Ecosystems

 It is a self contained system of interdependent organisms and their physical

environment.

Components of an Ecosystem

a) Biotic (biological components)

 living organisms like plants and animals
b) Abiotic(physical factor)non living
 Air ,water ,soil ,rocks ,and mineral salts

Definition of Terms

1. Habitat
 A place where organisms live e.g. wood, land, forest, a pond, a plantation.
2. Niche
 The role in which an organism plays in the habitat.
3. Species diversity
 A variety of organism occupying different niches
 A high species diversity makes for a stable ecosystem in that there will
always be some organisms that are able to survive natural disasters.
4. Scat analysis
 Is getting information about organisms in an area by looking at
their droppings.
 A closer look at droppings can give you information such as diet of
the animals that is whether it’s a carnivore, herbivore or an
omnivore.
5. Biomass
 Is the total living mass of organisms in an area
6. Litter mass
 Is the dead organic matter found on the surface of the soil
7. Basal cover
 Is the portion of ground covered by plants basis on the soil
surface

Notes compiled by M. MLILO “TO GOD BE THE GLORY” Page 82

 Soil as an ecosystem

What is soil

 A complex mixture of small particles of rock and humus

 The first layer of the earth’s surface on which plants can grow i.e.
the loose layers of materials which covers the earth’s crust
supplying anchorage and nutrients to plants

Physical components of soil

 Water
 Air
 Rock particles
 Mineral salts

Biological components of soil

 Humus
 Plant roots
 Micro- organisms e.g. bacteria& fungi
 Macro- organisms e.g. earthworms, ants, termites, insects, larvae,
and nematodes

Formation of soil

 The formation of soil is a dynamic process

 It is an outcome of –
 The disintegration ,through chemical action of the parent
rock material
 The formation and incorporation of humus
 The movement of minerals dissolved in the water
percolating through it

Weathering agents

1) Temperature
The expansion and contraction of a rock due to heating during the day
and cooling during the night causing exfoliation
2) Wind
Abrasive action of sand blown by the acts on exposing the rock surface
and wears them away
3) Water in river

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 It moves stones causing them to rub &knock against each other; finally
they chip off or break up
4) Rain water
Rain drops constantly heating down on rock weather them away slowly
Carbon dioxide dissolved into rain water forms a weak carbonic acid
5) Plants
Roots grow into cracks in the rock: as the roots grow the cracks get
bigger eventually the rock splits
6) Animals
Some animals by burrow help to break up rocks

Formation of the soil constituents

I. Inorganic particles
Formed from rocks which have weathered & broken down
II. Mineral salts
As dissolved out salts either from the surrounding rock or from humus in the
soil
III. Water
Is spread around inorganic particles as a thin film which adhere by capillary
action
IV. Air
Occurs in spaces between the soil particles
V. Humus
Originates mainly from decaying plant and animal remains
VI. Micro & macro-organisms
The most important to plant life are the bacteria which cause decay but also
includes ants, earthworms etc

Types of soil

 Sand
 Clay
 Loam
Sand soil
 a soil which is made up of large or coarse particles
 particles size range from 2 to 0,02 mm in diameter
 poor water retaining capacity
 has good drainage
 has good aeration

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Clay soil
 soil is made up of very fine particles less than 0,002mm in diameter
 good water retaining capacity
 poor drainage
 poor aeration

Loam soil

 is a mixture of clay and sand

 good water retaining capacity
 good aeration
 good drainage
 not too difficult to work on

Experiments

Experiment 1

Aim: to find the air content of soils (sand, clay, and loam)

Tools: sand, clay, and loam soil, measuring cylinder

Method

1. Pour 50cm3 of water into 50cm3 of sand in a measuring cylinder

2. Stir& allow the mixture to settle

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Diagram

Observation

 what is the new volume of the mixture of sand and water

 what is the percentage of air in the soil

Results

 When sand soil & water were mixed together the volume of the mixture was less
than the separate volume of the sand plus the volume of the water

N.B. Expected total volume = (50+50) cm3=100cm3of sand &water

Actual volume of mixture=72cm3

Explanation

 The water sinks into the soil and fill up the air spaces
 This reduces the volume of mixture
Volume of air displacement by water = (100-72) cm3
=28cm3
 Percentage air content that was in the soil
=volume of air ×100 / volume of soil
=28/50×100
=56%

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Experiment 2

Aim: to find the water content of the soil

Tools: loam, sand, clay soils, evaporating dish, boiling tin, balance, burner, stand

Method

1. Measure 50g of moist loam soil. Weigh an evaporating dish and then place the
50g soil in it.
2. Heat the soil in the evaporating dish with steam as shown below. This ensures
that water from the soil evaporates, but the soil’s humus content is not burnt.
3. Heat the soil until the mass becomes constant. Turn off the burner &allow the
soil to cool.

Results

 Mass of evaporating dish =20g

 Mass of moist loam soil =50g
 Mass of evaporating dish& moist loam soil =70g
 Mass of evaporating dish& dry loam soil =60g
 Mass of water that evaporated =10g

Percentage of water content of loam soil =10/50×100

=20%

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Experiment 3

Aim: To find the humus content of loam soil

Tools: evaporating dish, loam soil, wire gauze, burner

Method

1. The dry soil from experiment 2 can now be directly heated on a tin lid until the
soil reaches a constant mass. To achieve this you will have to keep heating it and
weighing it until it’s mass remain constant. heat it for 30 min in the first
instance and then for 10 min intervals, measuring the mass each time until it’s
constant. The humus will be burnt.
2. Extinguish the burner and leave the soil to cool then weigh it again.

Diagram

Results

 Mass of dish and moist loam soil (from ex2) =70g

 Mass of dish and dry soil before heating on a wire gauze =60g
 Mass of dish =20g
 Mass of dish & soil after heating on a wire gauze =56g
Mass of humus = mass of wet soil – mass of dry soil
=70g – 60g
=10g
Percentage of humus content = mass of humus/mass of moist soil ×100
=10/70×100
=14, 28%

Notes compiled by M. MLILO “TO GOD BE THE GLORY” Page 88

Experiment 4

Aim: Drainage and holding capacity of soil

Tools: 2 measuring cylinders, 2 funnels, 2 filter papers, 100g sand soil, 100g loam soil, a
stop watch, water

Method

1. Put 100g of sand in a funnel lined with filter paper & place it over a measuring
cylinder.
2. Put 50cm3 of water onto the soil.
3. Allow the water to drain into the measuring cylinder in that 1 min.
4. Remove the funnel and read the volume of water that has been collected in the
cylinder in that 1 min.
5. Carry out the same procedure of water as in sand soil.
6.

Observations

 Sand soil drains water faster than loam soil because it has large sized particles

The biological components experiments

Experiment 1

Aim: Are there micro-organisms in the soil

Tools: Garden soil, muslin cloth, string, 2 flasks, stoppers, lime water

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Method

1. Collect 2 samples of moist garden soil.

2. Heat on strongly in a dish over a flame. Allow it to cool and wrap in a muslin cloth
&tie it with a string to suspend it in flask containing lime water as shown below.
3. Take the fresh moist garden soil & warp it in muslin cloth & suspend it in flask B
containing lime water as shown.
4. Leave the apparatus for a day. After this period gently shake the flasks.

Diagram

Observation

1. What colour changes occur in the flasks

2. Lime water changes in the presents of carbon dioxide. What do you think caused
the results in flask A and flask B
Experiment 2

Aim: Experimenting organisms from the soil

Tools: soil, funnel, beaker, light source & methylated spirit

Method

1. Place some soil in a funnel which contains wire gauze. Suspend the funnel over a
beaker containing methylated spirit as shown below. Place a light source above
the funnel (you should use an electric light bulb)
2. Leave apparatus for about 36 hrs

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Diagram

Observation

1. Look at what has collected in the methylated spirit after the 36 hrs. (use hand
lens )
2. What caused the organism to fall into the beaker

Results

1. The light caused the organisms to fall in the beaker & methylated spirit is a
preservative ( avoids organisms to decay )

Biological components

Roles they play in the soil

1. Bacteria
 causes decaying of plants and animals and makes the soil fertile
2. Nematodes
 Digest plant sticks, stems, and grass externally
 Helps in the formation of humus (saprophytic )
3. Earthworms

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  Aerate the soil by making tunnels in it and improve drainage
 Increase humus content by pulling leaves and grass into the soil
 Increases the depth of topsoil by mixing topsoil and sub-soil
 Help in recycling nutrients
4. Fungi
 Assist the decay of dead organisms hence the formation of humus
5. Termites
 Make moulds which are fertile than topsoil, by mixing subsoil with organic
matter
 Break down dead plant materials
 Reduces soil aridity by secreting alkaline substances in the soil
6. Ants
 Help in the formation of humus by carrying leaves and dead insects into the soil

Natural ecosystems

E.g. Savannah woodland, Equatorial rainforests, pond, river, dam, lake

Food chain

 Trophic level / feeding levels

 Flow of energy into the ecosystem

Eg mahogany tree → caterpillar → song bird → hawk

A. Producers
 Are green plants
 They make their own food through photosynthesis
B. Consumers
i. Herbivores –animals which feed directly from plants e.g. giraffe, goat,
cattle, sheep, hare
ii. Carnivores –animals that feed indirectly from plants / feeds on meat e.g. lion,
hyena, cheetah, leopard, snake, vulture
iii. Omnivore – feed on both meat and plants e.g. man, baboon

Example of a food chain

1. Grass-grass hoper-bird-man
2. Maize-hen-man-lion

N.B

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  The arrow points to the eater
 Every food chain includes producers
 All producers are green plants
 Energy is lost at each feeding level
 The energy is originated from the sun

Food web

 shows the interrelationship between animals

&plants in an ecosystem
 energy is transferred from one organisms to another
 energy is lost as heat in the form
i. respiration
ii. movement
iii. excretion
iv. wastes

Pyramid of numbers/biomas

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Carbon cycle

 carbon dioxide is a source of carbon in the ecosystem

 most carbon is removed from air during photosynthesis and build food
compounds
 animals gain carbon by eating plants
 carbon is also released into atmosphere by micro-organisms, plants, and animals
during respiration
 carbon dioxide acts as an insulator to keep the earth warm
 the emission of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere must be reduced by burning
fewer fossil fuels e.g. coal, oil, gas
 should use alternative sources of energy e.g. solar, water, and even wind power
 avoid deforestation to enable enough carbon dioxide to be absorbed from the
atmosphere
 carbon dioxide is used by trees in photosynthesis (making their own food ) and
plays an important role

Notes compiled by M. MLILO “TO GOD BE THE GLORY” Page 94

Diagram

Notes compiled by M. MLILO “TO GOD BE THE GLORY” Page 95

Nitrogen cycle

 nitrogen cannot be absorbed directly from atmosphere by plants and animals

 nitrogen is carried out mainly by groups of bacteria in soil mostly by leguminous
plants e.g. beans
 plants like leguminous can grow in soils that are low in nitrogen
 energy from lightning combines some gaseous nitrogen into nitrates
 adding of nitrogen fertilisers to soil is part of the cycle
 nitrates are absorbed by plant roots and used to build up plant proteins
 animals take nitrogen by eating plants protein or other animals that feed on
plants

Diagram

Notes compiled by M. MLILO “TO GOD BE THE GLORY” Page 96

Artificial ecosystems

 humans have cleared vast pieces of lands for agriculture and settlement thus
creating artificial ecosystems
 an artificial ecosystem is one that has not been left to control itself
 in artificial ecosystem humans control species which are present and remove and
introduce new species
 e.g. garden, a game ranch, a national park, orchards
 strict control measures are taken to prevent / control pests and diseases
 nutrients are often added to the soil in the form of artificial fertiliser like
ammonium nitrates and ammonium sulphates
 If the number of animals increases to a land that cannot support such huge
numbers, the numbers can be reduced by culling or selling. The number of
animals on an area can support its carrying capacity
 In an artificial ecosystem the numbers of species is limited
 However limiting the numbers of species in an area can cause problems. If
diversity of plants and animals help to keep a balance of nature
 An area where only limited varieties are kept is prone to pests. A whole crop can
be wiped by pest
 Use of chemicals for pest control affects the equilibrium in an ecosystem
 Another disadvantage of an artificial ecosystem is that production of food is
often for humans
 There is little or no recycling of nutrients back into the soil

Management of an ecosystem

 Where people are using plants and animals they need to look after the
ecosystem. This is called management
 Only if an ecosystem is in a state of equilibrium will it be productive
 Humans can have good and bad effects on an ecosystem and a well planted
management programme is assorted
 The earth is our ecosystem and its management determines our survival

Effects on ground cover

 Surface runoff is reduced because more water penetrates the soil and is
retained
 Erosion : ground cover reduces erosion resulting in top soil being preserved
 Evaporation : this is reduced by ground cover which provides mulching

Effects of human activities on ecosystems

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  Human activities which disturb the ecosystem can be classified onto industrial,
agricultural, and social
 These activities result in soil erosion, desertification, reduced –bio-diversity
and pollution. Pollution can also result in acid rain and global warming or green
house effect

Acid rain

 It is a result of release of sulphur dioxide into the atmosphere from industrial

and social activities
 Sulphur dioxide dissolves in water(rain) to form a weak acid which kills plants on
land and in water
 Acid rain has resulted in destruction of large areas of forests in some countries

Eutrophication

 Sewage and fertiliser are deposited in water bodies

 This causes excessive growth of water plants
 The balance for nature is disturbed
 Water animals end up dying e.g. fish in lake chivero

Characteristics of Zimbabwean savannah soils

 High temperature –soils heat up easily

 Rapid de-nitrification –nitrates easily decompose releasing nitrogen back into
the atmosphere
 Few earthworms –indicator of few micro organisms
 Low fertility –soils have low nutrient content

Problems of farming in marginal lands

 Low fertility
 Unreliable rainfall patterns –no clearly established rainfall patterns
 Low rainfall –rainfall per season is very low. There for there is need for good
soil managements

Carrying capacity

 It is the maximum number of organisms on an area can support without

deterioration
 The limiting factor are oxygen, food, water, space, and shelter

Effects of exceeding the carrying capacity

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  It results in overstocking which in turn causes overgrazing and deterioration of
veld

Ways of controlling population within carrying capacity

 Culling –killing of animals to maintain carrying capacity

 Destocking –reducing numbers to sustainable
 Paddocking-keeping animals in paddocks and rotating them accordingly

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