WinVent

HANDBOOK
by Richard Siwek and Christoph Cesana
Fifth Edition
April 2021
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Warranty, Development Team

The information contained in this Handbook is essentially based on the European Standards
EN 14491-2012 “Dust explosion venting protective systems”, EN 14994-2007 “Gas
explosion venting protective systems”, Guideline VDI-3673, Part 1-2002 “Pressure release of
dust explosions” and the book of Wolfgang Bartknecht “Explosionsschutz, Grundlagen und
Anwendungen (Explosion Protection, basics and application, only in German)”, 1993 and is
subject to change without prior notice. Cesana AG and FireEx Consultant GmbH hereby state
that they will accept no liability whatsoever for consequences arising from such changes.

Despite the most careful editing, the handbook may be incomplete and may contain errors.
The authors and contributors disclaim any liability arising out of your use of this handbook.

WinVent development team:

Christoph Cesana, Cesana AG, Bettingen, Switzerland and
Richard Siwek, FireEx Consultant GmbH, Gais, Switzerland

Production and Sale: Christoph Cesana, Cesana AG

Baiergasse 56, CH-4126 Bettingen, Switzerland
E-Mail: info@cesana-ag.com
www.cesana-ag.ch
Sale and Information: Richard Siwek, FireEx Consultant GmbH
Rotenwies 2, CH-9056 Gais, Switzerland
E-Mail: r.siwek@fireex.ch
www.fireex.ch
Stefano Cavallin, FireEx Engineering Sagl
Via Rianella 2, CH-6855 Stabio, Switzerland
E-Mail: s.cavallin@fireex.eu
www.fireex.eu

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Content

WINVENT ................................................................................................................................................. 1

WARRANTY, DEVELOPMENT TEAM ................................................................................................................. 2

1 PRELIMINARY REMARKS ............................................................................................................................ 5
2 COURSE OF EXPLOSIONS IN VESSELS, PIPELINES AND VESSEL - PIPELINE COMBINATIONS ................................. 8
3 EXPLOSION VENTING OF EQUIPMENT ........................................................................................................ 10
4 EXPLOSION VENTING OF LOW STRENGTH ENCLOSURES ................................................................................ 16
5 VENTING DEVICES .................................................................................................................................. 21
5.1 RUPTURE DISKS................................................................................................................................... 21
5.2 EXPLOSION DOORS .............................................................................................................................. 28
5.3 VENTING EFFICIENCY, EF ...................................................................................................................... 31
5.4 VACUUM BREAKERS ............................................................................................................................. 35
6 SIZING OF VENTING DEVICES ................................................................................................................... 38
6.1 GENERAL ........................................................................................................................................... 38
6.2 PROPER DESIGN .................................................................................................................................. 38
6.3 COMBUSTIBLE DUSTS ........................................................................................................................... 41
6.4 FLAMMABLE GASES ............................................................................................................................. 62
6.5 VENTING OF BUILDING ENCLOSURES .................................................................................................... 63
7 DESIGN OF VACUUM BREAKERS ............................................................................................................... 67
8 HAZARDS DUE TO FLAME AND PRESSURE ................................................................................................... 69
8.1 OPEN AIR INSTALLATIONS ..................................................................................................................... 72
8.2 INSTALLATIONS IN ENCLOSED AREAS ....................................................................................................... 86
9 DESIGN OF VENT DUCT ........................................................................................................................... 87
9.1 GENERAL ........................................................................................................................................... 87
9.2 RUPTURE DISKS AS VENTING DEVICES ..................................................................................................... 88
9.3 EXPLOSION DOORS AS VENTING DEVICES ................................................................................................ 93
9.4 CONSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN OF VENT DUCTS ............................................................................................. 96
10 FLAMELESS EXPLOSION VENTING .......................................................................................................... 105
10.1 BASICS ........................................................................................................................................... 105
10.2 QUENCHING-TUBE-SYSTEM (Q-ROHR SYSTEM).................................................................................... 105
10.3 QUENCHING-BOX-SYSTEM (Q-BOX SYSTEM) ....................................................................................... 107
10.4 EXPLOSION RELIEF VALVE SYSTEM ...................................................................................................... 108
10.5 EFFECTS OF FLAMELESS EXPLOSION VENTING DEVICES........................................................................... 109
11 EXPLOSION VENTING OF FILTERS .......................................................................................................... 110
11.1 CALCULATION OF THE ENTIRE ENVELOPING VOLUME OF FILTER ELEMENTS VE ............................................. 110
11.2 LOCATION OF THE EXPLOSION VENTING DEVICES ................................................................................... 113
11.3 EXAMPLES FOR CALCULATION OF EFFECTIVE LENGTH TO DIAMETER RATIO.................................................. 116
12 EXPLOSION VENTING OF CYCLONES....................................................................................................... 120
13 EXPLOSION VENTING OF PIPELINES ....................................................................................................... 121
14 CONSIDERATION OF RECOIL FORCES...................................................................................................... 125
14.1 WITHOUT VENT PIPE ....................................................................................................................... 125
14.2 WITH VENT PIPE ............................................................................................................................. 127
15 PRESSURE VENTING OF VESSELS INTERCONNECTED WITH PIPELINES ........................................................... 129
16 EXPLOSION VENTING OF BUCKET ELEVATORS ......................................................................................... 134

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16.1 GENERAL ....................................................................................................................................... 134

16.2 GUIDANCE FOR VENTING OF TWIN LEG BUCKET ELEVATORS ..................................................................... 134
16.3 GUIDANCE FOR VENTING OF SINGLE LEG BUCKET ELEVATORS ................................................................... 138
17 HYBRID MIXTURES ............................................................................................................................. 139
18 LIMIT OF APPLICATION OF VENTING ...................................................................................................... 142
19 MAINTENANCE .................................................................................................................................. 143
20 DETERMINATION OF THE LENGTH/DIAMETER-RATIO OF VESSEL/SILO TO BE PROTECTED WHEN CALCULATING VENT
AREAS ............................................... 145
20.1 GENERAL ....................................................................................................................................... 145
20.2 CYLINDRICAL VESSEL WITH CONE, VENTED AT THE ROOF........................................................................ 146
20.3 CYLINDRICAL VESSEL WITH CONE, VENTED AT THE SIDE ......................................................................... 147
21 ANNEX ............................................................................................................................................. 148
21.1 DEFINITIONS ................................................................................................................................... 148
21.2 ABBREVIATIONS .............................................................................................................................. 152
21.3 DAMAGE CAUSED BY PRESSURE WAVES .............................................................................................. 155
21.4 REFERENCE..................................................................................................................................... 156

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1 Preliminary Remarks

The present Handbook describes explosion venting as one of the possible measures to miti-
gate the effects of explosions. The Handbook aids in the selection and the design of pressure
venting devices. The specified method for the selection and the design of such devices is
generally applicable. Additional explosion isolation systems must be incorporated because
European Standards mandate them. "Explosion pressure venting" is a protective measure for
equipment in which combustible dusts, flammable gases or hybrid mixtures is processed.
Special regulations apply for explosives, which are covered by an "Explosives Act".

Explosion venting should not be used if products or compounds are released which are classi-
fied as very poisonous, poisonous, corrosive, irritant, teratogenic as per "CLP/GHS" /7/.

For environmental and production related reasons it is very important to avoid ignition
sources, irrespective of the applied explosion venting. Thus, the probability of the existence of
one of the prerequisites for an explosion can be reduced.

The Handbook is meant to be a tool for the engineer who is faced with the task of venting the
equipment within his plant. The information contained in this Handbook is based on interna-
tionally accepted standards, guidelines and literatures e.g., European Standards EN 14491-
2012 “Dust explosion venting protective systems”/1/, EN 14994-2007 “Gas explosion venting
protective systems”/2/, EN 14797-2006 “Explosion venting devices /3/, VDI-3673, Part 1-
2002 “Pressure release of dust explosions” /4/, the book of Wolfgang Bartknecht
“Explosionsschutz, Grundlagen und Anwendungen (Explosion Protection, basics and
application, only in German)”, 1993 /5/ and EN 14460-2006: Explosion resistant equipment /6/.

When applying WinVent a profound knowledge about explosion venting is necessary.

Due to the great variety of conditions in industry, it is impossible to cover all applications.
However, the thorough treatment of the topic should allow the design engineer to arrive at a
favorable solution for all cases.

It is permissible to deviate from the vent areas given in this Handbook provided the same
level of safety could be guaranteed and documented through actual tests.

Equipment cannot be protected through explosion venting from the hazardous consequences
of a detonation.

In order to get a clear and simple representation in the WinVent program and the Handbook
the abbreviations and symbols may deviate from those given in the different European Stand-
ards. The selection of the abbreviations and symbols is such that they best conform to the
international standards or are optimum for the program representations.

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The following Table 1-1 shows the abbreviations and symbols used in this Handbook.

Table 1-1. Comparison of the abbreviations and symbols:

European Standards / Handbook

European Standards Handbook

Pressure resistance (overpressure) Po

Design overpressure of vessel P
Dust specific characteristic Kmax
Explosion overpressure Pm
Equivalent diameter De
Gas specific characteristic Kmax
Length of the vent pipe LA
Diameter of the vent pipe LD
Length of vent duct were velocity of sound is reached LAS
Maximum flame range LF
Maximum rate of pressure rise (dP/dt)max
Maximum reduced explosion overpressure Pred,max
Maximum peak overpressure PAmax
Peak overpressure PAr
pred,max without vent pipe Po

pred,max with vent pipe P

pred,max without explosion door Po

pred,max with explosion door P

Rate of pressure rise (dP/dt)m

Recoil duration td
Recoil force, maximum FRmax
Specific mass of venting device GE
Total impulse IR

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All pressure data in connection with the protective measure "explosion venting" are given in
gauge pressure with the unit bar or mbar.

Examples are:
Resistance of vessel P in bar
Explosion overpressure Pmax in bar
Activation overpressure Pstat in bar
Vacuum resistance of vessel VRes in mbar
External pressure max PAmax in mbar
External pressure PAr in mbar.

Exception:
To avoid confusion with the explosion pressure data, the unit bar abs. was deliberately used
for the Operating Pressure OP.

Table 1-2. summarizes all check parameters that are specially marked with an *. They are
listed separately, because on the one hand these parameters can influence the calculations
significantly or on the other hand, they are not directly included in the calculations but require
an entry to check whether the calculations are within the validity range.

Table 1-2. Check parameters:

Check Parameter Abbreviation

* Operating pressure OP
* Conveying speed vF
* Air flow Q
* Diameter (equivalent) DF
* Amount of product discharge MP
* Portion of solvent LM
* Weight of venting device GE
* Angle between axis of vent and duct WAr

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2 Course of Explosions in Vessels, Pipelines and Vessel - Pipeline

Combinations

When considering the propagation of a flame front and the rise in pressure during an explo-
sion, one has to differentiate between:

• Flame propagation in vessels L/De = 1,

• Flame propagation in vessels, silos and pipelines L/De > 1.

Generally, the velocity of flame propagation during explosions in vessels L/De = 1 remains
small relative to the sonic velocity so that no local pressure differences occur in closed
vessels. The maximum explosion overpressure may reach ten times the initial starting
pressure. Such a value may be markedly exceeded with some dusts /1/. Obstructions may
increase the violence of the explosion.

In pipelines, the flame propagation accelerates as a function of pipe length. Gases and dusts,
especially the ones with medium or high gas specific or dust specific characteristics /1, 2/,
may behave in a detonation-like fashion, e.g., if the explosion is transmitted out of a closed
vessel and into a closed pipeline. In such a case, the flame front propagates at supersonic
speed. The pressure exerted locally on the pipe wall may reach a multiple of the explosion
overpressure for a short time. Even higher pressures may occur at end flanges and pipe bends
due to pressure piling of the explosive mixture ahead of the flame front.

The combination vessel/pipeline predominates in practice. Examples are:

• Silos, milling and drying devices with downstream dust collectors.

• Local and general dust collection.
• Combination of storage, mixing and process vessels with pipelines.

In such a combination, where the dust explosion propagates from one vessel to another
through a pipeline, the reaction may be more violent and result in a higher pressure than in a
single vessel (Fig. 2-1). The propagation of an explosion can be prevented or the effect can be
limited through the measure "explosion isolation/decoupling" /9/.

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Figure 2-1. Propagation of a dust explosion through a pipeline into a dust filter
above: test arrangement, below: dust explosion in dust filter

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3 Explosion Venting of Equipment

The protective measure explosion venting prevents an unacceptably high-pressure build-up of

a gas or dust explosion inside vessels or equipment through the timely opening of a defined
area (Fig. 3-1). This means, that the maximum explosion overpressure Pmax, which was ob-
tained by systematically changing the fuel concentration in a closed vessel, will be reduced to
a maximum reduced explosion overpressure Pred,max.

Pm [bar]

Vent system
activated

Pred,max

vented
Pstat
1 time s [s]

Figure 3-1. Schematic representation of the rate of pressure rise of an explosion in a

closed and in a vented vessel - optimum fuel concentration -

Explosion venting devices limit the explosion overpressure by releasing unburned mixture
and products of combustion (Fig. 3-2). The resulting maximum reduced explosion
overpressure may not exceed the design pressure of the equipment. Applying the venting
technique as such does not prevent the explosion; only the dangerous consequences are
mitigated.

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Figure 3-2. Explosion vented filter

However, outside the vented vessels, near the vent area, considerable pressure and flame
spreading must be expected. The latter is very pronounced in case of combustible dusts
(Fig. 3-2). Subsequent fires must be expected as well (Fig. 3-3).

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Figure 3-3. Subsequent fires after a dust explosion in a vented silo

Pressure venting devices may be designed for one incident only e.g., rupture disks (explosion
panels), or for multiple use e.g., explosion doors. The prerequisite for the use of pressure
venting devices is the selection of the proper design pressure of the vessel or equipment. It has
to withstand a certain venting pressure (maximum reduced explosion overpressure Pred,max).
All parts of the equipment, which are exposed to the explosion pressure, must meet the design
strength e.g., valves, sight glasses, manholes, cleaning ports as well as ducts.

In case the explosion pressure is not released directly but through a vent duct (Fig. 3-4), into
the open, there will be an increase in the maximum reduced explosion overpressure Pred,max
in the vessel being protected which calls for an increase of the design strength of the vessel.

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Figure 3-4. Vent duct, installed after a vent opening of a filter housing

The intensified effect of the explosion is not only dependent upon the length of the pipe but
also upon whether gas or dust-air-mixtures are anticipated (see Section 9). The design of the
vessels and equipment exposed to a fuel explosion has to be in accordance with applicable
codes /8, 9/. Explosion venting devices have to be installed in such a way that nobody will be
endangered. Figure 3-5 shows a poor example where the danger area (effects of pressure and
flames) is not signposting and cordoning off!

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Figure 3-5. Endangerment of personnel by poorly placed vent areas

In addition, the operation of any equipment, which is important with regard to safety, shall not
be restricted (Fig. 3-6).

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Figure 3-6. Endangerment of the filter unit and restricting the vent efficiency by poorly
placed vent areas including vent pipes

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4 Explosion Venting of Low Strength Enclosures

Rooms or parts of a building may also be protected by means of explosion venting, but not
personnel, which stay in these areas. In this case, explosion venting serves the purpose of pro-
tecting the integrity of the building. Venting may be accomplished e.g., by using the
windows, the outside walls or the roof of the room (Fig. 4-1) to be protected.

Figure 4-1. Venting of enclosure through the roof

In case of side venting, a solid railing has to be provided. This is necessary to prevent
employees from falling into the lightly supported facade covering which serves as a venting
device (Fig. 4-2).

An ample safety zone has to be provided near the venting system outside the room so that
humans are not affected by the hazards and the operation of safety and major equipment is not
affected.

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Figure 4-2. Facade covering of a production building after a dust explosion

Window glass (Fig. 4-3) or similar material, which has a tendency to fragment, shall not be
used as the material of construction for vent devices.

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Figure 4-3. Window glass shattered by an explosion

Materials are preferred, which will not form large sharp-edged fragments. The effects of
flying fragments have to be considered when using e.g. safety glass (Fig. 4-4).

Figure 4-4. Safety glass with score points, after explosion

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Sandwich type facade walls or light metal facade elements are preferred for the venting of
buildings (Fig. 4-5) /4/.

Figure 4-5. Light metal facade element

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Fore venting of enclosures through the roof, a roof construction consisting of a great number
of aluminum fins (Fig. 4-6) has proven to be successful /10/.

Figure 4-6. Roof venting with aluminum fins

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5 Venting Devices

Rupture disks, explosion panels or explosion doors may be used as venting devices. With re-
spect to the activation overpressure, these devices shall be the weakest part of the equipment.
All basic investigations on explosion venting where carried out with nearly inertia-free
rupture disks/bursting foils made of polyethylene or aluminum membranes (with a specific
mass GE ≤ 0.5 kg·m-2). This corresponds to a venting efficiency of EF = 1. These venting
devices do not obstruct venting. Explosion venting devices with an inertia greater than
0.5 kg·m-2 and smaller or equal to 10 kg·m-2 can be considered as inertia-free provided that
the specific vent area A/V0.753 is smaller than 0.07 /3/. Other sorts of venting devices
containing venting elements with a specific mass greater than 10 kg·m-2 may effect venting.
This effect shall be tested with regard to the determination of the venting efficiency (see
Section 5.3). All pressure-venting devices are protection systems according to the Directive
94/9/EC and have to be subject to an EC suitability test from July 2003 on /11/. An increase
in the static activation overpressure due to dirt, snow load, excessive friction, or a decrease
due to corrosion or material fatigue may jeopardize the efficient performance of the venting
device and affects the venting efficiency. Therefore, a sufficient preventive maintenance of
the venting device is necessary.

5.1 Rupture Disks

After exceeding the activation overpressure, the low mass rupture disks will respond almost
without inertia if the specific mass GE of the device is equal to or less than 0.5 kg·m-2 /1/ or
venting devices with specific mass of > 0.5 kg·m-2 to ≤ 10 kg·m-2 if the specific vent area
A/V0.753 is smaller than 0.07 /3/. This type of disks can be installed independently of location
and guarantee a tight closure. In case of an explosion, they will free the whole area after their
destruction (Fig. 5-1). Common materials of construction for ductile rupture disks are metal
or alloys.

Figure 5-1. Proper opening of the vent areas

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Popular are triple rupture discs (Fig. 5-2) and segmented-rupture disks (Fig. 5-3).

Figure 5-2. Triple rupture disk round style /12/

The rupture disk shown in Fig. 5-3 is a round domed disk of composite construction laser cut
in a stitch pattern in the done area. An FEP/PTFE liner covers the slits providing a seal. The
vent burst pressure is controlled by the arrangement of the stitch pattern. This rupture disk is
fitted with a vacuum support to resist high vacuum.

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Figure 5-3. Domed and segmented metal rupture disk round style /13/

Vents with their domed constructions are designed to resist high vacuum under cycling condi-
tions without the need for vacuum support bars attached to the inner safety Frame. The
vacuum rating of a vent is dependent on the type of rupture disk. The rupture disk shown in
Figure 5-3 has been tested to over 1 million pressure cycles from vacuum to light positive
pressure while retaining its burst accuracy. The vent exhibits superior performance compared
to conventional composite vents that fatigue after less than 40'000 pressure cycles under
equivalent test conditions.

Figure 5-4. Domed single section metal explosion vent rectangular style /13/

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Figure 5-5. Domed single section metal rupture disk round style /13/
Rupture disks may be combined with signaling devices e.g., a wire runs across the device and
a holding current flow through this wire. When the device is destroyed the current is
interrupted and this signal is used to trigger an alarm (Fig. 5-6) or a magnetic burst sensor
(magnetically activated sensor), which will trigger a shut down or a controlling mode and
immediately warns of a ruptured or exploded disk. The magnetic burst sensor is combined
with a burst disk monitor to provide continuous monitoring of rupture or explosion disk
integrity (Fig.5-7).

Figure 5-6. Rupture disk with signaling device in form of a magnetic

burst sensor spot-welded to the rupture disk /12/

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Figure 5-7. Rupture disk with signaling device in form of a magnetic

burst sensor spot-welded to the rupture disk /13/
For personnel protections beware of fragments if brittle rupture disks are used. Variations in
load may lead to fatigue of the material. Exposure to widely fluctuating temperatures may
lead to softening or embrittlement of special materials used for rupture disks. In addition, the
effects of corrosion, erosion, snow load or icing have to be considered, since they may change
the static activation overpressure of the rupture disk. Only rupture disks are to be used which
are restrained from becoming shrapnel through design measures. Special designs for multiple
uses are explosion panels supported by rubber moldings or other devices - similar to the
windshield of a car - (Fig. 5-8 and 5-9).

Figure 5-8. Rubber moldings (cross section) for explosion panels

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Figure 5-9. Explosion panels supported by rubber moldings; panels restrained

by cables from flying away /14/
The explosion overpressure will release the explosion panel from its rubber molding. Cables
or other restraining devices of appropriate strength have to be preventing the panels from
flying away. The venting capability of the panel and the effectiveness of the restraining device
have to be documented (Fig. 5-10). The explosion panel supported by rubber moldings can be
used up to an activation overpressure of 0.2 bar.

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Figure 5-10. Explosion panels secured by 8 mm steel cables after

explosion in filter housing
For higher activation overpressures the principle can by combined with notched pins (Fig. 5-
11) /10/.

Figure 5-11. Explosion panels supported by rubber mountings combined

with notched pins (Pstat = 0.3 bar)

For special applications, buckling pin devices (Fig. 5-12) are available.

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Figure 5-12. Rupture disks for negative and positive pressure

with buckling pin devices /12/

5.2 Explosion Doors

Explosion doors (Fig. 5-13 and Fig. 5-14) open in case of an explosion, thereby releasing the
vent area.

Explosion doors with a specific mass of up to 10 kg·m-2 will respond almost without inertia if
the specific vent area A/V0.753 is smaller than 0.07 /3/.

Depending upon the application explosion doors may be selected which remain either open or
close automatically after releasing the explosion. In case of an explosion, they will free the
vent opening. A horizontal or vertical arrangement will also affect its effectiveness.

Figure 5-13. Explosion door rectangular style /15/

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Figure 5-14. Explosion door round style /15/

In addition to the venting efficiency (see Section 5.3) of an explosion door, its mechanical
strength is also of utmost importance. A suitability test shall document that the device will
function at the anticipated explosion conditions and that there will be no hazard from flying
parts.

The forces arising due to the impact of the opening venting device have to be taken into
account in the design of the vented vessel (e.g., groove).

Corrosion, unprofessionally applied coats of paint on the movable parts to the explosion door
as well as icing or snow load may result in an increase of the activation overpressure. The
movability of such venting devices and the static activation overpressure has to be checked in
predetermined conditions.

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Icing or snow loads can be prevented by installing e.g., an effective electrical heating system
for the explosion device (Fig. 5-15).

Figure 5-15: Electrically heated explosion door /15/

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5.3 Venting Efficiency, EF

The inertia, the opening behavior of a bursting disk or of the movable cover of an explosion
device and its arrangement (horizontal, vertical) can affect the venting efficiency and may
result in a higher maximum reduced explosion overpressure inside the protected vessel
(Fig. 5-16). This venting efficiency is mainly dependent upon the specific mass of the venting
device.

5.3.1 Specific Mass Smaller or Equal to 0.5 kg m-2

These types of explosion venting devices have a venting efficiency of EF = 1 and are called
inertia-free and do not impede the venting process. For such explosion venting devices
venting efficiency, testing is therefore not required.

5.3.2 Specific Mass Greater than 0.5 kg m-2 to Smaller or Equal to 10 kg m-2
Explosion venting devices with venting elements with a specific mass greater than 0.5 kg m-2
can influence the venting process by their opening and release behavior. Experiments have
shown that explosion venting devices with a specific mass greater than 0.5 kg m-2 and smaller
or equal to 10 kg m-2 can be considered as inertia-free, that means having a venting efficiency
EF = 1 provided for /3/:

A/V0.753 < 0.07

The equations are only valid for:

• vessel volumes 0.1 m³ ≤ V ≤ 10’000 m³,

• static activation overpressure of venting device Pstat ≤ 0.1 bar,
• vessel strength (= Pred,max) 0.1 bar < P ≤ 2 bar,
• Pred,max > Pstat.

For all other conditions, the venting efficiency has to be determined by tests (Fig. 5-16 and 5 -
17). The venting efficiency EF and therefore the effective vent area Aw of a non-inertia-free
explosion device is smaller than the venting efficiency of an inertia-free vent device made of
polyethylene or aluminum membranes (specific GE < 0.5 kg m-2) with the same vent area.

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2
Test results:
vent device with
GE < 0.5 kg/m²
1.6

Venting Efficiency:
EF = Ae / Ag
Pred,max [bar]

1.2

0.8 Test results:

vent device with
GE >>> 0.5 kg/m²

0.4

Ae Ag
0
0 0.6 1.2 1.8
A [m²]

Figure 5-16. Definition of the venting efficiency EF of an explosion device

in comparison with a rupture disk

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Figure 5-17. Testing of an explosion door

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Investigation /16/ have shown, that the venting efficiency EF generally increases with
increased maximum reduced explosion overpressure Pred,max and decreases with increased
mass of the explosion device. This shall be considered for practical use. The venting
efficiency of a vent device has to be known for a given application (vessel size, dust explosion
class) and the restrictive venting behavior offset either by increasing the design strength of the
vessel or enlargement of the vent area. Obviously, the mechanical strength of the explosion
door has to be consistent with the design pressure of the vessel.

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5.4 Vacuum Breakers

When using explosion doors, which close the vent area after the explosion the cooling of the
hot gases of combustion may create a vacuum in the vessel, resulting in its deformation
(Fig. 5-20).

Figure 5-20. Silo, which was protected with explosion doors,

destroyed due to vacuum /15/

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In order to prevent this from happening, vacuum breakers (Fig. 5-21) have to be provided /1,
4/ and are either built strongly enough to withstand the Pred,max during venting, or provided
they break away like rupture diaphragms to leave a clear opening.

Figure 5-21. Vacuum breakers for vessels/silos /15/

Figure 5-22 shows the roof of a silo, which is correct protected with an explosion door and
integrated vacuum breakers.

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Figure 5-22. Silo roof: correct protected with an explosion door

and integrated vacuum breakers /15/

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6 Sizing of Venting Devices

6.1 General
For sizing a vent area, the following explosion parameters of a fuel are needed, which
describe the course of an explosion in a closed vessel /5, 17, 18/:

• maximum explosion overpressure Pmax and

• fuel specific characteristic KSt or Kmax respectively.

Generally, they are independent of the vessel size and are determined in accordance with an
agreed standardized method /17, 18/.

The Handbook does not make a distinction between KG-values for flammable gases and KSt-
values for combustible dusts. Generally, a maximum product specific constant Kmax is given
without reference to the type fuel.

The equations given below represent the optimum mathematical expression of a multitude of
experimental test results obtained by varying the single parameters within the stated limited
range. The combination of the single parameters within the equations is not based on their
physical-chemical dependency.

The experimental investigations, which are the bases of the equations, were carried out under
conditions, which reflect actual practice and, from experience, cover the unfavorable condi-
tions, too. For deviating conditions, it has to be proven that the same level of safety will be
maintained (Safety analyses or experimental proof) /1, 2/.

The areas calculated from the equations, which are valid for the stated range only, can be di-
rectly incorporated into practical applications.

In the following no distinction is made between the design using the European Standards /1,
2/ and the VDI-3673, Part 1 /4/, because they are in principle identical.

6.2 Proper Design

Not following the recommendation mentioned in this handbook, which is based on the actual
standards, may result in material damages.

Figure 6-1 shows the consequences of poor design. The calculated vent area was insufficient
and the installed vent device did not have a test certificate. The material of the explosion vent
was a thick acrylic glass piece. The static activation overpressure of this device was not
known. Furthermore, it is most probable that this isolating vent device was also the ignition
source.

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Figure 6-1. Consequences of poor vent design

If explosion venting is used as a protective measure in more than 50 % of the cases the
isolation measures e.g., extinguishing barriers, diverters are missing, even it is mentioned in
all actual standards and guidelines.

In a protected vessel, an explosion propagates from this vessel to others through pipelines and
creates more damages in the pipelines and other vessel. This propagation of an explosion most
also be prevented.

Figure 6-2 shows the consequences when the application of EXPLOSION ISOLATION IS
NOT APPLIED. The explosion was properly controlled by the applied constructional measure
in the vessel, but the pipeline carrying the product to other equipment was destroyed.

Figure 6-3 shows the consequences of the secondary equipment (bag-filter) protected by
explosion venting. The dust explosion propagates from the first vessel also protected by
explosion venting WITHOUT ISOLATION through a pipeline into the secondary vessel.
Because the reaction is more violent and results in a higher pressure than in the first vessel,
the second vessel (bag-filter) was destroyed.

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Figure 6-2. Consequences of no installing isolation systems

Figure 6-3. Consequences of no installing isolation systems

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6.3 Combustible Dusts

The agreed upon, standardized procedure /4, 5, 17, 18/ was used to simulate standard dust dis-
persion (Fig. 6-4) for venting tests involving vessel sizes of 1 to 250-m³. The procedure calls
for a rapid release of combustible dust from pressurized containers and the triggering of an
ignition source (E = 2 x 5 kJ) after a given delay time from the start of the dust dispersion.

Figure 6-4. Standard dust dispersion by rapid release of combustible dust

from storage containers

Under « standard dust dispersion » it is understood a dust-air-mixture where the dust con-
centration is independent on the location. They are generated by rapid discharge of
combustible dust from pressurized storage vessels (20 barg) via dispersion arrangements
(Fig. 6-4) following the standard procedure (VDI-/ISO-Method) /5/.

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Figure 6-5. Explosion of standard dust-air-mixtures in a vented 250-m³-vessel (left)

and 20-m³-silo (right)

If the filling of vessels or silos in practice is done through pneumatic transport (Fig. 6-6 and
6-7), the course of explosion differs from the one using the standard dust dispersion, because
they are generated by e.g., the introduction of combustible dust in vessels and silos through
pneumatic transport in the form of pneumatic conveying or in the filling of vessels or silo by
gravity /1, 4, 5/.

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Figure 6-6. Explosion of a vented 250-m³-vessel introducing combustible dust through

pneumatic transport in the form of pneumatic conveying

Within the applicable range, the vent areas obtained from the equations can be used directly in
practice. The numerical values of the parameters defined in Section 16.1 are entered into the
equations.

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Figure 6-7. Explosion of a vented 20-m³-silo introducing combustible dust through

pneumatic transport in the form of pneumatic conveying

The static activation overpressure Pstat of the venting device has to be equal to or smaller than
the strength of the vessel P (corresponding to the excepted maximum reduced explosion over-
pressure Pred,max).

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6.3.1 Vessels / Silos

In general, for explosion venting it has to distinguish between:

• area requirement for vessels having a length/diameter ratio of L/De = 1 (Fig. 6-8) and
• area requirement for elongated vessels/silos having a length/diameter ratio of L/De > 1
(Fig. 6-9 and Fig. 6-10).

Elongated vessels are characterized by their length being larger than diameter respectively
equivalent diameter

A*
De = 2 ·
π

De is the diameter of a circle which has the same area as the reference area A* of any shape. Such
geometry accelerates the flame propagation as a function of increased length. Investigations
/5/ in a closed and vented vessels with different L/De ratios have shown, that the influence of
the flame acceleration effect is valid already if the ratio of length to diameter is L/De > 1.

In the European Standards or Guidelines /1, 2, 4/ the following was therefore defined:

Vessels in which the ratio of length to diameter is 1.

Other vessels (horizontal or vertical) in which the ratio of length to diameter is

greater than 1.

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Figure 6-8. Vessel (L/De = 1.55) of 2.4-m³ content

Figure 6-9. Elongated 20-m³-vessel with a L/De = 6.25

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Figure 6-10. Vertical elongated 20-m³-silo (H/De = 6.25) with

explosion venting: dust explosion test

6.3.1.1 Standard design method

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The following is applicable for dusts belonging to the dust explosion classes St 1 and St 2
having a maximum explosion overpressure Pmax ≤ 10 bar and a dust explosion class St 3 with
a maximum explosion overpressure Pmax ≤ 12 bar and for operating overpressures for up to
0.2 bar.

In sizing the vent area for a vessel without obstructions, generally the completely empty
volume has to be considered. With obstructions present (e.g., filter bags on cages or filter
elements (Fig. 6-11) the exterior volume of the filter elements can be deducted from the
vessel volume. However, one must ensure that the venting process is not hindered by the
obstructions /1, 5/.

Figure 6-11. Pocket filter with filter elements: Filter volume

(dirty volume) = 7.5-m³; Volume of the filter elements = 2.5-m³;
Free dirty volume = 5-m³
Therefore, the filter cages must not cover the vent area (Fig. 6-12). In case of doubt, a
satisfactory venting capability has to be documented.

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Figure 6-12. Filter hoses obstructing vent area

The following empirical equation allows the calculation of the size of a vent area A (in m2).
One has to know the explosion strength P (in bar) of the vessel /1, 4/ (i.e., the anticipated
maximum reduced explosion overpressure Pred,max), the static activation overpressure Pstat (in
bar) of the venting device, the vessel volume V (in m3), the length/diameter ratio L/De of the
vessel to be protected, the explosion characteristics (maximum explosion overpressure Pmax,
maximum product specific constant Kmax) and the reference area A* (in m2). If necessary, the
calculated area may be subdivided into several single areas.

For 0.1 bar < Pred,max < 1.5 bar

A = B (1 + C ⋅ log (L/De)) in m2

For 1.5 bar ≤ Pred,max ≤ 2.0 bar

A = B in m2
With
B = [ 3.264 ·10-5 · Pmax· Kmax · P-0.569 + 0.27 (Pstat - 0.1) · P-0.5 ] · V0.753

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C = (-4.305 ⋅ log Pred,max + 0.758)

The equations are valid for:

• vessel volumes 0.1 m³ ≤ V ≤ 10'000 m³,

• static activation overpressure of venting device 0.1 bar ≤ Pstat ≤ 1 bar,
for Pstat < 0.1 bar use Pstat = 0.1 bar
• vessel strength (= Pred,max) 0.1 bar < P ≤ 2 bar without vent duct,
• Pred,max shall be at least Pstat + 2 times the tolerance range of Pstat,
• maximum explosion overpressure 5 bar ≤ Pmax ≤ 10 bar for a maximum product specific constant
10 bar·m·s-1 ≤ Kmax ≤ 300 bar·m·s-1,
• maximum explosion overpressure 5 bar ≤ Pmax ≤ 12 bar for a maximum product specific constant
300 bar·m·s-1 ≤ Kmax ≤ 800 bar·m·s-1,
• L/De ≤ 20,
• L/De is limited in the way that the maximum vent area shall not be greater than the cross area of
the vessel or silo,
• venting efficiency EF = 1.

A is the vent area that shall be fitted to the enclosure assuming the venting efficiency factor of
the venting device is EF = 1 and thus the effective vent area is equal to the geometric venting
area (see Section 5.3.2). Some explosion venting devices have a venting efficiency less than
1, and the effective vent area is thus less than the geometric vent area. It is this effective vent
area that shall be used in marking up the vent area A in practice.

If the maximum explosion overpressure, the maximum product specific constant or the static
activation overpressure are smaller than the ones stated in the parameters, then the above
equations may be used with the minimum value given above.

It is necessary to limit the upper maximum reduced explosion overpressure in the vessel or
silos. Extensive testing has shown that the spread of results increases markedly with very
small vent areas.

The required area for pressure venting increases with increased length (height) to diameter
ratio, in comparison with the area requirement for L/De = 1 vessels (Fig. 6-13).

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5
4.5 L/DE = 6
4 L/DE = 4
L/DE = 2
3.5
L/DE = 1.5
3 L/DE = 1
A [m²]

2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5

Pred,max [bar]

Figure 6-13. Influence of the ratio L/De on the relationship between the vent area A and
maximum reduced explosion overpressure Pred,max (V = 20 m³, Pstat = 0.1 bar, St 1)

For low reduced maximum explosion overpressures, the required effective vent area will be
markedly influenced by the ratio L/De. Such influence diminishes with increasing reduced ex-
plosion overpressure and cease at Pred,max = 1.5 bar as per experimental results.

However, with a maximum reduced explosion overpressure ≥ 1.5 bar no influence of the
height / diameter ratio can be noticed.

6.3.1.2 Seizing of vent devices for special conveying systems

6.3.1.2.1 General
Vent areas, which have been sized in accordance with the following equations, can be used
for practical applications provided the parameters stay within the range of validity given for
the equations.

6.3.1.2.2 Pneumatic conveying of product with axial release into vessels/silos

Investigations with pneumatic conveying systems, which closely resembled practical applica-
tions, indicated that products discharged axially into vessels and silos generated a lower maxi-
mum explosion overpressure than the standard ones /22 to 24/. The reason for this behavior
lies a locally much lower dust concentration and turbulence than the ones generated with the
standard method /21/. The burning velocity of the dust-air-mixture is slower which results in a

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less violent explosion behavior and lower reduced explosion overpressure respectively
requires a smaller venting area.

The following empirical equations may be used to calculate the required vent area A for cases
using the outlined mode of filling.

With vessel height L ≤ 10 m:

A = X (1 + Y log (L/De)) in m2

With vessel height L > 10 m:

A = X ( 1 + Y log (L/De)) ⋅ 0.1 ⋅ L in m2

With
X = [ 1/Dz (8.6 ⋅ log P - 6) - 5.5 log⋅P + 3.7 ] · 0.011 · Kmax · DF
Y = 1.0715 ⋅·P-1.27

The equations independent of the load in the conveying stream are valid for:

• Axial and central discharge from above through one pipe with a diameter DF in m into a
vessel/silo without obstructions (measurement devices are not taken into account),
• vessel volumes 10 m³ ≤ V ≤ 250 m³,according to /1/ and up to 10’000 m³ according to /4, 5/,
• air conveying velocities of vF = 30 m·s-1 according to /1/ and up to 40 m·s-1 according to /4, 5/,
• air flow Q ≤ 2'500 m³·h-1,
• diameter of the conveying tube DF ≤ 0.3 m,
• static activation overpressure of venting device Pstat ≤ 0.1 bar,
• vessel strength (= Pred,max) 0.1 bar < P ≤ 2 bar; and Pred,max shall be at least Pstat + 2 times the
tolerance range of Pstat,
• maximum explosion overpressure Pmax ≤ 9 bar,
• maximum product specific constant 50 bar·m·s-1 ≤ Kmax ≤ 300 bar·s-1,
• venting efficiency EF = 1.

The size of the volume V which needs protection is to be equivalent to a cylinder which a
length/diameter ratio = 1. The diameter Dz is calculated as follows:

4⋅ V
Dz = 3
π

A is the vent area that shall be fitted to the enclosure assuming the venting efficiency factor of
the venting device is EF = 1 and thus the effective vent area is equal to the geometric venting
area (see Section 5.3.2). Some explosion venting devices have a venting efficiency less than
1, and the effective vent area is thus less than the geometric vent area. It is this effective vent
area that shall be used in marking up the vent area A in practice.

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If the maximum explosion overpressure, the maximum product specific constant or the static
activation overpressure are smaller than the ones stated in the parameters, then the above
equations may be used with the minimum value given above.

Silos and bunkers may be placed or erected as single units (Fig. 6-14) or in clusters in open
areas (Fig. 6-15) or as an integral part of a building.

As a rule, silos and bunkers are part of materials handling systems. The formation of the dust
dispersion during filling depends upon the type of conveying system. When discharging the
formation of the dust dispersion depends upon the product characteristic (e.g., tendency for
bridging), the geometry and the condition of the wall surface (dust buildup).

Figure 6-14. Upright elongated vessels/silos

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Figure 6-15. In clusters placed, upright elongated vessels/silos

Scrutinize building constraints, which in many cases limit the explosion venting to the silo
top. Generally, not even this whole area is available due to the space requirements of the
conveying system (Fig. 6-16).

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Figure 6-16. Roof of a silo, approximately 2/3 of roof used as vent area

The larger the height/diameter ratio is, the higher the required pressure resistance of the silo
will be.

If silos must be vented on the side (Fig. 6-17) recoil forces must be considered according Sec-
tion 11.

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Figure 6-17. Silo vented on the side

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In cases where silo clusters have to be vented into a space, which is enclosed for weather pro-
tection (not an operating floor), e.g., silo floors (Fig. 6-18), such a space needs explosion
venting (Fig. 6-19). Otherwise, the explosion must be prevented from propagating through
other means (Fig. 6-20).

Figure 6-18. 20-m³-silo with a 100-m³-silo floor

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Figure 6-19. 20-m³-silo with vented silo floor

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Figure 6-20. Extinguishing barrier inside the silo floor close to the vented silo top

6.3.1.2.3 Pneumatic conveying of product with tangential release into vessels/silos

The following empirical equations may be used to calculate the required vent area A for pneu-
matic filling of vessels and silos where the filling line is mounted tangential at the perimeter
near the top of the vessel silo:

A = X (1 + Y log (L/De)) in m2

with
X = [1/Dz (8.6/k⋅log P – Kmax/44 - 0.513) - 5.5/k log⋅P + Kmax/69+0.191] 0.011·Kmax·DF
Y = 0.166 ⋅·eKmax/129 P-1.27/k

with
k = 1 for 0.1 bar ≤ Pred,max ≤ 1 bar
k = 2 for 1 bar < Pred,max ≤ 1.7 bar

The equations are valid independent from the product load of the conveying stream in case of
tangential pneumatic filling for:

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• tangential product release through one conveying tube with a diameter DF ≤ 0.2 m,
• round vessels/silos without obstructions (measurement devices are not taken into account),
• vessel volumes 10 m³ ≤ V ≤ 120 m³,
• air conveying velocities of vF = 30 m·s-1,
• air flow Q ≤ 2'500 m³·h-1,
• length/diameter ratio 1 ≤ L/De ≤ 5,
• static activation overpressure of venting device Pstat ≤ 0.1 bar,
• vessel strength (= Pred,max) 0.1 bar < P ≤ 1.7 bar and Pred,max shall be at least Pstat + 2 times the
tolerance range of Pstat,
• maximum explosion overpressure Pmax ≤ 9 bar,
• maximum product specific constant 100 bar·m·s-1 ≤ Kmax ≤ 220 bar·m·s-1,
• venting efficiency EF = 1.

A is the vent area that shall be fitted to the enclosure assuming the venting efficiency factor of the
venting device is EF = 1 and thus the effective vent area is equal to the geometric venting area (see
Section 5.3.2). Some explosion venting devices have a venting efficiency less than 1, and the effective
vent area is thus less than the geometric vent area. It is this effective vent area that shall be used in
marking up the vent area A in practice.

If the maximum explosion overpressure, the maximum product specific constant or the static acti-
vation overpressure are smaller than the ones stated in the parameters, then the above
equations may be used with the minimum value given above.

6.3.1.2.4 Free fall filling (gravity)

The equations shown in Section 6.3.1.2.2 may be used to calculate the required vent area in
case product enters the vessel/silo by free fall (gravity) from e.g., a rotary air lock or screw
feeder.

The equations independent of the load in the conveying stream are valid for:

• vessel volumes 10 m³ ≤ V ≤ 250 m³,

• axial, central discharge from above through one feed opening in m2 into a vessel/silo without ob-
structions,
• Equivalent diameter of the feed opening DF ≤ 0.3 m,
• amount of product discharge MP ≤ 8'000 kg·h-1,
• static activation overpressure of rupture disk Pstat ≤ 0.1 bar,
• Pred,max > Pstat,
• vessel strength (= Pred,max) 0.1 bar ≤ P ≤ 2 bar and Pred,max shall be at least Pstat + 2 times the tol-
erance range of Pstat,
• maximum explosion overpressure Pmax ≤ 9 bar,
• maximum product specific constant 50 bar·m·s-1 ≤ Kmax ≤ 300 bar·s-1,
• venting efficiency EF = 1.

A is the vent area that shall be fitted to the enclosure assuming the venting efficiency factor of
the venting device is EF = 1 and thus the effective vent area is equal to the geometric venting

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area (see Section 5.3.2). Some explosion venting devices have a venting efficiency less than
1, and the effective vent area is thus less than the geometric vent area. It is this effective vent
area that shall be used in marking up the vent area A in practice.

If the maximum explosion overpressure, the maximum product specific constant or the static
activation overpressure are smaller than the ones stated in the parameters, then the above
equations may be used with the minimum value given above.

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6.4 Flammable Gases

The empirical equation given in /2, 3/ can be used to calculate the required vent area for flam-
mable gas or solvent vapor explosions. The equation is valid for flammable gas-air-mixtures
which have been ignited in a quiescent state (non-turbulent) with an ignition source of
E = 10 J.

With the known parameters such as constant maximum explosion overpressure of

Pmax = 6.8 - 8.9 bar, the maximum product specific constant Kmax, the vessel strength P (re-
spectively the maximum reduced explosion overpressure Pred,max), the static activation over-
pressure Pstat of the rupture disk (explosion panel) and the vessel volume V the empirical
equation will read as follows:

A = [(0.1265 · log· Kmax - 0.0567) · P-0.5817 + 0.1754 · P-0.5722 · (Pstat - 0.1)] V2/3

The equation is valid for:

• vessel volumes 0.1 m³ ≤ V ≤ 1'000 m³,

• length/diameter ratio 1 ≤ L/De ≤ 2,
• static activation overpressure of rupture disk 0.1 bar ≤ Pstat ≤ 0.5 bar,
• vessel strength (= Pred,max) 0.1 bar ≤ P ≤ 2 bar,
• P > Pstat + 0.05 bar,
• maximum explosion overpressure Pmax ≤ 9 bar,
• maximum product specific constant 50 bar·m·s-1 ≤ Kmax ≤ 550 bar·m·s-1,
• gas-air-mixtures ignited at zero turbulence,
• venting efficiency EF = 1.

A is the vent area that shall be fitted to the enclosure assuming the venting efficiency factor of the
venting device is EF = 1 and thus the effective vent area is equal to the geometric venting area (see
Section 5.3.2). Some explosion venting devices have a venting efficiency less than 1, and the effective
vent area is thus less than the geometric vent area. It is this effective vent area that shall be used in
marking up the vent area A in practice.

If the maximum explosion overpressure, the maximum product specific constant or the static
activation overpressure are smaller than the ones stated in the parameters, then the above
equations may be used with the minimum value given above.

Based on today’s knowledge it is necessary to limit the upper maximum reduced explosion
overpressure in the cubic vessel. Extensive testing has shown that the spread of results in-
creases markedly with very small vent areas.

More or less turbulent flammable gas-air-mixtures or solvent vapor-air-mixtures exist in

industrial applications. Therefore, venting tests with turbulent propane-air-mixtures were
carried out in a 2-m³-vessel. The same test procedure was followed as with combustible dusts.
The propane-air-mixture was maintained at 20 bar in a 5--container. A detonator-activated
valve released the mixture to a perforated semi-annular pipe inside the 2-m³-vessel. After a set
delay time (tv) an ignition source (E = 10 J) was activated. The results were such that the

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equation for area requirements of quiescent propane-air-mixtures (Kmax = 100 m·bar·s-1) is

also valid for light turbulent mixtures (delay time between valve opening and ignition
tv = 0.6 s). This is also true for high turbulence (tv = 0.3 s) and large vent areas
(Pred,max = P ≤ 0.5 bar).

6.5 Venting of Building Enclosures

6.5.1Combustible Dusts
For buildings P (= Pred,max) shall always exceed Pstat by at least 0.02 bar. The vent area shall
be distributed as symmetrically and as evenly as possible over the available surface. The
course of an explosion in buildings will be affected by several parameters such as the shape of
the building, the presence of equipment and structural elements, the possibility of propagation
from room to room and the presence of flammable dust left to lie on surfaces such as
windowsills, pipe work and floors etc. The dust explosion may be limited to a small part of
the total volume. Pressure development will vary according to circumstances and a wide
range of dust explosion loads can be expected.

Vent areas on buildings shall be distributed uniformly over the wall and roof areas. In estimat-
ing P, (Pred,max) care shall be taken to ensure that the weakest structural element, as well as
any equipment or other devices that can be supported by structural elements, is identified. All
structural elements and supports shall be considered.

For example, floors and roofs are not usually designed to be loaded from beneath. However, a
lightweight roof can be considered sacrificial, provided its movement can be tolerated and
provided ice or snow does not hinder its movement.

The recommended venting equation for buildings is as follows:

Ae = Cv × AS × P-0.5 in m2

where
Ae is the effective vent area, in m²,
Ag is the geometric vent area Ag = Ae/EF, in m²,
EF is the venting efficiency,
Cv is the venting equation constant:
0 < Kmax ≤ 100 : Cv = 0.018 bar0.5,
100 < Kmax ≤ 200 : Cv = 0.026 bar0.5,
200 < Kmax ≤ 300 : Cv = 0.030 bar0.5,
AS is the internal surface area of enclosure, in m²,
P is the maximum explosion overpressure (Pred,max) developed in a vented enclosure during a
vented deflagration. P in this application is not to exceed an overpressure of 0.1 bar.

Note 1:
For the calculation of the length-to-diameter ration of the room, (L/De) WinVent calculates
the effective diameter as follows:

Deff = De = 4 (Ac/Lp),

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where
Ac is the cross-sectional area normal to the longest dimension, in square-meters (m2);
Lp is the perimeter of cross-section, in meters (m).

Note 2:
The form of the venting formula is such that there are no dimensional constraints on the shape
of the room, provided the vent area is not applied solely to one end of an elongated room. The
vent area should be applied as evenly as possible over the available wall area; but if it is re-
stricted to the end of an elongated room, the ratio of length-to-diameter of the room should
not exceed 3.

For rooms with venting restricted to one end, the application of the venting formula is con-
strained as follows:

L < 12 × Ac × Lp-1 in m

where
L is the longest dimension of the building, in meters (m);
Ac is the cross-sectional area normal to the longest dimension, in square-meters (m2);
Lp is the perimeter of cross-section, in meters (m).

6.5.2 Flammable Gases

EN 14994 has no formula for venting of building enclosures. Therefore, WinVent 4.0 uses the
recommended venting formula from the NFPA 68, 2002. For buildings P (= Pred,max) shall
always exceed Pstat by at least 0.02 bar. The vent area shall be distributed as symmetrically
and as evenly as possible over the available surface. The course of an explosion in buildings
will be affected by several parameters such as the shape of the building, the presence of
equipment and structural elements and the possibility of propagation from room to room. The
gas explosion may be limited to a small part of the total volume. Pressure development will
vary according to circumstances and a wide range of gas explosion loads can be expected.

Vent areas on buildings shall be distributed uniformly over the wall and roof areas. In estimat-
ing P (Pred,max) care shall be taken to ensure that the weakest structural element, as well as
any equipment or other devices that can be supported by structural elements, is identified. All
structural elements and supports shall be considered.

For example, floors and roofs are not usually designed to be loaded from beneath. However, a
lightweight roof can be considered sacrificial, provided its movement can be tolerated and
provided ice or snow does not hinder its movement.

The recommended venting equation for buildings is as follows:

Ae = C × AS × P-0.5 in m2

where
Ae is the effective vent area, in m²,
Ag is the geometric vent area Ag = Ae/EF, in m²,
EF is the venting efficiency,

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C is the venting equation constant:

1 < Kmax ≤ 60 : C = 0.037 bar0.5,
60 < Kmax ≤ 130 : C = 0.045 bar0.5,
AS is the internal surface area of enclosure, in m²,
P is the maximum explosion overpressure (Pred,max) developed in a vented enclosure
during a vented deflagration. P in this application is not to exceed an overpressure of 0.1 bar,
Pstat minimum 0.02 bar lower than P.

The internal surface area, AS, is the total area that constitutes the perimeter surfaces of the
enclosure that is being protected. Non-structural internal partitions that cannot withstand the
expected overpressure are not considered to be part of the enclosure surface area.

The enclosure internal surface area AS includes the roof or ceiling, walls, floor, and vent area
and can be based on simple geometric figures. Surface corrugations are neglected, as well as
minor deviations from the simplest shapes. Regular geometric deviations such as saw-toothed
roofs can be "averaged" by adding the contributed volume to that of the major structure. The
internal surface of any adjoining rooms should be included. Such rooms include adjoining
rooms separated by a partition incapable of withstanding the expected overpressure.

The surface area of equipment and contained structures should be neglected.

Note: 1
For the calculation of the length-to-diameter ration of the room, WinVent calculates the effec-
tive diameter Deff = De as follows:

Deff = De = 4 (Ac/Lp) in m

where
Ac is the cross-sectional area normal to the longest dimension, in square-meters (m2);
Lp is the perimeter of cross-section, in meters (m).

Note: 2
The form of the venting formula is such that there are no dimensional constraints on the shape
of the room, provided the vent area is not applied solely to one end of an elongated room. The
vent area should be applied as evenly as possible over the available wall area; but if it is re-
stricted to the end of an elongated room, the ratio of length-to-diameter of the room should
not exceed 3.

For rooms with venting restricted to one end, the application of the venting formula is con-
strained as follows:

L < 12 × Ac × Lp-1 in m

where
L is the longest dimension of the building, in meters (m),
Ac is the cross-sectional area normal to the longest dimension, in square-meters (m2),
Lp is the perimeter of cross-section, in meters (m).

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If an enclosure contain a highly turbulent gas mixture and the vent area is restricted to one
end, or
if the enclosure has any internal obstructions and the vent area is restricted to one end, then
the L/De of the enclosure should not exceed 2, or the following formula should be used:

L < 8 × Ac × Lp-1 in m

where
L is the longest dimension of the building, in meters (m),
Ac is the cross-sectional area normal to the longest dimension, in square-meters (m2),
Lp is the perimeter of cross-section, in meters (m).

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7 Design of Vacuum Breakers

An unacceptably high vacuum is prevented if the vacuum breaker is sized in with the
following equation, which describes the correlation of the minimum required suction area
with the size of the protected vessel or silo and its vacuum resistance:

Asuc = [ -0.00219 x Ln (Pvac) + 0.014 ] · V(-0.0207 x Ln (Pvac) + 0.8147 )

With
Asuc = effective suction area in m2,
Pvac = vacuum resistance of vessel in mbar,
V = vessel volume in m3.

The equation is valid for:

• vessel volumes 5 ≤ V ≤ 5'000 m³,
• vacuum resistance 25 ≤ Pvac ≤ 500 mbar.

Figure 7-1 shows an explosion door with integral vacuum breaker.

Figure 7-1. Explosion door with integral vacuum breaker to

avoid an inadmissibly high vacuum /15/

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Figure 7-2 shows the roof of a coal silo fitted with several explosion doors with integrated
vacuum breakers.

Figure 7-2. Explosion doors with integral vacuum breakers to avoid an inadmissibly

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8 Hazards due to Flame and Pressure

Explosion venting is always accompanied by flame propagation (Figs. 8-1 and 8-2) plus pres-
sure consequences in the surrounding areas.

Figure 8-1. Dust explosion in a vented 7.5-m³-filter with homogeneous dust dispersion

The reason for this is the unburned product, which is pushed outside once the vent system ac-
tuates. The fuel-air-mixture generated externally is then ignited by a flame jet exiting the vent
area. The flame length will be larger with a lesser static activation overpressure and smaller
vent area.

Dependent on the volume of the equipment it can reach up to 60 m (Fig. 8-3). Longer ranges
of flame than 60 m even in case of greater volumes are not to be expected.

The venting process should not endanger personnel. In addition, the operation of any equip-
ment, which is important with regard to safety, should not be restricted. This shall be consid-
ered when designing the plant and may be accomplished by releasing the pressure upwards
(Fig. 8-3).

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Figure 8-2. Gas explosion in a vented 25-m³-vessel with propane-air-mixture ignited at

zero turbulence

Figure 8-3. Dust explosion in a 250-m³-vessel with homogeneous dust dispersion,

venting upwards

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If a pressure venting upwards is not feasible, then the vent openings should be placed as high
as possible at the side of the vessel. For this, the recoil forces with respect to the overturning
moment have to be taken into account, see Section 12.

Large fireballs were observed during vented dust explosion in cases where additional dust de-
posits accumulated near the vent opening (Fig. 8-4). The lower edge of the vent has to be
sufficiently higher than the maximum dust pile in order to limit the danger of dust discharge.

Figure 8-4. Dust explosion in a filter housing with additional deposits of loose dust near
the venting area by homogeneous dust dispersion

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8.1 Open Air Installations

8.1.1 Homogeneous dust cloud conditions
With open-air installations one has to ensure that escaping flames and pressure does not jeop-
ardize the surroundings. Combustible materials (e.g., roofing material) shall not exist near the
vent opening.

8.1.1.1 Flame propagation

The maximum external flame length LF originating from a vessel increases with increased
volume of the vented vessel. The LF shall be determined according to the following empirical
equations:

For horizontal venting:

LFh = 10 ⋅ V1/3 in m

For vertical venting:

LFv = 8 ⋅ V1/3 in m

Hybrid dust-propane-air-mixtures have the same range of the flame as dust-air-mixtures.

The equations are valid for:

• vessel volumes 0.1 m3 ≤ V ≤ 10’000 m³,

• static activation overpressure of the rupture disk 0.1 bar ≤ Pstat ≤ 0.2 bar,
• maximum vessel strength (= Pred,max) of 0.1 bar < P ≤ 2 bar, with Pred,max > Pstat,
• maximum explosion overpressure 5 bar ≤ Pmax ≤ 10 bar,
• maximum product specific constant 10 m·bar·s-1 ≤ Kmax ≤ 300 m·bar·s-1,
• L/De < 2,
• Only valid for vessels without vent duct.

Longer ranges of the flames than 60 m even in case of greater volumes are not to be expected.

The maximum external width of a flame WF shall be determined for horizontal and vertical
venting according to the following empirical equation:

WF = 2.8⋅V1/3 in m

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The equation is valid for:

• vessel volumes 0.1 m3 ≤ V ≤ 10’000 m³,

• static activation overpressure of the rupture disk 0.1 bar ≤ Pstat ≤ 0.2 bar,
• maximum vessel strength (= Pred,max) of 0.1 bar < P ≤ 2 bar, with Pred,max > Pstat,
• maximum explosion overpressure 5 bar ≤ Pmax ≤ 10 bar,
• maximum product specific constant 10 m·bar·s-1 ≤ Kmax ≤ 200 m·bar·s-1,
• L/De < 2,
• only valid for vessels without vent duct.

Figure 8-5 shows clearly that with increasingly venting vessel volume the maximum flame
length external LF increases.

100

Horizontal
Vertical
LF [m]

10

Pmax<= 10 bar; Kmax <= 300 m·bar/s;

P<= 2 bar; L/De < 2; Pstat <= 0.2 bar

1
1 10 V [m³] 100 1000

Figure 8-5. Maximum external flame length LF of homogeneous dust cloud explosions
into the outside area of vented vessels V without vent duct

Tests have shown that if the vent area is subdivided into several single areas the maximum
flame range will not be reduced.

Figure 8-6 shows clearly that with increasingly venting vessel volume the maximum external
flame width WF of dust explosions increases.

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100
WF [m]

10

Pmax<= 10 bar; Kmax <= 200 m·bar/s;

P<= 2 bar; L/De < 2; Pstat <= 0.2 bar
1
1 10 V [m³] 100 1000

Figure 8-6. Maximum external flame width WF of homogeneous dust cloud explosions
into the outside area of vented vessels V without vent duct

At present no information are available on the maximum external flame range for
elongated vessels and silos. Longer ranges of the flames will be expected for elongated
vessels with a height/diameter ratio H/D ≥ 2.

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8.1.1.2 Deflectors
The extent of the flame produced by a vented explosion external to the enclosure can be
limited by deflectors. These can be designed and installed to reduce flame length. A possible
design of defector plate, and its installation, is shown in Figure 8.7.

Figure 8-7. Design of a deflector plate

The area of the plate should be at least three times the area of the vent, and its dimensions
should be at least 1.6 x the dimensions of the vent. The plate should be inclined at least 45° -
60° to the horizontal to deflect the ejected flame upwards. The plate should be installed at a
sufficient distance from the vent to ensure that it does not act as an obstacle to the venting
process and so cause an increase in the reduced explosion pressure inside the enclosure.
Neither should the plate be installed at too great a distance from the vent; the distance of
1.5 DN given in Figure 8.7, where DN is the nominal diameter of the vent, has been shown to
be satisfactory in explosion trials, but may need to be modified in practice, depending on
circumstances. The plate should be mounted so that it can withstand the force exerted by the
vented explosion, which can be calculated by multiplying the reduced explosion pressure by
the area of the plate.

The length of the flame along the axis of the vent is limited by the plate. Explosion trials
show that, a deflector plate positioned as in Figure 8.7 approximately halves the length of the
flame compared to when the plate is absent. A safe distance beyond the deflector should be
specified from which personnel are excluded while the plant is operating. The plate deflects
flame sideways and the lateral extent of the safe area should be sufficient to avoid harm from
this sideways deflection.

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Deflectors should not be installed when the enclosure volume is greater than 40 m3 because
test were only performed with vessel volumes up to 35 m3 /20/ (Fig. 8.8).

Figure 8-8. Test with a deflector plate

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8.1.1.3 Pressure effects

Because there are many different effects, only guiding statements are possible with regard to
the pressure propagation outside a cubic vessel near the vent area. Two pressure peaks charac-
terize the pressure/time behavior. The venting process (primary explosion) and the other cause
one by the subsequent ignition of an externally created dust-air-mixture (secondary
explosion). They both are influenced by the product specific constant Kmax and the location
of the ignition in the vessel.

The maximum external overpressure PAmax for homogeneous dust cloud explosions ignited
in a cubic vessel vented by rupture discs arising at outside the vented enclosure can either be
due to one of these two above-mentioned effects. Therefore, both shall be calculated and the
worst (Highest) value shall be used.

8.1.1.3.1 Overpressure due to the explosion of the dust cloud in the area outside the vent
(secondary explosion)
Figure 8.9 demonstrate the meaning of secondary explosion.

Figure 8-9. Explanation of the secondary explosion outside the vented vessel

The maximum external overpressure PAmax can be estimated using the following formula:

PAmax = 0.2 · Pred,max · A0.1 · V0.18 = 0.2 · Po · A0.1 · V0.18 in bar

This estimated external overpressure can be expected at a distance Rs = 0.25 ·LF in axial dis-
charge direction from the vent area A.

For larger distances, r (r > Rs), from the vent, the external overpressure PAr decreases as fol-
lows:

PAr = PAmax · (Rs/r)1.5

The equations are valid for:

• vessel volumes 0.1 m3 ≤ V ≤ 250 m³,
• static activation overpressure of the rupture disk Pstat = 0.1 bar,
• maximum vessel strength (= Pred,max) 0.1 bar < P ≤ 1 bar,
• maximum explosion overpressure 5 bar ≤ Pmax ≤ 9 bar,
• maximum product specific constant 10 m·bar·s-1 ≤ Kmax ≤ 200 m·bar·s-1 ,
• L/De < 2,
• Only valid for vessels without vent duct.

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Which effect such peak pressures may have on parts of constructions can be taken from annex
21.3.

At present no information are available on the pressure behavior outside elongated vessels and
silos near the vent area.

8.1.1.3.2 Overpressure due to the vented explosion (primary explosion)

Figure 8.10 demonstrate the meaning of primary explosion.

Figure 8-10. Explanation of the primary explosion – no secondary explosion outside

The maximum external overpressure PAr at a certain location can be estimated using the fol-
lowing formula (see also Fig 8-10):

PAr = 1.24 · Pred,max · (DH/r)1.35 /(1+(α/56)2) in bar

Where
r is the distance from the vent area, in m with r > RS,
DH is the hydraulic diameter of the vent area, in m².

NOTE: For a round duct DH = D and for a square duct, where L=W, then DH = L
α defines the direction towards the vent
with
α = 0° means in front of the vent area,
α = 90° means sideways from the vent area.

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The equations are valid for:

• vessel volumes 0.1 m3 ≤ V ≤ 250 m³,
• static activation overpressure of the rupture disk Pstat = 0.1 bar,
• maximum vessel strength (= Pred,max) 0.1 bar < P ≤ 1 bar,
• maximum explosion overpressure 5 bar ≤ Pmax ≤ 9 bar,
• maximum product specific constant 10 m·bar·s-1 ≤ Kmax ≤ 200 m·bar·s-1 ,
• L/De < 2,
• only valid for vessels without vent duct.

Figure 8-11 shows the definition of hydraulic diameter DH of vent devices with different
shapes.

Figure 8-11. Definition of hydraulic diameter DH of vent devices with different shapes
DH = 4A/Perimeter

Which effect such peak pressures may have on parts of constructions can be taken from annex
21.3.

The EN 14491 recommends that both effects of primary and secondary explosion shall be cal-
culated and the worst (highest) value shall be used.

The following Table 8-12 compares the two calculation methods using 2 different vessel sizes
and 3 different pressure resistance of the vessel.

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Table 8-12. Comparison of the horizontal calculation methods for secondary and
primary explosion in front of the vent area (without vent duct)

V = 10 m³; L/D = 1; Pmax = 9 bar; Kmax = 100 m bar/s; P = 0.3 bar; A = 0.4 m², Pstat = 0.1 bar
PA,max = 83 mbar at R = 5.4 m
Secondary Explosion Primary Explosion
Equation
Cloud outside α = 0° Cloud outside α = 0°
External Pressure PAr at r = 10 m 33 mbar 11 mbar
External Pressure PAr at r = 20 m 12 mbar 4 mbar

V = 10 m³; L/D = 1; Pmax = 9 bar; Kmax = 200 m bar/s; P = 0.3 bar; A = 0.8 m², Pstat = 0.1 bar
PA,max = 89 mbar at R = 5.4 m
Secondary Explosion Primary Explosion
Equation
Cloud outside α = 0° Cloud outside α = 0°
External Pressure PAr at r = 10 m 35 mbar 17 mbar
External Pressure PAr at r = 20 m 12 mbar 7 mbar

V = 10 m³; L/D = 1; Pmax = 9 bar; Kmax = 200 m bar/s; P = 0.5 bar; A = 0.6 m², Pstat = 0.1 bar
PA,max = 144 mbar at R = 5.4 m
Secondary Explosion Primary Explosion
Equation
Cloud outside α = 0° Cloud outside α = 0°
External Pressure PAr at r = 10 m 57 mbar 23 mbar
External Pressure PAr at r = 20 m 20 mbar 9 mbar

V = 10 m³; L/D = 1; Pmax = 9 bar; Kmax = 200 m bar/s; P = 1 bar; A = 0.4 m², Pstat = 0.1 bar
PA,max = 276 mbar at R = 5.4 m
Secondary Explosion Primary Explosion
Equation
Cloud outside α = 0° Cloud outside α = 0°
External Pressure PAr at r = 10 m 109 mbar 35 mbar
External Pressure PAr at r = 20 m 39 mbar 14 mbar

V = 30 m³; L/D = 1; Pmax = 9 bar; Kmax = 200 m bar/s; P = 0.5 bar; A = 1.3 m², Pstat = 0.1 bar
PA,max = 189 mbar at R = 7.8 m
Secondary Explosion Primary Explosion
Equation
Cloud outside α = 0° Cloud outside α = 0°
External Pressure PAr at r = 10 m 130 mbar 39 mbar
External Pressure PAr at r = 20 m 46 mbar 15 mbar

V = 30 m³; L/D = 1; Pmax = 9 bar; Kmax = 200 m bar/s; P = 1 bar; A = 0.9 m², Pstat = 0.1 bar
PA,max = 365 mbar at R = 7.8 m
Secondary Explosion Primary Explosion
Equation
Cloud outside α = 0° Cloud outside α = 0°
External Pressure PAr at r = 10 m 250 mbar 61 mbar
External Pressure PAr at r = 20 m 88 mbar 24 mbar

One can clearly see that a secondary explosion in front of the vent area always lead to
higher pressures outside the vented vessel.

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8.1.2 Inhomogeneous dust cloud conditions

With open-air installations, one has to ensure that escaping flames and pressure does not
jeopardize the surroundings. Combustible materials (e.g., roofing material) should not exist
near the vent opening.

8.1.2.1 Flame propagation

The maximum external flame length LF originating from inhomogeneous dust cloud
explosions in vessels decreases with increased size of cubic, vented vessels V. The empirical
equation is as follows:

LF = 30 · V-1/3 in m

The equation is valid for:

• vessel volumes 10 m3 ≤ V ≤ 250 m³,

• static activation overpressure of the rupture disk Pstat = 0.1 bar,
• maximum vessel strength (= Pred,max) 0.1 bar < P ≤ 1 bar,
• Pred,max > Pstat
• maximum explosion overpressure 5 bar ≤ Pmax ≤ 9 bar,
• maximum product specific constant10 m·bar·s-1 ≤ Kmax ≤ 200 m·bar·s-1 ,
• L/De < 2,
• only valid of vessels without vent duct.

Figure 8-13 shows that the maximum external flame length LF changes - as in the case of
homogeneous dust cloud explosions - with the third root of the vented vessel volume V. In
contrast to the homogeneous dust cloud explosions, the maximum external flame length LF
for the inhomogeneous dust cloud explosions decreases with increasing vented vessel volume
V.

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Figure 8-13. Maximum external flame length LF of inhomogeneous dust cloud

explosions into the outside area of vented vessels V without vent duct

Tests have shown that if the vent area is subdivided into several single areas the maximum
flame range will not be reduced.

At present, no guidance can be given for flame ranges from elongated vessels and silos.
It is expected that the length of the flame will be longer for elongated vessels with a
height/diameter ratio H/D ≥ 2.

8.1.2.2 Pressure effect

The maximum external overpressure PAmax for inhomogeneous dust cloud explosions in a
cubic vessel vented by rupture discs arising at outside the vented enclosure can be estimated
using the following formula:

PAmax = 0.2 · Pred,max · A0.1 · V0.18 = 0.2 · Po · A0.1 · V0.18 in bar

This estimated maximum external overpressure can be expected at a distance Rs in axial

discharge direction from the vent area A.

Rs = 0.25 · LF = 0.25 ·30 · V-1/3 in m

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For larger distances, r (r > Rs), from the vent, the external overpressure PAr decreases as
follows:

PAr = PAmax · (Rs/r)1.5 in bar

The equations are valid for:

• vessel volumes 10 m3 ≤ V ≤ 250 m³,

• static activation overpressure of the rupture disk Pstat = 0.1 bar,
• maximum vessel strength (= Pred,max) 0.1 bar < P ≤ 1 bar,
• maximum explosion overpressure 5 bar ≤ Pmax ≤ 9 bar,
• maximum product specific constant 10 m·bar·s-1 ≤ Kmax ≤ 200 m·bar·s-1 ,
• L/De < 2,
• Only valid for vessels without vent duct.

At present no information are available on the pressure behavior outside elongated vessels and
silos near the vent area.

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8.1.3 Zero turbulence gas cloud condition

With open-air installations, one has to ensure that escaping flames and pressure does not jeop-
ardize the surroundings. Combustible materials (e.g., roofing material) should not exist near
the vent opening.

8.1.3.1 Flame propagation

The maximum outside range of a flame LF originating from explosions of propane-air-
mixtures ignited at zero turbulence in a vessel increases with increased size of the cubic,
vented vessel. The empirical equation is as follows:

LF = 5 · V1/3 in m

Hybrid dust-propane-air-mixtures have the same range of the flame as homogeneous dust-
air-mixtures.

The equation is valid for:

• vessel volumes 0.1 m3 ≤ V ≤ 250 m³,

• static activation overpressure of the rupture disk Pstat = 0.1 bar,
• maximum vessel strength (= Pred,max) 0.1 bar < P ≤ 1 bar,
• Pred,max > Pstat
• maximum explosion overpressure 5 bar ≤ Pmax ≤ 9 bar,
• maximum product specific constant10 m·bar·s-1 ≤ Kmax ≤ 100 m·bar·s-1 ,
• propane-air-mixtures ignited at zero turbulence (tv = 0 s),
• L/De < 2,
• only valid of vessels without vent duct.

Figure 8-14 documents that the range of the flame from a vented propane-air-mixture ignited
in its quiescent (zero turbulence) state in a cubic vessel increases with increased vessel size.
With the markedly shorter flame ranges the vessel size dependency is much more pronounced
than which homogenous dust-air-mixtures.

Exploratory tests indicate that the maximum range of the flame is not shortened in cases
where the vent area is spread over multiple segments.

At present, no guidance can be given for flame ranges from elongated vessels and silos.
It is expected that the length of the flame will be longer for elongated vessels with a
height/diameter ratio H/D ≥ 2.

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Figure 8-14. Maximum flame range LF of propane-air-mixtures ignited at zero turbu-

lence into the outside area of vented vessels V without vent duct

8.1.3.2 Pressure effect

Pressure and blast effects external to a vent area from pressure generated by the vented explo-
sion inside the enclosure and the explosion of an explosive gas cloud generated in the area
outside the vent.

The following estimate can be made for the maximum peak pressure for gas/air mixtures
ignited in a compact enclosure:

PAr = 1.24 · Pred,max · (√A/R)1.35 /(1+(α/56)2) in bar

Where
R is the distance to vent opening, in m,
A is the vent area, in m²,
α defines the direction towards the vent (see also Fig. 8-10)
with
α = 0° means in front of the vent area,
α = 90° means sideways from the vent area.

The equations are valid for:

• vessel volumes 0.1 m3 ≤ V ≤ 250 m³,
• static activation overpressure of the rupture disk Pstat = 0.1 bar,
• maximum vessel strength (= Pred,max) 0.1 bar < P ≤ 1 bar,
• maximum explosion overpressure 5 bar ≤ Pmax ≤ 9 bar,
• maximum product specific constant 10 m·bar·s-1 ≤ Kmax ≤ 200 m·bar·s-1,

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• L/De < 2
• only valid for vessels without vent duct.

Which effect such peak pressures may have on parts of constructions can be taken from annex
21.3.

8.2 Installations in Enclosed Areas

If pressure venting is applied to equipment installed in enclosed areas, then the venting has to
be done through a pipeline (so-called vent duct) to the outside in a safe direction (see Section
9).

Newer developments indicate that flame propagation from explosion vented equipment can be
stopped, under certain conditions, by using approved diverters /4, 5/, e.g., mechanical flame
barriers (flame arresters, quenching devices with dust retainers). Compare Section 10.

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9 Design of Vent Duct

9.1 General
If a vent duct is attached downstream of the venting device, then after activation of the
venting device the duct may be filled with an explosive mixture before the flames leave the
protected vessel. This results in a secondary explosion in the vent duct, which will hinder the
venting process. Therefore, the maximum reduced explosion overpressure inside the vessel
will increase with increasing length of the vent duct. The pressure effect depends upon the
expected maximum reduced explosion overpressure while using a rupture disk but without
vent duct and upon type of the fuel.

Figure 9-1 demonstrates what can happen if the design of vent duct is not correct.

Figure 9-1. Consequences of a bad design of vent duct

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9.2 Rupture Disks as Venting Devices

9.2.1 Combustible Dusts
The influence of the length of a vent duct (LA) upon the pressure increase is most pronounced
when the flame propagation from the secondary explosion in the vent duct reaches the
velocity of sound /1, 4/. This is valid for vent ducts of

LA = LAS = 4.564 ⋅ Pred, max = 4.564 ⋅ Po

-0.37 -0.37
in m

Where
LAS is the length of vent duct were velocity of sound is reached

Vent ducts with a length of LA > LAS have no additional effect upon the pressure increase.

Therefore, the length of vent duct were velocity of sound is reached (LAS) will be the
maximum length that has to be considered.

The above-mentioned equation is not valid for metal dusts.

The presence of the vent duct has no effect on the Pred,max, if the ratio length of the vent duct
to diameter of a single vent duct is LA/LD ≤ 0.5: provide that the volume of the vent duct is
less than the volume of the protected vessel (Fig. 9.2).

Figure 9-2. Definition of vent duct

Independent of the location of the vent duct (longitudinal or transversal arrangement Fig. 9-3),
the maximum reduced explosion overpressure P’red,max (the design pressure P of the vessel to
be protected) caused by the downstream duct can be calculated for vessels having L/De ration
of 1 with the following equation:

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Figure 9-3. Silo with "longitudinal" (left) and "transversal" (right)

arrangement of vent duct on a silo

L/De = 1 (longitudinal and transversal):

P’red,max = P0·(1 + 17.3 ⋅ LA ⋅ (A ⋅ V-0.753)1.6) in bar

Where
P’red,max maximum explosion overpressure with vent duct (= P) in bar;
Pred,max maximum explosion overpressure without vent duct (= Po) in bar;
A required vent area in m2 without vent duct;
V volume of protected vessel in m3;
LA length of vent duct in m.

The equation is valid for:

• vessel volumes 0.1m3 ≤ V ≤ 10’000 m³;

• LA/LD ratio of vent duct 0.5 < LA/LD ≤ 20;
• Length of vent duct LA ≤ 10m but if LA > LAS use LAS for calculation.
• static activation overpressure of the venting device 0.1 bar ≤ Pstat ≤ 0.2 bar;
• maximum vessel strength (P’red,max) without vent duct ≤ 2 bar;
• maximum vessel strength (= Pred,max) of 0.1 bar < P ≤ 2 bar; and P shall be at least Pstat + 2 times
the tolerance range of Pstat;
• maximum explosion overpressure 5 bar ≤ Pmax ≤ 12 bar and a maximum product specific con-
stant 10 m·bar·s-1 ≤ Kmax ≤ 800 m·bar·s-1,
• L/De = 1,

If the maximum explosion overpressure, the product specific constant or the static activation
overpressure are smaller than the ones stated in the parameters than the above equation may
be used with the minimum values given above.

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Experimental studies have proven that the influence of vent duct with longitudinal
arrangement - located on the roof - decreases markedly with increased length diameter ratio
(Fig. 9-3, left and Fig. 9-4). The increase of the maximum explosion overpressure is at its
maximum if L/De = 1.

For a length diameter ratio L/De = 6 the elevated "maximum reduced explosion overpressure"
P’red,max (the design pressure P of the vessel to be protected) caused by the downstream pipe
can be calculated from the simple equation:

L/De = 6 (only longitudinal):

(0.981 − 0.01907 ⋅LA)

P'red, max = (0.0586 ⋅ LA + 1.023) ⋅ P
red, max

With a given
• maximum explosion overpressure without vent pipe of 0.1 bar < Pred,max ≤ 2 bar,
• vessel length diameter ratio 1 < L/De < 6 and
• length of vent pipe LA ≤ LAS

the reduced maximum explosion overpressure between vessel L/De 1 and 6 with vent duct be-
comes for:
1 < L/De < 6 (only longitudinal):

P’red,max = 0.2 (C1 – C2) (1-L/De) + C1 in bar

Where C1 = P’red,max from the equation for vessel L/De = 1 and C2 = P’red,max from the equa-
tion for vessel L/De = 6.

For a vessel ratio L/De > 6 the maximum reduced explosion overpressure will not increase
anymore /4, 5/. Figure 9-4 depicts a horizontal silo with a 2 m long vent duct. As mentioned
before there will be no influence of the duct upon the maximum reduced explosion
overpressure because the vessel ratio L/De is larger than 6.

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Figure 9-4. Horizontal arranged silo (L/De = 6.25), which will be vented trough
the roof via a 2 m long vent pipe (longitudinal arrangement)

If the location of the vent duct is installed on the side (transversal arrangement Fig. 9-3, right),
the influence of the downstream vent duct on the maximum reduced explosion overpressure
P’red,max (the design pressure P of the vessel to be protected) can only be calculated by the
equation for vessels having a L/De ratio of 1 which is - for the transversal arrangement - also
valid up to a L/De ratio of 20.

1 ≤ L/De ≤ 20 (only transversal):

P’red,max = P0·(1 + 17.3 ⋅ LA ⋅ (A ⋅ V-0.753)1.6) in bar

The above-mentioned information regarding design of vent ducts are valid for all dust
injection methods, such as standard, pneumatic conveying with axial and tangential inlet
and free fall filling.

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9.2.2 Flammable Gases

If free venting is based on Po (= Pred,max) of 0.1 bar to 2.0 bar then the design pressure of the
protected vessel has to be at least P = 0.2 bar to 2.3 bar when using short vent pipes
(LA ≤ 3 m) and at least P = 0.8 bar to 3.6 bar when using longer vent pipes (LA > 3 m).
Vessels with a design overpressure of less than 0.2 bar (short vent pipes) or 0.8 bar (longer
vent pipes) cannot be pressure vented in conjunction with vent pipes (they require too large a
vent area) [6].

In accordance with the expected increase of the maximum reduced explosion overpressure
Pred,max the design pressure P of the vessel to be protected has to be augmented as follows in
which P correspond to the design pressure with vent pipe and Po without vent pipe:

Length of vent pipe 0 m < LA ≤ 3 m:

P = 1.24· Po0.8614 in bar

Length of vent pipe 3 m < LA ≤ 6 m:

P = 2.48 · Po0.5165 in bar

In case the design pressure is given as P then the vent area A has to be increased so that the
following maximum reduced explosion overpressure Po results during free (unobstructed)
venting:

Length of vent pipe 0 m < LA ≤ 3 m:

Po = 0.7790 ·P1.161 in bar

Length of vent pipe 3 m < LA ≤ 6 m:

Po = 0.1723· P1.936 in bar

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9.3 Explosion Doors as Venting Devices

9.3.1 Combustible Dusts
Once can assume that the influence of vent ducts downstream from explosion doors with a
very good venting efficiency, EF upon the pressure in the protected vessel is similar to the
pressure increase caused by rupture disks with comparable venting efficiency (see Section
9.1.1). As per /1, 3/ this is normally the case when the specific mass of the explosion door
does not exceed GE = 0.5 kg·m-². Explosion doors with an inertia greater than 0.5 kg·m-2 and
smaller or equal to 10 kg·m-2 can be considered as inertia-free if the specific vent area
A/V0.753 < 0.07 /3/. The equations for rupture disks can be used to determine the augmented
pressure. It will be referenced to the Pred,max, which results from an explosion door without
vent duct (Po).

Test with dust-air-mixtures and rectangular explosion doors of low efficiency have shown that
in certain cases the influence of vent ducts can be reduced. This is true for explosion doors
with substantial specific mass GE > 45 kg·m-2 /16/. The following performance is related to
the efficacy of rectangular explosion doors in presence of homogeneous dust-air-mixtures and
vent pipes having a special construction (Fig. 9-5).

Vent pipe
c = a · 0.55

Explosion door

Figure 9-5. Special construction of vent pipe attached to rectangular explosion doors

Once the distance c (Fig. 9-5) is calculated as:

c = a · 0.55 in m

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there is no augmentation of the pressure inside the vessel because of the vent duct. The reason
for this is that the cross section of the vent duct is markedly larger than the effective area of
the vent door. In contrast to a rupture disk as the venting device the flow of unburned dust-air-
mixture is “metered” into the duct therefore maintaining a low dust concentration. The full
development of the secondary explosion in the duct is hindered provided dust deposits near
the venting device are preventable. In such a case the design strength P of the protected vessel
may be lower than for rupture disks or low specific mass explosion doors (generally specific
GE < 10 kg·m-2) with regular ducts.

Only longer vent ducts (LA > 8 m) have a small influence upon the course of the explosion
inside the protected vessel /5/.

For a heavier specific mass of the explosion door (GE > 10 kg·m-2) and without special design
of the vent duct (see Fig. 9-3 and Fig. 9-4) the equations for rupture disks can be used to
determine the augmented pressure. It will be referenced to the Pred,max, which results from an
explosion door without vent duct (Po). When in doubt special tests may be needed.

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9.3.2 Flammable Gases

One can assume that the vent duct has the same influence when installed behind a vent door
with good venting characteristics or behind a rupture disk of comparable venting behavior.
The pressure inside the protected vessel should be augmented in a similar manner (see Section
9.1.2). This is always the case as per /2, 3/ when the specific mass of the vent door is smaller
or equal to GE = 0.5 kg·m-2. Explosion venting devices with an inertia greater than 0.5 kg·m-2
and smaller or equal to 10 kg·m-2 can be considered as inertia-free if the specific vent area
A/V0.753 < 0.07 /3/. The equation for rupture disks can be used to determine the augmented
pressure. It will be referenced to the Pred,max, which results from an explosion door without
vent duct (Po).

For a specific mass of the vent door in excess of GE = 10 kg·m-2 the influence of the vent duct
upon the augmented pressure in the protected vessel may be smaller -similarly to the behavior
with combustible dusts (see Section 9.2.1). A deviation from the usual calculation method
given in Section 9.1.2 is permitted if documented with actual explosion tests.

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9.4 Constructional Design of Vent Ducts

9.4.1 Maximum Length and Strength
Vent ducts should be as short and straight as possible. Its maximum length shall not exceed
10 m. Circular vent ducts should be given preference over square ducts for reasons of
strength. They must have at least the strength of the vessel under protection /6/.

If an inspection hatch is located in the vicinity of the venting device for servicing purposes,
cover and closing device must have the same strength as the vent duct /1, 2, 4, 22/.

9.4.2 Form Design

Vent ducts should be as short as possible and installed straight (Figure 9-6, left). The angle to
the axis of the vent opening must not exceed 20° (Figure 9-6, right).

Figure 9-6. Vent duct design to which the equations shown in

chapter 9.2.1 and 9.2.2 apply

Vent duct shapes with a gradual bend (Fig. 9-7) is also acceptable if the ratio of the radius r of
the curvature to the duct diameter DN is greater than 2.

Figure 9-7. Vent duct design to which the equations shown in

chapter 9.2.1 and 9.2.2 apply if r / DN > 2

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On the other hand, if the vent duct has a bend of 90° after the area of the vent (Fig. 9-8, left),
the explosion venting process shows particularly severe inhibition and the maximum reduced
explosion overpressure can be raised by this arrangement up to 400%.

Figure 9-8. Vent duct design to which the equations shown in

chapter 9.2.1 and 9.2.2 do not apply

9.4.3 Cross-Sections
The cross-section of vent ducts must be at least that of the vent opening of the vessel under
protection. An increase in the vent duct cross-section compared with that of the vent area
(Fig. 9-9, left) does not promote the venting process /1, 4, 22/.

Constriction of the cross-section (Fig. 9-9, right), on the other hand, can have a considerably
greater effect on the increase in the maximum reduced explosion overpressure than, e.g.,
straight (Fig. 9-6) or slightly bent vent ducts (Fig. 9-7).

Figure 9-9. Vent duct design to which the equations shown in

chapter 9.2.1 and 9.2.2 do not apply

Constriction of the cross-section (Fig. 9-9, right), on the other hand, can have a considerably
greater effect on the increase in the maximum reduced explosion overpressure than, e.g.,
straight (Fig. 9-6) or slightly bent vent ducts (Fig. 9-7).

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9.4.4 Conclusions
The vent duct design shown in Figures 9.8 and 9.9 are not forbidden; rather the equation
shown in chapter 9.2.1 and 9.2.2 do not apply to them.

These and other designs can be used as long as the predictions of the effects of the vent duct
on the maximum reduced explosion overpressure in the protected vessel are based on either
published or experimental data that has been obtained from representative explosion venting
trials,

9.4.5 Weather Protection

With a horizontal arrangement (Fig 9-10), the end of vent pipes should be cut away at an
angle to prevent the ingress of rain and snow. In addition, a wire mesh is used as a
constructional measure to prevent bursting disks flying off.

Figure 9-10. Vent pipes ends cut away at an angle with additional mesh

A vent duct angled downward slightly also prevents the ingress of rain or snow (Fig. 9-11).

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Figure 9-11. Vent duct angled downward slightly with additional mesh

With regard to how the length of the vent duct with angled cutaway end should be measured,
the length LA of the median axis always applies (Fig 9-12).

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LA LA

Figure 9-12. Determination of the length of the vent duct with angled cutaway end

To prevent the ingress of rain and snow into the vent ducts, light covers, e.g., foils/films or
disks in clamping profiles are admissible (weight < 0.5 kg/m²) if these covers free the vent
duct cross-section at very low overpressures (less than 50% of Pstat, to be proven by tests).
The covers shall not affect the venting process or endanger people or things (Fig. 9-13).

Foil/Film

Disk in
clamping profile

Figure 9-13. Foil/film cover (left) and cover with disks in

rubber clamping profile (right)

Other vent duct covers such as those shown in Figure 9-14 can also be used if the required
low activation overpressure (less than 50% of Pstat) has been proven by tests and flying off,
e.g., of metal covers can be reliably prevented by retaining wires.

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Figure 9-14. Tested metal covers held by rubber bands

(the retaining wires for the covers are not visible)

Figure 9-15 shows a heavy metal cover installed at the end of a vent duct. The corresponding
static activation overpressure does not fulfill the requirements of very low static activation
overpressures < 50-% of Pstat) and a low weight of less than 0.5 kg/m². The flying off the
metal cover is not reliably prevented.

Explosion tests with a similar type of metal cover shows that this type of hinged cover was
torn off and hurled away even at rather low-pressure loads. This is creating an additional
hazard in the vicinity.

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Figure 9-15. NOT tested heavy metal cover

The connection between the protected vessel and the vent duct frequently requires elastic
rubber compensators (Fig. 9-16). They often comprise fiber-reinforced rubber with an
explosion strength, which is virtually impossible to prove by calculation.

The use of such compensators is possible when explosion tests have provided proof of the re-
quired strength.

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Rubber compensator

Figure 9-16. Rubber compensator for the connection between

the protected vessel and the vent duct

Special care must be exercised in the installation of the rubber compensators and, if
applicable, the clamping rings of sleeve connections.

Figure 9-17 shows the missing rubber compensator for the connection between the protected
vessel and the vent duct. In this case, the missing rubber compensator is creating an additional
hazard in the vicinity.

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Figure 9-17. Missing rubber compensator for the connection between

protected vessel and vent duct

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10 Flameless Explosion Venting

10.1 Basics
Flameless explosion venting devices consist of an explosion-venting device and a flame-
quenching element as a minimum. Flame quenching elements shall be suitable for the
intended use (e.g. temperature range, mechanical strength, fuel type). Explosion venting
devices shall be designed according to /3, 23/. Material used for the parts of explosion venting
devices shall be selected based on their suitability with regard to the chemical and physical
conditions to which they will be subjected in service.

All parts of the flame-quenching element shall resist the expected mechanical, thermal and
chemical loads of the intended use. During or after the venting process, deformations of the
flameless explosion-venting device may occur. This shall not lead to gaps in the housing that
could lead to flame transmission into the surrounding. The flame quenching capability of the
device shall be demonstrated by tests.

10.2 Quenching-Tube-System (Q-Rohr System)

The quenching tube (Q-tube) comprises an upstream, integrated three-part bursting disk,
which vents the explosion in the Q-tube. Hot gases are formed which are cooled via a special
high-grade steel mesh filter cage (Fig. 10-1).

Figure 10-1. Schematic representation of a bursting disk with combined

flame barrier and dust filter (Quenching-Tube System) /12/

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In a thermo graphical investigation of a dust explosion, it has been recorded that when using a
Q-Tube System there is a huge reduction in temperatures generated (Fig 10-2).

Figure 10-2. Above: conventional explosion venting with a bursting disc

Below: conventional explosion venting with Q-Rohr System [12]

Figure 10-3 shows examples of such Q-Rohr systems.

Figure 10-3. Example of Q-Rohr Systems /12/

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10.3 Quenching-Box-System (Q-Box System)

The quenching box (Q-Box) comprises an integrated bursting disk, which vents the explosion
in the Q-Box. Hot gases are formed which are cooled via a special high-grade steel mesh filter
cage (Fig. 10-4).

Figure 10-4. Schematic representation of a bursting disk with combined

flame barrier and dust filter (Quenching-Box System) /12/

In a thermo graphical investigation of a dust explosion, it has been recorded that when using a
Q-Box System there is a huge reduction in temperatures generated (Fig 10-5).

Figure 10-5. Conventional explosion venting with Q-Box System [12]

Figure 10-6 shows an example of such a Q-Box systems.

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Figure 10-6. Example of a Q-Box System /12/

10.4 Explosion Relief Valve System

The explosion relief valve system consists of a low-mass valve plate opens within
milliseconds and a flame arrester installed around the valve plate (Fig.10-7).

Figure 10-7. Schematic representation of an explosion relief valve system; left: closed;
right: open during explosion /19/

Figure 10-8 shows an example of such an explosion relief valve system, which is normally,
installed in dust extraction systems.

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Figure 10-8. Example of an explosion relief valve system; EVN 2.0 /19/

10.5 Effects of Flameless Explosion Venting Devices

Even with complete retention of flame and particles, the immediate area surrounding the vent
can experience overpressure and radiant energy. Venting indoors has an effect on the building
that houses the protected equipment due to increased pressurization of the surrounding
volume. Expected overpressure should be compared to the building design and building
venting should be considered to limit overpressures. The resulting pressure increase in an
unvented building can be estimated from the following:

Vo = α (Po/∆P) V

V0 is volume of the room/building;

α is expansion constant, empirically derived from the volume and temperature of gases external
to the protected equipment;
Po is ambient pressure;
∆P is maximum pressure rise in the room/building;
V is volume of the protected equipment.

The pressure effect should be determined based on estimating the exhaust gas volume
and temperature.

Considering the typical design strength of standard industrial building is 0.01 bar, reinforcing
or venting of the surrounding area (building/room) should be considered when this room or
building is smaller than 300 times the vented volume, or a ratio which is determined by
testing and/or calculation as per above.

Local overpressure shall be avoided. The flameless venting device shall not be placed close to
a wall.

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11 Explosion Venting of Filters

Dust filters are the most common type of dust/air separation equipment. Dust filters will typi-
cally have a dirty air volume and a clean air volume. The clean air volume includes the inner
volume of filter bags, candle or cartridge filter elements, cassette filter elements, disk filters
and sinter plate filter elements if the dust is separated from the air at the outer surface of the
filter.

In the case of filter elements which have a certain rigidity and strength, the volume of all filter
elements or, under certain conditions, the entire enveloping volume of the filter elements can
be subtracted from the dirty air volume.

If the distance a between the circular filter elements is ≤ 0.5 d of the filter elements, then the
entire enveloping volume of the filter elements can be subtracted from the dirty volume. The
same is valid if a ≤ w with w being the width of the enveloped or pocket filters (Fig. 11-1.)

Figure 11-1. Left-hand side: bag, candle or cartridge filter elements; right-hand side:
pocket, flat bag, cassette filter elements or disk filters /EN 14491, VDI 2263 Part 6.1/
(a = distance between filter elements; w = width of flat bag or pocket filters; d = diameter of filter elements)

If no information regarding the distance a between the filter elements is given, WinVent auto-
matically calculates only the total volume of all filter elements, i.e. bag total or pocket total.

11.1 Calculation of the entire enveloping volume of filter elements VE

To be able to calculate the envelope volume of the filter elements, the necessary
corresponding input/output window of WinVent were adapted e.g., F3 Equipment, select
Filter.

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After entering all necessary data specifically for the bags or pockets, WinVent checks if the
necessary conditions for the calculation of the envelope volume are given.
If the conditions for the calculation of the envelope volume are fulfilled WinVent
automatically calculates the envelope volume otherwise only the total volume of the
bag/pocket filter elements is calculated.

Filter bags on support cages, rigid candle or cartridge filter elements

In the following “bags” represents all filter elements for which the envelope volume can be
calculated. If the distance a between the circular filter elements is equal to or smaller than the
half diameter d (a ≤ d/2) of the filter elements, then the entire enveloping volume of the filter
elements can be subtracted from the entire dirty air volume. The most common diameters of
the circular filter elements are between 120 mm and 180 mm.

The distance a must not fall below a minimum distance, as otherwise too many dust particles
are released onto the surrounding hoses during cleaning and will then stick to them. For jet
filters, during cleaning in operation, the distance should be at least 50 mm.

Because often, apart from the distance of circular filter elements a, the exact arrangement of
the circular filter elements is not known, WinVent calculates the entire enveloping volume of
the circular filter elements as follows if the distance between to circular filter elements is be-
tween a ≥ d/3 up to a ≤ d/2.

VE = [d + a] ∙ le ∙ No
2

where

VE = entire enveloping volume of the “bags” in m3,

d = diameter of circular filter elements in m,
a = distance between two circular filter elements in m,
le = length of circular filter elements in m
No = total number of circular filter elements.

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Support body for pocket filter, cassette filter, disk filters or sinter plate filter ele-
ments
In the following “pocket” represents all filter elements for which the envelope volume can be
calculated. If the distance a between the pocket filter elements is equal to or smaller than the
width w (a ≤ w) of the pocket filter elements, then the entire enveloping volume of the filter
elements can be subtracted from the entire dirty air volume.

The distance a must not fall below a minimum distance, as otherwise too many dust particles
are released onto the surrounding hoses during cleaning and will then stick to them. For
pockets, during cleaning in operation, the distance should be at least 40 mm.

The entire enveloping volume of the pocket filter elements is calculated as follows if the dis-
tance between to pockets filter elements is between a ≥ w/3 up to a ≤ w.

VE = [No ∙ w + (No-1) ∙ a] ∙ x ∙ le

where

VE = entire enveloping of the pocket filter elements in m3,

No = total number of pocket filter elements,
w = width of pocket filter elements in m,
a = distance between two pocket filter elements in m,
x = depth of pocket filter elements in m,
le = Length of pocket filter elements in m

11.2 Location of the explosion venting devices

A key assumption is that the clean air volume is essentially free of fuel. With this statement
being true, the vent panel will be calculated for the dirty air volume and be installed on the
dirty air section. This requires that the structural integrity of the elements that separate the

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clean air volume from the dirty volume (tube sheet and filter elements) is maintained during
the initial explosion event.

If the clean air contains fuel then an additional separate vent on the clean airside should be
calculated based on the clean airside volume.

The preferred location of the vent is below the filter elements (Fig. 11-2). It must be ensured,
however, that the built-in components neither will entirely nor partially impede the venting
process. Therefore, the filter bags, for instance, must not cover the explosion vents.

Figure 11-2. Arrangement of the vents on the dirty side of the filter
(left: in the cone below the filter elements; center: in the dirty air volume by shortening the filter
elements; right: increasing the cylindrical part of the dirty air volume of the filter housing)

Where the vents can only be arranged near the filter elements rather than underneath them
(see Fig. 11-2), the required number of filter elements in front of the vent system shall be
removed or shortened so as to ensure an undisturbed venting process.

Figure 11-3. Arrangement of the vents near the filter elements

(left/center: near bottom section of filter elements; right: near top section of filter elements)

The distance X between the first arrays of the filter elements and the vents (as per Fig. 11-3.
Left-hand side or center), shall be so dimensioned that the passage area directly in front of the

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vent at least equals that of the vent. The resultant passage area shall be confined to the width
of the explosion vent.

The right-hand side of Fig. 11-3 shows a vent arranged in front of the first array of the filter
elements, which have been halved in length. To ensure favorable flow conditions for
unimpeded explosion venting, the distance Y between the installation plane of the explosion
vent and the array of filter elements that has not been shortened shall be determined in the
same manner as the distance X; however, the clear passage area must be at least twice that of
the vent device in this case. Suitable retaining devices (no plates) shall be provided to prevent
the filter elements from obstructing the vents in the event of an explosion.

Figure 11-4. Arrangement of passage area in front of one vent near the filter elements

Figure 11-5. Arrangement of passage area in front of two vents near the filter elements

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11.3 Examples for calculation of effective length to diameter ratio

In the following examples, the focus is only on determining the effective length to diameter
ration (Leff/Deff). All the other aspects related to explosion pressure venting are not
discussed here. Figure 11.6 shows a rectangular vented bag filter. The vents (3) are evenly
installed at both longer sides of the filter body housing.

Figure 11-6. Rectangular filter evenly vented at both longer sides of the body
(1: clean air side; 2: dirty air side with rigid bag filters; 3: vent devices)

Calculation of ratio Leff/Deff:

Effective flame path:
Leff = (1.8m)2 + (1.4m)2 = √5.2m2 = 2.28 m
Effective flame volume:
Vbody = 6.2m x 1.2m x 2.8m = 20.83 m3
Vhopper = [6.2m x 2.8m + [(6.2m+5m) x (2.8m+0.4m)] + (5m x 0.4m)] x 1.8m/6 = 16.56 m3
Veff = Vbody +Vhopper/3 = 20.83m3 +16.56m3/3 = 26.35 m3
Effective cross-sectional area:
Aeff = Veff / Leff = 26.35m3/2.28m = 11.56 m2
Effective diameter:
Deff = (4*11.56m2/PI)0.5 = 3.84 m
Effective length/diameter ratio:
Leff/Deff= 2.28m/3.84m = 0.59 = 1.

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The next Figure 11.7 shows a rectangular vented bag filter where the vents are evenly
installed only at one longer side of the body of the filter housing.

Figure 11-7. Rectangular filter evenly vented only at one longer side of the body
(1: clean air side; 2: dirty air side with rigid bag filters; 3: vent devices)

Calculation of ratio Leff/Deff:

Effective flame path:
Leff = (1.8m)2 + (1.4m)2 = √5.2m2 = 2.28 m
Effective flame volume:
Vbody = 6.2m x 1.2m x 2.8m = 20.83 m3
Vhopper = [6.2m x 2.8m + [(6.2m+5m) x (2.8m+0.4m)] + (5m x 0.4m)] x 1.8m/6 = 16.56 m3
Veff = Vbody +Vhopper/3 = 20.83m3 +16.56m3/3 = 26.35 m3
Effective cross-sectional area:
Aeff = Veff / Leff = 26.35m3/3.0m = 8.78 m2
Effective diameter:
Deff = (4*8.78/PI)0.5 = 3.34 m
Effective length/diameter ratio:
Leff/Deff = 3.0m/3.34m = 0.90 = 1

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Figure 11.8 shows a rectangular vented bag filter. The vents are evenly installed at both
shorter sides of the body of the filter housing.

Figure 11-8. Rectangular filter evenly vented at both shorter sides of the body
(1: clean air side; 2: dirty air side with rigid bag filters; 3: vent devices)

Calculation of ratio Leff/Deff:

Effective flame path:
Leff = (1.8m)2 + (1.4m)2 = √5.2m2 = 2.28 m
Effective flame volume:
Vbody = 6.2m x 1.2m x 2.8m = 20.83 m3
Vhopper = [6.2m x 2.8m + [(6.2m+5m) x (2.8m+0.4m)] + (5m x 0.4m)] x 1.8m/6 = 16.56 m3
Veff = Vbody +Vhopper/3 = 20.83m3 +16.56m3/3 = 26.35 m3
Effective cross-sectional area:
Aeff = Veff / Leff = 26.35m3/3.58m = 7.36 m2
Effective diameter:
Deff = (4*7.36m2/PI)0.5 = 3.06 m
Effective length/diameter ratio:
Leff/Deff= 3.58m/3.06m = 1.17 = 1.2

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The next Figure 11.9 shows a rectangular vented bag filter where the vents are evenly
installed only at one shorter side of the body of the filter housing.

Figure 11-9. Rectangular filter evenly vented only at one shorter side of the body
(1: clean air side; 2: dirty air side with rigid bag filters; 3: vent devices)

Calculation of ratio Leff/Deff:

Effective flame path:
Leff = (1.8m)2 + (1.4m)2 = √5.2m2 = 2.28 m
Effective flame volume:
Vbody = 6.2m x 1.2m x 2.8m = 20.83 m3
Vhopper = [6.2m x 2.8m + [(6.2m+5m) x (2.8m+0.4m)] + (5m x 0.4m)] x 1.8m/6 = 16.56 m3
Veff = Vbody +Vhopper/3 = 20.83m3 +16.56m3/3 = 26.35 m3
Effective cross-sectional area:
Aeff = Veff / Leff = 26.35m3/6.26m = 4.21 m2
Effective diameter:
Deff = (4*4.21m2/PI)0.5 = 2.32 m
Effective length/diameter ratio:
Leff/Deff= 6.26m/2.32m = 2.70 = 2.7

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12 Explosion Venting of Cyclones

For calculating the explosion-venting device of a cyclone (Fig. 12-1), take into account the
entire cylindrical volume, V1 (without subtracting the air outlet pipe), the conical volume, V2,
as well as the volume of the settling chamber, V3.

Typically, the explosion vent is located on top of the air pipe implying that the vent area
equals the total cross-sectional area, A, of the air outlet pipe. For the venting design, the
immersion pipe (air outlet pipe) should be considered as a vent duct with length, LA. Should
the immersion pipe be tapered inside, use the smaller cross-sectional area X for the
calculation of Pred,max which witch corresponds to the cyclone strength P.

Figure 12-1. Cyclone with settling chamber, left: normal immersion pipe (A), right:
tapered immersion pipe (X) /1, 24/

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13 Explosion Venting of Pipelines

The following remarks apply to flammable gases, solvent vapors and combustible dusts.

In the case of flammable gas explosions, explosion-venting perpendicular to the longitudinal

axis of a pipe is not possible. After response of the bursting disk, explosion development can
increase up to detonation. With ignition at the end of closed pipelines of length 30 m to DN
200-300, methane explosions have a maximum explosion overpressure of Pmax = 8 bar and a
maximum explosion velocity of several 10 m⋅s-1. On installation of lateral venting
corresponding to the pipe cross-section at some distance from the ignition site, the maximum
explosion overpressure is raised to Pmax = 30 bar and the maximum explosion velocity to
1000 m⋅s-1 /5/.

In comparison with vessel explosions, dust explosions in pipelines can show appreciably
more vehement development. With increasing pipe length, detonations with a high flame
velocity up to 2000 m⋅s-1 and brief local pressure spots of more than 20 bar must be
anticipated. The occurrence of detonations is dependent on the pipe diameter and the dust
concentration and increases in probability with an increase in the Kmax value of the dust. At
end flanges, constrictions and bends, pre-compression can lead to even higher pressures in the
short term. However, pipelines constructed to PN 10 withstand the above stresses /5/.

In dust explosions, owing to the directional effect of the explosion effective explosion venting
of pipe systems is possible only when venting devices (bursting disks) of sufficient size are
arranged a short distance apart (1-2 m) on the pipe wall (Fig. 11-1).

Figure 13-1. Pipeline shown with vent openings

(vent openings closed with rupture disks) /5/

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This is possible only with open-air installations owing to the escape of flame (Fig. 13-2).

Figure 13-2. Wood dust explosion in a vented pipeline /5/

If a pipeline is vented in an axial direction, pre-compression effects can be avoided at end

flanges. However, this requires venting of the entire pipe cross-section. At the sealing flanges
or elbows, however, pre-compression of the mixtures before the flame front can lead to pres-
sure values, which are appreciable higher than those that appear in the usual pipe. Bursting
disks or other tested venting devices must thus be used for venting in this case (Figs. 13-3 and
13-4).

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Figure 13-3. Venting device at end: Counter-balanced, hinged explosion door /5/

However, it must be borne in mind that the response of such a venting device in the event of
an explosion leads to an increase in the explosion velocity and hence to the explosion pressure
by explosion force effects caused by release of the vent opening. The lower the static
activation overpressure, the quicker this happens. A correspondingly high static activation
overpressure must thus be selected - Pstat = 0.5 to 2 bar - to avoid promoting the formation of
processes similar to detonations or actual detonations because of the venting process /5/.

For venting devices at the end of pipe systems, according to /5/ it is necessary to place more
demands that are exacting on their mechanical strength than in the case of explosion doors of
vessels.

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These are as follows:

• selection of a relatively high static response pressure (corresponding to the strength of the
pipeline) to avoid promoting increases in velocity and pressure,
• venting in the longitudinal direction of the pipeline over the entire cross section and
• proof of the operability by explosion or detonation tests.

The end venting devices shown in Figs. 11-3 and 11-4 also fulfill the requirement regarding a
gas-tight pipe closure following an explosion.

Figure 13-4. Venting device at end: Spring-loaded explosion device /5/

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14 Consideration of Recoil Forces

14.1 Without Vent Pipe

During pressure venting, recoil is generated by the unburned mixtures and products of
combustion flowing through the vent opening. The force bearing on the protected equipment
depends upon the reduced explosion pressure and the vent area. The maximum recoil force
FRmax can be calculated /1, 4/ as a function of the maximum reduced explosion overpressure
Pred,max and the vent area A as per the following equation:

FRmax = 119 · A · Pred,max = 119 · A · Po

Not only the calculated recoil force but also its variation over time is decisive for the practical
design of the structure, which supports the explosion vented vessel.

The duration of the recoil force can be estimated with the following equation /1, 4/:

Kmax ⋅ V Kmax ⋅ V
td = 10-4 · = 10-4 ·
A ⋅ Pred, max A ⋅ Po

In order to determine the total transferred impulse I, a rectangular load with the same area can
replace the real load-time course. In practice the height of this rectangular impulse may be
chosen as 0.52 · FRmax. This results into an impulse of

IR = 0.52 · FRmax · td

The effect of the recoil forces on the structure of the vented vessel need further detailed con-
sideration.

The influence of the recoil force can be in general compensated for by arranging vent areas of
equal size opposite each other. It is always possible for one vent to open before another. Such
imbalance should be considered when designing vessel or enclosure restrains for resisting
thrust forces.

Figure 14-1 shows schematically the effect of the recoil forces on the vent areas installed dif-
ferent on the vessel during a vented explosion.

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Figure 14-1. Effect of the recoil force on vent areas installed different on the vessel dur-
ing a vented explosion; recoil forces effective (left), recoil forces will
be compensated, if both vent open simultaneously (right)

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14.2 With Vent Pipe

During pressure venting through vent pipes the maximum recoil force FRmax can be
calculated again as a function of the maximum reduced explosion overpressure Pred,max and
the vent area A as per the following equation:

FRmax = 119 · A · Pred,max = 119 · A · Po

If a vessel is vented through a vent pipe the maximum reduced explosion overpressure
Pred,max will be increased compared to a vented vessel without vent pipe. Therefore, signifi-
cant higher maximum recoil forces must be considered.

Not only the calculated recoil force but also its variation over time is decisive for the practical
design of the structure, which supports the explosion vented vessel.

The duration of the recoil force can be estimated with the following equation:

Kmax ⋅ V Kmax ⋅ V
td = 10-4 · = 10-4 ·
A ⋅ Pred, max A ⋅ Po

In order to determine the total transferred impulse IR, a rectangular load with the same area
can replace the real load-time course. In practice the height of this rectangular impulse may be
chosen as 0.52 · FRmax. This results into an impulse of

IR = 0.52 · FRmax · td

The effect of the recoil forces on the structure of the vented vessel need further detailed con-
sideration.

The influence of the recoil force can be in general compensated for by arranging vent areas of
equal size opposite each other. It is always possible for one vent to open before another. Such
imbalance should be considered when designing vessel or enclosure restrains for resisting
thrust forces.

Figure 14-2 shows schematically the effect of the recoil forces on the vent areas installed dif-
ferent on the vessel during a vented explosion.

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Figure 14-2. Effect of the recoil force on vent areas installed different on the vessel dur-
ing a vented explosion: recoil forces effective (left), recoil forces will
be compensated, if both vent open simultaneously (right)

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15 Pressure Venting of Vessels Interconnected with Pipelines

Vent areas determined by the equations shown in Section 6 are too small if a dust explosion
propagates from one vessel into another through a pipeline. Increased turbulence, pressure pil-
ing and broad flame jet ignition may result in increased explosion violence especially with
duct length > 6 m. This results in an elevated maximum reduced explosion overpressure.
Measures to disengage the explosion in the connecting pipeline are therefore needed /1, 2, 4/.

In accordance with the present technology the protective measure explosion venting can be
used for pipelines having a nominal diameter up to DN 300, a connecting length ≤ 6 m, for
dusts with Kmax values not exceeding 200 m·bar·s-1 and the venting device is to be designed
for a low static activation overpressure (Pstat < 0.2 bar)., in accordance with the following
criteria:

1. Vessels of the same size (∆V ± 10%) are to be vented as per basic equations (Fig. 15-1).

Figure 15-1. Vessels of the same size (∆V ± 10 %) connected with a pipeline ≤ 6 m
with a maximum diameter of DN = 300 (Pstat < 0.2 bar), Kmax ≤ 200 m·bar·s-1

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2. The vent areas of different maximum sized vessels (∆V > 10 %) have to be brought in rela-
tion to a maximum reduced explosion overpressure Pred,max ≤ 1.0 bar. The design
overpressure should not fall short of P = 2 bar (Fig. 15-2).

Figure 15-2. Vessels of different size (∆V > 10%) connected with a pipeline ≤ 6 m
with a maximum diameter of DN = 300 (Pstat < 0.2 bar)

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3. If it is not possible to vent the smaller vessel, then this vessel has to be designed for the
maximum explosion overpressure (Fig. 15-3) and the vent area of the larger vessel has to
be doubled. Through this doubling, the maximum explosion overpressure (is equal to the
vessel strength) will be reduced of about 70 %. The use of explosion venting is impossible
if the larger vessel cannot be vented.

Figure 15-3. Vessels of different size (∆V > 10 %) partially vented connected with a
pipeline ≤ 6 m with a maximum diameter of DN = 300 (Pstat < 0.2 bar)

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Explosion venting may be used without explosion isolation for vessels ≤ 20 m³ interconnected
with pipes with a nominal diameter up to 500 mm, a connecting length up to 15 m and Pstat ≤
0.1 bar, in accordance with the following criteria:

a) For Kmax ≤ 150 m·bar·s-1, dimensionless vent areas (A/V2/3) of each vessel of greater
than 0.25 will limit the maximum reduced explosion overpressure to 0.5 bar (Fig. 15-
4).

Figure 15-4. Vented vessels of V ≤ 20 m³ connected with a pipeline ≤ 15 m with a maxi-

mum diameter of DN = 500 (Pstat = 0.1 bar) and a maximum
explosion constant of Kmax ≤ 150 m·bar·s-1

b) For Kmax values more than 150 m·bar·s-1 up to 250 m·bar·s-1, dimensionless vent
areas (A/V2/3) of each vessel greater than 0.4 will limit the maximum reduced
explosion overpressure to 0.5 bar (Fig. 15-5).

Figure 15-5. Vented vessels of V ≤ 20 m³ connected with a pipeline ≤ 15 m with a maxi-

mum diameter of DN = 500 (Pstat = 0.1 bar) and a maximum
explosion constant of Kmax > 150 - 250 m·bar·s-1

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The dimensionless vent area is defined as A/V2/3 where A is the required vent area and V is
the vessel volume.

The total vent area shall be divided between the vessels so that the dimensionless vent area
has the same value on each enclosure.

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16 Explosion Venting of Bucket Elevators

16.1 General

Explosion venting of bucket elevators is designed to prevent internal explosion pressures ex-
ceeding the strength of the bucket elevator construction. The maximum explosion pressure al-
lowed inside the bucket elevator is the reduced explosion pressure, Pred,max.

The following conditions are necessary for application of this part of the standard.

Explosion venting devices shall be positioned so that the effectiveness of the venting process
is not impeded. Personnel and nearby plant shall not be at risk from the venting action.

Vent openings shall have an area equal to or greater than the internal cross-sectional area of
the bucket elevator leg(s).

The minimum vent area for the head and the boot shall be equal to the internal cross-sectional
area of the leg.

Venting devices shall comply with EN 14797 /3/. The static activation overpressure of the ex-
plosion-venting device, Pstat, shall not exceed 0.1 bar.

Guidance for the design of explosion venting is given for dusts with Pmax < 10 bar and Kmax
up to 200 bar m s-1 /25, 26/.

16.2 Guidance for venting of twin leg bucket elevators

The guidance given is valid under the following conditions:

• Bucket spacing < 280 mm.
• Rectangular cross section of the bucket elevator legs.
• Free area in relation to the cross-section area (CSA) of the bucket elevator legs < 60 %
• venting area ≥ cross section area (CSA) of the bucket elevator leg.
• Both bucket elevator legs are vented.
• Static activation overpressure Pstat ≤ 0.1 bar
• Metal or plastic buckets (see note below on effect of plastic buckets)
• Maximum internal cross-sectional area of one leg is 0.5 m2

These rules apply to vents positioned on one side of the bucket elevator leg. It may be
necessary to position vents on two sides of the leg. The total effective area of these two vents
should equal at least the area of the single vent they replace; that is, the cross-sectional area of
the leg.

Where there is a requirement to put a vent on the boot and it is not possible to install it on the
boot, the vent shall be put on both legs as close as possible to the boot. The distance between
the lower edge of the vent and the top of the boot must not exceed 0.5 times the vent spacing

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or within 3 m of the boot whichever is the smaller value. The same criterion applies to the
head, when it is not practical to vent the head.

Ensure that the venting process is not impeded by the belt. This can e.g., be achieved by posi-
tioning the vents in a face normal to the belt. Figure 16-1 shows the vent locations permitted
in the legs relative to the belt or chain.

Figure 16-1. Definition of bucket spacing and vent locations on bucket elevator legs

The bucket elevator should be designed for the reduced explosion pressure, taking into
account the weakening due to the vents and the reaction forces arising during the venting
process. The reaction forces can be calculated using the formula in EN14491. The length of
the vented flame can be calculated from the formula in EN14491 taking the volume as the
volume between two subsequent vents. The external pressure effects close to the vent can be
calculated from the formula in EN14491 taking the volume as the volume between two
subsequent vents. On larger distances from the vent, the effects of multiple vents need to be
taken into account. As a conservative approximation, the external overpressure from the
various vents at a certain location the pressures can be added together.

Figure 16-2 shows the required pressure resistance for various Kmax values and vent configu-
rations /25, 26/.

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Vent configuration (installation distance)

(1) head+boot+legs (3 m)
(2) head+boot+legs (6 m)
(3) head+legs (3 m)
(4) head+legs (6 m)
(5) head+legs (12 m) or
only head (max. 12 m)

Figure 16-2. Twin leg bucket elevator vent spacing

(Pred = P and KSt = Kmax)

The curves are represented by following equation:

c
Pred,max = exp(a ∙ Kmax + b)

Curve No. Vent configuration coefficient a coefficient b exponent c

(installation distance)
1 head + boot + legs (3 m distance) 3.292·10-6 -1.957 2.5
2 head + boot + legs (6 m distance) 0.438 -5.761 0.5
3 head + legs (3 m distance) -67.98 5.467 -0.5
4 head + legs (6 m distance) -401.6 2.78 -1
5 head + legs (12m distance) or only head with 0.673 -7.74 0.5
max. length of the legs 12 m

Figure 16.3 shows an example using a Kmax = 150 m·bar·s-1 and metal buckets.

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6m
12 m

6m

alle 6 m 6 m 6 m
12 m
alle
12 m
max.

max.
Berstscheibe
Bursting disc

Figure 16-3. Examples of the necessary explosion protection resistance of bucket eleva-
tors, left: Vent spacing every 12 m, Pmin = 1.7 bar;
right: Vent spacing every 6 m, Pmin = 0.7 bar

If instead of metal bucket plastic buckets are used, then plastic buckets will enhance
explosion pressures. Increased bucket elevator strength is required to withstand the higher
pressures, as given in next table.

Kmax Increase of
[bar·m·s-1] bucket elevator strength
< 100 20 %
100 to 150 35 %
> 150 to 200 50 %

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16.3 Guidance for venting of single leg bucket elevators

o The guidance given is valid under the following conditions:

o Bucket spacing < 450 mm.
o Rectangular cross section of the bucket elevator leg
o Free area in relation to the cross-section area of the bucket elevator legs < 75 %
o Venting area ≥ cross section area of the bucket elevator leg
o Static activation overpressure Pstat ≤ 0.1 bar
o Metal or plastic buckets (see note below on effect of plastic buckets)
o Maximum internal cross-sectional area of the leg is 2.0 m2

The following guidance is given:

o As a minimum requirement, vents shall be fitted to the head and the boot or as close as
possible to the head and as close as possible to the boot.
o For dusts with KSt values of 100 bar m/s or less, vents installed in the head and boot of
the bucket elevator, with none intervening, will limit the reduced explosion pressure to
0.5 bar.
o For dusts with a KSt value of 80 bar m/s, a vent spacing of 20 m will limit the reduced
explosion pressure to 250 mbar.
o For 3 m vent spacing, use twin leg graph (Figure B.2)
o For 6 m vent spacing with vent opening pressure (Pstat) of 0.05 bar, use twin leg
graph (Figure B.2) with Pstat of 0.1 bar.
o For 6 m vent spacing with vent opening pressure (Pstat) of 0.1 bar, use twin leg graph
(Figure B.2) with Pstat of 0.1 bar and double the bucket elevator strength.

Increased bucket elevator strength for plastic buckets

Plastic buckets will enhance explosion pressures. Increased bucket elevator strength is
required to withstand the higher pressures, as given in next table.

max Increase of
[bar·m·s-1] bucket elevator strength
< 100 20 %
100 to 150 35 %
> 150 to 200 50 %

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17 Hybrid Mixtures

Hybrid mixtures imply the coexistence of dispersed combustible dust with gaseous fuel (e.g.,
solvent vapor and flammable mist).

The individual dust concentration and the individual flammable gas-air-mixtures may not be
explosive but together they may form an explosive hybrid mixture /1, 4/ (Fig. 17-1).

In hybrid mixtures with a given dust concentration which is below the lower explosive limit
LEL, the required amount of flammable gas or vapor to reach an explosive mixture becomes
smaller the lower the explosive limit.

200

160
PVC
Pea Flour
LEL [Vol.-%]

120 Cellulose

80

40

0
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25

C3H8 [Vol-%]

Figure 17-1. Lover explosion limit LEL of hybrid mixtures consisting of combustible
dusts and propane (C3H8)

If the concentration of the gas and vapor portion remains at every location below 20 % of
the lower explosion limit LELgas,vapor, then the safety data of the pure dust air mixture can
be used to evaluate the total mixture. On can expect that products with a flammable solvent
content of no more than 0.5 wt-% will have a vapor concentration of less than 20 % LEL-
gas,vapor at every location.

Dried dusts or dusty products than contain a maximum 0.5 wt.-% of flammable solvents
and which are handled at temperatures below their drying temperature can be considered
free of solvents within the frame work of this Handbook [VDI 3673, Part 1].

Figure 17-2 depicts for closed vessels the correlation of the explosion characteristics of com-
bustible dusts with e.g. increasing propane content in the combustible atmosphere. The

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addition of gaseous fuel affects the maximum explosion overpressure Pmax only slightly. The
product specific constant Kmax, however, is markedly influenced. It increases with increased
content of gaseous fuel and the classification into a higher dust explosion class possible. With
increasing fuel content, Kmax reaches a peak and decreases again above the stoichiometric gas
concentration.

10

8
Pmax [bar]

6
Dyestuff

Pea flour
4
Corn starch

Anti-oxidant
2
C3H8

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
C3H8 [Vol-%]

500

400
Kmax [m·bar/s]

300
Dyestuff

200 Pea flour

Corn starch

100 Anti-oxidant
C3H8

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

C3H8 [Vol-%]

Figure 17-2. Influence of the propane (C3H8) concentration in the combustion air upon
the explosion characteristic of combustible dusts in a closed vessel (V = 1 m³)

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Equations for standard mixtures (see Section 6.1.1.1) may be used for sizing the vent areas
for hybrid mixtures. The combustible dust should belong to the dust explosion class St 1 or
St 2 and the explosion behavior of the flammable vapor should be similar to that of propane.
The following values are to be entered into the equation /1/:

- maximum explosion pressure Pmax = 10 bar,

- product specific constant Kmax = 500 m·bar·s-1.

Possibly the explosion characteristics of the given hybrid mixture may have to be determined.

For hybrid mixtures made up with combustible dusts of the explosion class St 3
(Kmax > 300 m·bar·s-1) in the presence of flammable gases advice should be sought from the
experts.

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18 Limit of Application of Venting

Explosion venting should not be used as a protective measure if products or compounds are
released which are classified as

• very poisonous,
• poisonous,
• corrosive,
• irritant,
• carcinogenic,
• teratogenic or
• mutagenic

as per "CLP/GHS /7/ and Directive 98/24/EC" /27/.

Equipment cannot be protected from the hazardous consequences of a detonation through ex-
plosion pressure venting.

In case of difficulties in applying the contents of the explosion venting standards or

guidelines, experts may be contacted for advice.

If pressure release cannot be applied e.g., where pressure and flame effects must be avoided in
the vicinity of the equipment to be protected, other protective measures are required, e.g.:

- explosion suppression in combination with explosion isolation (e.g., extinguishing

barriers),

- inertisation,

- pressure-resistant or pressure shock-resistance design corresponding to the maximum ex-

plosion pressure in combination with explosion isolation (e.g., explosion protection
valves).

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19 Maintenance

Venting devices are subject to a number of influences, which may restrict their performance.
The protective function may be completely lost or an unintentional activation may result.
Therefore, they have to be adequately inspected and periodically maintained and repaired if
necessary.

Rupture disks may be weakened by corrosion, pressure fluctuations, mechanical abrasion and
aging.

Explosion doors may also lose their effectiveness through corrosion and mechanical abrasion.
Generally, more serious are the detrimental effects of incompetent maintenance (e.g.,
gumming up with paint). A regular inspection is necessary. Whenever an explosion has
activated a door, it must be checked for suitability for future use.

The recommendations of manufacturers or experts listed in the preliminary remarks must be

followed for the maintenance of venting devices with different design (e.g., buckling pin de-
vices, plates in rubber moldings).

The following maintenance and servicing should be carried out periodically and are
considered as a minimum:

Rupture disks:
• Check on the rupture disks for perfect condition
• Check on hold-back-devices for rupture disks
• Electrical check on the trip circuits of signal device

Explosion doors/ Vacuum breakers:

• Check on the explosion doors for perfect condition
• Check on the movability of explosion doors
• Check on hold-back-devices for explosion doors
• Test of the static activation overpressure of the explosion door
• Electrical check on the trip circuits of signal device
• Check on the vacuum breakers for perfect condition
• Check on the movability of vacuum breakers

Explosion disks:
• Check on the explosion disks for perfect condition
• Check on hold-back-devices for explosion disks
• Check on the retaining-cables for perfect condition
• Electrical check on the trip circuits of signal device

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Vent pipe:
• Check on the vent pipes for free cross-section
• Check on the light cover for perfect condition
• Check on hold-back-devices for light covers
• Check on the lattice cover at the end of vent pipe

Figure 19-1 shows that particular immediately attention should be paid to maintenance and
checking of the explosion door to avoid severe consequences in case of an explosion.

Figure 19-1. This explosion door needs immediately maintenance to avoid severe conse-
quences in case of an explosion

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20 Determination of the Length/Diameter-Ratio of Vessel/Silo to

be Protected when Calculating Vent Areas
20.1 General
The length to diameter ratio (L/De) is needed if vent areas are calculated using the equation
shown in Section 6. The value of L/De depends on the shape of the vessel and of the position
of the vent, and need not necessarily equal the physical value of L/De evident from the design
of the vessel/silo.

The worst-case condition, to which equations in Section 6 can be applied, is a vessel with a
vent at the roof, because the flame can travel the entire length of the vessel/silo before it
vents. If, in such a case, the vessel is cylindrical or rectangular, then the value of L/De ratio
can be calculated directly from the physical dimensions (length and diameter of vessel or
width and depth of vessel).

If the vessel/silo consists of a cylindrical and conical part, however, or the venting device is at
the side, the appropriate value of L/De can only be obtained by estimating, based on the ves-
sel/silo design, the maximum distance the flame (Leff) can travel inside the vessel before
venting and the volume (Veff) through which the flame travels.

Note 1: The effective length of the flame travel Leff is measured vertically including the pres-
sure-venting device. In the case of lying vessels, it is measured horizontally.

Note 2: The effective volume of the flame Veff, which is necessary for the calculation of the
ratio (L/De), is not to be confused with the vessel volume V. Vessel volume V is the volume
to be protected and is the base for the calculation of the vent area.

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20.2 Cylindrical Vessel with Cone, Vented at the Roof

vent area

Veff
Leff

1/3 Hcon

Effective flame length Leff

The flame length Leff of the round vessel is the vertical distance from 1/3 of the cone up to the
vent area,
Leff = 1/3 cone/hopper high + cylindrical high.

Effective volume of the flame Veff

The total free volume, which the flame travel is 1/3 of the volume of the cone part and the
volume of the cylindrical part,
Veff = 1/3 cone/hopper volume + cylindrical volume (shaded region in the Figure).

Effective cross section area Aeff

Aeff = Veff / Leff

Effective diameter Deff

Deff = (4·Aeff /Π)0.5

Effective length/diameter - ratio Leff/Deff equals to the L/De - ratio

Leff/Deff = L/De

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20.3 Cylindrical Vessel with Cone, Vented at the Side

vent
area

Veff
Leff

1/3 Hcon

Effective flame length Leff

The flame length Leff of the round vessel is the vertical distance from 1/3 of the cone up to the
upper border of the vent area,
Leff = 1/3 cone/hopper high + cylindrical high up to the upper border of vent area.

Effective volume of the flame Veff

The total free volume, which the flame travel is 1/3 of the volume of the cone part and the
volume of the cylindrical volume up to the upper border of vent area,
Veff = 1/3 cone/hopper volume + cylindrical volume up to the upper border of vent area
(shaded region in the Figure).

Effective cross section area Aeff

Aeff = Veff / Leff

Effective diameter Deff

Deff = (4·Aeff /Π)0.5

Effective length/diameter - ratio Leff/Deff equals to the L/De - ratio

Leff/Deff = L/De

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21 Annex
21.1 Definitions
Activation overpressure in bar
Static activation pressure Pstat:
Pressure, which activates a pressure-venting device while the pressure rises slowly /11/.

Dynamic activation pressure Pdyn

Pressure, which activates a pressure-venting device in case of an explosion. It may be higher
than the static activation pressure.
Note: The effects of the dynamic activation overpressure are already incorporated in this guideline as the
formulas are based on experimental test results.

Cubic law
The correlation of the maximum rate of pressure rise (dP/dt)max with the vessel volume
assuming complete geometrical similarity and volume independent burning velocities is:

V1/3 · dP/dt)max = const = Kmax

Explosion resistance P in bar

Characteristic of vessels or equipment built to withstand the anticipated explosion pressure re-
sistant or explosion pressure shock resistant /5, 7, 9/.

Explosion pressure resistant, EPR

Characteristic of vessels or equipment built to withstand the anticipated explosion pressure
without permanent deformation /5, 7/.

Explosion shock resistant vessels, EPSR

Characteristic of vessels or equipment built to withstand the expected explosion pressure
without rupture. However, a permanent deformation is acceptable /5, 9/.

Dust explosion class St

Dusts are classified in accordance with Kmax - values, as show in the following table.

-1
Dust explosion class Kmax in m·bar·s Pmax in bar

St 1 > 0 to 200 ≤ 10 bar

St 2 > 200 to 300 ≤ 10 bar
St 3 > 300 to 800 ≤ 12 bar

Equivalent diameter De in m
Diameter of a circle, which has the same area as the reference area A* of any shape:
A*
De = 2 . π

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Explosion characteristics
All explosion characteristics are determined in accordance with a standardized procedure /17,
18/ and are defined as follows:

Explosion overpressure Pm in bar

The maximum overpressure in a closed vessel after the explosion of a dust-air-mixture.

Rate of pressure rise (dP/dt)m in bar·s-1

The highest rate of pressure rise in a closed vessel after the explosion of a dust-air-mixture at
any concentration.

Maximum explosion overpressure Pmax in bar

The maximum explosion overpressure Pm obtained by systematically changing the dust con-
centration under defined measurement conditions /5, 17/.

Maximum rate of pressure rise (dP/dt)max in bar/s

The highest value of the rate of pressure rise (dP/dt)m obtained by systematically changing the
dust concentration under defined measurement conditions /5, 18/.

Kmax-value in m·bar·s-1
Product specific characteristic (constant), which is calculated with the help of the cubic law.
Note: The numeric value of the Kmax-value is equivalent to the maximum rate of pressure rise (dP/dt)max in a
1-m³-vessel /1, 4/.

Explosion pressure venting

Protective measure of limiting the explosion overpressure, which will prevent the vessel from
exceeding its design strength (explosion resistance) by exhausting unburned mixture and
products of combustion by opening a given area.

Gas-air-mixtures
Non-turbulent mixtures
Gas-air-mixtures, which are in a non-turbulent state at the moment when the ignition source is
activated /5/.

Turbulent mixtures
Gas-air-mixtures, which are in a turbulent state at the moment when the ignition source is
activated. They can be obtained in vessels (or silos) by the rapid release of air from
pressurized containers through distribution devices with a standardized procedure /5/.

Hybrid mixtures
Mixtures of combustible compounds in different aggregate conditions.
Note: Mixtures of methane, coal and air or mixtures of solvent vapors and combustible dusts are example for
hybrid mixtures.
Note: The mixture may be explosible even if the concentration of one or more components are below their mini-
mum explosible concentration.

Length diameter ratios

Length diameter ratio L/D
The ratio of the longest linear dimension L (length, height) of a round vessel /silo to its
geometrical diameter D.

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Length diameter ratio L/De

The ratio of the longest linear dimension L (length, height) of an angular vessel /silo to its
equivalent diameter De.

Effective length diameter ratio Leff/Deff

In case of pressure venting of vessel/silo of any shape the ratio of the effective flame traveling
Leff to the effective diameter Deff of the effective vessel volume Veff traveled by the
explosion flame.

Pneumatic transport
Transport of product through ducting with a transport velocity of vF = 15 to 40 m·s-1.

Pressure venting devices

Devices, which closes a vent opening during normal operation and opens it in case of
explosion.

Rupture disk/bursting foil

A not re-closing and not reusable pressure-venting device, which will open the vent opening
by disintegration at a defined activation overpressure.

Explosion door
Pressure venting device, which will open the vent area at a defined activation overpressure
and generally re-close after discharge.

Venting element
Part of a vent system, which covers the vent area and opens under explosion conditions. It
may be reusable or consumable.

Reach of flame/pressure rise

Maximum reach of flame LF in m
External maximum reach of the flame during explosion pressure venting. Generally, the maxi-
mum range can be expected in the direction of the venting.

Maximum external peak overpressure PAmax in mbar

Maximum pressure value of the external peak measured during explosion pressure venting at
a distance Rs from the vent opening.

External peak overpressure PAr in mbar

Pressure value of the external peak measured at a distance r ≥ Rs from the vent opening.

Distance Rs in m
Distance from the vent opening in direction of the vent discharge, which will show the maxi-
mum peak of the external overpressure PAmax.

Recoil duration td in ms
Time interval between opening of the pressure-venting device and reaching ambient air pres-
sure.

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Maximum recoil force FRmax in kN

The maximum force developed as a result of explosion pressure venting acting opposite to the
vent direction /1, 2, 4, 5/.

Reduced explosion characteristics

Reduced explosion overpressure Pred in bar
Maximum overpressure generated by an explosion of a fuel-air-mixture in an explosion pres-
sure vented vessel.

Reduced rate of pressure rise (dP/dt)red in bar·s-1

The maximum rate of pressure rise in an explosion pressure vented vessel after explosion of a
fuel-air-mixture.

Maximum reduced explosion pressure Pred,max in bar

The highest value of the reduced explosion overpressure Pred,max obtained by systematically
changing the fuel concentration under defined measurement conditions.

Maximum reduced rate of pressure rise (dP/dt)red,max in bar/s

The highest value of the reduced rate of pressure rise (dP/dt)red,max obtained by
systematically changing the fuel concentration under defined measurement conditions.

Vent area A in m²
Geometric vent area of an explosion pressure-venting device.

Effective vent area Aw in m2

Area of pressure venting device, which has the same effect as a nearly inertia-free pressure-
venting device with the area A.

Venting efficiency EF
Relation of the effective pressure vent area Aw and vent area A /3/.

Vent duct
Duct work (pipeline) downstream from a venting device for the safe discharge of the pressure
wave, flame and products of combustion.

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21.2 Abbreviations
A : vent area (equivalent) in m²
A* : reference area of any shape in m²
AS : internal surface area of enclosure in m²
Ac : cross-sectional area in m²
Ae : vent area (effective) in m²
Ag : vent area (geometric) in m²
Asuc : effective suction area in m²
a : width of explosion door in m
α : defines the direction towards the vent

Bem : design (rated)

C : concentration in g·m-³ or Vol.%

Copt. : optimum concentration in g·m-³ or Vol.%
Cv : venting equation constant
c : distance between explosion door and vent pipe in m

D : geometrical diameter of a round vessel/silo in m

DA : diameter of a single vent duct in m
DE : vent area diameter in m
De : equivalent vessel diameter in m
Deff : effective diameter in m
DF : diameter of conveying tube in m
DF* : equivalent conveying diameter in m
DH : hydraulic diameter in m
DN : nominal diameter in m
(dP/dt)m : rate of pressure rise in bar·s-1
(dP/dt)max : maximum rate of pressure rise in bar·s-1
(dP/dt)red : reduced rate of pressure rise in bar·s-1
(dP/dt)red,max : maximum reduced rate of pressure rise in bar·s-1
dyn : dynamic
Dz : cylinder diameter in m

E : energy in J
EF : venting efficiency

FR : recoil force in kN
FRmax : recoil force, maximum in kN

GE : specific weight of venting device in kg·m-³

GL : guideline

H : height of fall in m

IE : ignition energy in J
IR : transferred impulse in kN·s
Kmax : maximum product-specific constant in m·bar·s-1

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k : kilo
kN : kilo Newton

L : longest linear dimension of a vessel/silo or enclosure in m

LA : length of vent duct in m
LAS : length of vent duct were velocity of sound is reached in m
LD : diameter of vent duct in m
L/De : length/diameter (eff)
LE : vent area length in m
LF : flame range in m
LEL : lover explosion limit in g·m-³ or Vol.%
Leff : effective flame traveling in m
LFh : flame range, horizontal in m
LFv : flame range, vertical in m
LM : portion of solvents in g·m-³ or Vol.%
LO : length of opening in m
Lp : perimeter of cross-section area (Ac) in m
 : liter
ls : length of with

M : median
MESG : maximum experimental safe gap
MIE : minimum ignition energy
MIT : minimum ignition temperature
MP : amount of product discharged kg·h-1
m : meter
max : maximum

N : Newton
NFPA : National Fire Protection Association

OP : Operating pressure in bar abs.

opt. : optimum

P : vessel resistance (overpressure) in bar

PAmax : external overpressure at distance Rs in mbar
PAr : external overpressure at distance r in mbar
PBem : admissible design overpressure in building in bar
PN : nominal pressure in bar
Pdyn : dynamic activation overpressure in bar
Pm : explosion overpressure in bar
Pmax : maximum explosion overpressure in bar
Po : vessel resistance without vent duct in bar
Pred : reduced explosion overpressure in bar
Pred,max : maximum reduced explosion overpressure in bar
Pstat : static activation overpressure in bar
Pvac : vacuum resistance of vessel in mbar

Q : air flow in m³·h-1

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Rs : distance for maximum external pressure in m

r : distance for external pressure in m
red : reduced

SAe : suction area of vents in m²

St : dust explosion class
s : second
stat : static

T : temperature in °C
Tb : operating temperature in °C
t : time in s
td : recoil duration in ms
tv : ignition delay time in s

V : vessel volume in m³
Veff : effective volume traveled by the explosion flame in m³
VDI : Verein Deutscher Ingenieure
v : speed in m·s-1
vF : air conveying velocity in m·s-1
VRes : vacuum resistance of vessel in mbar

W : vessel width in m
WAr : angle between axis of vent area and duct in °
WE : vent area width in m
WF : maximum flame width in m
WO : width of opening in m
w : gap width in mm

Z : cylinder

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21.3 Damage caused by Pressure Waves

The effects of fuel explosions upon buildings can be approximated from experience as a static
load equivalent to the maximum explosion pressure /28/.

Overpressure [bar] Type of Damages

0.001 Noise of low frequency (10 - 15 Hz) up to 137 dB

0.002 Breaking of large glass windows already under strain
0.003 Noise 143 dB glass breakage due to a sonic boom from a jet fighter plane
0.007 Breakage of small windows already under strain
0.01 Typical pressure for window breakage

0.02 Safe limit: 95% probability for no serious damage for pressure less than
0.02 bar. Small damage to house roofs (roof tiles and gutters) 1-10% of window
glass broken
0.03 Limited minor structural damage
0.035 - 0.07 Generally large and small windows break, occasional damage to window frames
0.05 Small damage to house structure
0.06 1% structural damage, 99% of window glass shattered
0.07 Partial destruction of houses, made uninhabitable (danger of collapsing)

0.07 - 0.14 Corrugated asbestos panels shattered, failure of fasteners for corrugated steel
and aluminum panels
0.09 Minor damage to steel frames of buildings (distortion)
0.10 Light structures collapse, pressure vessels intact
0.14 - 0.21 Not reinforced concrete or cinder block walls destroyed
0.16 Lower limit for serious structural damage
0.17 50% destruction of brickwork of houses

0.21 Heavy machinery (1.5 ton) within buildings suffer little damage; Steel frames of
building distorted and separated from foundation; 50% structural damage
0.21 - 0.28 Light structures made out of self-supporting steel panels (without frame) demol-
ished; Rupture of empty oil storage tanks
0.28 Cladding of light industrial buildings ruptured
0.30 Major building damage (collapse)
0.34 Wooden utility poles snapped; Minor damage to machinery (20 ton) inside build-
ings

0.34 - 0.41 Total destruction of houses; Reinforced walls break; 99% structural damage to
buildings
0.48 Loaded freight cars overturned

0.48 - 0.55 Failure of not reinforced 20-30 cm thick brick walls due to shearing or flexure;
Failure of pipe trestles (pipe rupture)
0.62 Complete destruction of loaded freight cars

0.7 Destruction of industrial buildings; Machinery (3.5 ton) within building heavily
damaged due to dislodging)
0.8 - 1.5 Destruction of earth quake proof concrete and steel framed concrete buildings

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21.4 Reference
/1/ EN 14491-2012: Dust explosion venting protective systems.
/2/ EN 14994-2007: Gas explosion venting protective systems.
/3/ EN 14797-2006: Explosion venting devices.
/4/ VDI-3673, Part1-2002: Pressure venting of dust explosions, Part 1, Beuth Verlag GmbH, 10772
Berlin.
/5/ Bartknecht, W.: Explosionsschutz: Grundlagen und Anwendung, Berlin, Heidelberg, New
York: Springer 1993.
/6/ EN 14460-2006: Explosion resistant equipment.
/7/ CLP/GHS - Classification, labelling and packaging of substances and mixtures, 2008
/8/ EN-13445- Unfired pressure vessels.
/9/ EN 15089-2009: Explosion isolation systems.
/10/ Siegenthaler, F., Siwek, R.: Zerkleinerung von Sperrmüll -Kombination von Explosionsunter-
drückung und -entlastung (Crushing of bulky-refuse: combination of explosion suppression and
explosion venting) VDI-Berichte Nr. 975, VDI-Verlag GmbH, Düsseldorf, Germany, 1992.
/11/ Directive 94/9/EC (ATEX 114): DIRECTICE 94/9/EC OF THE EUROPEAN PARLEMENT
AND OF THE COUNCIL of 23 March 1994 on the approximation of the laws of the Member
States concerning equipment and protective systems intended for use in potentially explosive at-
mospheres.
/12/ Rembe Brochure: Premium Explosion Protection, Rembe GmbH, SAFETY+CONTROL,
D-59929 Brilon, Germany.
/13/ BS&B: Catalog: Pressure relief and explosion venting technology, 2000; BS&B Safety
Systems, Ltd., UK.
/14/ Bühler: Prospektblatt: Explosion Control, BUHLER Ltd. CH-9240 Uzwil.
/15/ Silo-Thorwestern: Prospektblatt: Explosionsentlastung: Silo Thorwestern GmbH, D-59269
Beckum, Germany.
/16/ Siwek, R., Skov, O.: Modellberechnung zur Dimensionierung von Explosionsklappen auf der
Basis von praxisnahen Explosionsversuchen. VDI-Berichte 701, S. 569/616. Düsseldorf: VDI-
Verlag 1989.
/17/ EN 14034-1-2004: Determination of explosion characteristics of dust clouds – Part 1: Determi-
nation of the maximum explosion pressure Pmax.
/18/ EN 14034-2-2006: Determination of explosion characteristics of dust clouds – Part 2: Determi-
nation of the maximum rate of explosion pressure rise (dP/dt)max.
/19/ Hoerbiger Prospektblatt: Hoerbiger Ventilwerke GmbH & Co KG, A-1110 Vienna, Austria.
/20/ Schacke, H. Müller, R. and Siwek, R.: Gas Explosion Venting of a Structure. Proceedings of the
"7th Int. Symposium on Loss Prevention and Safety Promotion in the Process Industries",
Volume 4: pp 59, 4-8 May, Taomina, Italy, 1992.
/21/ Siwek R.: New Findings on Explosion Venting, Proceedings of the "9th Int. Symposium on
Loss Prevention and Safety Promotion in the Process Industries", June 6-9, Barcelona, Spain,
1998.
/22/ Siwek, R.: Einfluss von Ausblasrohren auf die Druckentlastung von Staubexplosionen. Staub,
Reinhaltung Luft 49, S. 327-331, 1989.
/23/ EN 16009-2011: Flameless explosion venting devices.
/24/ VDI-2263, Part 6.1-2009: Dust fires and explosion protection in dust extraction installations -
Examples, Beuth Verlag GmbH, 10772 Berlin.
/25/ VDI-2263, Part 8.1-2011: Fire and explosion protection in elevators - Examples, Beuth Verlag
GmbH, 10772 Berlin.
/26/ CEN/TR 16829-2016: Fire and explosion prevention and protection for bucket elevators.
/27/ DIRECTICE 98/24/EC OF THE COUNCIL of 7 April 1998 for the safety and health protection
of workers potentially at risk from chemical substances at work.
/28/ Schadensausmass-Einschätzung - Referenzbeispiele und Hilfsmittel, Direktion des Innern des
Kantons Zürich, Koordinationsstelle für Störfallsorge, 8090 Zürich (Juni 1992), Tabelle 7a:
Richtwerte zur Beurteilung der Einwirkung von Druckwellen auf Bauten und Anlageteile.

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