CHAPTER ONE

1.1 DEFINE FLUID

A fluid may be defined as follows:

“A fluid is a substance which is capable of flowing.”

“A fluid is a substance which deforms continuously when subjected to external shearing force.”
A substance in the liquid or gas phase is referred to as fluid.

1.2 The fluids may be of the following types:

1. Newtonian fluids
2. Non-Newtonian fluids
3. Plastic fluids
4. Ideal fluids

1.3 The liquid form fluid

Ideal: an ideal fluid is one which is incompressible and has zero viscosity (or in other words
shear stress is always zero regardless of the motion of the fluid). Thus, an ideal fluid is
represented by the horizontal axis (τ = 0)

Newtonian: the fluids follow newton viscosity equation (i.e., 1.7) for such fluids u does not
change with rate of deformation

Plastic: in the case of a plastic substance which is non-Newtonian fluid an initial yield stress is
to be exceeded to cause a continuous deformation.

1.4 The gases forms fluid

Ideal: an ideal fluid is one which has no viscosity and surface tension and is incompressible. In
true sense no such fluid exists in nature. However, fluids which has low viscosities such as water
and air can be treated as ideal fluids under certain condition

Perfect: a gas which strictly obeys all the laws (Boyle’s and Charles) under all conditions of
temperature and pressure is called a perfect gas
Vapour: vapour is defined as that state of the substance which the evaporate from its liquid state
is not complete

A vapour consists of a mixture of the pure gaseous form and liquid particles in suspension.

Example: Stream contains water particles.

Vapour may be in three conditions, wet, dry, and superheated.

Superheated vapour behaves like a perfect gas

1.5 Explain the following fluid properties for liquids and gases

1.5.1 Pressure

all liquids have a tendency to evaporate or vaporize (i.e., to change from the liquid to the gaseous
state). Molecules are continuously projected from the free surface to the atmosphere.

These ejected molecules are in a gaseous state and exert their own partial vapour pressure on the
liquid surface. This pressure is known as the vapour pressure of the liquid (pv)

If the surface above the liquid is confined, the partial vapour pressure exerted by the molecules
increase till the rate at which the molecules re-enter the liquid is equal to the rate at which they
leave the surface. When the equilibrium condition is reached, the vapour pressure is called
saturation vapour pressure (pvs)

The following points are worth noting;

1. Vapour pressure increase with the rise in temperature

2. If the pressure on the liquid surface is lower than or equal to the saturation vapour
pressure, boiling take place.
3. Mercury has a very low vapour pressure and hence, it is an excellent fluid to the used in a
barometer.

1.5.2 Density

[Link] Mass Density

The density (also known as mass density or specific mass) of a liquid may be defined as the mass
per unit volume [m/v] at a standard temperature and pressure. It is denoted by ρ (rho). Its units
are kg/m3

ρ = m/v

[Link] Weight Density

The weight density (also known as specific weight) is defined as the weight per unit volume at
the standard temperature and pressure. It is usually denoted by w

W=g

1.5.3 Specific Volume

It is defined as volume per unit mass of fluid. It is denoted by v

Mathematically v = v / m = 1 / ρ

1.5.4 SPECIFIC GRAVITY

Specific gravity is the ratio of the specific weight of the liquid to the specific weight of a
standard fluid. It is dimensions and has no units. It is represented by S.

for liquid, the standard fluid is pure water 40c.

specific weight of liquid Wliquid

specific gravity = =
specific weight of pure water Wwater

Example 1:1 Calculate the specific weight, specific mass, specific volume and specific gravity of
a liquid having a volume of 5m3 and weight of 43KN

Solution

volume of the liquid = 5m3

weight of the liquid = 43KN

weight of liquid 43 3
Specific weight, w = = =8.6 KN /m
volume of liquid 5
 w 8.6 ×1000 8600 3
Specific mass or mass density, ρ= = = =876.66 kg/m
g 9.81 9.81

1 1 3
Specific volume, v = = =0.00114 m /kg
ρ 876.66

Wliquid 8.6
Specific gravity, S = = =0.877
Wwater 9.81

1.5.5 VISCOSITY

Viscosity can be defined as the property of a fluid which determines its resistance to shearing
stresses. It is a measure of the internal fluid friction which causes resistance to flow. It is
primarily due to cohesion and molecular momentum exchange between fluid layers, and as flow
occurs, these effects appear as shearing stresses between the moving layers of fluid.

An ideal fluid has no viscosity.

There is no fluid which can be classified as a property ideal fluid. However, the fluids with very
little viscosity are sometimes considered as ideal fluids.

Viscosity of fluids is due to cohesion and interaction between particles.

Viscosity is the resistance to motion of a fluid.

But since it’s such a fundamental parameter that defines hoe fluids behave its worth developing a
more in depth – understanding of viscosity.

To do this, let start by looking at fluid flowing over a flat surface.

Its sometimes useful to think of fluid as flowing in layers, with each layer moving at a different
velocity.

For example; Honey is more viscous than oil, and oil is more viscous than water.

Viscous fluids feel thicker, and don’t flow as easily.

Refer to fig 1: when two layers of fluid at a distance ‘ dy ’ apart, move one over the other at
different velocities, say u and u + du, the viscosity together with relative velocity causes a shear
stress acting between the fluid layers. The top layer causes a shear stress on the adjacent lower
layer while the lower layer causes a shear stress on the adjacent top layer.

This shear stress is proportional to the rate of change of velocity with respect to y. it is denoted
by τ (called tau).

Mathematically τ ∝ du / dy or τ = μ . du/dy

Where, μ = constant of proportionality and is known as co – efficient of dynamic viscosity or

only viscosity.

du
Rate of shear stress or rate of shear deformation or velocity gradient.
dy

τ
μ=
du
dy

Upper layer
Lower layer
dy
u + du
u

du
y Solid boundary

Figure 1. velocity variation near a solid boundary

[Link] Kinematic Viscosity

Kinematic viscosity may be defined as the ratio between dynamic viscosity and density of fluid

viscosity μ
Mathematically, v = =
density ρ
S.I. units: m2/s

1.5.6 ADHESION

Adhesion means attraction between the molecules of a liquid and the molecules of a solid
boundary surface in contact with the liquid. This property enables a liquid to stick to another
body.

1.5.7 COHESION

Cohesion means intermolecular attraction between molecules of the same liquid. It enables a
liquid to resist small amount of tensile stresses.

1.5.8 SURFACE TENSION

Surface tension is defined as the energy required increasing the surface area of a liquid. This
will depend on the strength of the cohesive forces in the liquid. The stronger the cohesive forces,
the stronger the surface tension as any increase in surface area will necessary disrupt some of
these interactions. Different liquids have different surface tensions, and water has an irregularly
high surface tension considering the small size of the molecule. This is because of the strong
hydrogen bonding occurring. Water does not want to reduce the amount of hydrogen bonding
occurring by increasing the surface area and the phenomenon is the reason that a paperclip, if
carefully placed on top of water will float. A paperclip can float on water due entirely to surface
tension.

1.5.9 CAPILARITY

The phenomenon of rise or fall of liquid level in the capillary tube is called capillarity.

Capillarity is due to cohesion and adhesion

The level to which the liquid rise is dependent on the diameter of the capillary tube.

1.5.10 COMPRESSIBILITY
Liquid are generally incompressible while gases are compressible.

Liquid are incompressible fluid because the intermolecular distance is less in liquid than in the
case of gas. In compressible flow is that the type of flow in which density is constant for the fluid
flow. Gases compressible because the distance between the individual in the case of gases is
none and hence it gets compressed the most.

1.6 Newton’s Law of Viscosity

This law states that the shear stress ( τ ¿ on a fluid element layer is directly proportional to the
rate of shear strain. The constant of proportionality is called the co-efficient of viscosity.

du
Mathematically, τ =μ .
dy

The fluid which follows the law are known as newton fluids

1.7 The effects of Viscosity in Fluids

Causes of viscosity in gases and liquids

Liquids => molecular cohesion

Cohesion => force of attraction

Adhesion => μ=0

Gases => molecular momentum transfer normal to the direction of motion

Momentum => m ×v kg m/s

Effects of viscosity in fluids

1.7.1 Effect of Temperature on Viscosity

Viscosity depends on cohesion force and molecular momentum transfer

Cohesion force are the force of attraction between the molecule

Viscosity is affected by temperature

The viscosity of liquids decreases but that of gases increase with increase in temperature

1.7.2 Effect of Pressure on Viscosity

Viscosity under ordinary condition is not appreciably affected by the changes in pressure
however, the viscosity of some oils has been found to increase with increase in pressure.

Ex 1.7.1 a plate 0.04mm distance from a fixed plate move at 1.1m/s and requires a force of
2.1N/m2 to maintain this speed. Find the viscosity of the fluid between the plate.

Solution

Given: Velocity of the moving plate, v = 1.1m/s

Distance between the plate, dy = 0.04mm = 0.04 x 10-3m

Force on the moving plate, f = 2.1N/m2

Finding: viscosity of the fluid, μ

Moving plate
U = 1.1m/s

dy

Fixed plate
du
τ =μ .
dy

Where τ = shear stress or force per unit area = 2.1N/m2

du = change in velocity = u – 0 = 2.1 – 0 = 1.1m/s

dy = change of distance = 0.04 x 10-3m

du
form the τ =μ .
dy

1.1
2.1 = μ . −3
0.04 × 10
 −3
μ ×1.1=2.1× 0.04 ×10
−3 −5
2.1 ×0.04 × 10 8.4 ×10 −5
μ= = =7.64 ×10 N . s /m ²
1.1 1.1

Or μ=7.64 ×10−4poise

Exp 1.7.2. a plate having an area 0.4m2 is sliding down the inclined plane at 30 0 to the horizontal
with a velocity of 0.26m/s. there is a cushion of fluid 1.7mm thick between the plane and the
plate. Find the viscosity of the fluid if the weight of the plate is 270N.

Solution
Given: Area of plate, A = 0.4m2
Weight of plate, W = 270N
Velocity of plate, V = 0.26m/s
Thickness of film, t = dy = 1.7mm = 1.7x10-3m
Finding: viscosity of the fluid, μ

Plate

T = dy = 1.7mm
U = 0.26m/s

W = 270N
Wsinθ
θ=30

Component of W along the plate = Wsin θ = 270sin30 = 135

Shear force on the bottom of the plate, F = 135N and
F 135 2
shear stress τ = = =337.5 N /m
A 0.4
 du
therefore, τ =μ .
dy
where, du=¿ change of velocity = u−0=0.26−0=0.26 m
−3
dy =t=1.7 ×10 m
0.26
:. 337.5 = μ . −3
1.7 10
−3
μ ×0.26=337.5 ×1.7 ×10
−3
337.5 ×1.7 × 10 0.57375 2
μ= = ≡2.2067 N . s/m Or 22.07poise
0.26 0.26
Exp 1.7.3 the space between two square flat parallel plate is filled with oil. Each side of the plate
is 720mm. the thickness of the oil film is 11mm. the upper plate, which moves at 3m/s requires a
force of 130N to maintain the speed. Determine
The dynamic viscosity of the oil
The kinematic viscosity of oil if the specific gravity of oil is 0.85
Solution
Given: Each side of a square plate = 720mm = 0.72m
The thickness of the oil, dy =14 mm=0.014 m
Velocity of the upper plate = 3m/s
Change of velocity between plate, du=3.0=3 m/ s
Force require on upper plate, f = 130N
Finding: dynamic viscosity, μ;
Kinematic viscosity, v;
F 130 130 2
Shear stress τ = = = =250.8 N /m
A 0.72 × 0.72 0.5184
du
We know that, τ =μ .
dy
3
250.8 = μ .
0.014
250.8 ×0.014 3.5108 2
μ= = 1.17 N . s /m Or 11.70poise
3 3
Kinematic viscosity, v;
Weight density of oil, w = 0.85 x 9.81 = 8.34KN/m2 or 8340N/m3
w 8340
Mass density of oil, ρ= = =850
g 9.81
μ 1.17
Using the relation; v ¿ = = 0.00138m2/s
ρ 850

Hence v = 0.00138m2/s

CHAPTER TWO

2.1 PRESSURE OF A HEAD

When a fluid is contained in a vessel, it exerts force at all points on the sides and bottom and top
of the container. The force per unit area is called PRESSURE.
Let say, P = force, and A = area on which the force acts: then Pressure = F/A---------------i
2.2 PRESSURE HEAD OF LIQUID
A liquid is subjected to pressure due to its own weight, this pressure increases as the depth of the
liquid increases.
Consider a vessel containing liquid, as shown on fig 2.1. the liquid will exert pressure on all
sides and bottom of the vessel. Now, let cylinder be made to stand in the liquid, as shown in
figure.
 Fig 2.1 Pressure head
From the figure shown above
Let, h = height of liquid in the cylinder
A = area of the cylinder base
W = specific weight of the liquid
P = intensity of pressure
Total pressure on the base of the cylinder = weight of liquid on the cylinder
P. A = w.A.h
P = w. A. h / A = wh
P = wh, the intensity of pressure in a liquid due to its depth will vary directly with depth.
The height of the free surface above any point is known as the static head at that point. In this
case static head is h
P = w.h
h = P/ w
Example 2.1: find the pressure at a depth of 13m below the free surface of water in a reservoir.
Solution
Depth of water, h = 13m
Specific weight of water , w = 9.81KN/ m3
P=?
From the formula
P = w.h
 P = 13 x 9.81 = 127.53 KN/ m3 = 127.53kpa

Example 2.2 : what is the height of water column corresponding to a pressure of 50KN/m2 .
Solution
Intensity of pressure, p = 50KN/m2
Specific weight of water,w = 9.81KN/ m3
Height of water column, h:
From the formula
P = wh
h = p/w
h = 50/9.81 = 5.1m
The pressure of a liquid may be expressed as follows:
1. As a force per unit area i.e., N/m2 or N/mm2
2. As an equivalent static head i.e., mm or cm of liquid

2.3 PASCAL’S LAW

The Pascal’s law states as follows : “

The intensity of pressure at any point in a liquid at rest, is the same in all directions”.

Proof

Let us consider a very small wedge shaped element LMN of a liquid, as shown below
 Fig 2.2: Pressure on a fluid at rest

Let, px = Intensity of horizontal pressure on the element of liquid,

py = Intensity of vertical pressure on the element of liquid,
pz = Intensity of pressure on the diagonal of the right angled triangular element,
α = Angle of the element of the liquid,
Px = Total pressure on the vertical side LN of the liquid,
Py = Total pressure on the horizontal side MN of the liquid, and
Pz = Total pressure on the diagonal LM of the liquid.

Px = px × LN .............................................................................(i) and,
Py = py × MN ............................................................................(ii) and,
Pz = pz × LM ............................................................................(iii)

As the element of the liquid is at rest, therefore the sum of horizontal and vertical
components of the liquid pressures must be equal to zero.
Resolving the forces horizontally:
Pz sin α = Px
Where PZ = PZ .LM and PX = PX . LN
PZ .LM sinα =¿ PX . LN
LM sinα =¿ LN
PZ = PX
Resolving the force vertically

PZ .cosα = Py .w

W = weight of the liquid element

Since the element is very small, neglecting its weight, we have :
PZ . cosα = Py

Where PZ = PZ .LM and Py = Py . MN

PZ .LM. cosα =¿ Py . MN

LM. cosα =MN

PZ = Py
Example 2.3: The diameters of ram and plunger of an hydraulic press are 100 mm and 20
mm respectively. Find the weight lifted by the hydraulic press when the force applied at
the plunger is 400 N.
Solution:

Sketch:

Diameter of the ram, D = 100mm = 0.1m

Diameter of the plunger, d= 20mm = 0.02m
Force on the plunger, f = 400N
Load lifted w :
πᴅ ² πx 0.1²
area of ram ,= A= = =0.00785 m ²
4 4
πd ² πx 0.02²
area of plunger , a= = =0.0003142 m ²
4 4
f 400 6
pressure due ¿ plunger , p= = =2.816 N /m²
a 0.0003142
'
since the pressure will be equal transmitted due ¿ pasca l sl aw ,therefore the pressure at
the ram is equal p = 2.8166 N /m ²

weight W W
but pressure at theram= = =
Area of ram A 0.000785
 W 6
=2.816
0.000785

6
w=0.000785 X 2.816 KN

2.4 ABSOLUTE AND GAUGE PRESSURES

Atmospheric pressure: The atmospheric air exerts a normal pressure upon all surfaces with
which it is in contact, and it is known as atmospheric pressure.
The atmospheric pressure is also known as ‘Barometric pressure’. The atmospheric pressure at
sea level (above absolute zero) is called ‘Standard atmospheric pressure’.

Gauge pressure: It is the pressure, measured with the help of pressure measuring instrument, in
which the atmospheric pressure is taken as datum. The atmospheric pressure on the scale is
marked as zero.

Gauges record pressure above or below the local atmospheric pressure, since they measure the
difference in pressure of the liquid to which they are connected and that of surrounding air. If the
pressure of the liquid is below the local atmospheric pressure, then the gauge is designated as
‘vacuum gauge’ and the recorded value indicates the amount by which the pressure of the liquid
is below local atmospheric pressure, i.e. negative pressure.

Vacuum pressure is defined as the pressure below the atmospheric pressure.

Absolute pressure:
It is necessary to establish an absolute pressure scale which is independent of the changes in
atmospheric pressure. A pressure of absolute zero can exist only in complete vacuum.
Any pressure measured above the absolute zero of pressure is termed as an ‘absolute pressure’.
A schematic diagram showing the gauge pressure, vacuum pressure and the absolute pressure is
given in Fig. 2.4.
 Fig 2.4: Relationship between pressure

Mathematically:
1. Absolute pressure = Atmospheric pressure + gauge pressure i.e.,
pabs = patm + pgauge
2. Vacuum pressure = Atmospheric pressure – absolute pressure

Example 2.5. Given that: Barometer reading = 740 mm of mercury; Specific gravity of mercury
= 13.6; Intensity of pressure = 40 kPa. Express the intensity of pressure in S.I. units, both gauge
and absolute.
Solution:
. Intensity of pressure, p = 40 kPa
Gauge pressure:
(i) p = 40 kPa = 40 kN/m2 = 0.4 × 105 N/m2 = 0.4 bar
(1 bar = 105 N/m2 )

p 0.4 × 105
(ii) h= = =4.077 m of water
w 9.81 x 10 ᶾ
p
(iii) h= = 0.4 × 105 /9.81x 103 x13.6 = 0.299m of mercury
w

Where,w specific weight;

For water : = 9.81 kN/m3
For mercury : 9.81x13.6kN/m3
 Absolute pressure:
Barometer reading (atmospheric pressure)
= 740 mm of mercury = 740 × 13.6 mm of water
740 x 13.6
=10.6 m of water
1000
Absolute pressure (Pabs.) = Atmospheric pressure (Patm.) + gauge pressure (Pgauge)

Pabs = 10.06 + 4.077 = 14.137 m of water

= 14.137x 13.6 x103 (P= wh)
= 1.38x105 N/m2
= 1.38bar
14.137
=1.039 m of mercury
13.6

2.5 MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE

The pressure of a fluid may be measured by the following devices:

(i) Manometers: are defined as the devices used for measuring the pressure at a point in a
fluid by balancing the column of fluid by the same or another column of liquid. They are
classified is as follows:

 Simple manometers:
(i) Piezometer, (ii) U-tube manometer, and (iii) Single column manometer.

 Differential manometers.

(ii) Mechanical gauges:

These are the devices in which the pressure is measured by balancing the fluid
column by spring ( elastic element) or dead weight. Generally these gauges are used
for measuring high pressure and where high precision is not required. Some
commonly used mechanical gauges are:

(i) Bourdon tube pressure gauge, (ii) Diaphragm pressure gauge, (iii) Bellow pressure
gauge, and (iv) Dead-weight pressure gauge.

2.5.1 Simple manometers

A “simple manometer” is one which consists of a glass tube whose one end is connected to a
point where pressure is to be measured and the other end remains open to atmosphere.
Some common types of simple manometer are discussed below:
1. Piezometer
 A piezometer is the simplest form of manometer which can be used for measuring moderate
pressures of liquids. It consists of a glass tube (Fig 2.5) inserted in the wall of a vessel or of a
pipe, containing liquid whose pressure is to be measured. The tube extends vertically upward to
such a height that liquid can freely rise in it without overflowing. The pressure at any point in the
liquid is indicated by the height of the liquid in the tube above that point, which can be read on
the scale attached to it. Thus if w is the specific weight of the liquid, then the pressure at point
A(p) is given by

P = wh

sFig 2.5 piezometer tube fitted to open vessel

Piezometers measure gauge pressure only (at the surface of the liquid), since the surface of the
liquid in the tube is subjected to atmospheric pressure. A piezometer tube is not suitable for
measuring negative pressure; as in such a case the air will enter in pipe through the tube.

Fig 2.5.1 piezometer tube fitted to a closed vassel

2. U-tube manometer:
 Piezometers cannot be employed when large pressures in the lighter liquids are to be measured,
since this would require very long tubes, which cannot be handled conveniently. Furthermore gas
pressures cannot be measured by the piezometers because a gas forms no free atmospheric
surface. These limitations can be overcome by the use of U-tube manometers. A U-tube
manometer consists of a glass tube bent in U-shape, one end of which is connected to a point at
which pressure is to be measured and other end remains open to the atmosphere as shown in Fig.
2.6

(i) For positive pressure:

Refer to fig 2.6.(a)

sFig 2.6 U-tube manometer

Let, A be the point at which pressure is to be measured. X–X is the datum line as shown in Fig.
2.6 (a)

Let, h1 = Height of the light liquid in the left limb above the datum line,
h2 = Height of the heavy liquid in the right limb above the datum line,
h = Pressure in pipe, expressed in terms of head,
S1 = Specific gravity of the light liquid, and
S2 = Specific gravity of the heavy liquid.
The pressures in the left limb and right limb above the datum line X–X are equal (as the
pressures at two points at the same level in a continuous homogeneous liquid are equal).

Pressure head above X–X in the left limb = h + h1 S1

Pressure head above X–X in the right limb = h2 S2
Equating these two pressures, we get:
h + h1 S1 = h2 S2 or h = h2 S2 – h1S1

(iii) For negative pressure:

 Refer to fig 2.6(b)
Pressure head above X–X in the left limb = h + h1 S1 + h2S2
Pressure head above X–X in the right limb = 0.
Equating these two pressures, we get:
h + h1S1 + h2 S2 = 0 or h = – (h1 S1 + h2S2

Example 2.6: In a pipeline water. A manometer is used to measure the pressure drop for flow
through the pipe. The difference in level was found to be 10cm, If the manometric fluid ccl 4 .
Find the pressure drop in S.I unit ( density of ccl 4 equal to 1.596g/cm3) If the manometric fluid is
changed to mercury ρ=13.6 g /cmᶾ
What will be the difference in level.
Solution
Given: hccl4 = 10cm = 0,1m ; ρ ccl4 = 1.596g/cm3 = 1.596x103g/cm3 ; ρhg=13.6 x 10 ᶾkg /mᶾ

Sketch:

pressure drop ∆ p= ρgh=g hccl₄ ρccl ₄

2
1.596 x 10 ᶾx 9.81 x 0.1=1565.67 N /m
2
¿ 1.565 KN /m ∨1.565 kpa
difference ∈level with mercury=¿
hHg = hccl4 x ρ ccl4 / ρhg

0.1 x 1.596 x 10 ᶾ
=
13.6 x 10 ᶾ

hHg = 0.01173m or 1.173cm

Example 2.7: A U-tube manometer is used to measure the pressure of oil of specific gravity
0.85 flowing in a pipe line. Its left end is connected to the pipe and the right-limb is open to the
atmosphere. The centre of the pipe is 100 mm below the level of mercury (specific gravity =
13.6) in the right limb. If the difference of mercury level in the two limbs is 160 mm, determine
the absolute pressure of the oil in the pipe.

Solution :

Sketch:

. Specific gravity of oil, S1 = 0.85

Specific gravity of mercury, S2 = 13.6
Height of the oil in the left limb,
h1 = 160 – 100 = 60 mm = 0.06 m
Difference of mercury level,
h2 = 160 mm = 0.16 m
Absolute pressure of oil:
Let, h1 = Gauge pressure in the pipe in terms of head of water, and
p = Gauge pressure in terms of kN/m2 .
Equating the pressure heads above the datum line X–X, we get
h + h1 S1 = h2S2
or, h + 0.06 × 0.85 = 0.16 × 13.6 = 2.125 m
The pressure p is given by
p = wh
= 9.81 × 2.125 kN/m2
20.84 kPa (Qw = 9.81 kN/m3 in S.I. units)
Absolute pressure of oil in the tube,
pabs. = patm. + pgauge
100 + 20.84 = 120.84 kPa
 CHAPTER THREE
3.1 Archimedes Principles
It say’s when a body is immersed fully or partially in a fluid, it experiences an upward force that
is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by it.

3.2 Buoyant force

The net upward force exerted by a liquid on a body which is completely or partially immersed in
it is called up thrust or buoyant.
When a body is immersed fully in water, it experience an upward force.
Upward force is equal to the weight of the water displaced by it.
3.3 center of buoyant
The point of application of the force of buoyancy on the body is known as the centre of
buoyancy. It is always the centre of gravity of the volume of fluid displaced.
3.4 Hydrometer
Density of a liquid can be determined by hydrometer. Hydrometer one indicate two scale density
of a liquid and volume of liquid.
3.5 TYPES OF EQUILIBRIUM OF FLOATING BODIES
The equilibrium of floating bodies is of the following types:
1. Stable equilibrium,
2. Unstable equilibrium, and
3. Neutral equilibrium.
3.3.1. Stable Equilibrium; When a body is given a small angular displacement (i.e. tilted
slightly), by some external force, and then it returns back to its original position due
to the internal forces (the weight and the upthrust), such an equilibrium is called
stable equilibrium.

3.3.2. Unstable Equilibrium; If the body does not return to its original position from the
slightly displaced angular position and heels farther away, when given a small
angular displacement, such an equilibrium is called an unstable equilibrium.
 3.3.3. Neutral Equilibrium; If a body, when given a small angular displacement, occupies a
new position and remains at rest in this new position, it is said to possess a neutral
equilibrium.
3.6 METACENTRE AND METACENTRIC HEIGHT
Metacenter: Fig. 3.1 (a) shows body floating in a liquid in a state of equilibrium. When it is
given a small angular displacement [see Fig. 3.2 (b)] it starts oscillating about some point (M).
This point, about which the body starts oscillating, is called metacenter.

Fig.3

The metacentre may also be defined as a point of intersection of the axis of body passing through
c.g.(G) and, original centre of buoyancy (B) and a vertical line passing through the centre of
buoyancy (B1) of the tilted position of the body.
The position of metacentre, M remains practically constant for the small angle of tilt θ.
Metacentric height: The distance between the centre of gravity of a floating body and the
metacentre (i.e. distance GM as shown in Fig3 (b) is called metacentric height.
 For stable equilibrium, the position of metacentre M remains higher than c.g. of the
body, G.
 For unstable equilibrium, the position of metacentre M remains lower than G.
 For neutral equilibrium, the position of metacentre M coincides with G.

DETERMINATION OF METACENTRIC HEIGHT

 The metacentric height may be determined by the following two methods:
1. Analytical method.
2. Experimental method.
Experimental Method
Refer to Fig. 3. 3
In this method, a known weight W1 is shifted by a distance z across the axis of tilt. The change
in moment due to this shift is W1 z. Let the angle of tilt be θ. This angle of tilt may be measured
experimentally by using a plumb bob. The change in moment due to this tilt is equal to W.GG1
or [Link] tan θ. B

Fig 3. 3 Experimental method for determination of metacentric height.

W.z
W 1 . Z=W . GM . tan Ɵ∨GM =
W . tan Ɵ
L= length of plumb bob, and
D= displacement of the plumb bob
d
tanƟ=
l
Metacentric height is given by:
W . Z.l
GM =
W .d
Example 3.3 A wooden block of specific gravity 0.75 floats in water. If the size of the block is 1
m × 0.5 m × 0.4 m, find its metacentric height.
Solution:
Size (or dimensions) of the block = 1m × 0.5 m × 0.4 m
Specific gravity of wood = 0.75
Specific weight w = 0.75 × 9.81 = 7.36 kN/m3
Weight of wooden block = specific weight × volume = 7.36 × 1× 0.5 × 0.4 = 1.472 kN
Let depth of immersion = h meters
Weight of water displaced = Specific weight of water × volume of the wood submerged in water.
= 9.81 × 1 × 0.5 × h = 4.9 h kN
for equilibrium:
Weight of wooden block = Weight of water displaced i.e., 1.472 = 4.9 h
1.472
h= =0.3
4.9
∴ Distance of centre of buoyancy from bottom i.e.,
 h 0.3
OB= = =0.15
2 2
0.4
OG= =0.2
2
BG = OG – OB = 0.2 – 0.15 = 0.05 m
I
BM =
V
Where, I = Moment of inertia of a rectangular section
bhᶟ 1 x 0.5²
I= = = 0.0104m⁴
12 12
and, V = Volume of water displaced (or volume of wood in water
¿ 1 x 0.5 xh=1 x 0.5 x 0.3
¿ 0.15 mᶾ
I 0.0104
BM = = =¿ 0.069
V 0.15
We know that the metacentric height
GM =BM −BG=0.069−0.05=0.019
 CHAPTER FOUR-
4.1 PRINCIPLE LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS
The law of conservation of matter states that matter can neither be created nor destroyed. This is
the simplest definition of the principle. Specifically, the law states that the mass of an isolated
system stays constant over time.
The principle of conversation of mass states that the mass of a body is constant during its motion.
This can be stated in the rate form, as the time rate of change of the mass of a body is zero. It is
obvious that the statement must be expressed mathematically for a material system.s
4.2 RATE OF FLOW OR DISCHARGE
Rate of flow or discharge can be defined as the quantity of a liquid flowing per second through a
section of pipe or a channel. Its denoted by symbol Q. consider a liquid flowing through a pipe.
Let, A= Area of cross-section of the pipe
Discharge, Q= area x average velocity i.e., Q= A.V-----------------------------------------------4.1
If area is in m2 and velocity is in m/s, then the discharge,
Q= m2 x m/s = m3/s = cumecs.

4.3 CONTINUITY EQUATION

The continuity equation is based on the principle of conservation of mass. It states as follows: “If
no fluid is added or removed from the pipe in any length then the mass passing across different
sections shall be same.”
Consider two cross-sections of a pipe as shown in Fig 4.1
A1 = Area of the pipe at section 1–1,
V1 = Velocity of the fluid at section 1–1,
ρ1 = Density of the fluid at section 1–1,
and A2, V2, ρ2 are corresponding values at sections 2–2.
The total quantity of fluid passing through section 1–1= ρ1 A1 V1
and, the total quantity of fluid passing through section 2–2 = ρ2A2V2
From the law of conservation of mass (theorem of continuity), we have
ρ1A1V1 = ρ2A2V2 ………………………………………………………..4.2
Eqn. (4.1) is applicable to the compressible as well as incompressible fluids and is called
Continuity Equation. In case of incompressible fluids, ρ1 = ρ2 and the continuity eqn. (4.2) reduce
to:
A1 V1 = A2V2 ………………………………………………………………..4.3

Fig 4.1 fluid flow through a pipe.

Example 4.1: The diameters of a pipe at the sections 1-1 and 2-2 are 400mm and 600mm
respectively. If the water flowing through the pipe at section 1-1 is 6m/s, find:
i Discharge through the pipe,and
ii velocity of water at section 2-2
solution
sketch:
Diameter of the pipe at section 1-1
D1 = 400mm = 0.04m
21 2
πᴅ 1 π . 0.4 2
Area A = = =0.1257 m
4 4
1
Velocity v =6 m/s
Diameter of the at section 2−2
D ₂=600 mm=0.6 m
2
2 π ᴅ π . 0.6
Area A = = =0.2828 m²
4 4
1. Discharge through pipe , Q:
1 1
Q= A V =0.1257 X 6=0.7542mᶟ /s
2. Velocity of water at section 2−2 , v ₂
A ₁ V ₁=A ₂ V ₂
1 1
A V 0.1257 X 6
2
V = 2
= =2.67 m/s
A 0.2828
Example 4.2: 200mm and 100mm respectively as shown in fig below. If the average velocity in
450mm diameter is 2m/s find :
 Discharge through 450mm diameter pipe:
 Velocity in 100mm diameter pipe if the average velocity in 200mm pipe is 2.5m/s.

Solution

100mm

D ₁=450 mm=0.45 m
πᴅ ₂ π (0.45)²
Area, A 1= = =0.159 m ²
4 4

Velocity , v ₁=2 m/ s

2
D =200 mm=0.2 m

π ᴅ π (0.2)²
2
2
A= = =0.031 m²
4 4

V ₂=2.5 m/s

Dᴣ =100 mm=0.1m

πᴅᴣ π (0.1)ᶾ
Aᴣ = = =0.008 m²
4 4

i Discharge through pipe ( i ) Q ₁

1 1 1
Q = A V =0.159 x 2=0.318 mᶾ /s

ii velocity in pipe of diameter 100mm i.e., v 3 : let Q1 , Q2 and Q3 be the discharge in

pipes 1,2 and 3 respectively
According to continuity equation:

Q ₁=Q ₂+Qᴣ

Q ₁=0.318 mᶾ /s

Q2 = A2 x V2 = 0.031 X 2.5 = 0.0775mᶾ/s

0.318=0.0775+Qᴣ

Qᴣ =0.318−0.0775=0.2405 m

But, Q3 = A3X V3

V3 = Q3 /A3
0.2405
Vᴣ = =30.06 m/s
0.008
4.4 BERNOULLI’S EQUATION
Bernoulli’s equation states as follows: “In an ideal incompressible fluid when the flow is steady
and continuous, the sum of pressure energy, kinetic energy and potential (or datum) energy is
constant along a stream line.” Mathematically,
P
=Pressure energy
W

v²
=kinetic energy ,∧¿
2g

z=Datum∨elevation energy

Example 4.3s : Brine of specific gravity 1.15 is draining from the bottom of a large tank through
an 60mm pipe. The drain pipe ends at a point 8m below the surface of the brine in the tank.
Considering a stream line starting at the surface brine in the tank and passing through the center
of the drain line to the point of discharge and assuming the friction is negligible, calculate the
velocity of flow along the stream line at the point of discharge from the pipe.
Solution

Section 1 - the surface of brine in the tank

Section 2 - the point of discharge
Applying Bernoullis equation between point 1 and 2
p ₁ v ²₁ p ₂ v ₂²
+ + z ₁= + +z₂
w 2g w 2g
P1 = P2 = Patm (atmospheric pressure)
V1= 0 and Z1-Z2= 8m
v ₂²=2 g (z ₁−z ₂)=2 x 9.81 x 8=156.92

v ₂= √ 156.92=12.5 m/ s

Example 4.4: A pipeline shown in fig below is 15cm diameter and it is at an elevation of 90m at
section A. At section B it is at an elevation of 100m and has diameter of 30cm. when a discharge
of 90litre/sec of water is passed through this pipeline, pressure at A is 30kpa. The energy loss in
the pipe is 3m of water. Calculate pressure at B if flow is from A to B.
Solution:
sketch
Given: DA = 15cm= 0.15m; DB= 30cm = 0.3m
PA = 30kpa: Q= 90litre/sec= 0.09m3/s
hf = 3m of water: Direction of flow from A to B
Q = VA x AA
πᴅ ² a
Aa=
4
Q 0.04 0.09
Va= = = =5.1136 m/s
πᴅ ² a π ( 0.15 ) / 4 0.0176
2

4
2
πᴅ b
Vb = Q/ = 0.09/ 0.0707= 1.2730m/s
4
Applying Bernoullis equation between section A and B

Pa Va ² Pb Vb ²
+ + za= + + Zb+h f
w 2g w 2g

( )
2 2
Pb Pa V a −V b
= + + ( za−Zb )−h f
w w 2g

Pb=Pa+ w( ( )+( za−Zb )−h f )

2 2
V a −V b
2g

(( )+( 90−100) −3)

2 2
1000 x 9.81 5.1136 −1.2730
¿ 50+
1000 2 x 9.81

¿ 50+9.81(1.2502−10−3)
¿ 50+9.81(11.7498)
¿ 50−115.2655=−65.2655 kpa
Therefore, PB = -65.27kpa . This shows that the given pressure at A, 50kpa is gauge pressure
and hence there is vacuum at point B.
 CHAPTER FIVE
THE MOMENTUM EQUATION AS A DIFFERENT STATEMENT OF NEWTON’S
SECOND LAW OF MOTION.
5.1 Newton’s second law is a quantitative description of the change that a force can produce in
the motion of a body. It states that the time rate of change of the momentum of a body is equal in
both magnitude and direction to the force imposed on it.
The magnitude equation is a statement of equation’s second law and relates the sum of the force
acting on an element of fluid to its acceleration or rate of change of momentum. You will
probably recognize the equation F=Ma which is used in the analysis of solid mechanics to relate
applied force to acceleration.
Newton’s second law in its most general form, says that the rate of change of a particle’s
momentum P is given by the force acting on the particle , i.e., F = dp/ dt. If there is no force
acting on the particle, then, since dp/dt= 0, p must be constant, or conserved.
5.2 IMPULSE-MOMENTUM EQUATION
The impulse-momentum equation is one of the basic tools (other being continuity and
Bernoulli’s equations) for the solution of flow problems. Its application leads to the solution of
problems in fluid mechanics which cannot be solved by energy principles alone. Sometimes it is
used in conjunction with the energy equation to obtain complete solution of engineering
problems.
The momentum equation is based on the law of conservation of momentum or momentum
principle which states as follows:
“The net force acting on a mass of fluid is equal to change in momentum of flow per unit time in
that direction”
As per Newton’s second law of motion,
F = ma
where, m = Mass of fluid,
F = Force acting on the fluid, and
a = Acceleration (acting in the same direction as F)
But acceleration,
a = dv /dt
F = m. dv/dt

F= d(mv)/ dt

This equation is known as momentum principle. It can also be written as:

Fdt = d(mv)
This equation is known as Impulse-momentum equation. It may be stated as follows:
“The impulse of a force F acting on a fluid mass ‘m’ in a short interval of time dt is equal to the
change of momentum d(mv) in direction of force”.
The impulse-momentum equations are often called simply momentum equations.
Applications of impulse-momentum equation:
1. To determine the resultant force acting on the boundary of flow passage by a stream of
fluid as the stream changes its direction, magnitude or both. Problems of this type are:
(i) Pipe bends, (ii) Reducers, (iii) Moving vanes, (iv) Jet propulsion, etc

2. To determine the characteristic of flow when there is an abrupt change of flow section.
Problems of this type are:
(i) Sudden enlargement in a pipe, (ii) Hydraulic jump in a channel, etc.

Steady flow momentum equation:

The entire flow space may be considered to be made up of innumerable stream tubes. Let us
consider one such stream tube lying in the X-Y plane (Fig 5.1) and having steady flow of fluid.
Flow can be assumed to be uniform and normal to the inlet and outlet areas.

Fig 5.1

Let, V1,ρ1 = Average velocity and density (of fluid mass) respectively at the entrance, and V2,
ρ2 = Average velocity and density respectively at the exit.
Further let the mass of fluid in the region 1 2 3 4 shifts to new position 1′ 2′ 3′ 4′ due to the
effect of external forces on the stream after a short interval. Due to gradual increase in the
flow area in the direction of flow, velocity of fluid mass and hence the momentum is
gradually reduced. Since the area 1′ 2′ 3 4 is common to both the regions 1 2 3 4 and 1′ 2′ 3′
4′, therefore, it will not experience any change in momentum. Obviously, then the changes in
momentum of the fluid masses in the sections 1 2 2′ 1′ and 4 3 3′ 4′ will have to be considered
According to the principle of mass conservation, Fluid mass with the region 1 2 2′ 1′ = Fluid
mass within the region 4 3 3′ 4′
ρ1 A1 ds1 = ρ2A2ds2

∴ Momentum of fluid mass contained in the region 1 2 2′ 1′

= (ρ1A1 ds1) V1 = (ρ1A1 V1. dt) V1
Momentum of fluid mass contained in the region 4 3 3′ 4′
= (ρ2A2 ds2) V2 = (ρ2A2 V2. dt) V2
Change in momentum = (ρ2A2 [Link]) V2 – (ρ1A1 V1. dt) V1
But, ρ1 = ρ2 = ρ ...for steady incompressible flow
And A1V1 = A2V2 = Q ...from continuity considerations
Change in momentum = ρQ (V2 – V1) dt
Using impulse-momentum principle, we have:
Fdt = ρQ (V2 – V1)dt
wQ (v ₂−v ₁)
F= ---------------------------------------------------------5.1
g
wQ
the quantity = pQ is themass flow per second ∧is called mass flux
g
Resolving V1 and V2 along X-axis and Y-axis, we get:
Components along X-axis: V1 cos θ1 and V2 cos θ2
Components along Y- axis : V1 sin θ1 and V2 sin θ2
(where, θ1 and θ2 are the inclinations with the horizontal of the centre line of the
pipe at 1-2 and
∴ Components of force F along X-axis and Y-axis are

wQ (v ₂ cosθ ₂−v ₁cosθ ₁)

Fx ¿ ---------------------------------5.2
g

wQ (v ₂ sinθ ₂−v ₁ sinθ ₁)

Fy = ---------------------------------------5.3
g

Eqn. (5.2 & 5.3) represents the components of the force exerted by the pipe bend
on the fluid mass. Usually, we are interested in the forces by the fluid on the pipe
bend. Since action and reaction are equal and opposite (Newton’s third law of
motion), the fluid mass would exert the same force on the pipe bend but in
opposite direction and as such the force components exerted by the fluid on the
pipe bend are given as follows:

wQ
Fx = ( v ₂cosθ ₂−v ₁ cosθ ₁)……………………………………..5.4
g
 wQ
Fy = ( v ₂ sinθ₂−v ₁ sinθ ₁)……………………………………….5.5
g
Since the dynamic forces (eqn. 5.4 &5.5) must be supplemented by the static
pressure forces acting over the inlet and outlet sections, therefore, we have:

wQ
Fx = ( v ₂ cosθ ₂−v ₁cosθ ₁ ) + ρ ₁ A ₁ cos θ ₁−ρ ₂ A ₂cos θ₂ ……………..5.6
g

wQ
Fy = ( v ₂ sinθ₂−v ₁ sinθ ₁)+ ρ ₁ A ₁ sin θ ₁− ρ₂ A ₂sin θ ₂………………..5.7
g

The magnitude of the resultant force acting on the pipe bend,

FR = √ F x ²+ F y ² …………………………………………………………..5.8

and, the direction of the resultant force with X-axis,

−1 Fy
θ=tan …………………………………………………………………….5.9
Fx

Example 5.1. 350 litres per second of water is flowing in a pipe. The pipe is bent by 120°. The
pipe bend measures 360 mm × 240 mm and volume of the bend is 0.14 m 3 . The pressure at
the entrance is 70 kN/m2 and the exit is 2.2 m above the entrance section. Find the force exerted
on the bend

Solution:

Sketch:
 Fig 5.2
3
Discharge through the pipe , Q=350 litre /sec =0.35 m /s

volume of bend=0.14 m ³

1
Diameter of the bend at 1−1 , D =360 mm=0.36 m

π
Area, A ₁= x 0.36²=0.1018 m ²
4

Diameter of the bend at 2−2 , D ₂=240 mm=0.24 m

π
Area, A ₂= X 0.24² = 0.04524m²
4

Q 0.35
Velocity at section 1−1, V ₁= = =3.44 m ²
A ₁ 0.1018

Q 0.35
Velocity at section 2−2V ₂= = =7.74 m²
A ₂ 0.04524

P ₁ V ₁² P ₂ V ₂²
+ + z ₁= + + z₂
w 2g w 2g

70 3.44² P ₂ 7.74²
+ + 0= + +2.2
9 , 81 2 x 9.81 w 2 x 9.81
 P₂
7.136+ 0.603+0= +3.053+ 2.2
w

P₂
7.739= +5.253
w

P₂
=7.739−5.253=2.486
w

P ₂=2.486 xw=2.486 x 9.81=24.39 kN /m²

Force acting the X-axis

WQ
FX = ¿
g

9.81× 0.35
¿ ( 3.44− (−7.74 ×0.5 ) )+ 70× 0.1018+24.39 ×0.04524 ×0.5
9.81

0.35 ¿

0.35 ( 3.44+ 3.87 ) +7.126+0.55

¿ 2.5585+7.126+ 0.55

FX = 10.23kN(→ ¿

Force acting along Y-axis

wQ
Fy= ¿
g

9.81× 0.35
¿
9.81

0.35 (−6.70 )−0.96−1.37

−2.345−2.33=−4.675 KN (↓)
Fy=−4.675 KN (↓)

Magnitude of the resultant force acting along onthe bend

 Fr=√ Fx ²+ Fy ²=¿¿

√ 10.23²+(−4.675)²
√ 126.51=11.25 KN
FR = 11.25KN

Direction of theresultant force withthe X−axis

Fy 4.675
tanθ= = =0.457
Fx 10.23
−1
θ=tan 0.457

θ=24.56 °

CHAPTER SIX

6.1: UNIFORM FLOW

The type of flow, in which the velocity at any given time does not change with respect to space
is called uniform flow. Mathematically, we have:

( ∂∂ vs ) t=constant =0
where ∂ v =change ∈velocity
∂ s=displacement ∈any direction

Example. Flow through a straight prismatic conduit (i.e. flow through a straight pipe of
constant diameter)

6.2: NON- UNIFORM FLOW

It is that type of flow in which the velocity at any given time changes with respect to space.
Mathematically,

( )
∂v
∂s
t=constant ≠ 0

Example. (i) Flow through a non-prismatic conduit. (ii) Flow around a uniform diameter pipe-
bend or a canal bend.

6.3: UNSTEADY FLOW

 It is that type of flow in which the velocity, pressure or density at a point change w.r.t. time.
Mathematically, we have

( )
∂u
∂t
xx ⦁ ∘ ₓ⃘ ․ ᵪ yỿz yz ° ∙

Example. The flow in a pipe whose valve is being opened or closed gradually (velocity
equation is in the form u=ax ²+bxt ¿

6.4: LAMINAR FLOW

A laminar flow is the one in which paths taken by the individual particles do not cross one
another and move along well defined path. This type of flow is also called stream line or
viscous flow.
Example. 1. Ground water flow
2 Flow through a capillary tube
3 Flow of blood in veins and arteries.

Fig 6.1 laminar flow

6.5: TURBULENT FLOW

A turbulent flow is that flow in which fluid particles move in a zig- zag way.
Example: high velocity flow in a conduit of large size.
Nearly all fluid flow problems encountered in engineering practice have a turbulent character.
 Fig 6.2 turbulent flow

6.6: CRITICAL VELOCITY

Is the speed and direction at which the flows of a liquid through a tube change from smooth to
turbulent.
6.7: REYNOLDS NUMBER
The Reynolds number is defined as the ratio of inertial and viscous forces. Mathematically
stated:
Vd
ℜ=
v
CHAPTER SEVEN
7.1 THE PRINCIPLES OF FLUID MECHANICS AS ENERGY CONVERTERS/MACHINES

A fluid machine is a device which converts the energy stored by a fluid into mechanical energy
or vice versa . The energy stored by a fluid mass appears in the form of potential, kinetic and
intermolecular energy. The mechanical energy, on the other hand, is usually transmitted by a
rotating shaft. Machines using liquid (mainly water, for almost all practical purposes) are termed
as hydraulic machines. In this chapter we shall discuss, in general, the basic fluid mechanical
principle governing the energy transfer in a fluid machine and also a brief description of different
kinds of hydraulic machines along with their performances.

CLASSIFICAITONS OF FLUID MACHINES

The fluid machines may be classified under different categories as follows:

Classification Based on Direction of Energy Conversion.

The device in which the kinetic, potential or intermolecular energy held by the fluid is converted
in the form of mechanical energy of a rotating member is known as a turbine . The machines, on
the other hand, where the mechanical energy from moving parts is transferred to a fluid to
increase its stored energy by increasing either its pressure or velocity are known as pumps,
compressors, fans or blowers .
Classification Based on Principle of Operation

The machines whose functioning depend essentially on the change of volume of a certain amount
of fluid within the machine are known as positive displacement machines . The word positive
displacement comes from the fact that there is a physical displacement of the boundary of a
certain fluid mass as a closed system. This principle is utilized in practice by the reciprocating
motion of a piston within a cylinder while entrapping a certain amount of fluid in it. Therefore,
the word reciprocating is commonly used with the name of the machines of this kind. The
machine producing mechanical energy is known as reciprocating engine while the machine
developing energy of the fluid from the mechanical energy is known as reciprocating pump or
reciprocating compressor.

The machines, functioning of which depend basically on the principle of fluid dynamics, are
known as rotodynamic machines . They are distinguished from positive displacement machines
in requiring relative motion between the fluid and the moving part of the machine. The rotating
element of the machine usually consisting of a number of vanes or blades, is known as rotor or
impeller while the fixed part is known as stator. Impeller is the heart of rotodynamic machines,
within which a change of angular momentum of fluid occurs imparting torque to the rotating
member.

For turbines, the work is done by the fluid on the rotor, while, in case of pump, compressor, fan
or blower, the work is done by the rotor on the fluid element. Depending upon the main direction
of fluid path in the rotor, the machine is termed as radial flow or axial flow machine . In radial
flow machine, the main direction of flow in the rotor is radial while in axial flow machine, it is
axial. For radial flow turbines, the flow is towards the centre of the rotor, while, for pumps and
compressors, the flow is away from the centre. Therefore, radial flow turbines are sometimes
referred to as radially inward flow machines and radial flow pumps as radially outward flow
machines.

7.2 THE CLASSIFICATION OF FLUID MECHANICS

Based on the study of fluids, they are classified into two types, they are: Fluids statics: It is the
mechanism of fluids at rest or non-motion, and the pressure in fluids exerted by fluids on
anybody. Fluids dynamics – It involves the study of the flow of fluids in motion.