Biscuits, Cookies and Crackers: Nature of the Products

R Miller, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA

ã 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Introduction method is a single-stage mix in which all of the ingredients

are mixed together in one step. The gluten is developed during
There are hundreds of varieties of biscuits, cookies, and crack- mixing in hard doughs. The formulation and developed gluten
ers found across the globe. Diverse terminology in different network result in a tight, stiff dough that can be sheeted and
parts of the world causes some confusion regarding the distinc- then cut or stamped into shapes.
tion between biscuits and cookies. In North America, the term One problem with hard doughs is that if the gluten is too
biscuit refers to baking powder biscuits or buttermilk biscuits, strong and elastic, the dough has a tendency to tear during
which are savory quick breads made with flour, shortening, sheeting and the cut pieces shrink back and distort prior to
milk, salt, baking powder, and occasionally baking soda. High entering the oven. In order to manufacture hard dough biscuits
levels of shortening in the formula produce a tender and flaky and cookies on a continuous production line, some formulas
texture. They are similar to British scones but are prepared with contain sodium metabisulfite or sodium sulfite. These are
a leaner formula, which does not contain egg and sugar. In the reducing agents that break some of the disulfide bonds in the
United Kingdom and most English-speaking countries outside gluten. As a result, mixing time is shortened, resting time
of North America, the term biscuit refers to small, chemically between mixing and sheeting is eliminated, and the dough
leavened, cake-like products, which have high sugar, high becomes less extensible so it does not tear or shrink back
shortening, and low moisture contents. These products are after cutting. Hard dough biscuits and cookies do not spread
called cookies in the United States and Canada. In this text, (become larger in diameter) during baking. However, they do
biscuits are the type found in the United Kingdom that is rise in the oven then shrink or collapse during cooling to
synonymous with cookies. produce a thicker final product.

Biscuits and Cookies

Short Dough
In general, biscuits and cookies are small, flat, cereal-based,
baked products containing shortening, sugar, and chemical The most common type of biscuits and cookies found around
leavening. While soft wheat is the most common, other cereal the world is made from short doughs. Short dough biscuits and
grains such as oats, rye, corn, and barley are sometimes uti- cookies are also the most diverse, varying greatly in ingredients,
lized. Most biscuits and cookies have a low moisture content of size, shape, and flavor. Short doughs are typically made using
less than 5%. They vary widely in size, shape, formulation, weak soft wheat flours that contain 9% or lower protein
preparation method, and flavor. The texture varies from crisp content, and the formulas contain low levels of water and
and hard to soft and chewy. Some undergo secondary proces- high levels of sugar and shortening. Most short doughs are
sing to create sandwiched, iced, coated, filled, and multiple prepared using a multistage mixing process that starts with
other types of final products. Biscuits and cookies have a creaming the sugar, shortening, and liquid. The liquid may
relatively low risk of microbial spoilage due to the high short- be added as water, or it may be a component of wet ingredients
ening, high sugar, and low water contents. They also do not such as fresh eggs, milk or other milk products, and liquid
stale like bread and other higher-moisture baked products. The flavorings. The flour and dry ingredients are added to the
most common cause of loss of eating quality is due to moisture creamed mixture in a separate mixing step. Short doughs can
migration. Moisture uptake by crisp, hard products causes also be made using a single-stage mix procedure in which all of
them to become undesirably soft and soggy, while moisture the ingredients are mixed into a dough in one mixing step.
loss from soft, chewy products renders them dry and hard. Biscuits and cookies made using a single-step method are
Biscuits and cookies are often broadly characterized based inferior to those made with the multistage process. The struc-
on their dough properties and then further distinguished by ture of the cream plays an important role in the properties of
the technique used to shape and place the dough onto the oven the dough and of the final products. The gluten in short
band for baking (Figure 1). The two broad categories of biscuit doughs is not developed during mixing for several reasons:
and cookie doughs are hard doughs or short doughs. Wafers the high levels of sugar and shortening delay gluten develop-
are a third category. Although wafers are not technically bis- ment; the water level is not high enough to completely hydrate
cuits or cookies, they are often included in the category because the gluten, which prevents it from developing; and the water is
they are manufactured by biscuit and cookie manufacturers. encapsulated in the shortening cream where it is not available
to hydrate the gluten. In contrast to hard doughs, which are
extensible and elastic, short doughs are cohesive and plastic.
Hard Dough Short dough consistency is thick enough to almost be pourable
but not as thick as bread dough. Some short doughs can be
Hard doughs contain higher water, lower shortening, and sheeted and then cut or stamped into the desired shapes, while
lower sugar than short doughs. The most common mixing other short doughs are extruded through nozzles or dies. Most

Encyclopedia of Food and Health http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-384947-2.00075-1 445

446 Biscuits, Cookies and Crackers: Nature of the Products

Hard
Dough

Deposited

Biscuit/Cookie
Wafers Rotary
Types
Cut
Cutting
Machine
Short Stamped
Dough

Rotary
Mold

Wire
Cut
Extruded
Bar-
Press

Figure 1 Types of biscuits and cookies.

short dough products retain their shape until they go into the
oven and then spread or flow during baking, becoming thinner
and larger in diameter. Some types of short doughs, however,
do not spread at all and maintain their shape and any designs
that are embossed on them.
There are several processes for shaping short doughs,
which are classified by how the biscuits and cookies are
placed on the baking band (Figure 1). They include
deposit, rotary molding, cutting machine, and extruded
processes. The cutting machine process includes both rotary
cut and stamped products, while extruded products are
subdivided into wire cut and bar-press (also known as
Figure 2 Rotary mold process. Photo courtesy of Reading Bakery
rout-press) processes.
Systems (Robesonia, PA).

Rotary Mold Process Extruded Process

Rotary mold is one of the most common production pro- A wide variety of biscuits and cookies are produced using the
cesses for short doughs. The formula is high in sugar, high extrusion process. These are made from soft doughs that rise
in shortening, and low in water (less than 20% including the and spread during baking. Extruded short dough products fall
moisture in the flour). The resulting dough not only is crum- into two categories: wire cut and bar-press (also known as rout-
bly, lumpy, and stiff but also is cohesive and pliable due to press).
the high level of shortening. The dough is forced into
engraved molds on a rotating roll for shaping and embossing Wire cut process
the top surface. As the roll turns, the shaped dough pieces are Wire cut is another widely used production process for short
extracted and fall onto a canvas belt where they travel into the dough products. In the wire cut process, soft, short dough is
oven and are baked (Figure 2). Rotary mold biscuits and extruded through an orifice or die and cut with a reciprocating
cookies do not rise or spread in the oven and retain the wire (Figure 3). The size of the orifice and speed of the wire
designs that were embossed on the surface. This process control the size of the dough pieces. The dough hopper is
only works with dry, crumbly doughs. Rotary mold biscuits positioned directly above the oven band so the cut biscuits or
and cookies are economical to produce because there is no cookies fall directly onto the band. The dough must be cohe-
scrap dough to recycle, the labor requirement is low, and sive enough to hold together but short enough to be cut cleanly
there is little water to drive off in baking, which keeps energy by the wire. If dough consistency is not correct, the pieces are
costs low. The most famous example of a rotary mold cookie distorted during cutting and are not consistently or correctly
is the Oreo®. positioned on the baking band. The wire cut process works
 Biscuits, Cookies and Crackers: Nature of the Products 447

Figure 3 Wire cut process. Photo courtesy of Reading Bakery Systems Figure 4 Rotary cut process. Photo courtesy of Reading Bakery
(Robesonia, PA). Systems (Robesonia, PA).

Cutting Machine Process (Rotary Cut or Stamped)

well for biscuits and cookies with inclusions such as flavored
In the production of biscuits and cookies by the cutting machine
baking chips, dried fruit pieces, and nuts. Chocolate chip and
process, shapes are cut from a sheet of dough. The cutting is
oatmeal raisin are examples of wire cut biscuits or cookies. The
done by a rotary cutter or a stamper. Historically, the shapes
wire cut process can also be used to make coextruded products.
were cut using a stamper that is a heavy block with the desired
This is done by extruding two different doughs or a dough and
shapes cut into it that stamps down into the dough. This tech-
a filling from separate hoppers through a single orifice to
nique has been widely replaced with the rotary cutter (Figure 4),
combine them into a single product.
which is a rotating metal cylinder with the desired shapes cut
into it that rolls continuously over the dough sheet.
In the process, the thickness of the dough sheet is gradually
Bar-press process reduced by passing it through a series of rollers. The sheeting
The bar-press or rout-press production process is similar to line typically contains two or three pairs of rolls. The thickness
the wire cut procedure except that the base of the dough of the dough is reduced less than 50% in each subsequent pass
chamber contains a die plate with nozzles. The nozzles are through the rolls. This method produces a fair (20%) to large
shaped to form a design. Some nozzles can rotate while the (60%) amount of scrap (pieces of dough between the cut
dough is extruding to produce twists, swirls, or other fancy shapes) depending on the shape being cut. The scrap is col-
designs. Inclusions are not added to the formula to prevent lected and either returned to the mixer or, more commonly,
clogging of the nozzle. The dough is continuously extruded reincorporated into the dough during the sheeting stage.
in short strips, which are then cut into individual pieces and Cutting machine short dough formulas contain more water
baked. The formula contains high levels of shortening and than rotary mold formulas but are lower in sugar compared
sugar. Proper dough consistency is critical to ensure the with many other types of biscuits and cookies. The high water,
dough is short enough to cut cleanly yet cohesive enough low sugar, and sheeting process develop the gluten in the flour.
to hold the shape and design. The resulting biscuits and This keeps the shapes from spreading and distorting during
cookies have a soft, delicate texture and are quite fragile. baking. Animal cookies and gingerbread people are produced
They are difficult to package due to their fragility and irreg- using the cutting machine process.
ular shapes. Biscuits or cookies made by this process include
Danish butter cookies, Viennese whirls, and spritz. Multiple
depositors can be used to combine doughs of different fla-
vors or colors (coextrude) into a single product or to make Wafers
filled products such as fig bars.
Wafers do not fit the definition of biscuits and cookies but are
categorized with them because consumers view them in the
category, and they are manufactured and sold by biscuit and
Deposit Process
cookie manufacturers. Wafers are thin and extremely crisp.
Biscuit and cookie doughs that are deposited contain the high- They are available in many diverse shapes including flat sheets,
est level of shortening and sugar in the short dough category. hollow sheets, cups, cones, and fancy shapes. They are typically
They are also called soft doughs because their soft, semifluid not consumed as is but are components of biscuits, cookies,
consistency is more similar to batter than dough. The dough is and candy bars and serve as edible containers for ice cream and
extruded through a nozzle and deposited directly onto the other desserts.
oven band. The pieces are formed by cutting off the flow of The wafer formula contains no or low sugar, no shortening,
the dough at the appropriate interval to get the desired size. and high water. The flour used is typically soft white wheat
Biscuits and cookies made with this method exhibit high flour of short extraction, so it is very low in protein with high
spread during baking. Some products increase in diameter as purity (low ash). The resulting batter is very thin and smooth.
much as 80%. Nilla Wafers® are produced using the deposit The gluten is not developed in the batter. Gluten formation in
process. the batter is detrimental and leads to processing issues. For this
448 Biscuits, Cookies and Crackers: Nature of the Products

reason, batters are mixed in small batches to avoid overmixing

and to minimize holding time between mixing and baking. Saltine
The batter is deposited into heated molds that close and lock, Yeast
which sets the thickness. Baking temperature is high and bak- Fermented
ing time is short, between 1.5 and 2.5 min. Although the Cream
formula contains sodium bicarbonate, it is added to adjust Cracker
the pH rather than as a leavening agent. The leavening action Types
comes from steam produced during baking. After baking, the
Chemical
wafer sheet is flexible enough to form into desired shapes Snack
Leavened
before it cools. Some products are formed from the baked
sheets, and others are produced by baking the batter in shaped Figure 5 Types of crackers.
molds. After baking and forming, the wafers are extremely dry,
which gives them an undesirably soft texture. For this reason,
wafer products go through a conditioning process in which the
moisture content is increased to 5–6%. This increases the crackers is greatly impacted by the activity and addition level of
hardness and crispness of the wafers and makes the final the inoculum. The yeast and bacteria compete for the ferment-
products more stable. Wafer products, especially cones and able carbohydrates in the sponge. When the activity and level
bowls, are extremely fragile; thus, there is a high level of prod- of the yeast is lower than that of the Lactobacillus, the bacteria
uct loss due to breakage during processing. dominates and produces enough acid to lower the pH from 6
to 4. This is the desired situation. The drop in dough pH is the
most important reason for the lengthy fermentation. Wheat
flour contains a native protease enzyme that becomes active at
Crackers
pH 4.1. This protease is thought to be important in creating the
correct texture of the saltine crackers. On the other hand, if the
Crackers are regarded by some as being savory cookies, while
yeast level is too high or the activity of the Lactobacillus is too
others consider them to be unsweetened, salty, crisp biscuits.
low, the yeast dominates and saltine crackers have a completely
Crackers are typically consumed as a snack or as a bread
different flavor and texture profile. The action of the native
substitute. The wheat flours used for cracker production typi-
protease enzyme is also the reason why saltine crackers pro-
cally contain higher protein content and are stronger than
duced with short fermentation are of poor quality with a bland
flours used for biscuits and cookies. Saltine crackers and
flavor and hard texture.
cream cracker formulas contain both hard and soft wheat
After the sponge fermentation is complete, weak soft wheat
flours. In general, crackers contain low shortening, low sugar,
flour, shortening, salt, and sodium bicarbonate (baking soda)
and low moisture. Their low moisture content makes them
are added and mixed into a fully developed dough. The dough
resistant to microbial spoilage and gives them a long shelf
is then allowed to ferment for an additional 4–6 h after which
life. Depending on the type, the leavening is by yeast or chem-
additional sodium bicarbonate is added to raise the dough pH
ical leavening. Some types are also leavened by steam during
into the 7–8 range. This step is important for several reasons.
baking.
The raise in pH stops the action of the native protease, so the
Crackers are made from hard doughs that are laminated.
gluten is not too degraded, which would result in a dough that
Laminated doughs are thin sheets of dough, which are alter-
is too weak to be sheeted and to maintain the distinctive layers.
nately layered with shortening. Puffing occurs between the
The yeast also becomes active again and dominates fermenta-
layers, producing a light, crisp product. The stronger flour
tion at the higher pH to produce more flavor compounds and
allows the dough to retain the layers formed during
strengthen the dough to help produce the correct texture.
laminating.
Additionally, the sodium bicarbonate gives the crackers their
The three types of crackers are saltine crackers (soda crack-
characteristic taste and is the reason they are also known as
ers), cream crackers, and snack crackers (Figure 5). The formu-
soda crackers.
lation and production processes vary widely for the three types.
When the dough has been properly fermented, it is sheeted
to about 0.3 mm thick and laminated into six or eight layers.
Laminating is folding (lapping) the dough back upon itself in
Saltine Crackers
the same direction to create layers. During the process, the
Saltine crackers (also known as soda crackers) are the best dough is also turned 90 so that it is sheeted in both directions
known fermented crackers consumed in the United States. (cross sheeted). Cross sheeting aligns the gluten in both direc-
They are made using a sponge and dough process. First, a tions so that it will expand properly during baking to prevent
sponge containing strong hard wheat flour, yeast, water, and misshapen crackers. The laminated dough is then passed
an inoculum (also called a buffer or old sponge) is prepared through several sets of sheeting rollers, which gradually reduce
and given a long fermentation time of 16–24 h. This long the dough thickness from 2.5 cm to 0.3 mm. A rotary cutter
fermentation is critical to develop the proper flavor and texture perforates the dough into 50 mm squares. The dough is then
in the final crackers. During fermentation, flavor compounds docked using a nine-pin pattern consisting of three rows of
are produced by the action of the baker’s yeast (Saccharomyces three docking holes. The docking pins pass through the entire
cerevisiae) and the Lactobacillus bacteria, which were introduced sheet and seal the top and bottom layers together. Salt is
into the sponge in the inoculum. The quality of the saltine sprinkled on top of the dough if desired and the crackers are
 Biscuits, Cookies and Crackers: Nature of the Products 449

baked. The dough sheet is baked intact and then mechanically level is higher than that used in the sponge and dough system
broken into individual crackers after cooling. and is set at a level such that the dough will double in size
Saltine crackers are baked on mesh bands in tunnel ovens between completion of mixing and end of fermentation. The
that are 100 m long at very high temperatures of 250–300  C dough is fermented for 4–16 h.
in a very short time of 2.5–3 min. At these high temperatures, The makeup procedure is the same for doughs made by
the water in the dough flashes off as steam and causes the layers both the sponge and dough and the single-stage methods. After
to puff. The docking holes seal together the layers of dough, so fermentation is complete, the dough is sheeted and laminated.
the puffing is controlled and occurs only between the holes. Laminating is folding (lapping) the dough back upon itself in
The mesh band allows the moisture to be removed from under the same direction to create layers. Cracker dust (a mixture of
the crackers so they do not curl. The thickness of the cracker 100 parts flour, 33 parts shortening, and 1 part salt) is sprin-
increases from 0.3 to 4 mm during baking. kled onto the dough between the layers during the lamination
The crackers have a low moisture content of 2–2.5% when procedure. The application rate is 9–18% based on the dough
they exit the oven. They must be cooled slowly to prevent weight. The cracker dust keeps the dough layers separated and
checking or cracking. The puffing between the layers and the provides some lift (rise) during baking to produce a cracker
low final moisture content give saltine crackers a light, flaky, with a flaky structure. During the lamination process, the
layered texture. Proper storage is critical to maintain the crisp dough is also turned 90 so that it is sheeted in both directions
texture. If the crackers take up even a small amount of mois- (cross sheeted). Cross sheeting aligns the gluten in both direc-
ture, the texture will become undesirably soft and soggy. tions so that it will expand properly during baking and prevent
misshapen crackers. The laminated dough is then passed
through several sets of sheeting rollers, which gradually reduce
Cream Crackers the dough thickness to the desired level. Individual crackers
Cream crackers are popular fermented crackers consumed in the measuring 65  74 mm are cut from the dough and docked to
United Kingdom. Cream crackers differ significantly in size, seal the layers. The scrap (dough between the cut pieces) is
appearance, flavor, and texture compared with saltine crackers. recycled back into the dough at the dough mixing step. The
Cream crackers can be made by a sponge and dough process or crackers are baked on a mesh band in a very hot oven
using a single-stage procedure. The sponge and dough process (210–250  C) in a short time (4.5–5 min). During baking,
used to make cream crackers is similar to that used for saltine the layers expand between the docking holes. The final thick-
crackers, but the formula is quite different as shown in Table 1. ness of a typical cream cracker is 6.5 mm. Cream crackers have
Compared with saltine crackers, the cream cracker sponge con- a higher moisture content and higher shortening content than
tains much less flour and half the level of yeast. An inoculum is saltine crackers, which gives them a softer texture and a richer
not added into the cream cracker sponge, so the pH of the flavor. The high shortening level makes oxidative rancidity a
sponge does not drop appreciably from its original value of problem during storage. As with all dry products, moisture
around 6. After the sponge fermentation is complete, weak soft uptake during storage can degrade product quality by making
wheat flour, shortening, salt, and sodium bicarbonate are added. the crackers soft and soggy.
The majority of the flour is added in the dough stage rather than
into the sponge. Additionally, the level of shortening is signifi- Snack Crackers
cantly higher, and the level of sodium bicarbonate is signifi-
cantly lower than the levels used in saltine cracker production. Snack crackers are also known as savory crackers, cocktail
In cream cracker production, the sponge is fermented for crackers, or cheese crackers. They come in many different fla-
12–16 h, and the dough is fermented for an additional 1–3 h. vors, shapes, and sizes. Some are topped with items such as
Cream crackers can also successfully be made using a single- seeds, herbs, cheese, and salt. The most common shape is
stage process in which all of the ingredients are mixed into a round. Round and unusually shaped products yield a large
dough in a single mixing step. The formula typically contains a quantity of scrap after cutting that is reincorporated back into
blend of 50% strong flour and 50% weak flour, shortening, the mixer or into the dough during sheeting. Compared with
yeast, salt, sugar, sodium bicarbonate, and water. The yeast saltine crackers and cream crackers, snack crackers contain
sugar and more shortening. A few types are yeast-leavened
Table 1 Basic formulas for saltine and cream crackers and fermented, but most are chemically leavened. Some con-
tain flavoring compounds. In addition to imparting flavor,
Flour weight basis (%) many flavoring compounds have a weakening effect on the
dough, which may help with sheeting and laminating by mak-
Ingredient Saltine crackers Cream crackers
ing the dough more extensible. If the dough is too strong,
Sponge proteolytic enzymes or sulfite (sodium metabisulfite or
Flour (strong) 70.0 30.0 sodium sulfite) is often added to break down some of the
Compressed yeast 0.4 0.2 gluten to make the dough more extensible during sheeting
Water 33.0 30.0 and lamination, so the cracker pieces do not shrink or distort
Dough after cutting.
Flour (weak) 30.0 70.0 Snack crackers are prepared using a single-stage mixing
Shortening 11.0 20.0
process in which all of the ingredients are mixed together at
Salt 1.5 1.0
once to make dough, which then may or may not be rested.
Sodium bicarbonate 1.0 0.2
The dough is then sheeted, laminated, cut, docked, and baked.
450 Biscuits, Cookies and Crackers: Nature of the Products

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Zydenbos S, Humphrey-Taylor V, and Wrigley C (2004) The diversity of products.
Almond N (1989) The biscuit making process. Biscuits, cookies and crackers, In: Wrigley C, Corke H, and Walker CE (eds.) Encyclopedia of grain science,
vol. 2: London: Elsevier. pp. 313–317. Oxford: Elsevier.
Delcour JA and Hoseney RC (2010) Chemically leavened products. In: Delcour JA and
Hoseney RC (eds.) Principles of cereal science and technology, 3rd ed.,
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Gorton LA, Bakhoum M, and van der Maarel H (2009) Formulating. In: Pyler EJ and Relevant Website
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Kansas City, MO: Sosland Publishing Co, 332–335. www.thebcma.org – Biscuit Cookie and Cracker Manufacturers’ Association (B&CMA).