Bohr’s atom model

In the Bohr model of the atom, electrons travel in defined circular orbits around the nucleus.
The orbits are labeled by an integer, the quantum number n. Electrons can jump from one orbit to
another by emitting or absorbing energy

2.Merits of Bohr’s theory:

(i) The experimental value of radii and energies in a hydrogen atom are in good agreement with that
calculated on the basis of Bohr’s theory.

(ii) Bohr’s concept of the stationary state of electron explains the emission and absorption spectra of
hydrogen-like atoms.

(iii) The experimental values of the spectral lines of the hydrogen spectrum are in close agreement with
that calculated by Bohr’s theory.

Limitations of Bohr’s theory:

(i) It does not explain the spectra of atoms having more than one electron.

(ii) Bohr’s atomic model failed to account for the effect of the magnetic field (Zeeman Effect) or electric
field (Stark effect) on the spectra of atoms or ions. It was observed that when the source of a spectrum
is placed in a strong magnetic or electric field, each spectral line further splits into a number of lines.
This observation could not be explained on the basis of Bohr’s model.

(iii) De Broglie suggested that electrons like light have a dual character. It has particle and wave
character. Bohr treated the electron only as a particle.

(iv) Another objection to Bohr’s theory came from Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle. According to this
principle “It is impossible to determine simultaneously the exact position and momentum of a small
moving particle like an electron”. The postulate of Bohr, that electrons revolve in well-defined orbits
around the nucleus with well-defined velocities is thus not tenable

3. Conclusion

1. Permitted orbits of an electron in an atom are limited

2. Each orbit is a different energy

3. Inside orbits have lower energies than the outside ones.

4. When electrons in an atom change energy states they absorb or release energy

Rutherford Atomic Model

1.Based on the above observations and conclusions, Rutherford proposed the atomic structure of
elements. According to the Rutherford atomic model:

The positively charged particles and most of the mass of an atom was concentrated in an extremely
small volume. He called this region of the atom as a nucleus.

Rutherford model proposed that the negatively charged electrons surround the nucleus of an atom. He
also claimed that the electrons surrounding the nucleus revolve around it with very high speed in
circular paths. He named these circular paths as orbits.

Electrons being negatively charged and nucleus being a densely concentrated mass of positively charged
particles are held together by a strong electrostatic force of attraction.
2.Limitations of Rutherford Atomic Model

Although the Rutherford atomic model was based on experimental observations it failed to explain
certain things.

Rutherford proposed that the electrons revolve around the nucleus in fixed paths called orbits.
According to Maxwell, accelerated charged particles emit electromagnetic radiations and hence an
electron revolving around the nucleus should emit electromagnetic radiation. This radiation would carry
energy from the motion of the electron which would come at the cost of shrinking of orbits. Ultimately
the electrons would collapse in the nucleus. Calculations have shown that as per the Rutherford model,
an electron would collapse in the nucleus in less than 10-8 seconds. So Rutherford model was not in
accordance with Maxwell’s theory and could not explain the stability of an atom.

One of the drawbacks of the Rutherford model was also that he did not say anything about the
arrangement of electrons in an atom which made his theory incomplete.

Although the early atomic models were inaccurate and failed to explain certain experimental results,
they were the base for future developments in the world of quantum mechanics.

Merits of Rutherford Atomic Model

1) Rutherford discovered the presence of nucleus in atom by his experiment.

2) Rutherford assumed that most of the atom is hallow and small center point called nucleus.

3) He imagined that electrons revolve around nucleus like planets around sun.

Conclusion

Rutherford’s model proved to be an important step towards a full understanding of the atom. However,
it did not completely address the nature of the electrons and the way in which they occupied the vast
space around the nucleus. It was not until some years later that a full understanding of the electron was
achieved. This proved to be the key to understanding the chemical properties of elements.

Thomson's atomic model

1.Concepts

In 1904, Thomson proposed atomic model where electrons are embedded within spherically distributed,
positive charge (so-called "plum pudding" model). Both the positive charge and the mass of the atom
would be more or less uniformly distributed over its size.

2.Limitations of Thomson’s Atomic Model

Thomson’s atomic model explained the overall neutrality of an atom. Its assumption that the total mass
of an atom is uniformly distributed all over the atom was inconsistent with some experimental results.
Rutherford’s gold foil experiment of scattering α-particles revealed that most of the space in an atom is
empty contradicted Thomson’s atomic model. Thus, it was found that the plum pudding atomic model
was insufficient to explain the structure of an atom.

Merits
a) It successfully explained electron neutrality of an atom. b)It was the first attempt in identifying
structure of an atom and presence of large positive charge holding sphere in which electrons were
embedded. b)the origin of atomic spectral lines. c)the large angle of scattering of alpha particles.

Conclusion

J.J. Thomson's experiments with cathode ray tubes showed that all atoms contain tiny negatively
charged subatomic particles or electrons. Thomson proposed the plum pudding model of the atom,
which had negatively-charged electrons embedded within a positively-charged "soup."

Vector atom model

1.In physics, specifically quantum mechanics, the vector model of the atom is a model of the atom in
terms of angular momentum. It can be considered as the extension of the Rutherford-Bohr-Somerfield
atom model to multi-electron atoms.

2.The vector atom model basically deals with the total angular momentum of an atom, which is results
of the combination of orbital and spin angular momenta. The two fundamental features of the vector
atom model are (i) space quantization of orbits and (ii) spinning electron hypothesis.

Space Quantization

The angular momentum is a vector quantity; hence its direction must be specified to describe it
completely. To specify the orientation or direction of an orbit, a reference is required. The direction of
the magnetic field applied to the atom is chosen as the reference line.

The rotating electron about the nucleus forms a current loop which has a magnetic moment µ =
IA, where I is the current in the loop and A is the area vector. The energy of loop-field system is given by
U = -µ. B = – |µ| |B| cosθ, where θ is the angle between the magnetic moment θ and magnetic field B.
As such classically any energy value between -µB to +µB is possible for the loop.

An electron orbiting around the nucleus in an atom possess angular momentum L which
interacts with external applied magnetic field B. According to quantum theory, there are fixed directions
of magnetic moment 1.1. of magnetic dipole (formed by closed loop motion of electron about nucleus)
with respect to the magnetic field B. The magnetic moment µ and angular momentum L can be related
as

This relationship is true from both classical and quantum mechanical point of view. Since
discrete directions of µ are allowed, as such the direction of L will also be quantized in space. Here, the
quantization refers the projection of L along the Z-direction (L2) which can have discrete values only.
The orbital magnetic quantum number ml gives the direction of L and tells the possible components of L
in the Z-direction (the field direction). The phenomenon of quantization of L in the direction of magnetic
field B is commonly known as space quantization.

The direction of B is along the Z axis. As such the component of L along Z-direction is given as LZ
= ml, h, the ml can table the values from –l to +l including zero.
 The above discussed space quantization of orbits and possible components of L can be
understood with the following example.

Let us calculate the allowed projections of L for l = 2. The L can be visualized as a vector lying on
the surface of a cone

The possible values of ml for l = 2 can be -2, -1, 0, 1, 2 hence LZ = m1h = -2h – h, 0, h, 2h. Figure
10.2(b) and 10.2(c) show space quantization of L for l=2.

Spin Quantization

Goudsmit and Uhlenbeck in 1925 proposed that electron ‘spins’ about an axis through its centre
of mass and further it has both angular momentum and a magnetic moment. The spin of electron is
analogous to the planetary motion about the Sun in our solar system. Quantum mechanical treatment
has demonstrated that the spin of electron should be quantized. As such a new quantum number 5 has
been introduced. The spin angular momentum S is related with spin quantum number s as

The spin can be either clockwise or anticlockwise as such s can have two values i.e., ± ½

Component of S along the direction of magnetic field is governed by quantum, number ms as

where ms is the spin magnetic quantum number. The ms can take (2s + 1) values.

We have seen that the orbital and spin motions of an electron are quantized in magnitude as
well as in direction. These motions are represented by quantized vectors, as such the atomic model is
termed as vector atom model.

The Quantum’Numbers and Spectroscopic Notations

The Bohr-Somerfield atomic theory uses four quantum numbers which are (i) Principal quantum
number (n) (ii) Orbital quantum number (1) (iii) Spin quantum number (s) and (iv). Total angular
momentum quantum number (j). In addition to these, three other quantum numbers have been
introduced in vector atom model which are (i) Magnetic orbital quantum number (ml), (ii) Magnetic spin
quantum number (ms) and (iii) Magnetic total an momentum quantum number (mj). The general
description and possible values of these quantum numbers is given below.

i. Principal Quantum Number (n): This quantum number represents the serial number of the atomic
shells starting from the innermost. The ‘n’ can have only positive integral values excluding zero.

n = 1,2,3,4

ii. Orbital Quantum Number (I): The Orbital quantum number ‘l’ can have the values from a to (n -1),
where ‘n’ is the principal quantum number.

For example, if n = 3, then 1 = 0, 1,2. I

Conventionally we call

1 = 0 s electron

1 = 1 p electron
1 = 2 d electron

1 = 3 f electron

iii. Spin Quantum Number (s): Spin quantum number s has only one value

iv.Total Angular Momentum Quantum Number (j): The total angular momentum quantum number j is
the sum of orbital angular momentum ‘l’ and spin quantum number’s’. As such j can have l ± s or l ± ½
values.

v. Magnetic Orbital Quantum Number ‘ml‘: As discussed previously in article 10.3.1, the magnetic orbital
quantum number ml can have 2l + 1 values.

For example, I = 2, ml can have – 2, – 1, 0, 1, 2 i.e., total 5 values.

vi.Magnetic Spin Quantum Number ‘ms‘: The magnetic spin quantum number take (2s + 1) values. We
know that s = ½ and hence ms, can take (2 × ½ + 1) = 2 in total. The values of ms‘ therefore are – s and +
s or – ½ and + ½.

vii.Magnetic Total Angular Momentum Quantum Number mj: The total momentum J of an atom is a
vector quantity and is the vector sum of orbital momentum L and spin angular momentum S i.e., J = L +S.
We define quantum number mj which is known as the magnetic total angular mom quantum number
and specify the orientation of J in space with respect to Z-axis.

According to quantum mechanics

The possible values of mj are 2j + 1 i.e., mj can take values from – j to + j including zero in integral steps.

Now Jz = Lz ± Sz

which implies that mj = ml ± ms. Now ml is an integer and ms is ± ½ as such mj will have the half integral
values only. The mj, ml and ms can have the maximum value j, l and s respectively.