark 1991 17 17 II 15

Ireland 1992 5 4 2 4
Spain 1992 6 2 I 3

United Kingdom 1992 12 12 8 I I

1 See Annex Table A 53

Source OECD (1995d1 Education at a Glance OECD Indicators
1322
 Table A 55 Percentage of respondents who thought It was "very Important" for decisions to be taken by schools themselves, 1993-941

Amount of time Teachers salaries

What subjects How subjects How the school Teacher selection items average
spent teaching each and working
are taught are taught budget is spent and promotion within each country
subject conditions

North America
United States 53 60 57 64 67 57 59 8
European Community
Belgium (Flemish community) 22 41 27 36 39 26 31.9
Denmark 20 32 16 34 31 12 24.0
France 34 56 51 50 59 43 48.7
Netherlands 15 35 22 31 47 24 28 9
Portugal 44 55 50 56 51 37 488
Spain 13 19 17 19 20 13 16 9
United Kingdom 39 50 44 57 50 32 45 3
Other Europe OECD
Austria 31 36 28 33 31 18 29.6
Finland 18 35 26 40 34 22 28.9
Sweden 23 38 24 51 44 17 32.8
Switzerland 18 32 21 22 26 14 22.0
Country average for each Item 27.7 406 31 8 41.0 41.6 262
I The data come from a questionnaire distributed to a sample of the general public in each of the participating OECD countries The questionnaire referred specifically to the final years of compulsory
secondary education and a common set of questions were asked in all countries The organisation of the survey was undertaken within each country and the surveys were administered by reputable national
survey organisations The recommended sample size was I 000 individuals
Sources OECD 119956 and OECD 11995n1
IJFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Table A 56 Perceived confidence in school subjects and cross-curricular qualities, 1993-94

Respondents who viewed subjects as important and who thought they were well taught, and respondents who thought personal
attitudes and attributes were important
and that they were well developed

Average confidence Average confidence

in important subjects in important qualities
(per cent) (per centl

Austria 78 63
Belgium
(Flemish
community) 72 58
Denmark 75 69
Finland 77 55
France 84 62
Netherlands 64 51
Portugal 58 58
Spain 46 37
Sweden 40 18
Switzerland 76 63
United Kingdom 63 47
United States 63 59
Country average 66 2 53 4
Source OECD 1995/1 Public Expectations
1 of the Final Stage of Compulsory Education Table C23 p 132

Table A 57 Number of teaching hours per year, by level of public education, 1992
Primary Lower secondary Upper secondary Upper secondary
education education education (general) education (vocational)

North America
United States 1 093 1 042 I 019
Pacific Area
New Zealand 790 897 813
European Community
Belgium 840 720 660 849
France 944 632
Germany (FUR) 790 761 673 679
Ireland 951 792 792 792
Italy 748 612 612 612
Netherlands 1 000 954 954
Portugal 882 648 612 612
Spain 900 900 630 630
United Kingdom 669
Other Europe OECD
Austria 780 747 664 714
Finland 874 798 760 855
Norway 749 666 627 627
Sweden 624 576 528 612
Turkey 900 1 080 1 080 I 692
Country average 858 781 745 789
Note Data not available
Source OECD 11995d), Education at a Glance - OECD Indicators

1324
 LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Table A 58 Staff employed In education as a percentage of the labour force, 1992

Public and private education' 2

Teachers Pedagogical staff Support staff All staff

North America
United States 2 7 1 5 2 1 62
Pacific Area
Australia 29 03 12 42
Japan 24 07 31
European Community
Belgium 48 06 06 60
Denmark 33 16 09 57
France 3 3 5 5
Italy 42 04 08 55
Other Europe OECD
Finland 3 I 5 I

Note Data not available

I Data refer to full-time equivalent stall
2 Public and private education, primary, secondary and tertiary levels of education
Source OECD 11995d1 Education at a Glance OECD Indicators

Table A 59 Index of computer use for instruction

in four subjects, 1989 and 19921

Yield score?

1989 1992

Austria 27 6 74 I
Germany 35 9 55 4
Japan 14 9 37 3
Netherlands 37 9 63 0
United States 55 I 66 I

I The subjects are mathematics science, mother tongue and technology or computer education
2 The index is based on a yield score that shows the degree of computer use in four subjects in grades 7 8 and 9 of lower secondary schools using computers
Source Brummelhuis 119951, p 53

3251
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Table A 60 Expenditure on educational R&D as a percentage of total expenditure on education

and of total expenditure on R&D
(in millions of local currency and at current prices)

Total public and private

Total public and private Total public and private
educational R&D a/b (%)
educational expenditure R&D expenditure a/c (%)
expenditure
al

Australia 1990-91 78 21 043 5 090 0 37 153

Austria 1989 143 22 967 0 62
Canada 1991-92 1182 49 022 10 289 0 24 1 15
Finland 1991 1203 41 455 10 171 0 29 1 18
Ireland 1991-92 33 1 638 318 018 094
Netherlands 1991 98 31 340 10 381 0 31 0 94
6444 109
New Zealand 1991-92 7
Sweden 1991-92 2311 2 100 286 41 3524 0 23 0 56
United Kingdom 1991-92 533 12 619 042

Note Data not available

I Data for 1990
2 Likely to be underestimated since only data for the ternary education sector are included
3 Likely to be underestimated since data are not available for the private non-profit sector In Finland a potentially more important source of
underestimation is the lack of data on expenditure on land, buildings and other capital items for educational R&D In Ireland and the United Kingdom the
non-inclusion of central overheads attnbutable to educational R&D in the tertiary education sector is a potentially more important source of
underestimation
4 Data for 1991
Source OECD (1995u1, p 45

1326
 Table A 61 Education and earnings, 19921

Men Women

Early childhood, Non-university Early childhood, Non-university

primary and lower University University
tertiary primary and lower tertiary
education education
secondary education education secondary education education

North America
Canada' 81 107 62 72 116 74
United States 66 120 64 65 130 70
Pacific Area
Australia' 88 121 58 90 124 75
New Zealand 74 85 18 73 98 54
European Community
Belgium 86 115 49 78 137 64
Denmark' 86 110 46 86 III 35
France 87 127 74 81 131 42
Germany 88 116 70 84 114 75
Italy' 84 x 34 86 x 16
Netherlands 84 x 32 73 x 47
Portugal' 65 124 79 67 117 88
Spain' 78 x 38 71 X 49
United Kingdom 80 121 71 70 156 206
Other Europe OECD
Austria 85 x 46 81 x 134
Finland' 93 132 92 94 132 176
Norway 80 131 65 76 131 157
Sweden 88 118 60 92 119 156
Switzerland 76 127 52 67 126 152

Note x Data included in another category

I Ratio of mean annual earnings by level of educational attainment to mean annual earnings at upper secondary level (multiplied by 1001 in the population 25 to 64 years of age, by gender
2 1991 data
3 1993 data
Source OECD (1995d) Education at a Glance OECD Indicators, p 233
LIFELONG LEARNING FOR ALL

Table A 62 Unit costs per student by level of education, 19921

Level of education?

Tertiary
Early childhood Secondary (full-time)

North America
Canada 12 400
United States 3 200 6 500 6 600
Pacific Area
Australia 11 900
Japan 3 000 3 900 11 900
New Zealand 1 900 2 700 6 100

European Community
Belgium 2 300 6 700 6 900
Denmark 6 300 4 900 6 700
France 2 600 5 900 6 000
Germany (FTFR) 3 400 4 300 6 600
Ireland 1 800 2 800 7 300
Netherlands3 2 300 4 300 10 800
Spain 2 100 3 100 3 800
United Kingdom I 900 4 400 15 100

Other Europe - OECD

Austria 3 300 6 400 5 800
Finland 6 300 4 800 8 700
Norway 7 400 6 200 8 700
Sweden 6 100 6 100 7 100
Switzerland I 900 12 900

Note Data not available

I Expressed In US dollars adjusted using purchasing power parities (PPP) Rounded to nearest 100 dollars
2 Public institutions only
3 Public and government dependent private institutions
Source OECD (1995d), Education at a Glance OECD Indicators, Table F 03, pp 88 -92

Table A 63 Percentage of adult education and training courses that are employer-supported, 19941
by duration of training)?

Duration

Low Medium High Total

Canada (English) 57 28 4 37
Canada (French) 45 39 0 30
Germany 45 32 18 37
Netherlands 54 38 13 40
Poland 56 36 23 44
Switzerland (French) 46 30 20 36
Switzerland (German) 46 39 16 38
United States 66 45 6 51

I Based on the first reported course being taken in the six months preceding the interview
2 Low 0-59 hours Medium 60-300 hours High > 300 hours
Sources OECD and Statisctics Canada 119951

1328
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(91 96 06 1) ISBN 92-64-14815-9 No 48603 1996