INTRODUCTION TO HISTORY

What is History?

 History refers to what happened in the past.

 It is a record of people’s lives, behaviours and activities; their glories, successes, failures and
cruelties.
 It is a study of great men for example, R.G Mugabe, R.M Tsvangirai, Sekuru Kaguvi, Nelson Mandela,
Barrack Obama, Tshaka, Changamire Dombo, Nyatsimba Mutota and others.
 What is happening around us and helps us to prepare for the future as today’s society has been
shaped by decisions of the past. These activities are the ones which bring change to the past.
Knowing about the past helps us to avoid mistakes and understand how we are living.

Importance of studying History?

The importance of History is in its various aspects for example; political History, economic history, social
history, intellectual history, comparative history and biography. We study History for a number of
reasons including:

 Helps to avoid mistakes of the past

 It helps us to understand what is happening around us and helps us to prepare for the future as
today’s society has been shaped by decisions of the past.
 Stimulate imagination
 It makes an understanding of other subjects easy. History is related to the knowledge base of
other subjects.
 It helps in the development of value judgement
 An understanding of the past, present and future.
 Distinguish history from propaganda
 Developing pupils` skills of logical, analytical and critical thinking. This is important in everyday
life.
 It gives a sense of national identity and pride.
 It`s important as a foundation for career prospects e.g. academics, cultural officers, librarians,
archivists, curators of museums, political, foreign and military journalists, public servants and
lawyers among others
 It’s a growth industry where people read it for pleasure.
 History is a life skill. It`s crucial for survival.

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 Environment of history
The environment is vital because through that people behave in certain ways. The environment affects
what people eat, wear and the shelter they build. Therefore, the way people try to control the
environment determines their course of history.

Factors of Production

Production is an act of producing goods or items. There are four factors of production which are land,
labour, enterprise and wealth; these are regarded as agents of production. If land and wealth area shared
equally there’s less chance of conflict but if there is unequal distribution conflict occurs among groups or
tribes, this conflict is usually referred to as trouble. People make their own history through production and
struggle.

Stages of Historical development

 Stage 1: Primitive communism

In this stage property was equally shared by the community and work was done together. Food, wealth
and other items were shared by the community.

 Stage 2: Slavery

In this stage people had gained control over the poor and weaker people. Slaves Performed tasks like
producing and these were also forced to do what their masters wanted.

 Stage 3: Feudalism

In this stage agriculture was the main means of production. Land was owned by a few people known as
landlords and the majority worked for the land lords.

 Stage 4: Capitalism

In this stage ownership of means of production was in the hands of a few people. Wealth was produced
by machines and workers worked in factories and mines. There was unequal distribution of wealth.

Stage 5: Socialism

According to Karl Marx this was the highest stage of development and in this stage equality will be restored
and wealth will be shared equally and it will also be owned by the government.

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TYPES OF HISTORY

There are several types of history. - These include political history, social history, cultural history, economic history,
local history, diplomatic history, intellectual history, and many others. - In the context of our syllabus, we will only
focus on social history, political history, economic history and local history.

1. SOCIAL HISTORY - This type of history examines/studies the experiences of people in the past. - It is a broad/wide
branch of history. This means that it looks at many aspects. - It studies the ways and customs/habits of the family,
education, children, demography (population change) and voluntary institutions such as churches. - In the 1960s
and 1970s, social history went through what was called a golden age. This means that it was a popular field among
scholars at that time. - Social history helps to focus public debate on the nature of family life. - Social history does
not only reflect or show public interest but also anticipates/looks forward to what might happen in the future.

2. POLITICAL HISTORY - Political history involves the study of governments of different countries, their political
leaders, their electoral systems, policy making, the connection and operations of branches of governments. - The
three arms of government are legislature, judiciary and executive. - Political history provides an analysis of political
events such as political violence during elections times, strikes, political demonstrations and revolutions such as the
Industrial revolution which took place in Britain many years ago. - Political history analyses the ideas and movements
in politics as well as those of the political parties.

3. ECONOMIC HISTORY - Economics is a broad/wide field of study. - The simplest definition of economic history
would be the “study of the process or system by which goods and services are produced, distributed, sold and
bought. - Economic history focuses on the evolution/development of economic institutions/organizations over a
period of time. - Economic history focuses on: (i) how people produced food and everything else they used. (ii) how
they exchanged goods. (iii) how they organized their labour and manufacturing. - When economic historians look at
the ancient civilisations for example, they look at the modes of production which include the domestication of
livestock, cultivation of crops, hunting and gathering, mining, tribute payment and many others.

4. LOCAL HISTORY - Local history is the study of history in a geographically particular context. - Local history
concentrates on local/particular communities such as villages, kraals, towns, cities, schools and churches. - It also
traces the origins of organizations/institutions, how they got their names, who built them and when. - Local history
records all the other types of history that we studied above, but on a smaller (limited) scale. - It mainly focuses on
social and cultural aspects.

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 Historical Sources

 Oral tradition
These are narrated by elders to the young. Usually they are interviewed and information is passed from
one generation to another through the word of mouth.

Advantages
 Easy to get information.
 Easy to understand.
 You can ask questions.
 Every member of the society can have access to the information.

Disadvantages
 Information can be easily forgotten for example dates.
 The narrator can also make deliberate lies.
 There might be a lot of exaggeration, bias or dilution of information.

 Written records
These are facts written by people of the past. These facts can be found in libraries or archives. Information
can be grouped into primary and secondary evidence.;

 Primary evidence
These are diaries, letters or just information written by actual doers e.g. Rulers and Administrators who
wrote

 Secondary evidence
This information is found in published books and it is an analysis of primary evidence. Therefore a person
who analyses, studies or writes historical information is called a historian. A historian searches for facts
about past events and these facts are called evidences.

Advantages
 Information can be stored for a long time.
 Information could be from actual doers
 Important dates and names cannot be easily forgotten.
 It is more reliable than Oral Tradition.

Disadvantages
 Only the literate can use this source.
 One may write wrong information.
 You cannot ask questions.
 Records may get lost.
 Information can be distorted, exaggerated or forcibly implied.
 A writer can be biased.
 Information can be destroyed by bad weather.

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 Archaeology

This is a scientific way of studying remains, objects and artefacts of the past e.g. pottery, hoes and
jewellery. These artefacts of the fast are dug out from the ground at historical sites such as Great
Zimbabwe, Khami and Old Bulawayo monuments. They tell us what people ate, how they obtained their
food, how they dressed and equipment they used. Dates are obtained through a scientific way of dating
called Carbon Dating.

Advantages
 It is more reliable than the other two sources as it cannot be distorted or forcibly implied as one will be
dealing with the original remains or objects.
 Dates can be obtained through radio carbon dating
 It is more interesting as the real artefacts can be seen and touched

Disadvantages
 The method is expensive i.e. Carbon Dating.
 It needs skilled people to find the information or discover the object from a historical site.
 If not careful information of different groups of people may be mixed up.
 Objects or remains may be destroyed therefore history of a particular group is lost forever.
A.D. – Anno-Domino (After Death).
B.C. – Before Christ.

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Evolution of Mankind

HUMAN EVOLUTION

 Evolution refers to the stages of development which men under went.

 It is also the process of change from one stage to another chronologically (orderly).
 The are two basic theories of human evolution or development and these theories have
conflicting ideas concerning the origin of men

a) Biblical theory

 The theory asserts that man was created by God as noted in the book of Genesis.
 It argues that God created Adam and then Eve who became the mother of the universe.
 The theory is theoretical in nature as it only provides written evidence provides written evidence
without other evidence like archaeological and oral sources

b) The scientific theory

 It was a theory put forward by Charles Darwin with the help of studies made by Richard Leakey
and other archaeologist.
 The theory argues that man developed slowly and stage by stage from a group of animals called
apes.
 Subsequent stages of development occurred until man left his/her original way of using four legs
like other animals and began to use two legs to stand upright and walk.
 History as a subject believes on availability of evidence to support the theory.
 Ample archaeological evidence supports the scientific theory making the theory worth
acceptable.
 The theory also argues that the process of evolution took ten to twenty million years for it to be
completed which is supported by evidence recovered from archaeological remains discovered
and studies made by archaeologists and palaeontologist who study fossils.
 Radio carbon dating has dated these fossils since 1958 to discover the rough age of their
existence period.

Why do Historians believe that human beings evolved rather than they were created by God?

 Historians believe in evolution because radiocarbon dating gives evidence of the ages to which
evolution underwent its processes.
 Evidence shown by archaeologists reviews that human evolution took various stages over
centuries.
 Similarities between apes and human beings suggest that man was once from the family of
apes/gorillas/baboons/chimpanzee.

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 First people and their evolvements/developments

Africa is the cradle of mankind because it is thought and believed that the first people emerged on the
African Continent and evolved over a long period of time into Homo Sapien Sapiens (The scientific name
for people as they are today). Evolution is a process of change from animals (apes) to human beings (Homo
Sapien Sapiens) over a long period of time. Charles Darwin is the man who proposed the theory of
evolution. He argued that man evolved from animals. In the theory of evolution, Charles Darwin argues
that differences exist between the same groups of animals if exposed to different environments. Within
the different environments, some animals may die and some survive, those that survive produce
descendants which are different from the original species. These animals then spread out to replace these
original species.

Evolution
Several archaeologists found many discoveries of skeletal remains in Africa and among them were Dr Louis
and Mary Leaky who discovered several skulls at Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania. In 1959 the Leakeys found a
skull with large grinding teeth which was an example of an Australopithecus Robustus.

Hominids
These were creatures which were more like humans than Apes. They lived on earth millions of years ago.
They were not Apes or monkeys and neither were they human. These hominids became extinct. They were
believed to live in Eastern and Southern Africa. Remains of these hominids had been found covered in
dried lakes and these historical remains are also known as fossils.

 Ramapithecus
It is the ancestor of all apes and human beings, they lived millions of years ago. It was not an Ape, hominid
or human being but a different creature all together.

 Australopithecus
It lived millions of years ago. These were small creatures that when fully grown looked like a 12 year old
and couldn’t walk upright. They are two types which were:
 Australopithecus Robustus
It was sometimes called the nut cracker as it was able to crunch and grind hard food like nuts as it had
large grinding teeth. It was also called Zinjathropus.
 Australopithecus Gracilis
These had small teeth of about the same size and it had no specialised tasks like the Rhobustus. It ate all
sorts of food like human beings of today eat. The Australopithecines did not make tools but used their
teeth.

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 Homo Habilis (Skilful man)
Survived over the early stone age period. It was the first hominid to talk using languages, to use tools and
these tools were called Oldwans as they were found at Olduvai Gorge. Habilines probably got meat by
scavenging, they waited for lions and hyenas to feast on the meat they would’ve killed and ate the remains.
Meat formed a small part of their diet.

 Homo Erectus
The word erect means to walk upright. They used hand axes and cleavers to chop down trees, branches
and for digging. People were able to make tools easily and this period was referred to as the early Stone
Age. The Homo erectus learned to use fire to drive animals away, protect their shelter at night, to cook
and keep them warm.

 Homo Sapien
They survived during the middle Stone Age period. They used flake tools for cutting meat, scrapping skins
and making tips of weapons. They used glue to stick a pole on a wooden handle. A greater use of fire was
noticed. They began to build shelter at their camps made from branches, stones and dry grass.

 Homo Sapien (Neanderthals)

They survived during the middle Stone Age period. They looked after the sick, buried the dead and believed
in life after death. They drove animals over cliffs as groups, trapped, killed and shared meat equally.

 Homo Sapien Sapiens

The people of today are called Homo Sapien Sapiens. They continued with the middle Stone Age period
but developed future Stone Age tools. Future changes are noticed due to environmental changes, that is,
the reason why people differ because of different environments.

Effects of tool making

Tool making affected people’s lives positively by making production easier. It was easier because they used
the tools for gathering food e.g. fruits and insects. This also brought communication and their language
progressed and this was where early language emerged. The transition from collecting to hunting
established an important base for the future human development. By this people learnt how to take care
of themselves. The struggle for survival helped the human development increase.

Early agriculture.
It had a very big helping hand in the process of development. In this stage people began to domesticate
animals and to breed the young ones of the animal. Some of the major crops which were first grown in
Africa e.g. Teff (cereal) which was first grown in Ethiopia. Tools of agriculture such as hoes were used.
Some got more land than others resulting in slavery and some of the people gained control over others.
The first class societies began to emerge during this period as some people began to accumulate wealth.

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 EGYPT AND KUSH

In Egypt two great civilised groups existed which were Egyptians and Kushians. The Nile River in Egypt is
the longest river in Africa. It has two great tributes which are the Blue Nile and the White Nile. The Nile
was the centre of life through trade, transport and agriculture. The early people of the Nile had to learn to
understand the river to control its flooding. Dan walls were built to stop the water from flooding the
villages. Canals were also built to help water run through the fields. To calculate this Egyptians needed
accurate measurements therefore they developed early forms of mathematics and Geometry which they
called Geometrics. Egyptians came up with three seasons which they called:

1. Akhet (the time when the Nile river flooded the land).
2. Peret when the land dried (the time for planting), and
3. Shemou (the time for harvesting).

Days were counted by phases of the moon called months. The flood cycle started after every 365 days
and each month had 30 days and that left them with 5 extra days which they called Heryou Renepet.

Egyptian writing
The most vital steps to civilisation were the invention of Egyptian writing. The most important records of
the Egyptians which have come down to us are on papyrus (paper). At first Egyptians curved their writing
on stones e.g. on the walls of Egyptian tombs and temples. They learnt how to make paper from papyrus
reeds which grew freely on the Nile banks. Ink was made by mixing soot and vegetable dye. The Egyptian
handwriting is called Hieroglyphics which means picture writing or sacred carvings.

Who learnt to write?

 Pharaohs and their advisers.
 Priests learnt to interpret sacred writing.
 Scribes as they worked in civil services and wed professional writers.
 Sons of rich man learnt to write as part of their education.

What did they write?

 They kept records of their everyday business.
 Plays and stories of all kinds mostly about the gods.
 Letters of state business to foreign countries or personal letters.
 Books of medicine, signs and moral based on religion practises as well as social questions.
 Scribes were present in fields to record the size of the harvest so that proper text/record could be
assessed.
 From this idea modern man developed writing for communication and Egyptian writing has thus made a
great contribution to our present civilisation.

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 Agriculture
Crops such as wheat, barley and sorghum were grown. Their food was made up of bread and fish from the
Nile. They kept a lot of sheep and goats but few cattle. Their animals were mainly for paying taxes to the
Pharaoh. They also grew flex which helped them to make cloth.

Shaduf
It was like a see saw, a bucket was fastened to one end to a pole and a heavy stone to the other side. The
pole then supports the crossbeam layered across to short wooden posts. When the bucket is dipped into
the river, a heavy stone acts as a centre weight and the bucket can rise easily and tipped into the irrigation
channels. Today we have irrigation in most of our country but the idea was borrowed from Egypt and as
years passed by Egyptian grew crops as a result of the irrigation system.

Pyramids
Pyramids were the mightiest tombs of all built by the Pharaohs for their burials. Together there were 80
pyramids which were built near the Nile. The first pyramid was built for Pharaoh Zhoza and it was designed
by an Architect/Imhotep. It was made out of a tomb layered out of different levels and this gave an
impression of steps and it was given the name Heroe. The largest was built for Pharaoh Khufu and it stands
at Giza near the city of Cairo, it took many years to build and many men were required for the construction.
Pyramids were built during the season of Shemou were no work was done in the fields.

Egyptian beliefs
 They believed in life after death and looked forward to the same kind of life which they were living on
earth in the next world.
 The book of the dead was listed 2 sins which a man had to avoid which were cheating and killing.
 The Egyptians believed the soul left the body to be judged by Osiris the underworld god.
 The heart of the dead was placed on a huge scale and weighed against its sins, guilty souls were at once
devoured by the jackal headed god Anubis but good souls entered the world of the dead and the company
gods.
 The soul that had been judged worth of eternal life could eventually enter the body but only if it was
properly preserved and laid in a tomb.
 The re-entry of the soul into the body explained why Egyptians preserved the body of the dead
(mummified).
 For kings and rich man, the preserving process of the body would last over 2 months, vital organs were
first removed and stored in Alabo Jars whilst the body itself was dried and treated with spices of essence.

NB: Much of Egyptian culture, writing and was lost and other point changed under the rule of the Greeks,
however, the Greeks learnt more from Egyptian arts, religion, architecture and science.

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 Egyptian gods
Horus – The sky god, his eyes were the moon and the sun.
Ptah – He invented the arts, the god of the capital menu.
Hathor – She was the goddess of beauty.
Osiris – He was a god of the underworld.
(Ra) – He was the sun god.

 The word Pharaoh came from Per-ao which means great house of leader.
 Pharaoh was the head of state and high priest; he governed with the assistance of Advisors, Generals and
Priests.
 The Pharaoh was seen as a god and different from other humans.
 Women played a very important rule in the state and 4 women became pharaohs themselves.
 Means of production and distribution of wealth was in the hands of the Pharaoh.
 Building of the temple and mining were state businesses.
 Most people were peasant farmers who worked and lived on land which belonged to the Pharaoh.
 Land was given as payment to the priest, officials and soldiers.
 Land which was owned could be passed from parents to their children.
 Those who worked for the Pharaoh were paid in regular gifts like grain, fish and other things.
 There were also crafted people who were involved as potters and sculptors.
 The survival of the economy of the society depended upon the growth and distribution of land.
 Peasant farmers grew wheat and barley.
 Bread and beer was made from grain as well as vegetables and fruits were the staple food.
 Land was too wet for cattle raising therefore they mainly kept sheep and goats.
 Glasses were made from sand.

Egyptian law
 Men and women were equal before the law in relation to royal decisions, legal practises and penalties.
 They had equal rights to property as well as justice.
 A family was constituted of mother, father and children.
 A strict code of ethics was kept.

Important events in Egyptian history

Historical evidence was obtained from
 Oral tradition.
 Written records.
 Archaeology.

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 A historian called Manetho sorted the kings into dynasties. A dynasty is a line of family rulers. He divided
the periods into 3 kingdoms.
 The old kingdom (2750-2200 BC)
 The middle kingdom (2150-1800 BC)
 The new kingdom (1580-1100 BC)
The intermediate was the period between dynasties and no records were kept during this period between
civil wars and foreign invasions (Dark ages).

The old kingdom

The first pharaoh was Menes who united lower and Upper Egypt. He was a leader from the south and his
capital was Memphis. The 1st and 2nd dynasties worked hard in uniting a society during the third dynasty
the first pyramid was built for Pharaoh Zhoza at Sakkara; pyramids were burial places for Pharaohs.
Pharaoh Zhoza was the founder of the third dynasty; his pyramid was the only one with stepped sides.
Three more pyramids were built during the fourth dynasty and these had smooth sides. Pharaoh Khufu’s
was the greatest and is one of the wonders of the world.

The middle kingdom

Pharaoh Menthuhotep of the 11th dynasty worked hard to reunite Egypt once again. His successors
extended the power over the rich Nubia at the Sauté. During this period Pharaohs put their sons as core
rulers. During the 13th dynasty the Pharaohs were more concerned about the south that the northern
defences became weak. Groups of invaders from Asia began to enter the country and these foreign
invaders were known as Hyksos. The rulers Thebes fought a war of liberation against the Hyksos and this
war lasted for 50 years.

The new kingdom

Between the 18th and 20th dynasties Egypt became powerful again. Pharaohs of that time were Amenhotep
I, Thutmose I and Queen Hatshepsut I. they strengthened and attended external affairs such as building
temples. During Thutmose III’s reign Egypt became an imperialist power ruling over city states of Palestine,
Syria and Lebanon. During the reign of Amenhotep III he concentrated mainly on the internal as he was
more interested in culture at home than abroad. During his reign a temple at Luxor in the valley of kings
was a sight of one of the most important of all archaeological findings, the mummified body of
Tutankhamon was found in1922 of the 18th dynasty. Great important Egyptian evidence was found in his
tomb.

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THE EARLY PEOPLE OF CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN AFRICA

THE SAN PEOPLE

 They are called BUSHMEN by the Boers.

 The Xhosa call them the Abutwa.
 Shona people call them Masiri/Mandiwonerepi.
 Same people were given all these names because they are short and they also disappeared in
grasses.
 Today they are found in the Khalagadi/Kalahari desert in Botswana.
 The San were the first known inhabitants of Central and Southern Africa.
 They were hunter-gathers living in highly mobilised groups between 20-50 people either following
game around the country or living in close rhythm with the land and its seasons or maintaining a
more settled life depending on seals, shellfish, crayfish, birds and fruits for food.
 The Sans have left a lasting record of their lives through a thousand paintings. These hunter-
gatherers have still survive but in small numbers in the Kalahari desert.
 Their physical appearance is small in structure, brown in colour and they have unique click
languages.
 The San were stone age people so they did not use metals so their weapons were made of wood,
stone and bones.
 They did not domesticate animals and cultivate crops. No pottery was made instead they used
ostrich egg shells for storing and holding liquids.
 The San were nomads as they were always on the move in search of game and plant food so they
did not build permanent shelter, they preferred rock shelter for temporary shelter. A chief
controlled their resources on behalf of the group back in the day before the arrival of shelter.
 A number of fish bones were found in caves and this indicates that they were accomplished
fishermen. Slivers of bones and wood sharpened at each end were used to hook fish which were
also caught by means of tidal trap made from walls constructed by river sand.

San economic life

¯ Practised hunting and gathering

¯ They devised many hunting methods like traps e.g. fish traps/ fish baskets made of reeds for catching
fish and animal traps e.g. net trap and pit trap for trapping animals.

¯ They used poisoned arrows and spear to kill the animal very fast.

¯ Used bows and arrows and throwing spears.

¯ Poison was extracted from roots, barks of trees and from poisonous snakes, spiders and scorpions.

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 ¯ Small animal, reptiles and other large animals were killed.

¯ Meat was cooked fresh or dried.

¯ San people also eat gathered fruits, bulbs and nuts.

¯ Also used hooks made from sharpened bones to catch fish like shell fish.

¯ Fibres were spanned to make traps e.g. sisal fibres.

¯ Clothing was light and loose for easy working.

¯ Also used skins for clothing and blankets.

¯ They wore ornament made from seeds, berries, shells and pieces of wood to make bracelets and
necklines.

¯ They also practised leather work to make bags and clothes.

¯ They were nomadic – moved from place to place in an area.

Social and cultural life

 The San had no sense of ownership.
 Disputes were solved by a group known as a consensus.
 The status of women was relatively equal.
 The San of both sex wore many ornaments made of seed, berries, shell and small pieces stuck together as
necklaces and bracelets they used ostrich and tortoise shells to carry and store water.
 Movement to different campsites was organised by a group.
 Their lifestyle was primitive communism.
 The San men were responsible for hunting and fishing, they went on long hunting trips and they would
gather Hordia Gordini and chew the bitter miracle plant to supress their appetite.
 The women did most of the gathering of plants and that included wild fruit and berries as well as leaves,
stems bulbs, corms, and root of a variety of plants.
 They were very good hunters that knew the ways of the animals they hunted.
 The San had to devise many different hunting traps in the form of parts covered by leaves which was
another way of trapping the animals.
 Another way was extracting poison which was then used to hunt.
 The meat was cooked fresh or smoked and dried for later use, only small quantities were preserved this
way because it had to be carried when the group moved to the next place.
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 Clothing was light for easy movement, men wore line skirts with a short skin in front tied on the waist, and
they also used skin cloaks and blankets to keep themselves warm especially in temperate climates.
 Leather work was common and leather was made into Ned bag for carrying food, string bags were woven
from great fibre.

Rock paintings
They painted on rocks and in cave walls and engraved on eggshells. These rock paintings have given us a
lot on their life style. These rock paintings show that the San were tuned to their environment.

San beliefs
 They paid tribute to the chief.
 They believed in God.
 The eland was considered the most spiritual animal.
 They taught their children through oral tradition.

San settlement

¯ San people lived in doom-shaped shelter.

¯ They also stay in caves.

¯ Their groups ranged 50 person and bellow.

¯ They survived through hunting and gathering thus they were also called hunter and gatherers.

San social life

¯ Stayed in groups of between 50 people and bellow.

¯ When the group grows to exceed 50 people they would split into two groups.

¯ San are the ancestors of people who live today in Southern and Central Africa.

¯ They used Ostrich egg shells to fetch water and used fire sticks to make fire.
¯ The community was headed by the community chiefs.

¯ The wife of the chief supervised the tribal fire and never allowed it to die out.

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Rock paintings

¯ Painted a rock and cave walls and engraved ostrich shells.

¯ They made paints of several colours.

¯ San rock paintings showed their lifestyles and beliefs.

¯ Pictures, drawn included themselves, animal and hunters chasing and killing animals.

¯ San got most of their resources for survival from the environment.

San political life

¯ They had no centralised political system or government.

¯ There was a group leader or community chief.

¯ Their groups ranged from 35 to 50 people per-group.

¯ Change of location was decided by the whole group with leader co-ordinating.

¯ San societies had no classes or hierarchy, all people were equal.

¯ This was the stage of early communalism.

THE KHOIKHOI

¯ The San and the Khoikhoi when combined are known as the KHOISAN.

¯ The Khoikhoi were herders.

¯ They kept livestock e.g. cattle, goats and sheep.

¯ They stayed in large numbers of 500 and above.

¯ They also practised hunting and gathering.

¯ Some of their characteristics are similar to that of the San except: they are taller than the San and they
are copperish in complexion.

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Social organisation

¯ Khoikhoi communities were bigger than San communities. San communities were made up of at list 50
people and bellow whilst Khoikhoi made up of more than 500 people.

¯ Chief enforced customs, organised rituals and were war-leaders.

¯ Chief had more responsible duties e.g. to keep the community peaceful.

¯ In religion, they were just like the San as they believed in one God.

¯ They also believed in ancestral spirits.

Economic organisation

¯ They were also hunter-gathers.

¯ They kept livestock.

¯ Women milked cows and goats and they also gathered roots.

¯ Men herded cattle and hunted for meat.

¯ Women also gathered wild fruits, insects and wild melons and cucumber.
¯ Cattle were for meat, milk and for ceremonies.

¯ Cattle were a symbol of wealth.

¯ Crops grown include a grain called PENNISETUM.

¯ They also practised iron smelting and blacksmithing of iron and copper.

¯ They extracted salt from salty mineral spiting and used the salt in food.

¯ Salt was used for meat preservation.

¯ Trade was practised in the goods mentioned above e.g. grain, meat, milk and some tools.

Political organization

¯ Chief led the communities.

¯ Chief was also leader of the army.

¯ Chief also presided over community ceremonies.

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 ¯ Khoikhoi had an organised system of central authority.
¯ Senior person helped chief in settling disputes of the community.

Customs and religion

¯ Boys were initiated into adulthood at 18years.

¯ Marriage only took place after rituals have been done.

¯ Lobola was paid as Ox for wedding feast.

¯ They believe in one God.

¯ Believed in natural spirits in water and rain.

Settlement of the khoikhoi

¯ Built doom sharped huts from branches.

¯ Huts were arranged in a circular and the cattle kraal at the centre.

THE KHOI KHOI

The other early inhabitants of Central and Southern Africa were the Khoisan herders or Khoi Khoi. The
early Europeans called these people the “Hottentots” meaning stammers. The exact origin of these people
is still being debated by historians. The old theory was the Khoi Khoi migrated from East Africa with their
livestock and settled in Southern Africa but recent historical evidence has shown it is not true. It is being
argued that the Khoi Khoi were among the original inhabitants of the area. It is also known that some of
the San people adapted to the changes in their environment and began to domesticate animals probably
about 2000 years ago. The Khoi Khoi was originated from pastoral culture and language was found. The
exact place of origin of these people is still debated and some say they originated from the northern place
of Bulawayo and migrated to East Africa with their livestock in Southern Africa. However, recent evidence
argues that they were among the original inhabitants. It is also known that some of the san adopted change
in the environment and began to domesticate animals.

Economic system
 Major economic system was based on livestock production.
 They raised long horned cattle and fat tailed sheep and goats; cattle were a symbol of wealth and prestige.
Their way of life was organised around their livestock therefore they moved from place to place during
different seasons in search of pasture and water for the animals.
 Animals were kept for meat, milk and blood.

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 Husbandry of sheep, goats and cattle provided a stable balanced diet and allowed the related Khoi Khoi
people to live in large groups than the previous inhabitants.
 As time went on Khoisan began to grow crops and a variety of other plants.
 Like the San both sexes were involved in the economic activities.
 Apart from herding animals men sometimes hunted wild animals for meat and skin for clothing.
 Women milked cows and goats, gathered roots and berries and also made pottery.
 The Khoi Khoi industry was more developed than that of the San.
 Their technology included carvings of shallow dishes, bone ivory and smelting and smithing of iron.
 Trading of some of these times was developed with traders from the Far East who often came to the south
of the east coast of Africa.
 They also extracted salt from the salt mineral springs through evaporation in soapstone dishes.

Political and Social organisation

 The village settlement was relatively large often well over hunted persons.
 They did not live in caves because of their large numbers.
 They built dome shaped huts from young branches.
 They covered them with mats from reeds and sometimes with animal skins.
 Huts were arranged in a circle and domestic animals were often kraaled overnight within the circle.
 Each village consisted of member of the same clan and a group of male descendants of a particular
ancestor with their wives and children.
 The young people were initiated at adulthood at about 18 years and marriage could take place after the
ceremony.
 The groom paid lobola in the form of an ox for the wedding feast.
 After the marriage a hut was built for the couple near the bride’s mother’s hut.
 Unlike the San the Khoisan community had more organised system of authority.
 Each village had a headman, it was a hereditary position passed to the eldest son of the founding ancestor
for every generation.
 Headman made decisions such as when and where to move.
 They also acted as mediators or judges in criminal and civil disputes.
 Senior people had more privileges than the juniors e.g. they lived in houses to the right of the elder whilst
juniors lived to the left side.
 Each family had their own hut; however, children who were older lived with their age group.
 The Khoisan were polygamous (more than one wife).
 Several villages were united into a larger unit called a tribe.
 Tribes had a kingship base and were made up of a number of linked clans with a Seniority of one of the
clans being recognised.
 The head of the senior clan was recognised as the chief of the tribe.
 The extent of the tribal land was not defined by exact boundaries but reference to land and water holes.
 Tribal chiefs controlled outside access to their resources.
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 Religious beliefs
 The Khoisan believed in a supreme being.
 They believed in spirits of natural forces especially water and rain.
 They gave special significance to the moon which they viewed as a physical magnification of the Supreme
Being associated with heaven.
 The time of a new and full moon was a special occasion for dancing.

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THE IRON AGE SOCIETIES

TRANSITION FROM THE LATE STONE AGE

IRON AGE PERIOD

Introduction

¯ This is a period were iron technology was introduced.

¯ It was between 1st century AD and the 19th century AD, in the region of central and Southern Africa.

¯ During this period the mode of life changed from the Stone Age and hunter gatherer mode of
production to the use of iron technology.

¯ This process of change is known as the NEOLITHIC REVOLUTION.

¯ Wooden and stone tools were substituted for iron technology, thus the wooden and stone axes, knives,
and arrows gave way for iron tools.

¯ The increased use of iron tools such as iron hoes, axes, knives, hunting arrows and fish hooks increased
man’s capacity to domesticate and manage his environment.

The changes brought by Iron Age technology

¯ The use of iron technology brought changes in the method of producing food.

¯ These changes were:

1. Farming-people started domesticating animals and grew crops. As a result more land was cultivated,
many wild animals and fish were caught thus there was a more and varied food which resulted in long
life expectancy and increased population.

2. Mining- people engaged in iron and copper mining. The ores were smelt to produce tools and
jewellery. The implements/tools were then used in farming, hunting and trade.

3. Hunting- became more organised and efficient through the use of iron arrow and spears.

4. Man’s mobility was increased through the use of bigger canoes that facilitate the crossing of big and
wide rivers.

5. Accommodation improved as iron axes and hoes made it easier to cut more wood and mould dagga
for house construction.

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6. Formation of societies and leadership- societies became more settled and engaged in economic
activities such as mining, manufacturing and pottery making. New forms of relations developed among
social groups. They engaged elders, chiefs to direct the activities of the community.

7. Division of labour (Gender based division of labour and occupational based division of labour) - there
was a social division of labour between men and women (Gender based division of labour). Men
engaged in herding, hunting, mining, trading, smelted iron ore, led families, build houses, cleared land
etc. while women engaged in cultivation, gathering, fetched water, pottery making and looking after
children. These divisions were reflected by burial places, the male were buried in livestock pens within
the central closure of the settlement while women and children were buried on the outer ages of the
village. There was the development of specialization that is specialized metal workers (blacksmith),
farmers, hunters, traders etc. (occupational based division of labour)

8. Raiding- Due to the availability of better and stronger weapons people started raiding one another.

9. Trade- Iron Age people engaged in both internal and external trade in grain, livestock, tools and crafts.
Trade was mostly controlled by rulers who became rich and powerful.

10. Tribute-the rulers established a tributary system in which the subjects paid tribute as a sign of
allegiance/loyalty.

Uses of iron
. To make light arrow-heads and spears.

2. To make jewellery.

3. To make knives, hummers and chisels

4. To pay lobola e.g. hoes.

5. Blacksmith used iron to pay tribute to the chiefs

Importance of iron

1. Iron technology increased the man’s ability and capacity to domesticate the environment in order to
satisfy basic needs.

2. Settled life encouraged the development of permanent settlement, there was now better food
security derived from farming, hunting and trade.

3. The safety and security from enemies and wild animals increased through the building of houses in
clusters.

4. The development of specialization in the areas of farming, mining, manufacturing and trade led to an
increase in production and prosperity.

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 Problems of iron technology

1. Disintegration of communal way of living and the growth of inequality in wealth and power between
individuals, social groups and communities.

2. Women were regarded as commodities indicating wealth in marriage. The more wives one had the
wealthier he was regarded.

3. The establishment of tributary system promoted the exploitation of man by man

 Political changes
 Permanent settlements were established. There was a lot of food so people abandoned the idea of moving
from place to place in search of food.
 Village communities were created. This led to formation of classes i.e. chiefs and subjects, rich and poor.
 Population increase. As the economy improved people got enough food to store for the next season.
People became healthy due to balanced diet thus leading to population increase.
 Rivals amongst villages. Villages fought to control resources and weaker villages were destroyed by
stronger ones. This led to creation of armies as a way of securing land, cattle and grain.
 Decisions were made through consensus by the small and powerful group.

 Economic Changes
 The new iron users did not completely break away with the past Stone Age and continued to hunt and
gather to supplement their food.
 However, they began to mine minerals copper, gold, silver and iron ore were mined. Hoes and axes were
vital for mining as hoes were used to dig for minerals and axes for cutting trees to use for the furnace.
Before Iron Age these minerals were ignored and regarded as colourful rocks. Gold and copper were
processed into jewellery and Iron was used to make tools. These were used for internal and external trade,
externally with Swahili, Chinese and Oman on the Indian Ocean coast.
 Bantu farmers began to pay more attention to farming although agriculture is believed to have begun in
the late Stone Age. A variety of crops were grown e.g. millet, sorghum and pumpkins. These became the
main source of food though hunting and gathering were still done but on a small scale.
 They kept cattle, sheep and goats. Goats and sheep were killed for meat but cattle were vital as it was
considered as a symbol of wealth. They were killed on special occasions e.g. deaths, rain making
ceremonies and births.
 This was mainly done by women and pottery was decorated, it was used for storing grain, water and milk.
 They started paying tribute to the ruling class as a sign of respect by the subjects. Tribute could be in the
form of crops, iron tools, minerals, cattle and labour.
 They traded internally and externally, they traded with foreigners from Persia and Arabia. They traded
gold and ivory and sometimes copper for cloth, silk and glass beads. Internally they exchanged surplus
goods, surplus grain could be exchanges for iron tools, pots and livestock.

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 Social Changes
 The early age people abandoned living in caves and began to live in pole and dagga huts.
 There was division of labour which indicated specialisation of jobs. Men went for mining as it was
dangerous and women concentrated on household chores.
 Specialisation led to exchange of goods amongst neighbours especially in times of crisis e.g. blacksmith
could exchange axes and hoes for cattle, sheep and goats.
 Gaps between different classes broadened.
 Chiefdoms emerged.
 Polygamy was widely practised. It was vital for social status of a person because the more wives one had
the more one was respected. This also meant a lot of labour in the fields and a good crop yield.
 The boy child was valued more compared to the girl child because he perpetuated the family name.
 Lobola was wide spread and it was in the form of cattle, hoes, beads and labour.
 They believed in life after death therefor they buried the dead with their belongings.

Impact of the changes

 Food was now in abundance.
 Hunting became effective due to new iron tools.
 Trade became very important.
 More permanent settlements were built therefor people stayed at one place for a long time.
 Exploitation of women and children by men and also exploitation of men by other man began.
 Displacement of earlier San inhabitants.
 Formation of chiefdoms/states.
 Tribute was introduced where by subjects would pay or give a token of appreciation to their rulers.

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 THE GREAT ZIMBABWE

It is situated south east of Masvingo and is believed to have been built by the Shona people around A.D.
1200. Our country took its name from the ruins which are complex and beautiful.

Origins of the State

It is believed that the kingdom rose through intercontinental trade. This theory is referred to as the trade
stimulus theory. It is argued that the state owes its origins from its control of gold trade mined across the
whole of the Zimbabwe plateau. As traders passed through the state they were forced to pay tax thus
contributing to the rise of the state. The military strength of the kingdom enabled them to force tributary
kingdoms to pay tax. Other historians also argued that the state rose as a result of the ruler’s ability to
accumulate and control cattle.

Reasons why the Great Zimbabwe was built

 As an expression of pride and ancestral achievement.
 As a form of shelter.
 To reflect the king’s power.
 As a religious centre.
 For prestigious reasons.
 To control subjects as well as to separate king from the common people.
 For privacy.
 As a fortress in times of war.

One of these developing Iron Age villages grew into the biggest and strongest state of its time. It had a
population of more than 10 000 people. The great walls of stone were a symbol of its power. The walls
show the state developed into a prosperous and well organised kingdom. The walls were built from granite
rocks which were carefully fitted and set in straight lines. The walls were built loosely without mortar/
cement/ dagger to hold them together. Stone walls were built to fit into the system of domestic life and
houses were built inside them. The bird sculptures found at Great Zimbabwe have become the symbol of
the modern state of Zimbabwe as a reminder of the country’s long history.

Factors leading to the development of the state

1. Availability of enough water from Mutirikwi River for domestic and agricultural purposes.

2. An increase in completion over the control of existing land resources.

3. An increase in cattle herding and gold mining created more wealth for the ruling clans. As people grew
richer they married more wives they had children who were then drafted into the army.

25 | P a g e
 4. The army enabled to conquer derived groups thereby establishing control over land resources on the
more fertile Zimbabwe Plateau.

5. The building of defensive walls that protect people from their rival groups and wild animals.

6. The buildings at Great Zimbabwe were a display of power and it was viewed as a symbol of wealth.

7. Trading activities at Great Zimbabwe brought in more wealth. Gold was traded for the imported
ceramics from Persia and China.

Economic system
 They practised cultivation, grew crops such as millet, sorghum, pumpkins, barley, wheat etc. Men cleared
land for agriculture and helped when harvesting. Women and children did most of the work in the fields.
 They kept cattle, sheep, and goats. Cattle were regarded as a symbol of wealth, they were killed on rare
occasions e.g. funerals and state functions, they obtained milk and hides from cattle. Cattle could be
exchanged for grain and other food stuffs in times of drought. They could be used for paying lobola. Many
wives meant many children and a lot of labour in the fields. Goats and sheep provided them with meat,
hides and manure.
 Great Zimbabwe was centre of trade, internally they exchanged grain for different items they did not have
e.g. hoes and spears. Externally they traded with the Chinese, Arabs and Swahili. They exported grain, iron
tools, hides, baskets etc in exchange for glass beads, brassware, seashell, cloth, salt etc.
 Mining was mainly done by men. They mined gold, copper, iron etc. Copper was found in Hurungwe and
was used to make jewellery. Gold was found in Mapela and Mapungubwe and was obtained through shaft
and alluvial mining. It was used for making jewellery and iron was used to make tools.
 Hunting and gathering remained part of their diet. Hunting was done by men but on a very small scale.
Animals such as leopards, lions, kudu and impala were killed for their skins and elephants for ivory. Women
gathered small insects and berries.
 Crafts work was done by both men and women especially weaving. They produced cloth which was cheap
but ordinary people still wore animal skin “Nhembe”. Pottery making was vital, pots were made for storing
grain, water, milk and beer.
 Tribute was paid by the subjects to the ruling class in the form of grain, tools and cattle.
 Neighbouring states were raided for cattle; grain, and women, women were in cooperated into the state.
 Iron fishhooks were used for fishing there fish supplemented their diet.

Political organisation
 The king was the head of the state and supervised trade, commanded the army, received tribute and
judged all cases that were brought before him.
 Chiefs were below the king and had to be submissive, these included provincial chiefs and district chiefs.
 They paid tribute as loyalty to the king.
 They also collected tribute from the subjects and ruled their own areas.
 Village chiefs and village heads controlled villages; they were submissive to the king and paid tribute.
26 | P a g e
 Religious leaders conducted religious ceremonies and advised the king when ruling; they were part of the
council.

Social organisation
 The state was organised into social classes based on status.
 The royal family occupied the highest social status.
 The lived in a hill complex and the royal women lived in the great enclosure.
 People worshiped God through spirit mediums.
 Spirit mediums were vital for installation of new chiefs.
 The king himself consulted God through spirit mediums especially in times of drought.
 They believed in life after death and therefore they buried the dead with their belongings.
 Beer was brewed at traditional ceremonies.
 They worshipped national spirits called “Mhondoro” and ancestral spirits called “Vadzimu”.
 Families consulted ancestral spirits in times of illness and crisis.
 Soapstone birds were their religious symbol therefore Great Zimbabwe was the spiritual headquarters of
the Shona ancestors.
 People of the same totem were not allowed to get married.
 Men hunted on their spare time and women specialised in child bearing.

Decline of the state

 There were civil wars and people fought against each other in times of drought so as to get food.
 With time people began to fight for leadership and those leaders that were weaker had their positions
taken by those who were stronger. Some were even forced to move away from Great Zimbabwe. This is
why Nyatsimba Mutota moved away from Great Zimbabwe.
 With the ever increasing population farming land became exhausted.
 Shortage of food supplies, minerals and grazing lands affected trade negatively leading to the down fall of
the economy.
 Great Zimbabwe became too big a state that the king lost control of the state. This also encouraged
diseases leading to death of some and migration of some.

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 LATER SHONA CIVILISATION

THE MUTAPA EMPIRE

The Name or title Mutapa came from a Shona verb root Tapa. Historians have used other meanings munhu
in Shona which means person and when combined with Mutapa means a person who forcibly takes
someone’s property or a kidnapper. This name describes the strategy used by Nyatsimba Mutota to
establish his empire. Among this was the decline of Great Zimbabwe which was abandoned due to
shortage of resources, and also problems in accessing foreign trade.

Oral tradition has it that sometime in the 15th century a certain Nyatsimba Mutota son of Chibata Matosi
of Great Zimbabwe was sent by his father to search for salt in the Dande area. Mutota then decided to
take over the area and this marked the beginning of the Mutapa Empire. The Dande area was
abandoned and had elephants, gold and salt. The availability of fertile land and rich pasture in the Dande
area was important in the rise of the empire. The disunity of the Tonga and Tavara who failed to join
forces and repel the Mutapa and presented Mutota with an opportunity to conquer them with ease.
After the conquest of the entire Dande, Mutota died and was succeeded by his son Nyanhewe Matope
who then expanded the state into a large kingdom which some sources describes as an empire. He
expanded the area to Mozambique and took control of foreign trading coast along the Indian Ocean
coast which was a key to trading. The state was said to have 6 provinces Dande, Barwe, Pura/ Mbire,
Guruuswa, Manyika and Uteve.
r
Political organisation
 The king was the overall ruler.
 He was also commander of the army of about 3000 - 5000 soldiers; Soldiers were treated with
witchdoctors before heading for a battle for them to be strong.
 He received annual tribute and made final decisions in political and judiciary matters.
 He elected chiefs but first consulted national spirits.
 The council advised the king when ruling.
 The council included Priest of the Mwari cult, councillors, blacksmiths, army commanders, sons of
provincial chiefs, king’s mother, queen’s mother, queen and king’s brothers and sisters.
 Provincial chiefs ruled provinces such as Guruuswa, Mbire, Manyika, Barwe, Uteve etc.
 The position of chiefs was hereditary and the provincial chiefs were either relatives of the king or friends
of the king.
 The provincial chiefs collected royal fire once a year from Munhumutapa as a sign of respect.
 They paid tribute to the king.
 They gave troops to the king in times of war. They distributed land to district chiefs.
 District chiefs were under provincial chiefs and their position was hereditary. They paid tribute to the king.
They also collected tribute from the subjects in the form of ivory, cattle, grain, gold and labour. They
distributed land to the people. They also tried cases brought before them.

28 | P a g e
 Village chiefs were under district chiefs; they distributed land to the people and tried cases brought before
them. They paid tribute to the king and also received tribute from the subjects. Their position was
hereditary.

Economic system
 They grew millet, sorghum and peas. They also grew exotic crops like maize, watermelons, tobacco,
potatoes and citrus fruits. They practised shifting cultivation and burning farming.
 They kept cattle, sheep and goats. Cattle were a symbol of wealth and those that had many cattle had
many wives. These animals were important for hides, meat and milk.
 Hunting was done by men and was an important source of meat and hides. Gathering was done by women
and they gathered berries, roots and insects.
 They practised both internal and external trade. Internal trade involved buying and selling goods among
the Mutapa. They exchanged surplus grain, salt, cattle and iron tools. Local people known as
“Vashambadzi” facilitated trade. Trading stations were Zumbo, Tete and Sena.
 They mined gold, silver, iron and copper. Mining was done during the dry season. They practised shaft
mining. Gold, copper and silver were used to make jewellery and iron was used to make iron tools.
 They practised blacksmithing and they made tools for agriculture like hoes and axes and they also made
weapons like spears and arrows.
 They practised crafts work and Women made a variety of pots which they traded to earn vast amounts of
wealth in the form of grain, goats and sheep. The Mutapa also made baskets and wood carvings.
 Fish supplemented their diet.
 Neighbouring states were raided for cattle; grain, and women, women were in cooperated into the state.
 The king received annual tribute in the form of cattle, gold, ivory, agricultural tools and labour.

Social organisation
 The Mutapa state had people of different dialects e.g. Karanga, Ndawu and Zezuru.
 There was gender awareness when allocating duties. Men were part of the army and hunted whilst women
were involved in household chores e.g. cooking, taking care of children etc.
 People of the same totem were not allowed to marry one another.
 They believed in the existence of a supreme being who lived up in the sky. They named him Mwari/
Musikavanhu. They believed in life after death and so they consulted family spirits, clan spirits and national
spirits, this was usually done in times of war, drought and harvest.
 Family spirits were believed to help family members achieve their ambitions. According to the Mutapas
Mwari communicated with the people through spirit mediums called Masvikiro/ Homwe.
 Clan and national spirits also intervened in political disputes, succession disputes and interclan disputes.
 They believed in avenging spirits (Ngozi).
 They believed in God the creator of mankind whom they worshiped through their ancestors.
 They practiced polygamy.

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 The society was patriarchal. This means a bride would leave her family to join her husband`s family.
Children used their father`s surname to show that they belonged to their father. The bridegroom paid
lobola to the family of the bride. However, lobola payment should not be understood as purchasing a wife.

Coming of the Portuguese

 After the death of Matope there were quarrels over leadership.
 In 1494 Chikuyo Chisamarengu became king; he was the first king to have a European visitor called
Fernandez a Portuguese trader.
 Fernandez gave the king and gun powder and Munhumutapa was able to expand his empire.
 After the death of Chikuyo in 1530 Neshangwe became king and was succeeded by Chivere Nyasoro in
1550 who crushed the Tavara in the revolt and as symbol of the defeat took their totem as Nzou.
 Chivere died in 1560 and his eldest son Negomo Mapunzagutu took over the leadership and was assisted
to govern by Mr Chiuyu.
 A catholic called Fr Goncalo Da Silvera became a great friend of the king and his mother and the mission
traders; the VaMwenye were angered when the king and his mother agreed to be baptised.
 The VaMwenye plotted and killed Da Silvera and dumped his body in a pond.
 In 1570 the Portuguese king sent an army to Mutapa to avenge the death of Da Silvera and because the
Portuguese did not know the area so well they were easily defeated even though they had superior
weapons.
 For 35 years there was peace in Mutapa.
 In 1607 Munhumutapa Gatsi Rusere asked for Portuguese help to fight a revolt for the leadership in return
for silver mines at Chikova and other mines.
 However he refused to tell them the location of the silver mines and the people of Mutapa refused because
they had seen and Prazero and Portuguese land owners.
 As more and more Portuguese arrived they took more land and cattle and forced people to work in the
fields and formed their own private army.
 They became wild, lawless and no longer obeyed the Munhumutapa.
 The next Mutapa Nyambokapararidze tried to expel the Portuguese but was over powered and replaced
by Mavura Mhande who agreed to serve the Portuguese and become a puppet king.

Decline of the Mutapa state.

 There were inexperienced leaders who took over after the death of Matope (1450) e.g. Nyahuma
 The state became too large to be controlled by one king.
 This was due to power struggle within the Mutapa e.g. vassal chiefs who rose against the ruling Mutapa.
Nyahuma was killed by Changa and later Changa was killed by Nyahuma’s sons. The state became
politically weak.
 They brought Christianity which destroyed the traditional religion of the Mutapa people.
 This affected trade which once made the state a prosperous one.
 Out breaks of epidemics killed a lot of people.

30 | P a g e
 Succession disputes after the death of Nyatsimba Mutota divided the nation and it also caused revolts and
rebellions.
 The members of the ruling class clashed over the control and distribution of state resources that is land
for grazing and cultivation.
 The Portuguese took advantages of these clashes by supporting one group leading to the weakening of
the state.
 Portuguese activities increased conflicts in the state e.g. they brought guns to the Mutapa state which
facilitated rebellions against ruling class, they assisted vassal chiefs to rebel against Mutapa Kingship, they
took vast pieces of land from Mutapa people which they then controlled politically.
 It was on these circumstances Dombo of Rozvi lineage broke away and created his own state called the
Rozvi state.

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 THE ROZVI EMPIRE

The Rozvi kingdom was also known as the Changamire state. According to oral tradition Changa who briefly
ruled the Rozvi in the 1490s was the first to use the title Changamire. Changa was son of Matope and a
slave wife. After his death his son adopted the title Changamire and moved to Guruuswa area in south-
western Zimbabwe. The Changamire state appeared to have disappeared for 150 years only to re-emerge
in the 1680’s as a very strong state under the leadership of Changamire Dombo. Oral tradition has it that
Changa was a headman under Mutapa Mukombwe. In the 1670s he gathered followers and declared
independence and was forced to move away from the Mutapa towards the southwest were he fought,
conquered and absorbed the Torwa and Karanga people then he established his own powerful state and
a capital called Danamombe. The state adopted the name Rozvi from the Shona name Kurozva “Defraud”,
soon after the Rozvi embarked on a conquest program from surrounding areas defeating the Mutapa,
Uteve and Manyika. All the conquered people were forced to pay tribute.

Leaders who ruled the state include the following:

1. Changamire Dombo

2. Chirisamhuru 1

3. Chirisamhuru 2

4. Rupanda Manhanga

5. Nechasike

6. Nechagadzike

7. Gumboreshumba

8. Gumboremvura

Military strength
 Changamire Dombo defeated the Portuguese in many battles between 1684-1695.
 Changamire Dombo was said to have had special powers like changing the colour of cattle, making rain
and making soldiers brave, however, the Portuguese thought he was a wizard or magician. The may have
been because of the clever tricks he used in battle.
 He soldiers would often form a half circle around their enemy.
 Dombo soldiers used many kinds of weapons like wooden clubs, assegais, spears, bow and arrows, cow
hides as shields and Rozvi officials used guns.
 Mambo received guns from the Portuguese as tribute therefore the highest ranking Rozvi officials had
guns.
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 Political organisation

¯ Mambo is the head of the state. The political structure was the same as present day Shona society.
Above the chiefs were the Mambo or King and his court. The Mambo ruled with the help of a council
called Dare. Members of dare included priest, military leaders and provincial governors. Some of the
Mambo’s wives played a role at the court, and some of sons-in-law had special duties. As political leader,
the mambo was a figure of great respect and loyalty.

¯ He was the distributer of land the holder of other property in trust of the state. The king obtained tax
from traders and tribute from vassal chiefs as a sign of allegiance. He was the head of the legal system.
He had power to call up the army or to summon communal labour.

¯ The Rozvi king controlled external trade. He also controlled ivory hunting

¯ The Mambo presides over national religious ceremonies and political activities. The king appointed
chiefs, priest, governors and army general. He communicated with God through the ancestors.

¯ The chiefs were in charge of the village and districts and collected tribute on behalf of the king.

¯ The commander of the Rozvi army and chief collector of tribute was an official called Tumbare. He also
stood in place of Changamire, if there was a succession dispute or if the heir is too young to rule.

Social structure / organisation

 People were organised into home steads.
 A lineage head ensured good conductions of religious ceremonies and other ceremonies.
 There was sexual division of labour; man had several social duties which included herding cattle, building
houses, making tools, skinning animals etc.
 Females did household chores such as taking care of children, cooking, gathering firewood and wild fruits,
fetching water and making pottery.
 Homesteads were related into Moyo totem.
 They believed in “Mwari” who they worshiped through Shona priests
 Shona priests linked the living and the dead.
 They believed mambo descended from God.
 Ancestral spirits were also vital; there were other spirits which they believed to live in mountains and pools
of water.
 They practised to “kuronzera” whereby those without cattle were given by the king to use for manure and
milk but were not allowed to sell them.
 They sang and danced on important occasions like wedding, funerals and religious ceremonies.
 Territorial mediums solved succession disputes.
 Spirit mediums formed members of mambo’s council and could make decisions for the state.

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 Mambo was head of state, his title was hereditary, succession was collateral chieftainship was passed from
father to son.
 The king had the duty to install new chiefs.
 Provincial and District chiefs were responsible for maintaining peace and order in their areas; they also
collected tribute on behalf of the king.
 Vassal chiefs also paid tribute to the king as a sign of loyalty, failure to pay tribute meant great punishment
by military leader (Tumbare).
 Tumbare took over as leader when king died until a new one was elected.
 The mambo was the commander of the army; he had a very strong army which maintained peace and
security in the state.
 The army possessed guns acquired from Portuguese through trade therefor they could raid neighbouring
states easily.it was also used to punish rebellious chiefs and subjects.
 The mambo conducted religious ceremonies with the help of priests.
 The King was advised by military leaders and provincial governors when ruling.
 The Mambo had small body guards to protect him; they were called “Ngwana Ngwana”.
 He was head of the judiciary and he made sure there was fairness.
 Mambo distributed land to provincial chiefs.
 Headman was responsible for supervising homesteads.

Economic organisation
 They grew millet, sorghum and peas. They also grew exotic crops like maize, watermelons, tobacco,
potatoes and citrus fruits. They practised shifting cultivation and burning farming
 They kept cattle, goats and sheep. They got meat, milk and hides from those animals.

Uses of cattle in the Rozvi State

¯ To pay lobola

¯ To provide draft power

¯ To provide meat, milk, skins and manure

¯ Cattle were killed at religious ritual ceremonies

¯ It was a symbol of wealth

¯ Were used in trade

¯ Were used to pay tribute

¯ Cattle skins were used to make drums

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 Hunting was done by men and was an important source of meat and hides.
 Gathering was done by women and they gathered berries, roots and insects.
 They practised internal and external trade. They exchanged cattle for grain in times of draught. They
exported gold, ivory, iron, copper and lead. They exchanged these with clothes, beads, seashells, guns and
candles with the Portuguese.
 Gold was the main mineral, it was mined at Buchwa. They also mined copper, iron and lead. Iron was used
to manufacture tools and weapons. Copper was used to make bangles.
 All subjects and Portuguese paid tribute. At an installation of new chiefs the chief was obliged to pay
tribute as assign of alliance therefor the chief paid tribute to the king annually
 They made wood carvings and pottery.
 Blacksmiths made iron tool.
 It supplemented their diet.
 They raided neighbouring states for cattle and women.

The Decline of the Rozvi state

 Civil wars which were then followed by succession disputes which disrupted other economic activities.
 Drought also caused the decline as some people moved to favourable parts of the area and it also
weakened their economy.
 The king lost control and led to some political division
 Attacks by Nguni groups running away from Mfecane.
 They lost control in trade which once made them very prosperous, limited technology made mining
difficult and elephant population was decreasing rapidly.
 They were finally destroyed by the BSAC led by Cecil John Rhodes in 1890.

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 THE NGUNI STATES OF SOUTHERN AFRICA

The Nguni people lived in fertile land along the east coast which is now South Africa. They were Bantu
people who understood each other’s languages even though they spoke different dialects. They were
Xhosa, Khumalo, Zulu, Tembu, Mthethwa Mpondo, Ndwandwe, and others.

Social system
 Members of one family lived together in a family compound of scattered homesteads built in a half circle
with the cattle kraal built in the sides of hills with the huts facing towards the east.
 The homestead had up to 1 000 huts with the mother of the homestead living in the centre hut.

Economic system
 Nguni people were both cultivators and pastoralists which means they cultivated as well as keeping whole
herds of cattle and goats. Cattle were herded by small separate groups of people each herd organised
around a royal clan
 Among their crops were sorghum, beans, pumpkins, melons, millet and other grains. Tobacco and maize
were cultivated later.
 Cattle provided meat, hides and milk which were important in the Nguni diet.
 Cattle were also used to carry goods.
 Nguni women made clay pots for cooking and carrying water.
 The Nguni people were hunters, the chief wore leopard skins.
 Women wore copper and iron beads as jewellery; they also wore earrings, ivory bracelets, shells feathers
and various buttons.
 Land was property of the chiefdom and the king had the power to distribute land and nobody could be
deprived of this important means of production and could not be so hard as there was plenty of it.

Political system
 The chief was political, military, judicial and kingdom head to help his people.
 He gave final judgement in court cases and carried out religious rituals but was not a dictator.
 His power was a popular assembly and by a system of advisory councils which was made up all important
decisions, this system was centralised but loosely administered.

Historical change in Nguniland

Why did the change come at the turn of the 19 th century?
 The Nguni clan suddenly changed and began fighting amongst themselves.
 This fighting made the Zulu nation into the most powerful state of its kind in Africa.
 Some claim that the changes were caused by the coming of the Europeans and better fighting methods.
 Others suggest that this occurred as a result of the strains caused by the population growth and land
shortage.
 This country was fertile and free from diseases
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 Natural increase in population and shortage of land, this caused internal conflicts in a pastoral society in
need of grazing grounds.
 Chiefs began to improve their methods of warfare changed from a game of skill to a serious struggle for
survival.

Dingiswayo of the Mthethwa

In the late 18th century Dingiswayo removed his brother as chief and took over the leadership of the
Mthethwa clan. Dingiswayo was an innovative man who introduced revolutionary methods of warfare to
Nguniland. He abolished long initiation ceremonies were young men and women of the same age group
no longer had to attend circumcision schools were they were initiated into manhood and womanhood by
elders. Instead Dingiswayo took the young man into his army in groups of the same age. He organised
them into military units called regiments so they could achieve their manhood on the battle field.
Dingiswayo’s army spared people the defeated. By the time of his Death in 1818 he defeated many chiefs
in Nguniland. He had created an empire united by his rule and by his army. In this way Dingiswayo created
a standing army in which his soldiers could study and practise new methods of fighting.

Rise of Tshaka
Tshaka was born in 1787. His father was Senzangakhona, a Zulu chief and his mother was Nandi.
Senzangakhona and Nandi were never formally married therefor Tshaka grew up with his mother among
the Langani, Gwabe and finally Mthethwa. Tshaka joined the Mthethwa’s age regiment and proved to be
very brave as a regimental leader. He became Dingiswayo’s military advisor at a tender age. When
Senzangakhona died in 1816, Tshaka seized the Zulu throne; he was supported by Dingiswayo and became
the Zulu chief. Zulu means rain or heaven. Zulu State is said to have originated from a man called Zulu ka
Ntombela who probably was the ancestor of the Zulu clan.

The Great military leader

 Tshaka introduced the assegai, which encouraged hand to hand fighting; it made sure that the enemy was
killed. Loss of this assegai meant harsh punishment / execution. Any stab at the back was considered
cowardice and punishment of death.
 Soldiers went to war bare-footed so as to increase speed.
 Soldiers were organised in regiments according to their ages. Regiments were disciplined and loyal to
Tshaka, they were trained to fight effectively in battles.
 Long shields were developed and were made of cow hides. The fact that the shields were the height of a
man made it possible to shield soldiers from enemies; the shield was also used to hook away enemy
shields.
 Early marriages were discouraged as one could not fight well thinking of the family home, however,
soldiers who displayed skill by killing a lot of enemies later got beautiful women raided during war.
Raided men were in cooperated into the Zulu army, sometimes they fought for total destruction by
killing men, women and children. Therefore no soldier was allowed to marry before forty.
 Tshaka banned system of circumcision as it prevented young boys from participating in war.

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 Tshaka used guerrilla warfare by attacking at night and at times ambush attacks.
 Tshaka used witchdoctors to treat injured soldiers.

 Tshaka employed spies which were sent to gather information about the enemy. The helped in setting a
suitable regiment to attack the enemy.
 Tshaka made use of smoke signals for communication.
 Each soldier had a distinctive head-gear.
 Tshaka used the cow horn formation.

Mfecane
This means time of trouble and crushing of enemies. During this time Zululand becamea storm centre.
Defeated Generals fled from fighting to settle to distant lands out of reach of Tshaka’s regiments.The
immediate effect of the Mfecane was reduction in population in Zululand however Nguniland emerged as
a united powerful nation. New leaders like Mzilikazi of the Khumalo and Soshangani of Gaza and other
emerged from the collapsed.

Decline of Zulu State

 Tshaka died and in effective leaders took over.
 Tshaka’s mother died and Tshaka felt empty without her as she was his advisor.
 Tshaka’s most trusted Indunas ran away e.g. Mzilikazi with some of the Zulu people and the state was
weakened.
 Endless military campaigns.
 Europeans began to enter Zululand.

Tshaka was a dictator or absolute ruller. He was assisted by Indunas and members of the royal family who
were his advisors in making national decisions.

¯ Chiefs paid tribute to the king as asign of loyalty.

Zulu social organization

¯ They believed in Unkulunkulu whom they worshiped through spirit mediums. They practiced initiation
ceremonies. They celebrated the annual Inxwala –first fruit of the season. Celebrated Inkata ceremony
which was the unity day.

¯ Grass was woven to make distinctive features which were displayed on the day.

¯ They played Zulu type of traditional dances in honouring their ceremonies.

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Economic organization

¯ Practiced raiding as a source of wealth and food for Tshaka’s soldiers.

¯ Tribute was obtained from vassal chiefs.

¯ They were pastoralists/ animal keepers.

¯ They grew grain crops e.g. maize, millet, rapoko etc.

¯ Hunted animals for ivory, meat and skins.

¯ Mined minerals like gold and iron.

¯ Practiced iron smelting and blacksmithing.

¯ Practiced domestic/ internal trade e.g. meat and millet. Practiced long distance/ external trade at Natal
and Delagoa Bay. External trade was controlled by the King because it was profitable.

Decline of the state

1. The assasination of Tshaka by his young brother Dingane weakened the state. Dingane killed Tshaka
and became Zulu king. He lacked charisma and leadership qualities. Dingane failed to keep the Zulu state
intact.

2. Dingane failed to stop the European entry into the state which weakened his power. Dingane signed
an agreement with Boer leader Piet Retiet and gave them land. The agreement was signed at his capital
Umgungundhlovu. Dingane advised Boers to drink beer with him and as they were drunk called his
soldiers to kill them. Boers organised to attack the Zulu state as revenge. Zulu army was defeated by the
Boers at the Blood River Battle in 1838 marking the end of the Zulu nation. Zulu army was defeated due
to inferior weapons compared to Boers’ guns and canoes.

3. The Mahlauthule drought also weakened the state in 1838.

The death of Dingiswayo of the Mthetwa who ruled Nguniland as a powerful chief left Tshaka to emerge
superior in Nguniland. Groups and their leaders who ran away from Tshaka were:

1. Ndwandwe of Zwide
2. Kololo of Sebatwana
3. Shangaani of Soshangane
4. Khumalo of Mzilikazi
5. Ngwane of Sobuza
6. Zwangendaba’s group

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MFECANE/ DEFECANE

Introduction

¯ In the last quarter of the 19th century South Africa experienced revolutionary political changes that led
to the inter-clan conflicts over the control of trade routes and natural resources. These conflicts referred
to as Mfecane meaning time of trouble/ time of crashing resulted in weaker clans absorbed by the
stronger.

¯ In South Africa the region experienced serious climatic changes that resulted in drought. The drought
led to the reduction of pastures for livestock and agricultural activity. In order to survive the Nguni clans
had to rely on hunting and gathering.

¯ It was at this point that the control of elephant hunting became important. Competition over the
control of existing resources led to wars, smaller clans were destroyed, larger kingdoms were created,
and migration of others took place e.g. Khumalo under Mzilikazi.

Effects of the Mfecane

¯ Burning of people’s homes.

¯ People were killed.

¯ Property were confiscated.

¯ Loss of freedom and independence of smaller states- States encountered during mass migration from
Zululand were attacked and destroyed e.g. the general woman Nyamazana skinned alive and killed Rozvi
king Chirisamhuru 2 at Khami ruins in Bulawayo.

¯ Powerful kingdoms were created- It led to the rise of able bodied leader/ nation builder like Mzilikazi in
Zimbabwe.
¯ Migration of defeated clans

States defeated by Tshaka

¯ The death of Dingiswayo of the Mthetwa who ruled Nguniland as a powerful chief left Tshaka to
emerge superior in Nguniland. Groups and their leaders who ran away from Tshaka were:

1. Ndwandwe of Zwide
2. Kololo of Sebatwana
3. Shangaani of Soshangane
4. Khumalo of Mzilikazi
5. Ngwane of Sobuza
6. Zwangendaba’s group

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THE NDEBELE STATE

Ndebele means man of long shields. Mzilikazi’s Khumalo was part of Zwide’s Ndwandwe but later joined
Tshaka’s Zulu State. It is believed that sometime in 1822 they broke away from Tshaka and its leader was
Mzilikazi son of Mashobane of the Khumalo clan. The Ndebele were led by Mzilikazi out of turmoil of
Tshaka’s wars. It is believed the Ndebele arrived in present day Zimbabwe in 1841 and found Rozvi state
seriously weakened and established their state in the now modern city of Bulawayo.

Origin

The rise of Ndebele State is largely explained by a combination of:

1. Mfecane – The rise of Ndebele State was a by-product of the political upheaval of Mfecane. Due to the
trouble in Zulu land Mzilikazi; the chief of the Khumalo clan and one of the top ranked military
commanders of Tshaka broke away from Tshaka in 1822. He migrated north-wards, crossed the Limpopo
River and settled in the South-western part of modern Zimbabwe inhabited by the Rozvi people. He
conquered the Rozvi people and founded a new state called the Ndebele State.

2. Inco-operation of different ethnic groups into his own state through military campaigns

During the journey northwards Mzilikazi conquered and incorporated other ethnic groups to become
part of the Ndebele kingdom. In1836-1837 Mzilikazi and his people conquered and incorporated large
number of the Swazi and Sotho communities when they were settled in Marico River Base. In1838
Mzilikazi raided and incorporated the Tswana. In 1839 the Ndebele crossed the Limpopo river. They then
entered the South-western part of Zimbabwe were they conquered and incorporated the Rozvi people
who were the original inhabitancies of the area.

3. The ability and skills of Mzilikazi

a) Military skills –Mzilikazi had a strong military background inquired in the Zulu Land. He was one of
Tshaka’s top-ranked military commanders. He was well versed with the Zulu styles of military warfare
introduced by Tshaka. The Zulu used the assegai, the cow-horn battle formation, regimental systems
based on age groups and the use of speed and surprise night attacks. Given this military background it is
therefore not surprising that Mzilikazi was successful in carrying out military campaigns. He managed to
conquer and incorporate the Swazi, Sotho, Tswana and Rozvi communities in his newly created state.

b) Administration skills- Mzilikazi had administrating background. Among the Zulus he gained knowledge
of a high centralised administration. In this system the King retained absolute authority and was assisted
by territorial chiefs, Indunas who were military commanders. Such knowledge was used by Mzilikazi to
create the Ndebele state. This explains why the newly created Ndebele state was modelled on the Zulu
traditions and organisation. Thus political, military and socio-economic organisation of Ndebele strongly
resembled that of Zulu kingdom.

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Political organisation
 The Ndebele state was more centralised and covered a limited area.
 All Ndebele cattle were located within 80 km of the kings’ village
 Outlying areas of the Rozvi Empire were kept in touch through ambassadors and tribute to the royal
court and shrine of Mwari.
 The king occupied central and almost powerful position in the Ndebele state.
 The king was the commander of the army and chief judge.
 He was also chief administrator and religious leader.
 He made major decisions and power of life and death over the subjects.
 He was helped to administer the state by a few wise men in the advisory council.
 The Mpakati was made up of selected chiefs and members of the royal family; they made all decisions
affecting the state.
 A bigger advisory council called the Izikulu included all chiefs, elders known for wisdom, traditional
customs and history; these groups discussed all national issues in accordance to local tradition before
referring them to Mpakati and the king.
 Mzilikazi organised his state in regimental towns.
 Each town was a settlement of soldier and supporting civilian’s commanded by an Induna.
 The Induna was an administrator of the town as well as military commander.
 The regimental towns were grouped into 4 provinces headed by an appointed chief.
 These regional governors kept the king regularly briefed on the activities and the state affairs of the
province.
 Militarism- The Ndebele state was militarised. This is because the state was divided into regimental
towns which in turn created provinces. All in all the state had four provinces namely:
 Amahlope located at the centre of the state,
 Amnyama located in the south,
 Amakanda located in the east and
 Iyabo located in the west.
Each regimental town was under a military leader called Induna Enkulu and the town was protected by
amabutho.
 The army- Ndebele state had a standing army whose commander in chief was the Ndebele king.
Under the king was the Induna Enkulu who was in charge of Amabutho of the regimental towns.
Below them were the Induna who commanded the Ibutho. The young men were placed within the
regiments according to their age groups. Upon reaching adult hood, these young men were then
drafted in the Ndebele army. They were expected to distinguish themselves in the battle before
being discharged and allowed to marry. The Ndebele army was used to maintain law and order. It
was also used for raiding those Shona groups that refused to submit to the Ndebele rule. The
Ndebele army therefore was an instrument of creating wealth.

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Social organisation.
 The state was divided into three distinct social groups or classes:
 Zansi
Constituted of the original Khumalo who formed aristocracy class, they made up 15% of the total
population; although they were few they were very powerful and privileged. Most Indunas were elected
from this class; they were not allowed to marry from Enhla and Hole but with time could, the Enhla and
hole were not allowed to marry from Zansi.
 Enhla
This made up all elements that had been in cooperated into the state either by force or voluntary on their
journey from Nguniland to Zimbabwe. They made up 25% of the total population and included the Sotho,
Tswana and Kora etc. they were not as privileged as the Zansi but were treated better than the Hole class.
 Hole
This was made up of the Shona, Karanga, Lega, Nyayi etc; they made up 60% of the total population. They
were most disadvantaged in the state as they did most of the hard work in the state. They were not elected
as Indunas or any other leadership positions in the state.

 Nguni groups worshipped a high God (Mlimo), Mlimo and Unkulunkulu were the same, the Ndebele
adapted Mlimo from the Tswana and when they reached Zimbabwe they adopted the Shona high God
(Mwari), Mwari was believed to be powerful so when rain failed they consulted Mwari.
 The Ndebele sent annual gifts and offerings to the Mwari shrine.
 The Karanga and Rozvi worshipped “Mhondoro” a lion spirit, powers of God and ancestors could be
only reached through Mhondoro or king.
 They held an annual gathering, inxala ceremony were they thanked ancestors for good harvests,
prosperity and success especially in military campaigns.
Economic system
The Ndebele state had a mixed or diversified economy. It was based on livestock and crop production:

 Livestock production- livestock production was the mainstay of the Ndebele economy. There was the
national head that was held in trust by the king and the individual cattle which were privately owned
by the people. Some of the Ndebele cattle were supplied through raiding some groups (Shona groups
that refused to submit and pay tribute to the Ndebele). Some of the cattle were offered as tribute. The
national herd were mostly used to reward soldiers and chiefs. The individual Ndebeles used their cattle
for food, trade, tribute payment, payment of Lobola and for religious ceremonies. Shona groups used
their cattle for milk and draught power. Some of the Ndebele cattle were loaned (kuronzera) to Shona
groups within the Ndebele tributary system. They were also pastoralists who kept sheep, cattle and
goats. Cattle were of greater value compared to sheep and goats. There were Zebutho (National herds)
and Inkomo Zamatonga (Private herds and king’s herds). The rich loaned cattle to those who had none
and this promoted peace among the Ndebele.

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 Crop production – recent evidence has shown that the Ndebele were agriculturalists. Robert Moffatt
reported in 1845 that the Ndebele prospered with millet. Other grain crops produced by the Ndebele
included rapoko and sorghum. The grain crops were produced on individual plots and the state field.
Such grain was used for food, trade, tribute payment and religious ceremonies. They practised crop
cultivation but on a small scale because the area could hardly receive enough rainfall. They grew
crops such as maize, millet, sorghum, pumpkins, melons, potatoes, beans etc. Both men and women
cultivated crops.
 Ndebele practised both internal and external trade. Externally they traded with the Portuguese and
Arabs for firearms, beads, cloth and ceramics, foreigners were interested in gold and ivory. Internally
they traded cattle for grain and iron tools e.g. hoes, spears and knifes.
 Raiding was vital amongst the Ndebele; they obtained food young men and women. Youngman were
needed to build a strong army to defend the state; this also meant a powerful nation. Herds also
increased through raiding.
 Tribute was paid by subjects as a sign of respect; it could be in the form of cattle, grain, firewood, iron
tools, leopard’s skin and labour.
 There was clear division of labour as men hunted and women gathered. Animals such as, Impalas,
Kudus etc were hunted whilst women gathered berries, bulbs and small insects.
 Women were involved in weaving baskets; baskets could be used to store grain. Pottery work was
done and thus having pots for cooking.
 Blacksmithing was mainly done by and made hoes, spears and knives.

Ndebele-Shona relations
 Historians disagree on the relationship between Shona and the Ndebele people. Others say that the
relationship was very hostile due to raiding and unequal opportunities between the two groups. The
Ndebele raided the Shona of grain and for also beautiful girls and boys. The Shona chiefs were forced
to pay tribute and those who failed to do so were raided as a sign of punishment.
 For a long time it was commonly believed that the coming of the Ndebele caused the breakdown and
disappearance of all aspects of Shona life.
 Lobengula also believed that Mashonaland was under his control; it was so because he did not know
to what extent of the area inhabited by the Shona speaking people.
 However, the Ndebele took time to establish control of the Shona groups and even when they did the
impact was not always as disastrous and as brutal.
 It is assumed that despite the raid of the Shona, the Ndebele were more interested in peace by
exchanging grain and iron tools for cattle and they also adopted some Shona religions.
 The impact of the Ndebele dominance was greater to those who lived near than those who lived
further away.
 The interdependence that existed between the Shona and the Ndebele is witnessed by their
willingness in fighting together during the first Chimurenga against European imperialism / occupation.
 Others say Shona-Ndebele relations were cordial or good because they co-existed with each other
peacefully. Although at first it was strictly prohibited, later they enjoyed inter-marriages. They also

44 | P a g e
 shared the religious customs for instance the Ndebele adopted the worship of the Mwari cult and
some of the Shona started to identify themselves as Ndebele.
 It is also important to note that far away areas such as Kwekwe, Gweru, Mberengwa, Zvishavane
were left to remain independent from Ndebele rule.

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THE RISE OF CAPITALISM

Feudalism

It is a way of producing goods. Agriculture was the main means of production and very few people known
as Landlords were masters. Serfs or tenants worked for the Landlords and got food as payment. Landlords
enjoyed most of the benefits and passed on the land to their children meaning a landlord would always
remain a landlord and a serf a serf for the rest of their lives.

Capitalism

It is a way of producing goods by machines. The means of production was formed by Capitalists or
Bourgeoisie and workers or proletariats did work for the capitalists for very low wages. During the 16 th
century there were improvements in trade as ships had been invented so a group known as commercial
middle class emerged. Trade became very successful during this period as gold, ivory, spices and beads
were on demand by European capitalists. This marked the first stage from feudalism to capitalism.

The 2nd stage of development was in the 17th century were by great growth of factories was experienced.
This led to a class struggle as people were fighting to control the few resources. The growth of industries
led to the demand of raw materials.

The 3rd stage was around the 1870s. It was imperialism. Many countries e.g. Germany, Italy, France, U.S.A.
and Japan etc. began to compete for the control of the raw materials.

The Renaissance

There was a rebirth of science, arts and ideas in general, before this period all knowledge was based on
Catholic beliefs such as writing of art followed by Ancient Rome and Greek beliefs. The period before
renaissance was called Medieval meaning middle age. In the Renaissance period people were more
interested in Geography, Geometric navigation, biology (working of the human body).
Painting

In the medieval period painting about religion dominated as church was powerful. When church powers
had been weakened, painters’ painting throughout Gietto painted portraits, animals and sins of dirty life
and was the 1st Renaissance Italian men Rafael, Leonardo Da Vinci, Michael Angelo and Dante painted to
show beauty and they marked the period of Renaissance.

Architecture
This in concerned with building structures such as libraries and theatres were put up. Peruzzi, Rafael and
Michael Angelo made plans of this using mathematics.
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 Literature
Dante an Italian writer became the first in the Renaissance period to use the local language. It was passed
on from Italy to several countries like Spain, France and England was William Shakespeare and Spencer in
England became popular.

Ideas of Humanism
Education dealt with human matters (Humanism) rather than religion and church rules of the medieval
period. Scholars concentrated on human needs and sciences. These included art of persuading i.e. history,
poetry and ethics. The first humanist was Petrarch (1304-1374) and he was an Italian.
Scientist Year Discovery
Copernicus 1473-1545 Earth moves around this sun rather than the
sun moving around the earth.
Galileo 1564-1642 How to make accurate clocks.
He also studied astronomy and he supported
the idea that the sun is stationary and the
planets move.
Isaac Newton 1624-1727 Force of gravity and his famous laws.
Harvey The way which blood moves around the body.
Gutenberg 1600-1648 Printed the 1st book.

Achievement of the Renaissance

 Managed to make people think outside spiritual.
 Things were no longer safe for public criticism.
 Before the Renaissance kings could not be criticised by ordinary people as they claimed that they had
powers over people.

Shortfalls of the Renaissance

Even though the renaissance questioned and challenged the church and the rule of the traditional
monarch it did not criticise the questions or systems which were developing to take the place of the church
and the monarch.

The Reformation
 It means making something better by eliminating faults.
 It started in Germany and aimed at renaming traditional beliefs including those of the church.
 As reformation ideas fled through Europe protestants/protestant churches emerged and these felt that
the Catholics had gone away from the original teachings.
 Popes were now corrupt to the extent of asking sinners to pay money for their sins to be forgiven.
 The church was now being accused of immorality and failing to do its duties.
 The printers made bibles readily available such that it made the people realise much of what they heard
in the church had little support in the bible.
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 Those who criticised the church during this period were the kikes of Dr Martin Luther King Juniorand John
Calvin.
 The new mode class freed itself from the Catholic Church resulting in many religious groups such as
Methodists, Anglicans and Protestants.

The Voyages of exploration

During the middle ages Europeans believed that tropical seas boiled and if ships sailed west from Europe
they would fall of the earth to the sky.

Why voyages of discovery

 They wished to find the route to India and the Spice Islands.
 They wanted to buy silk, carpets and scents from Asia.
 They wanted to get areas and their money on them and became richer e.g. Prince Henry the navigator
who led the sea route to India.

Explorer Area explored Achievement

Prince Henry. India. He prepared maps to help the
Portuguese sailors.
Christopher Columbus. Atlantic Ocean. Discovered America.
Vasco Da Gama. Round the Cape of Good Hope. Opened the route to India by
sea.
Bartholomew Diaz. Cape of Good Hope. Passed the most southerly
point of Africa.

Conclusion
 The Renaissance bridged the gap between feudal and modern times.
 The feudal societies had been dominated by the Catholic Church.
 The Renaissance with its humanist emphasis of truth and ethical evidence destroyed the ethical feudal
order where the church’s beliefs and ideas dominated.
 The church had been at the centre of scientific understanding, political thoughts and education.
 During the Renaissance there was now a re-examination of all religion beliefs including those of the
Catholic Church.
 A great religious movement and the teachings and structure of those of the Catholic Church had started
in the 16th century in Germany and spread throughout the world.
 These predestines failed that the Catholics had gone away from the original teachings and disciplines of
Christianity.
 For many centuries the Catholic Church claimed great wealth from its subjects all over Europe and it
strengthened its power from feudal rulers.

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 THE AGRICULTURE AND INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION IN BRITAIN

Capitalism replaced feudalism in Britain when wealth was created by new farming methods. Firstly banks
were established and people borrowed money to build factories and machines. Peasants were forced to
work in factories and supplied labour for capitalists for low wages. In a capitalist system the main source
of social struggle was between the working and the capitalist class. The capitalists used workers to make
profits. Capitalists are therefore parasitic because they can’t live without exploiting the workers. Britain is
the father of capitalism in Europe and in the world in general. It was made the workshop of the world
because of its industries.

THE AGRICULTURAL REVOLITION

Instead of farming for subsistence (to feed the landlords and serfs) the landlords began farming to make
a profit. By the 18th century commercial agriculture was fully established. Those working had no time to
grow crops so they had to buy crops.

Factors leading to the Agricultural revolution

 Wealth from agriculture.
 Wealth from industries.
 Wealth from slave trade.
 Wealth from plantations of the Caribbean Islands.
 Improvements in transport, roads, railways and bridges.

The Enclosure system

This was when large open fields were fenced or walled into strips of land, either for growing crops or
grazing lands for animals. The peasants suffered because the (common) land was enclosed for the
landlords’ agriculture so the peasants had no more land to graze their animals leading to the struggle
between landowning and landless classes.

Crop rotation
Crops were grown in rotation instead of leaving the land to fallow.

Advantages of crop rotation

 Soil maintained fertile.
 There was more production of food.
 Intensive use of lands.

Lord Townsend introduced crop rotation. John Sinclair and Jethro Tull were big land owners and
demonstrated how agricultural capitalism worked.

Effects of Agricultural revolution

 Struggle between peasants and landlords over land existence.

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 Landlords became richer either by buying or claiming large areas of land.
 Peasants were forced to become agricultural workers or industrial workers.
 There was harsh exploitation of defenceless peasants of profit making landlords.

THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION

During the feudal system people used to practice cottage industry. They manufactured crops and other
useful items. People started operating in factories and used machines instead of small tools. Society and
classes changed as well.

Factors leading to Industrial revolution

 Establishment of banks by 1890, there were 70 banks in London and 400 in Britain.
 Availability of cheap labour to operate machines, landless peasants were turned into desperate job seekers
and worked under harsh conditions.
 Increased demand for produce in Europe e.g. Industrialists had more money to spend and also demand
from overseas markets.
 Improvement in transport spared in industrial revolution.
 Raw materials and labour reached factories easily, quickly and cheaply.
 Finished products were easily transported to markets.

Power
More reliable sources of power were developed especially steam engines which replaced animal power,
wind power and water power. Steam engines used coal and thus mining was developed. Thomas
Newcomer invented the steam engine and James Watts improved it. They invented it between 1705-1720.

Textile industries
 Silk (a very beautiful and expensive cloth), wool and cotton were very important in the development of
the British industry.
 The wool and cotton industry changed a lot between 1750 and 1850 because of new technology.
 Large herds of sheep provided wool, while cotton was imported from the West Indies and the Americas.
 Before cotton was manufactured by hand but as the demand increased and machines were invented to
spin and weave the cloth.
 Silk was a luxury produce for the rich.
 French Huguenots (Protestants) who came to settle in Britain in the 16 th century and 17th century began
an excellent successful silk industry in Southern England.
 Methods of spinning silk thread were learned from silk spinners in Italy.

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 Name of Inventor Year Machine invented Purpose of machine
John Kay 1733 Flying Shuttle. Weaving - Became faster than
spinning
James Hargreaves 1767 Spinning Jenny. Spinning – Produced 11 spindles of
yarn at once. Yarns were stronger
for weft and not strong for warp. It
could be worked by hand.
Richard Arkwright 1769 Water Frame. Spinning – Produced a stronger warp
than spinning journey. It could also
produce weft which was stronger
and could work by water power.
Samuel Crompton 1779 The Mule. Spinning – it combined the principles
of the spinning jenny and the water
frame. Produced stronger yarn than
before and 100 spindles at once.
Edmund Cartwright 1785 Power Loom. Weaving – Weavers caught up with
spinners.

Results
 As a result of all the developments, Britain’s textile industry became very important and Britain made cloth
which was sold worldwide.
 Industrialisation led to the development of new towns and cities around the most important factories
were the workers (mainly women and children) worked under very harsh conditions.
 The machines were dangerous to operate.
 There was little fresh air and the lighting was poor in the factories and mines.
 Working hours were too long.
 Seven year olds worked in factories and in mines for 14 hours a day and even Sunday (Domestic slavery).
 Workers faced hardships whilst the capitalist made big profits from exploitation of labour and they formed
Trade unions (Confederation of industries) and had political power by befriending members of parliament.
 During the 19th century class struggle took place and the workers’ unions.
 The Grand National Consolidation Trade Union in Britain was founded in 1864 to fight for worker’s rights.
 They also started cooperative societies to buy and sell cheap goods without paying the profits of the
capitalists.
 The growing strength of workers’ class frightened the capitalists so the capitalists introduced reforms to
lessen the class struggle:
 Factory conditions improved.
 Working hours were shortened.
 Employment of women and children was stopped.
 The poor were given help by the government.

By 1850, several classes were formed:

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1. The rural capitalists were losing power and numbers.
2. The middle class which included Industrial capitalists.
3. The worker’s class
4. The peasants, who like rural capitalists were farmers.

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 EUROPEAN IMPERIALISM IN AFRICA

THE SCRAMBE AND PARTITION FOR AFRICA

Factors leading to the colonisation of Africa
Many different factors led to the colonisation of Africa.
 Firstly Europe had many industrial technologies which changed in the late 19 th century and this
development was due to African slave labour.
 In countries such as Britain, Germany, France and Italy machines and factories rather than land became
great sources of wealth.
 At some time raw materials such as vegetables, oil and rubber became important for the industry.
 The saw Africa as a good market for their raw materials.
 They wanted to civilise the less developed countries and make sure their home countries stayed rich and
strong.
 Technological advancements affected colonisation as big ships were invented to carry soldiers and
weapons.
 The struggle for supremacy was the competition of control of European territories, there was strong
competition between Germany and France which led to the Franco-Prussian war of 1870-71. France was
defeated and lost Alsace and Lorraine.
 For Germany colonising became a means of showing strength.
 Spain, France and Italy colonised to be glorified.

Local factors
The colonisation of Africa would not have been possible if there were no conditions in Africa that led to
the defeat of Africans by settles.
 There were men who were already working as agents for European countries and for charted companies
i.e. Mlatoes.
 Many African states had been weakened by devastating effects of slave trade.
 Minerals that were found in Africa attracted European settlers.
 Some chiefs had invited the Europeans to their states and this showed lack of unity among Africans.
 Traders and missionaries urged their countries to establish political control and this made it easier for
them to accomplish their missions e.g. Charles Helm, Robert and John Moffat etc.
 Influence of businessmen e.g. Cecil John Rhodes who initiated the influence of Britain in many parts of
Africa including Southern Africa, he had a dream of painting “Africa red” from Cape to Cairo.

Berlin Conference
To avoid fighting over claim to territories in Africa, the European countries called a meeting in Berlin,
Germany in 1884-85 to discuss and decide on how to divide Africa among them. No African country was
invited to the conference; it showed clearly Africa had lost power to Europe. The future political affairs of
Africa were to be decided in the offices of Europe and not Africa.

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 Aims of the meeting
 To draw up rules for the effective occupation of Africa therefore Africa was divided into 20 territorial units
known as spheres of influence.
 They agreed that any country willing to occupy African land had to inform other signing powers so as for
them to make their own claims different from the ones claimed.
 To plan an effective way of conquest - effective conquest meant a colonial administrative structure and
failure to do so meant that any country had the right to occupy the particular country this was article 35
of the Berlin Conference.
 To end slavery and slave trade in territory countries.
 Major water ways e.g. Congo, Niger and Zambezi had to become open to for trade to all European
countries.

OCCUPATION OF ZIMBABWE BY EUROPEAN SETTLERS

Early European contacts with Zimbabwe
 The Portuguese traded in Mashonaland from the early 16th century.
 Other European missionaries, traders and Adventists visited north of Limpopo in the 1820s.
 Robert Moffat was one of the first missionaries who paved the way of the British occupation.
 He signed a treaty with Mzilikazi in 1836 which was called the Moffat treaty of 1836 which established
friendship between the Cape Government (The British) and Mzilikazi.
 Between 1836 and 1868 when Mzilikazi died he also signed a treaty with the Boars but was not that
important.

Cecil John Rhodes

 Cecil John Rhodes made an effort to colonise as many African countries as possible, he wanted to point
the continent red.
 He had moved away from Britain as a result of his illness.
 He saw business opportunities and started two businesses:
 BSAC (British South African Company).
 Kimberly.
 He traced his gold mine and saw that the belt was reaching Zimbabwe so he thought of colonising the
country.
 Rhodes was an imperialist at heart; he wanted to make a rail from Cape in South Africa to Cairo in Egypt.
 He felt that the British were the finest race of all; he spent sleepless nights thinking how lucky he was to
be British.
 He even told Starr Jameson that they are lucky to belong to the finest flower of civilisation.

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 The Rudd Concession (30 October 1888)
Rhodes sent a lawyer Rochford Maguire, his friend Charles Rudd and Thomas Thompson who spoke
Ndebele well to negotiate the Rudd concession. Lobengula was unwilling to sign the treaty but one of his
Indunas called Lotshe misled him into signing the Rudd concession because he was bribed by Thompson.
Other agents of imperialism are at Lobengula’s court was a missionary Rev Charles. D. Helm, he pretended
to be Lobengula’s friend as said he was someone who did not take sides but was advancing the interest of
Britain. He persuaded the Ndebele king to sign the Rudd concession. Lobengula did not realise that Helm
was actually being paid by Cecil John Rhodes.

 Terms
Lobengula was promised:
 £100 per month for an unspecified period.
 1000 loading riffles.
 100 000 loading riffles.
 A gun-boat to be placed on the Zambezi River.

In turn Lobengula would:

 Grand mining rights to Cecil John Rhodes’ men.
 Grand they power to do all things they deem necessary in order to carry out their mining activities.
 To give legal rights to Cecil John Rhodes’ men to stop other fortune seekers such as Boars to enter
Matebeleland.

Non-verbal terms
 Only ten whites were allowed to mine, they were not allowed to mine near towns, they had to surrender
their fire arms to the king.
 Obey Ndebele rules.
 Dig one hole at a time.

NB: After receiving the Rudd concession, Rhodes rushed to Britain to apply for a Charter (a written document)
to enable him to form a company for the occupation of Zimbabwe.

The Pioneer Column

 It was a march regardless of what Lobengula said.
 Soon after being granted the Charter, Rhodes went to South Africa to gather a gang of mercenaries which
he called the pioneer column.
 The Gang consisted of 200 mercenaries supported by 500 policemen.
 To reduce danger of conflict, a decision was made to avoid Matebeleland and March into Mashonaland.
 F.C.Selous led the way marking trees to be cut to make a road.
 About 170 wagons followed him and the nearest Ndebele village was left 150km north.
 Lobengula sent his men to ask them why they were marching and why they had collected but were
brushed aside by Colonel Pennefather who was commanding the Pioneer police.
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 On the way the Pioneer column established Fort Tuli and from there Fort Victoria and then Fort Charter
and on September 12 they got to Salisbury and hoisted the British flag and declared Mashonaland
occupied.
 As they established fort charter on their way, a segment of it headed by Jameson branched off and trekked
to Mashonaland to pre-amp the efforts of the Portuguese who were driving from the east.
 The whole aim of this was to seize the east and establish Beira as an independent port for new BSAC
territory.
 The most important chief Mutasa was persuaded by Jameson and his party to sign a treaty known as the
Mutasa treaty on the 14th of September, 2 days after the establishment of fort Salisbury.

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 OCCUPATION OF ZIMBABWE BY EUROPEAN SETTLERS

Cecil John Rhodes

 Cecil John Rhodes made an effort to colonize as many African countries as possible, he
wanted to paint the continent Red.
 He had moved away from Britain as a result of his illness.
 He saw business opportunities and started two businesses:
 BSAC (British South African Company).
 Kimberly.
 He traced his gold mine and saw that the belt was reaching Zimbabwe so he thought of
colonising the country.
 Rhodes was an imperialist at heart; he wanted to construct a railway line from Cape in
SouthAfrica to Cairo in Egypt.
 He felt that the British were the finest race of all; he spent sleepless nights thinking how lucky
hewas to be British.
 He even told Starr Jameson that they are lucky to belong to the finest flower of civilisation.

The Charter

The Charter was granted on 29 October 1889.

Objectives
 Construction of a railway line and telegraph
 Encouragement of migration and colonisation
 Development of mining
 Promote trade and commerce

The Charter also included that:

 Imperial government had full control of Southern Rhodesia and could act upon the
adviceof the Secretary of colonies.
 The company to have its head office in Britain
 Religion in the country was not to be interfered with
 Rhodes was given permission to occupy the country for 25 years and after that
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 permission had be granted renewed for terms of ten years.
 Rhodes had to maintain a police force and undertake public works.

Cecil john Rhodes formed the BSAC for the occupation of Zimbabwe and a Board of Directors was
formed to lead the BSAC. Adverts were made of Engineers, Miners and Doctors etc. Many
applied, but only 200 were accepted. Every member was promised 3000 acres of land and
15gold claims. A police force was also formed to protect the members. Army members and their
wagons were referred to as the ‘Pioneer Column.’
The Pioneer Column
 It was a march regardless of what Lobengula said.
 Soon after being granted the Charter, Rhodes went to South Africa to gather a gang of
mercenaries which he called the pioneer column.
 The Gang consisted of 200 mercenaries supported by 500 policemen.
 To reduce danger of conflict, a decision was made to avoid Matebeleland and march
intoMashonaland.
 F.C. Selous led the way marking trees to be cut to make a road.
 About 170 wagons followed him and the nearest Ndebele village was left 150km north.
 Lobengula sent his men to ask them why they were marching but were brushed aside by
ColonelPenne-father who was commanding the Pioneer police.

 On the way the Pioneer column established Fort Tuli and from there Fort Victoria and then Fort
Charter and on September 12 1890 they got to Salisbury and hoisted the British flag and declared
Mashonaland occupied.
 As they established Fort Charter on their way, a segment of it headed by Jameson branched off
and trekked to Mashonaland to pre-amp the efforts of the Portuguese who were driving from
the east.
 The whole aim of this was to seize the east and establish Beira as an independent Port for new
BSAC territory.
 The most important Shona Chief Mutasa was persuaded by Jameson and his party to sign
atreaty known as the Mutasa treaty on the 14th of September, 2 days after the establishment of
fort Salisbury.

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 The War of disposition of 1893(Anglo-Ndebele war)

 The Ndebele Kingdom was doomed from the moment Rhodes decided to colonize Zimbabwe.

Causes
 Conflicts over control of the Shona
The British and the Ndebele wanted the Shona, but for different purposes. The Ndebele needed
them for raids and the British as a source of labour. The British prevented the Shona from the
continuous Ndebele raids therefore the two clashed.
 Boundary issue
After reaching Mashonaland, Jameson marked a boundary to separate Mashonaland and
Matebeleland on the Inyathi and Shashi rivers. This angered Lobengula as he continuously asked
who Jameson was, to demark such a boundary. Therefore, Lobengula refused to accept the
boundary.
 Railway link
The British felt that the Ndebele blocked the route of communication between Salisbury and
Mafeking (South Africa) as they intended to construct a railway line to link Salisbury and Mafeking
through Matebeleland. Such a route minimised costs to South Africa. This seemed to be
impossible as they feared Lobengula and above all they had not invaded Matebeleland, but
Mashonaland.
 Failure to find second rand gold in Mashonaland
British failed to get as much gold as they expected so they thought it was in Matebeleland, they
also believed that Matebeleland was built on a hill of gold.
 Rich soils and cattle
The British wanted the good grazing lands and great herds of Ndebele cattle. They believed they
would make a lot of profit from agriculture if they failed to get the gold.
 The Ndebele were warning light
They were a military threat to the British.

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 Quick Victorious war
The Ndebele war would make Rhodes popular in Britain; they wanted to fight and defeat the
Ndebele as soon as they possibly could.
 The Victoria Incident
In 1891, Lomagundi and Chibi were killed by Lobengula. Lobengula continuously raided the Shona
in Masvingo who were providing labour to the British. May 1893, some men under headman
Gomara cut some 500 yards of telegraph wire between Fort Tuli and Fort Victoria. Gomara paid
the fine demanded by the British using Lobengula’s cattle. Another Chief Bere stole
Lobengula’s cattle and Lobengula became furious and sent an army under Munyawo and
Umgandani to teach Gomara and Bere a lesson. By July the army reached Masvingo, burnt down
homes, killed men and took young children and women in Zimuto and other areas in Masvingo.
 Farms and mines were attacked and a lot of cattle were taken even the ones belonging to
thewhites.
 Shona stopped providing labour in European farms and mines in Masvingo.
 The Ndebele demanded the handover of the Shona who had taken refuge in white farms
and towns

 Lendy refused to comply and a meeting was held between Umgandani/Manyawo and Jameson/
Lendy and this was called the Victoria Agreement.
 They agreed that the Ndebele had to withdraw from the Victoria district within 2 hours and
accept the boundary proposed.
Jameson felt that the Ndebele army had not gone as far as expected so he attacked them killing
30 people including Umgandani. Lobengula became angry and sought revenge.
 War became unavoidable between the British and the Ndebele.
 After the Victoria incident, Lobengula refused monthly payments as per the Rudd concession,
Rhodes began to buy horses from South Africa and looked for volunteers to occupy
Matabeleland.
 Each volunteer was promised a farm (3 000 acres), 15 gold claims and half the cattle captured in
Matabeleland to be shared amongst volunteers.
 The first column left Harare leading to Bulawayo, the second left Victoria and met the Harare
column near Kwekwe and the last column left Botswana and went directly to Matabeleland.

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 Course of the War in Matabeleland
 The war began in October 1893, the Ndebele prepared 18 000 men where-as BSAC had 3
500men including 2 000 Tswana auxiliary fighters.
 The company moved faster as it had horses.
 It used modern weapons e.g. machine guns, gun powders and wagons to help in the providing
of war material.
 The Ndebele used spears and shields.
 The first battle was the Shangani (25 October 1893).
 The Ndebele came at night and killed people camped outside.
 By sun down the Ndebele were defeated and some of their warriors died.
 The second war was at Mbembezi (November 1893).
 The Ndebele routed the Laager by the river at night and three Ndebele regiments ambushed it.
Afierce battle was fought and the Ndebele lost due to inferior weapons.
 When Jameson and company entered Matabeleland the found it deserted. Jameson’s plan
tocapture Lobengula was in vain.

 Allan Wilson was sent to fetch for Lobengula, the Shangani River flooded before he could cross
over.
 The Ndebele king attempted to prevent a war with the Europeans by offering them 2 bags of
goldas a peace wish of gift.
 However, the gold did not reach Starr Jameson leading to the war of disposition in which
thesettlers succeeded in taking the land from the Ndebele and destroying the state.
 The Ndebele army attacked Wilson and his men; they were slaughtered with their horses.
 In 1894 Lobengula was said to have died of Malaria. The Ndebele Indunas lost hope
andsurrendered themselves to the BSAC.

Results
 The Ndebele were defeated.
 Matebeleland became company territory

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 Chimurenga 1
 Chimurenga means war of liberation. It was also known as the Chindunduma due to the founders
booming sounds which were used by Europeans against Africans.
 Because of the wars were many and the fact that both the Shona and the Ndebele took part in
the war reflect the wide spread to opposition to colonisation. They had similar problems and
unified to fight the settlers.
Causes
 Loss of land
Land belonged to community and not the chief even everything in it i.e. animals, firewood, fruit
trees etc. The British pegged farms in best areas in the country owned by Shona and Ndebele.
The Ndebele and Shona were driven away from their farms and had to work as labourers for
Europeans and farms which once belonged to them. Therefore, they felt offended and degraded
when their land was taken away from them. They had to fight to regain their lost land.
 Introduction of reserves
Gwaai and Shangani reserves were created for the Ndebele after their defeat. Reserves could not
accommodate all the Ndebele and were very hot, dry and tsetse infested. Some Ndebele refused
to occupy the areas, but to no avail.
 Loss of cattle
Cattle was a symbol of wealth, they distinguished chiefs from subjects; rich from poor. Police
boys helped in the administration of the country, but abused their powers as they began to
demand cattle, goats and sheep from Africans and thus became unpopular. The settlers
themselves lacked capital to invest in Rhodesia so they stole cattle from Africans, raided them
and subjected them to taxes especially chiefs who failed to supply the labour required. They were
either punished or forced to pay a fine in the form of cattle.
 Taxation
The company introduced hut tax in 1894. Every adult was made to pay a dollar for every hut he
had. The motive behind this was to force Africans to leave their homes and be employed and
accommodated by the settlers on farms. Both the Shona and the Ndebele resisted, the company
seized goats, crops and cattle from people who failed to pay tax. Animals were driven to the hills
and hid.

62 | P a g e
 Abuse of African women
In 1903 the company introduced immorality suppression act. It mainly affected the Shona. No
white woman was to have sexual intercourse with a black man. Police boys also took advantage
and abused African women as whites were interested in black women and no law governed it.
Africans resented this as some husbands lost their wives forever. Whites never married and yet
in-laws expected lobola according to their custom. Therefore, Africans felt that war was the only
solution to end this.

 Forced labour
The company forced black men to work for the whites for a certain period of time per year. The
Ndebele and Shona ran away to the hills to avoid being overworked. Some chiefs and headmen
openly resisted forced labour e.g. a Mutoko headman was punished by receiving ten lashes and
a fine of 6 goats and 3 heads of cattle. The sjambok was applied on Africans to force them to
work; at times whole villages were burnt for failing to provide labour. This disrupted African
way of life completely.

 Ndebele confidence
In the Anglo-Ndebele war of 1893, some regiments did not participate. Therefore, they felt that
as a combined force they would definitely win the war. They were so determined to re-establish
their supremacy in Matebeleland therefore they were very confident.

 Natural/Physical disasters.
Favourable rain was received in both Matebeleland and Mashonaland, but thereafter the area
wasstruck by a drought. Huge swarms of locust devoured the few crops left and this worsened
the situation and famine was being experienced. Rinder-pests wiped huge herds of cattle and
this was associated to the Shona high Priest at Matopos Mlimo/Murenga, the spirit believed
that the white had to be driven away from Matebeleland and Mashonaland for all these problems
to be solved.

63 | P a g e
 Loss of independence
The Ndebele were forbidden from choosing another king after the death of Lobengula; they had
to fight the whites to regain their independence as well as an opportunity to choose a new king.
The Shona also felt that the settlers did not sign any treaties with them, but they had also
losttheir independence.

Uprising in Matebeleland
 March 1896, white attacks began with the killing of Thomas Murdock a miner.
 March 1896, about 30 whites were killed as the Ndebele attacked farm houses, missions
andcollaborators.
 Ndebele were organised by high priest Umlugulu with help of regimental Indunas e.g.
Nyandaand others.Officials of Mwari/Mlimo such as Mkwati and Siginyamatshe helped
Umlugulu.
 Mkwati’s shrine was at Ntabazikamambo and it became the centre of the war.
 Around June 1896, the whites got reinforcements from Salisbury, South Africa, Botswana
andBritain; there were about 2 050 troops altogether.
 The Ndebele were defeated at Umguza in June 1896 and this implies they retreated mostly
intothe Matopos hills.
 The Ndebele were defeated as they faced food shortages, most of their crops were destroyed
aswell as their grain stores.
 Ntabazikamambo was stormed and forces gathered around Mkwati were war broke up.
 Rhodes became afraid of the war because:
 It was becoming expensive as the Ndebele were taking too long to defeat.
 Mines had closed down so the company was running a loss.
 The British parliament was about to withdraw the B.S.A.C. charter to rule Rhodesia.
 War had begun in Mashonaland so Rhodes was not able to fight the Ndebele and the Shona at
the same.
 Whites were losing in terms of both man power and resources.

64 | P a g e
 Rhodes therefore quickly settled an
agreement.The Ndebele were promised:
1. Supply of both food and seeds.
2. Salaries for Indunas (aristocracies) e.g. Umlugulu the Induna of Gwanda district.
In return the Ndebele were asked to:
1. Surrender all their weapons.
2. Handover all who performed all the numerous settler murders.
The war ended not because the Ndebele were defeated, but because of a settlement.

Mashonaland Uprising.
 Suprised the settlers as they felt that they protected the Shona from Ndebele raids.
 Signs of war had begun at Chief Makoni’s court in Manicaland.
 June 1896, fire was seen at hilltops around Hartley (Chegutu area), it spread to Mazoe,
Murehwa, Mtoko Headlands and Makoni; it was their sign to begin the war.
 Mwari religious leaders united paramount chiefs, these included Mkwati with his headquarters
atNtabazikamambo.
 In western Mashonaland, Mashayamombe’s kraal was the centre of rebellion.
 Settlers were killed including traders; Beatrice mine was attacked as well as areas 70km away.
 Kaguvi and Nehanda coordinated people, Kaguvi worked with Chinamora, Chikwaka,
Nyandoro, Zvimba, Mangwende, Mashayamombe, Rusike etc.
 Nehanda worked with Chiweshe, Hwata, Nyamweda, Negomo, Nyachuru etc.
 Fighting was organised at local levels by traditional, political, and military leaders.
 Shona used guerrilla warfare, they would attack and after attacking they would hide and
pretendto be ordinary people, therefore many settlers were killed.
 Whites were outnumbered and about to be defeated so settlers asked for reinforcements
fromBritain, Whites burnt down Shona villages and seized their cattle.
 A force of horse troops attacked Mashayamombe; the settlers used dynamites on Shona caves.
 Mashayamombe together with 230 people were killed whilst escaping. As a result
paramountchiefs were defeated one by one and these included Makoni, Mangwende etc.

65 | P a g e
  Spirit mediums were hunted down. Kaguvi was captured in October 1897 and Nehanda
inDecember and they were both hung on 27 April 1898.
 Chief Mapondera who was also active died in prison.
 1903 Chimurenga in Mashonaland ended.

Duties and roles of spirit mediums

 They prepared and mobilised people for war.
 Inspired people to fight.
 Provided logistics needed during uprising.
 Gave medicine to warriors, treated and healed the wounded and the
sick.Reasons for defeat of the Shona
 They used inferior weapons e.g. spears, shields, clubs and arrows whilst Europeans used
superiors weapons e.g. guns and cannons and also dynamite.
 Africans were not united as some regiments were against uprising and therefore did not fight.
 They lost hope after their leader had died.
 Whites destroyed some Shona crops, villages and water source. As a result, the Shona
werestarved.
 Whites got help from Britain (1 000 soldiers).
 Lacked a single army and a leader to coordinate.
 Surrendering of the Ndebele made settlers concentrate on the Shona.
 Spirit mediums misled the people by informing them that the white man’s bullets were going
to turn to water.

Mbuya Nehanda
 She was one of the most famous heroines of Zimbabwean history.
 She was a descendent of the house of Munhumutapa.
 She worked tirelessly in central Mashonaland encouraging the people to resist colonisation.
 She forbad African people from touching anything that belonged to the Whites and argued that the defeat
of Africans was as a result of those who broke this rule.
 Mbuya Nehanda was captured and executed on 27 April 1898.

66 | P a g e
 Sekuru Kaguvi
 He played a leading part in the 1st Chimurenga.
 He put his heart into the struggle for liberation.
 Like Nehanda, Kaguvi told to kill and to remove all the whites but not to touch their things.
 He influenced paramount chiefs like Makoni, Svosve, Nyandoro and Mashayamombe.
 Kaguvi surrendered on his own accord on 27 October 1897 but was executed together with Mbuya
Nehanda on 27 April 1898.

Results of the Chimurenga

 The causing of the struggle was brutal and savage.
 Settlers used Dynamites to force Africans out of caves.
 The 1st Chimurenga showed Africans that it was possible to win freedom and that armed struggle was the
only way to achieve African liberation.
 The Chimurenga produced courageous leaders.

POLITICAL STRUCTURES 1894-1923

¯ Zimbabwe was governed by the BSAC up to 1922
¯ The Administrator and the legislative Council were appointe4d by the company.
¯ Voting was through property qualification.
¯ This resulted in Africans beings segregated from the voting roll as they did not own
theproperty demanded by the company for one to vote.
¯ The Whites used traditional chiefs to rule and to keep order among the Africans in
theirDistricts.
¯ Chiefs who refused to cooperate with the Whites were removed to be replaced by those
whowere loyal.
¯ The Resident Minister approved any bill which was regarded unfair to the Africans.
¯ The High commissioner based in South Africa dealt with most important matters affecting
thecolony.
¯ The settlers occupied important positions in the government e.g. magistrates and
Nativecommissioners.
¯ Magistrates dealt with important issues affecting the settlers such as land application and
civilmatters.

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¯ The African chiefs assisted Native commissioners.
¯ By 1913, there were more settlers on the Legislative Council than company men.
¯ A referendum was held in 1922 and the majority of the settlers opted for self-rule rather than
tobe ruled by the company.
¯ In October 1923, the settlers became responsible for all government except defence
andAfrican affairs which were reserved for the British government.
¯ Thus Southern Rhodesia became an exclusive White colony.

THE COMPANY BSAC RULE 1894-23

¯ After the invasion and occupation of Zimbabwe, the BSAC started to enhance
infrastructuredevelopment.
¯ The Mutare to Beira railway was built and later linked to Salisbury.
¯ The Cape to Mafeking railway was later connected to Bulawayo.
¯ It is important to realise that African labour was used to build these railway lines.
¯ In 1903 coal mining began in Wankie and in 1908 asbestos mining started at Shabanie.
¯ Mining activities led to the development of the economy.
¯ More so large tracks of land were used for farming by the volunteers of war.
¯ The BSAC remained with large tracks of land which it reserved.
¯ This land was left open for sell especially to the whites as the Blacks could not afford.
¯ In 1914, 23% of the country was allocated as reserve land, 32% was given to European
individuals and 45% was for future use.
¯ This reveals how brutal were the Whites.
¯ Though they were few numerically they owned large tracks of land than the Blacks who
werethe majority.
¯ The settlers were concerned with land ownership and they resented that the land belong to
the company.
¯ Due to such disagreements between the settlers and the company, the issue was resolved in
thecourt from which the verdict was that the company did not own land but the Crown (British
Government).
¯ With frustration, the company relinquished is power and in 1923 it was settler independence.

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ROAD TO RESPONSIBLE GOVERNMENT

Between 1890 and 1897, the BSAC failed to make progress in Southern Rhodesia economically
and politically. This was due to the Anglo-Ndebele war, Chimurenga, rinder-pests which
destroyed cattle and locusts which destroyed crops. Therefore, the company used a lot of capital
on war as well as finding means for survival.

Developments in Agriculture
European type African type

They began to grow tobacco, maize, cotton, New methods of farming such as crop rotation
groundnuts etc. Southern Rhodesia became and construction of contour ridges were
one of the major maize growers and introduced.
exported to Britain for the first time in 1909.

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Markets were established for exporting Domboshava and Tsholotsho schools were set
tobacco. up by the government to train agricultural
demonstrators. They were issued badges or
master farmer certificates
In 1912 the land bank was established for Those who were able could buy plots of
exporting tobacco. This helped Europeans to about200-300 acres.
establish themselves on land as they were able
to get loans.
The Department of Agriculture was set up in They could also sell their produce but not
1908 to implement agricultural policy to onthe same markets as Europeans.
whitefarmers.
Research station e.g. Gwebi 1909, Rhodes
Nyanga and Matopos Estates were established.
A pricing policy which discriminated against
Africans was implemented; the levies which
were paid were for one to be able to sell goods
produced were too high that Africans could not
pay.
Africans were further subjected to forced
labour and most of them lost their land.

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 Industrial developments
 Development of a railway line from Bulawayo to Harare in 1897 and then Harare to
Mutare in 1898. This was vital for transportation of equipment in the industrial sector
as well as the exportation of goods.
 Industries were built near towns e.g. Gwelo, QueQue and Gatoma. Most people moved
from rural areas to urban areas to seek employment.
 Asbestos replaced gold as the most valuable mineral in Southern Rhodesia.
 Establishment of electricity supply commission in 1937. This prorated the use of power lines.

Legislative council
In 1908 the first legislative council was elected. It had 9 members, 5 elected from the
company and 4 elected by the settlers to represent settler’s needs. The Chairperson of
the council was also chairperson of the

Resident commissioner
The resident commissioner was elected by Britain to check if African were being
treated fairlyby the BSAC. The commander General controlled the company’s army
therefore no police force was to be used without knowledge of the commander
General.

Voters for the council

A voter was expected to be able to fill an application form and had to earn $100 per
year or more. This meant most Africans were excluded from voting. In 1898, the settlers
began to complain that they were not benefiting as compared to the company. They
also argued that mining royalties charged by the company were too high to benefit
ordinary people. In 1925, settlers won against the company, instead of the company
rule ending 1914 according to the charter. More years were added as settlers were
benefiting from the company’s investments. However, clashes continued to exist
between the company and settlers, they were mainly for land. There was alienated land
(shared land) and unalienated land (unshared land). The settlers demanded to know the

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 owner of the unalienated land but the company did not answer. The company had
reserved land for their unborn children. Therefore, the company handed in the
government to the settlers, but not the land.

Administrative issues
 The company had given off around 16 million and the settlers demanded to know who
was responsible for paying money back after the termination of the company. Settlers
demanded that the company was responsible so they clashed with the company.
 The issue was passed on to a judicial committee in Britain which finally ruled out that
land belonged to the British government. Britain offered to pay 3.5 million as
compensation for administration deficits. The company was offended as it needed land.

 South Africa offered a larger amount than Britain only if Joined South Africa as a fifth
province.
 Charles Coughlan leader of the legislative council was against the joining of South Africa
and Southern Rhodesia; he argued that Rhodesia had a small population and could be
swallowed by South Africa. This also diluted British influence as she would be flooded
by the Boers.
 In 1919, Charles Coughlan formed the Responsible Government Association (R.G.A.), to
fight for a responsible government in Rhodesia.
 A referendum was held on 22 October 1922 in which Coughlan won against unionists
(those who voted for the union of South Africa and Southern Rhodesia) and those
prevented Southern Rhodesia from being incorporated into South Africa, R.G.A. got 8
774 votes and Unionists 5 589votes.
 1 October 1923 Southern Rhodesia won the self-responsible government with Charles
Coughlan as the first Prime Minister of Southern Rhodesia.
 The country was divided into 15 districts and each district had to send 2 members to
represent them in the parliament.
 Elections were to be held after every 5 years, but Africans were still excluded from
voting.
 1923 Britain surrendered the African majority to the settler regime.
 Federation of Southern Rhodesia and Northern Rhodesia was also suggested, but it
failed.

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 The Land Question
 The land segregation policies were implemented and Africans remained without land for
Agriculture.
 They were forced to work as labourers in mines, factories and mines which Africans were
exploited as they were given low wages considering the work they did.
 Reserves were created for Africans after the 1896-97 war.
 In 1898 the order in council ordered the company to provide enough land for Africans.
 In 1902 order in council ordered creation of more reserves instead of redistributing land as for
the 1898 demand.
 Settlers began to buy land such that by 1902, 2/3 of the Highveld was belonging to the Europeans.
 The land commission of 1914 reflected what they thought was final by 1920, land was said to be
redistributed as follows:
 Land bought by Europeans: 31 484 095 acres.
 Native reserves: 21 203 493 acres.
 Land not allocated: 43 529 880 acres.
NB: one really wonders what the land not allocated was for.

The Land Apportionment Act (1930)

 It was a system in which settlers wanted to be divided between blacks and whites in such a way
that they could keep some land for their unborn white children.
 Out of a total land of 96 000 000 acres, Europeans were given 49 149 174 acres and Africans were
given 21 127 040 acres. During that time there were 1 081 000 Africans and 50 000 were
Europeans.
 The devastation of land apportionment Act is that it caused a lot of overcrowding in the reserves.

The Native Land Husbandry Act

 This was an effort to reduce effects of the Land Apportionment Act of the African population.
 It stated how land in the reserves could be used and divided.
 One family was allowed to keep 5 cattle only and to farm 8 acres only.
 District commissions distributed land which had been formerly distributed by chiefs.it was hoped
that the Native Husbandry act would prevent Africans from coming to urban areas to seek
employment.
 They also expected that it would result in better farming methods being used.

Effects of the Land Acts on Africans

 It created a serious land shortage among African peasants.
 Crop production declined as 1 acre could only produce one bag of maize.

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 African were turned to low paid labourers as they could get 1 mealie meal, beans and salt as
payments.
 Africans had to pay rent to whites.
 Africans were forced out of the rural areas to the urban areas to seek employment.
 It contributed to the raise of nationalism in Zimbabwe e.g. The African National Conference of
1957 which aimed at reversing the Land Apportionment Act and relocation of land on non-racial
base.

The Land Tenure Act (1969)

 It was introduced by the Rhodesia Front to tighten the Land Apportionment Act.
 It increased the eviction or removal of Africans from European areas.
 The Land Tenure Act caused some hardships in the African community.
 Several Acts were later introduced to discriminate against the black people.

Chief Rekai Tangwena

 He was an African leader who opposed the policy of land segregation.
 Tangwena lived around the Inyangani Mountains, this land was sold to the whites without him
knowing and therefore he became a squatter.
 In 1962, the Rhodesian Front removed all squatters but Tangwena refused to move.
 He was taken to court and lost and in June 1968 he appealed to the high court and won the case.
 The Rhodesian Front became angry in the victory, abandoned in rule of law and resorted to
violence and murder.
 September 18 1968, the Rhodesian Front government evicted Rekai Tangwena by force, arrested
him, burnt villages down and his people fled mountains where they lived without shelter.
 Tangwena was later accompanied by Robert Mugabe to Mozambique in 1974 and only returned
after independence.
 The Tangwena’s returned to their land and are now happily settled.

Rhodesian Law
 In Rhodesia the law was used as an instrument for oppression and underdevelopment.
 In the early years of settler rule laws were passed to force Africans to work for Europeans by
confiscating their land.
 Later laws introduced prevented Africans from competing against white in employment, selling
produce and residential areas.
 There were also laws of governing African movement from one part of the province to another.
 However, these laws did not stop Africans from fighting to achieve independence.

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Laws Passed

LAW YEAR PURPOSE

Land Apportionment Act. 1930 Creation of reserves e.g. Gwai and Shangani.
Cheap labour
Native Land Husbandry Act. 1951 Deprive Africans of their land.
Cheap labour
Land Tenure Act. 1969 Deprive Africans of their land.
Force them to sell their labour cheaply.
Industrial Conciliation Act. 1934 To govern labour relations.
The law stopped Africans from forming trade
unions.
Registration of Labours Act 1895 Records of finger prints and details of each
worker’s village, tribe etc.
Native Registration Act. 1936 Controlled movement of Africans.
Forced Africans to carry passes wherever they
went.
Native Passes Act. 1937 Controlled movement of Africans.
Forced Africans to carry passes wherever they
went.
Maize Control Act. 1931 Created better marketing opportunities as a
higher price of European maize.
Cattle Levy Act. 1934 Made it possible for Europeans to sell their cattle
for better prices.
Sedition Act. 1936 Speeches and action intended to make people
rebel against the authority of the state were
forbidden.
Unlawful Organisation Act. 1959 Accused the leaders of the A.N.C. of addressing
ignorant and unwary persons in stolen and
threatening language.
Preventive Detention Act. 1959 Gave the Minister of Justice power to distinct
people concentration camps without trial in a
proper court.
A.N.C. leaders were arrested and detained
Law And Order Act. 1960 Replace preventive detention.
(Maintenance Act)
African Labour Regulation Prevented people from leaving their jobs and
Act. from strike.
Masters and Servants Act. Prevented people from leaving work.
Made sure labour was available to European
masters.

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 MODERN AFRICAN NATIONALISM AND LIBERATION

Nationalism is a feeling of oneness and love for one’s country. Modern nationalism grew in
opposition to colonial and other settler occupation of the country. The ill-treatment of Africans
and other social and economic problems which held back African development led to increasing
protests as blacks struggled to end oppression and inequality that the settlers created and tried
to kill. Instead of seeing the protest movements as a sign that conditions need to improve the
legislations were tightened. Despite the brutality and abuse of colonial governments the Africans
did not stop to organise and redress themselves.

Early protest movements

 After the first Chimurenga, protest movements were formed all around the country and dealt
with grievances in those areas.
 The leaders came from the black elite which included teachers, priests. Trade unions and the
working.
 The organisations formed protested about particular grievances such as:
 Land.
 Wages.
 Representation in parliament.
 Educational opportunities.
 Some of the movements were reformed Industrial workers unions, Rhodesian Bantu voters
association and British African Voice Association.
 However, during this period these organisations did not die with issue of ending minority rule.

The rise of mass nationalism

 When the World War II broke out, many Africans in the colony served in the war to support their
colonial masters.
 The Rhodesian Africans were not an expectation during the war, people of different races were
made equal as they suffered and died at the war front.
 Once the war was over, the experience of equality was carried home and as a result the
nationalist voice demanded Political participation to grow.
 They fought and died as equal alongside whites but once home there were no longer equal in the
settler system.
 The 1st mass nationalist political movement was African National Congress (A.N.C.) in 1957 and
whose leaders were James Chikerema, Michael Mawema, Joseph Msika, George Nyandoro,
Joshua Nkomo, Standlake Samkange and Edson Sithole.
 The A.N.C. was banned in February 1959 by Sir Edgar White and many nationalist leaders were
detained.

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 Formation of National political parties

The National Democratic Party (N.D.P.)

 It was 1st led by Michael Malema the Joshua Nkomo took over.
 Although N.D.P. leaders included Robert Mugabe and Leopold Takawira.
 Other African countries like Ghana made Zimbabwe nationalist demands stronger.
 In 1961 representatives for the party went to London to discuss a new constitution with the
British government, however, they were not offered equal representations.
 The party was then banned on 9 Dec 1961.

ZAPU and ZANU

 The banning of the N.D.P. led to formation of the Zimbabwe African People’s Union (ZAPU) with
Joshua Nkomo its leader.
 After violent protests in the country ZAPU was banned in September 1962, lack of agreement
among the nationalists led to the formation of Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) in
August 1963 with Ndabaningi Sithole as its leader.
 In August 1964 both parties were banned and the leaders were detained.

Developments in Southern Rhodesia

 Unlike in Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland were Africans campaigned to end federation, in
Southern Rhodesia Africans were exploited.
 Most Africans were excluded from voting therefore the protested against colonial rule.
 In 1962 elections were won by the Rhodesian front (R.F) led by Sir Winston Field.
 Ian Smith threatened to declare independence as he claimed that majority rule should not exist
in Southern Rhodesia but minority rule.
 He detained political leaders, banned televisions and declared U.D.I. illegal on the 11 th of
November 1965.
 Britain responded by introducing sanction on Ian smith.

Revolutionary Nationalism
 On 11 November 1965, Ian Smith declared U.D.I. against African nationalism.
 It became clear that the settlers would not listen to black demands.
 ZANU and ZAPU then sent more of their leaders out of the country to prepare for an armed
struggle.
 ZANU was allowed to setup camp0s in Zambia, Ghana, Tanzania and China whilst ZAPU organised
joint training camps with A.N.C. (S.A.) in Zambia, and the Solvent Union (Russia).

Page | 77
 Herbert Chitepo was leader of ZANU and its Military leader was ZANLA and James Chikerema was
leader of ZAPU’s military wing ZIPRA.
 The armed struggle began on the 28th of April 1966.

The Armed struggle

 Because of early defeats the Guerrillas began to listen to the grievances of the mass which they
referred to as National grievances.
 These are:
 Land struggle.
 General poverty.
 Constant harassment by Rhodesian Front.
 The guerrillas’ full understanding of these grievances encouraged people to join the armed
struggle.
 Political education was introduced to fighters so that they would be aware of the exact aims of
the struggle.
 Political education was introduced to fighters so that they would be aware of the exact aims of
the struggle.
 Old men and women provided food and other supplies to freedom fighters whilst the youth, both
boys and girls were organised into security groups to watch enemy movements and supply
information and food to the guerrillas.

Financial support
 Both ZAPU and ZANU received political and financial support from people outside Zimbabwe.
 Countries such as Tanzania, Mozambique, Angola, Zambia, Ethiopia, Algeria, Yugoslavia, China,
Romania, North Korea, Soviet Union (Russia) and other socialist countries supported armed
struggle.
 Many countries in the world including frontline states (Angola, Botswana, Mozambique, Tanzania
and Zambia) supported the first struggles of the African people and opposed the illegal state of
Rhodesia.
 The increasing guerrilla struggle led to the loss of discipline and confidence among white settlers.

Settler response to armed struggle

 The government created protected villages surrounded by wire and guarded by Rhodesian forces.
This was aimed at stopping support for the guerrillas.
 African homes were burnt down, crops destroyed and cattle killed in order to deny the guerrillas
food.
 Thousands were detained and hanged for supporting guerrillas.
 Botswana, Mozambique and Zambia were attacked by the Rhodesia Front.
 The Rhodesian government used agents to kill top leadership of the liberation movement.

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 Pearce commission
 Edward Heath, the leader of a Conservative party negotiated for a settlement with Ian smith
disregarding the fact that Ian Smith was not interested, Goodman was therefore sent to
negotiate.
 However, he felt that the British Government had to negotiate
 The settlement he came up with meant continuous exploitation of Africans, some African
protested by carrying demonstrations in the streets.
 In 1973, Ian Smith desired to have talks with Bishop Abel Muzorewa (UANC) but failed to reach
any consensus.
 He tried Cde Joshua Nkomo of ZAPU but failed again.
 Ian Smith began to fear armed struggle from Africans so he decided to negotiate with less militant
African leaders.

Internal Agreement
 Besides attempts by South Africa and Zambia to end the war, attempts were also made by the
U.S.A.
 A meeting took place and Ian Smith announced acceptance of majority rule on 24 December
1974, however, Police army and vital agencies had to remain in white hands.
 This called for great opposition from African and British called a Conference in Geneva,
Switzerland which failed again as Ian Smith was not ready to amend anything.
 In 1976 the American Government sent Henry Kissinger the American secretary of state to
organise the Geneva Conference at which Ian Smith was to meet ZAPU and ZANU leaders, as they
feared the defeat of Ian Smith through war of liberation. However, at this point Smith did not
want to grant majority rule.

 As the cost of the war became burdensome, it led Ian Smith to adopt the idea of negotiating with
internal leaders as a way of ending the war.
 African leaders who supported the settlement include Muzorewa, Sithole, Chikerema and Chirau.
 On March 3 1978, the internal settlement was signed and the leaders agreed to form a
government of national unity.
 Under this arrangement Muzorewa became Prime Minister of the brief Zimbabwe Rhodesia
in1979 but even during this period the settlers continued to hold politic and economic power.
 The settlement had been a desperate attempt to stop the armed struggle, unfortunately this did
not happen as Muzorewa and others did not have any control over guerrillas so the struggle
continued.

Lancaster House Conference

It was held in London in September 1979 and it lasted for 4 months

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 Members present
 British Delegation – Lord Carrington – 3 representatives.
 ZANU – Robert Mugabe – 57 representatives.
 ZAPU – Joshua Nkomo – 20 representatives.
 Zimbabwe Rhodesia Delegation – Bishop Abel Muzorewa –20 representatives.

 The Patriotic Front was threatening to fight the colonial government and therefore a Conference
was called for , the Question of land became critical at Lancaster
 ZANU wanted land which was owned by the whites to be redistributed to the rightful owner i.e.
the Africans.
 Whites refused to hand over the land arguing that they had to be paid for the land to be released.
 ZANU argued that if any payment had to be made the International community was responsible.
 The British government later agreed to pay the whites so that they hand over the land they
owned for redistribution.
 Elections were held and ZANU won the majority Vote.
 I8 April 1980 independence was granted to Zimbabwe.
 Cde Cannan Banana became the first President of Zimbabwe and Cde Robert Mugabe was the
first Prime Minister.

From liberation to Independence

 The British government in September 1979 called the warring parties to a conference at the
Lancaster House.
 Bishop Muzorewa led the Zimbabwe Rhodesia Delegation while Robert Mugabe led the patriotic
front.
 The meeting was chaired by British foreign secretary Lord Carrington.
 The conference ended in December 1979 with an agreement that they will be a cease fire
followed by elections involving all parties.
 In the elections Robert Mugabe’s ZANU won the elections.
 The birth of a new nation was witnessed on the 18 th of April 1980 with the hoisting of the
Zimbabwean flag.

Post-independence Zimbabwe
 The new government of Zimbabwe was faced with serious problems of receiving economy and
sociality had been destroyed in the armed struggle.
 From the onset government started to address the political and economic problems faced by the
country.

Socialist ideology
 During the armed struggle Zimbabwean government material support from socialist states.
 ZANU was assisted by China whilst ZAPU got help from Russia.

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 It is therefore not surprising that the 1980 government chose to follow socialist ideology which
was to support equality in the distribution of wealth.
 However, socialism was difficult to implement as it did not get whole hearted support from
everyone as some quickly assumed personal wealth.
 Such behaviour destroyed socialism as it showed double standard in practise.
 With the collapse of socialism in the Soviet Union (Russia) in 1989 Zimbabwe back tracked and
openly they accepted capitalism.

Political developments since independence

 Although there was no voters roll in 1980, true democracy was achieved.
 People voted freely and the outcome of the elections was welcomed by the majority of the
people who wanted the war to end.
 During the armed struggle there were many armed groups in the country and it was now
necessary to maintain peace and security.
 As a result General Solomon Tapfumanei Mujuru was given that task.
 A multi-racial Cabinet was appointed.
 However, because of misunderstanding among the political groups a bloody civil war broke out
in Matebeleland in 1982.
 This ended with the unity agreement of December 1987 and Mugabe became President.

Economic development since Independence

 The Zimbabwe economic problems started at independence when the government attempted to
do too much with every little resource.
 Among the other things were introduction of education at primary level and health services for
other disadvantages groups.
 At independence the economy was determined by foreign companies.
 Zimbabwe had gained political freedom but not economic freedom and as a result as late as 2000
the majority of the Africans remained as workers and peasant farmers.
 However, some progress has been made in giving economic power to Africans.

Education
 The colonial government aims in education were:
 To spread Christianity through work of various missionary societies.
 To train people who would be useful for capitalists’ extraction of wealth from the colony.
 For education to be used as instruments to separate Africans from their culture.
 Only European history was learnt e.g. Hitler, Napoleon, Mussolini etc.
 Missionary societies were the first to start formal; schools for African in Southern Africa.

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 The first mission station was established at Inyathi by The London Missionary Society (L.M.S.) in
1859.
 In 1870 a 2nd mission station opened at Hope Foundation.
 The Jesuits followed the L.M.S in 1879 and the Dutch Reformed Church established one school
near Masvingo in 1891.
 In 1899 the government passed its 1st education for white children and not Africans.
 The ordinance also stated that individual training was to be included in the curriculum for African
children.
 In 1903 ordinance was passed, it aided on teaching African Children enough English to be able to
understand. Therefore this education assumed at making Africans better labourers.
 In 1946, the 1st government school Goromonzi was established and it courted for skilled labourer
power in both private and public sectors.
 The African demanded that the government had to run with the education sector as they did
European education.
 The partnership between Missionaries and government had continued in the education sector.

Education during Federation

 During federation, the federal government became responsible for education.
 However, primary and secondary education became under territorial government.
 The federal government had a list of resources: The University of Zimbabwe was built.
 A department of native education was established as a separate body.
 The colonised regime did very little to respond.

African Education System

The education during U.D.I.

 After the Illegal declaration of Independence in 1965, Africans were trained for semi-skilled
labour in local areas.
 There was a plan for training teachers and building schools (306) over 10 years.
 Africans who were allowed to go to the full 4 year secondary program constituted 12.5% and the
rest ended at primary school.
 This was because grade 7 markers were instructed to fail the rest after a certain number had
passed.
 The Skilled Man Power Development Act and The Industrial Conciliation Act prevented Africans
from training and working in technical fields.
 White trade Unions stopped blacks from getting technical education and training.

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 Post-Independence period

 Before independence the education system had favoured the white minority whilst they were
bottlenecks for African children who forced them out of schools.
 This system produced Africans who were only able to read and write that they could be accepted
in the mines, farms and industries.
 In 1981, the government set out to provide better educational opportunities for Africans.
 There was to be no discrimination in education on grounds, voice class and gender.
 An expansion in education led the government to introduce a fast track teacher in schools.
 Other universities were opened/ established to relieve the University of Zimbabwe to
accommodate those finishing their A level studies.
 To promote the girl child, in 1996 the government came up with the affirmative action policy,
this encouraged female enrolment at higher institutes.
 Since independence the education system has received outstanding achievements.
 On the other hand the quality of education has been limited by lack of funds and brain drain.
 Equality has also been difficult to achieve as some schools have excellent facilities whilst others
have to do with bare minimum.

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 ACHIEVEMENT OF INDEPENDENCE IN AFRICA

 Partition of Africa after 1884 led to the occupation of the continent by European colonial power
except for 2 countries; Ethiopia which had been independent throughout its history and Liberia.
 The exploitation of African people and their resources followed a similar pattern but in some
countries there was strong resistance to colonisation.
 The liberation of the liberation of the African continent has been a long struggle.
 Egypt became the first country to gain independence in 1922.
 The first black African country to become independent was Ghana in 1957; this encouraged other
African nationalists in other parts of the continent.

Liberation of Ghana
The gold coast as it is known during the colonial times became independent on the 6 th of March
1957. At the beginning of the 18th century the British company of merchants sent an official to
make a treaty with regional chief. In 1821 the British government took over the company and in
1874 the Fante and Ga Coastal areas became a British colony and 2 years later the Asante area
was occupied because of its gold.

Protest movements
 Despite a few Africans having being members of the Accra Legislative council 1877.
 The colonial government kept Africans out of the senior posts in the civil service.
 In 1897, members of Ghana’s 2 elite groups the educated and chiefs formed the gold coast
Aborigines Rights Protection Society (A.R.P.S.).
 They had been united by their opposition to laws which did not allow Africans legal ownership of
their land.
 In response to growing discontent, The United Gold Cross Convention (U.G.C.C.) was formed in
1947.
 The U.G.C.C. invited Kwame Nkrumah a graduate in the United States to come back and become
the party’s secretary general, he was a good speaker and organiser.
 In 1948 he and others were detained and a state of emergency was declared following
demonstrations and riots after he had called for a boycott of European firms until firms were
forced to lower prices.
 The constitution of 1950 gave Africans more representations.
 In February 1951, C.P.P. won the legislative elections and became leader of government
businesses and the Prime Minister the following year.
 In 1954 he led his party to victory in the new elections, the regional and capitalist’s forces were
mobilised against the C.P.P. and the British demanded a new set of elections.
 In these elections the C.P.P. won again.

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 Ghana After independence
 Nkrumah’s victory inspired nationalists all over Africa.
 In his speech he promised his country’s support to Africa’s total liberation.
 Ghana was the first country to train Zimbabwean guerrillas and many other liberation units.
 Nkrumah was overthrown by his army in 1966 and died in exile in 1972.
 However, Nkrumah is remembered as father of African independence.

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 THE ORGANISATION OF AFRICAN UNITY

It was a loose association of 30 African countries. The O.A.U. was an attempt to establish an Inter
African organisation of independent states. Then O.A.U. organised to fight against colonialism in
Africa.

Pan-Africanism
 This was a feeling of African inside and outside Africa to free themselves from white people.
 The origins of Pan-Africanism are traced to North America were people from African descent
desired to establish links of Brotherhood with Africans in Africa.
 Its aim was to bring together all the black people of the world in a common struggle for freedom,
equality and self-determination throughout the world.
 Pan-Africanists believed that Africa is a single unit that should unite; there was a deep cultural
unity among all Africans.
 Europe and America developed because of slave labour and raw materials from Africa.
 Because of these beliefs some of the African in America organised Africans to come back to Africa
and a number actually came and stayed in Liberia and Sierra Leone.
 The movement of African unity and solidarity was known as Pan-Africanism.
 With prominent figures such as Henry Sylvester Williams, Marcus Garvey and Dr William E.B. Du
Boise.
 The early Pan-Africanists were Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana, Jomo Kenyatta of Kenya and Julius
Nyerere of Tanzania.
 Henry Sylvester Williams came from Trinidad in the West Indies; he was the first person to
champion Pan-Africanist ideas in 1900. Williams advised African chiefs to fight against colonialism
in order to be independent.
 Marcus Garvey came from Jamaica, he called for black people to return to Africa and his
movement was called “Back to Africa movement”. To help the black Americans go back to Africa,
Garvey formed a shipping company and told black Americans stop to rely and depend on white
employers.
 Dr William E.B. Du Boise. Was regarded as father of pan Africanism, Du Boise ideas were shared
by most afro Americans. He regarded America as his native land. Du Boise pan Africanism aimed
at encouraging and uniting Africans against oppression and exploitation wherever they were.

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 Formation of the O.A.U.
 Before the formation of the O.A.U. there were several attempts to create an Inter African
organisation, however, these attempts failed because of political, economic and linguistic
differences.
 The independence of Ghana speeded up the process and Ghana’s first black leader Kwame
Nkrumah worked on the independence of African states, he wanted to see Africa as one country.
 These ideas of federation were not widely accepted leading to the split among independent
African states namely Casablanca and Monrovia.
 They opposed each other because the Casablanca group favoured a federation for Africa whilst
the Monrovia group favoured a loose association.
 The Casablanca group was radical, militant and violently to the west whilst the Monrovia group
was very friendly to the west.
 Although the two opposed each other they both agreed on the need to form an organisation with
an African interest.
 Eventually Emperor Haile Selassie of Ethiopia, Modibo Keita of Mali and Sekou Toure of Guinea
joined the two together leading to the approval of a charter which established O.A.U. in Addis
Ababa on 25 May 1963.

Aims of the O.A.U.

 To promote unity and solidarity of African states.
 To coordinate and intensify their cooperation and efforts to achieve a better life for people of
Africa.
 To defend their sovereignty, territorial integrity and independence.
 To eradicate all forms of colonialism from Africa.
 To promote international cooperation, having due regard to the charter of United Nations (U.N.)
and Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

Principles of the O.A.U.

 The sovereign equality of all member states.
 Non-interference in internal affairs of the state.
 Respect for all sovereignty and territorial integrity of each state and for its inalienable right to
independent existence.
 Peaceful settlements of disputes by negotiation, mediation, conciliation or arbitration.
 Unreserved condemnation in all its forms of political assassination as well as subversive activities
on the part of neighbouring states or any other state.

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 Absolute dedication to the total emancipation freedom on the African territories which are still
dependent.
 Affirmation of a policy of non-alignment with regard to all blacks.

The O.A.U. organs and their duties.

The most important organs of the O.A.U. are:
 The assembly of Heads of States and Government (The Assembly).
 The Council of Ministers.
 The Commission of Mediation, Conciliation and Arbitration.
 The General Secretariat.

The Assembly of Heads of States

 The supreme or most powerful organ of the O.A.U. formed by Heads of States and Government
which met once a year.
 Decisions were made by a consensus or agreement or 2/3 of a majority.
 It made decisions, policies and adopted resolutions.

Policy
making
Approves body
budget

ASSEMBLY OF
HEADS OF STATES
AND
AGOVERNMENT

Makes Adopts
decisions resolutions

Council of Ministers
 It is made up of foreign ministers of member states and met twice a year.
 It prepared conferences and agendas and approved the O.A.U. budgets for the assembly.

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 Adopts
budget.
Prepares
Labour Agenda for
The
Assembly.

Cultural co- Makes

operation recommend
ations
THE
COUNCIL
OF
MINISTERS
Transport,
education,
Meets twice
health and
a year
science co-
oparation

Commission
Economic for
and Social co- Mediation,
operation Councilation
& Arbitration
Defence

The General Secretariat

 It is the civil service and permanent organ of the O.A.U.
 It prepares reports on the O.A.U. activities, keeps all documents and files of the organisation.
 It also writes minutes and prepares the program and budgets of the O.A.U. for each year.
 It is headed by the Chief Executive who is appointed by the assembly.

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 Permanent
organ of
the O.A.U.
Keeps all
Coordinating documents
committees and files of
for liberation the
of Africa. organisation.

The
General
Secretariat
Informatio
Organises n and
meetings. Public
relations.
Prepares
programs and
budgets
annually.

Achievements and failures of the O.A.U.

 End of colonialism in Africa was O.A.U.’s greatest achievement.
 Not successful in ending conflicts and preventing conflicts which left hundreds and thousands of
people dead, maimed and displaced.
 The O.A.U. failed to prevent and end civil wars.
 The factors divided Africa.
 The African unity has remained a dream.
 The O.A.U. experiments on African Unity and has not been successful so far.

How the A.U. was formed

 The O.A.U. was formed to liberate Africans from colonialism.
 This was its major role besides other social and economic aims.
 By 1999 almost all African states were liberated and no foreign power directly ruled Africa.
 This development made the O.A.U. an old organisation in a new world because its main aims of
liberating Africa had been achieved.
 This was thus agreed for a new body with aims to address the challenges that Africa was facing
in the global village.

 Calls to have a United States of Africa were shot down.

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 Under this agreement there was to be a continental leader with federal governments in the
member states.
 The assembly agreed to form the A.U. at Lome in Togo on 11 July 2000 and at the Lusaka Summit
in Zambia in July 2001.
 The 53 members of the O.A.U. signed the constitution of the A.U., it was called the Constitutive
Act of the A.U. and on 1 July the A.U. was formed at the O.A.U. after 38 years of life and the A.U.
became problems on the continent.

Aims of the A.U.

 To achieve greater unity and solidarity between African countries and people of Africa.
 To defend sovereignty, territorial integrity and independence of member states.
 To promote and defend common African interests on the continent and beyond.
 To encourage continental cooperation through the United Nations (U.N.) and Universal
Declaration of Human Rights (U.D.H.R.).
 To promote peace, security and stability on the continent.
 To promote economic cooperation and sustainable use of resources.
 To improve living and working conditions of Africans.
 To promote research in education, science and technology.
 To eradicate poverty and diseases.

The organs of the A.U.

The Assembly
 This is the supreme or most powerful organ of the A.U.
 It was made up of the Heads of States and Government.
 It met once a year.
 The office chairman of the assembly is held for a period of one year by Head of State or
Government.
 Decisions are made by consensus, agreement or 2/3 majority.
 The assembly determines the policies of the union and adopts commissions.
 It monitors improvements of policies by member states.

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 Assembly

Executive Financial
council. institutions

Economic,
Pan-African Social and
parliament. Cultural
African council.
Union.

Specilised
Court of
technical
Justice.
committees

The Permanent
representative
commission committe.

The Executive council

 It is made up of foreign affairs ministers of member states.
 It meets twice a year and its decisions are by consensus, agreement or 2/3 majority.
 It coordinates policies in areas of common interest to member states.

Specialised Technical committees

 These are committees that report to the Executive Council.
 Each committee prepares projects and programmes and make follow up supervision.
 It then reports to the Executive Council on progress being made.

Pan-African Parliament
 This is made up of representatives of all member states.
 The purpose is to ensure full participation of all African people in the development of their
constituency.
 The parliament also reports to the Executive Council on emerging challenges and the progress
made on development projects.

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 Financial Institutions
The council had the following financial institutions:
 The African momentary fund.
 The African Investment Bank.
 The African Central Bank.

The Commission
 It works as the secretariat of the African council.
 It consists of a Chairperson and a group of commissioners,
 The commissioners report to the assembly which alternates its structure, functions and
regulations.

The Permanent representative committee.

 It is composed of permanent representatives to the African Union.
 Its members came from the member states.
 Their task was to prepare the work of the Executive Council and carry out their constituents.
 This committee works with various sub councils here and other groups.

The Economic, Social and Culture Councils

 This is an advising organ composed of different social and professional groups of member states
of the Council.
 The works of this organ is outlined improving the economies of member states as well as
changing the living standards of the people.
 It also promoted culture exchanges on the constituent.

Challenges of the A.U.

 The A.U. has taken over the political work left by the O.A.U.
 The main task facing the A.U. is the one of promoting democracy and good government in Africa.
 Other challenges are:
 Poverty and unemployment is worsening.
 International terrorism.
 Lack of financial resources to establish a standing army to maintain peace and security.
 Disunity and selfish interests among member states which is causing lack of progress in
development plans.
 Human rights abuse on Constituent is increasing.
 Africa is still cheap exporter of raw materials.
 Lack of cultural identity.

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