EXTRACTION AND EXPLOITATION METHODS IN MINING

INTRODUCTION.-

Minerals are natural, homogeneous substances, of inorganic origin and with a defined
chemical composition. They are materials of great importance due to their enormous applications
in various fields of human activity. Modern industry depends directly or indirectly on all types of
minerals, whether to build machines or directly manufacture products.
Some minerals are used practically as they are extracted, without modifications, for example
sulfur, talc or salt. While others must be subjected to various processes to obtain the desired
product, such as iron, copper, aluminum or tin. In addition, minerals are a natural resource of vital
importance for the economy of a country, a large number of commercial products are minerals or
are obtained from a mineral.

The present work presents in a summarized way the forms and methods of extraction and
mineralogical exploitation that are currently known in the world and in the case of Bolivia, where
the importance of this sector is also demonstrated since, as we know Bolivia is one of the
countries that depends directly on the mining and oil industry, we know that it directly affects our
economy and it is important to know the most important and relevant characteristics about the
country's mining industry.

DEVELOPMENT.-

Extraction of minerals and rocks

Rocks and minerals are extracted in specific places in the Earth's crust called deposits. A deposit is
a place where certain rocks or minerals are found in sufficient quantity to make their extraction
economically profitable.

In a deposit, the minerals whose extraction is of interest are called ore. The rest of the rocks and
minerals in the deposit are called gangue.

To locate a deposit, surveys are carried out, that is, drilling with large drills that allow cylinders of
soil to be extracted, which are then analyzed.

Depending on the depth at which a deposit is located and its accessibility, exploitation can be
superficial or underground.

Surface mining

Surface mining is the largest sector of mining, and is used for more than 60% of the materials
extracted. It can be used for any material. The different types of surface mine have different
names, and are generally associated with certain extracted materials. Open pit mines are usually
metal mines; Coal is usually extracted in open pits; The quarries are usually dedicated to the
extraction of industrial and construction materials, and the placer mines usually obtain minerals
and heavy metals (often gold, but also platinum, tin and others).

Open Pit Mines

Open pit mining involves taking minerals from a large hole in the ground. A quarry is a type of
open pit mine. Granite can come from a quarry to be used for countertops and other home
applications. This type of mining is profitable if the minerals or rocks are close to the surface. It is
also an option if underground mining is not feasible.

Kennecott Mine (Utah, United States)

Located southwest of Salt Lake City, it is the largest open pit copper mine in the world.
Extraction begins with drilling and blasting the rock. This is loaded onto trucks with large electric or
hydraulic shovels, or front-loading excavators, and removed from the pit. The size of these
machines can be so large that they can remove 50 m3 of rocks at a time, but they usually have a
capacity of between 5 and 25 m3. The load of the trucks can range from 35 to 220 tons. An
advance in modern mining consists of the shovels unloading directly into a mobile crusher, from
which the crushed rock is taken out of the mine on conveyor belts.
The material classified as mineral is transported to the recovery plant, while that classified as
waste is dumped in areas assigned for this. Sometimes there is a third category of low-quality
material that can be stored in case its use could be profitable in the future. Many mines begin as
surface mines, and when they reach a point where too much waste material needs to be extracted
for each ton of ore obtained, underground mining methods begin to be used.

San Cristóbal Mine, Potosí Bolivia

Due to the volumes of cargo extraction and the production of mineral concentrates, the San
Cristóbal operation is, undoubtedly, the largest in the mining history of Bolivia. In the area where
the deposit is located (Nor Lípez province of the department of Potosí), there were old paralyzed
medium or small silver mines, when since 1996 the American company Apex Silver Mines Ltd.
began an aggressive and sustained exploration program, aimed at locating a world-class
polymetallic (zinc, silver and lead) deposit.
Several years of exploration allowed the quantification of 251 million tons of reserves with 1.54%
zinc, 55.3 grams per ton (g/t) of silver and 0.53% lead. This level of reserves made it possible to
plan the treatment of 40,000 tons of ore per day (tpd), which would give the deposit a life of 17
years.
In 2005, with a total investment of 1.4 billion dollars (M$us), the development and construction of
facilities began, including the power line from Punutuma, the 65-kilometer railway from the mine
to the trunk road, the port infrastructure in the port of Mejillones, Chile, in addition to the mill,
laboratories, homes, workshops, water supply system, etc. The demand for electrical energy is 57
MW, approximately 5% of the country's total. The daily consumption of industrial water, despite
the fact that much of it is recirculated, is 41,000 to 46,000 cubic meters, coming from the pumping
of deep water not suitable for human or animal consumption or irrigation.
Mining is carried out by the open pit system , by blasting in benches and transporting ore and
waste in dump trucks. Since the ratio of overburden to ore is 1.54/1, to send 40,000 tons to the
mill, the daily blasting is 101,600 tons.

Uncovered exploitations
Strip mining is often, but not always, used to extract coal and lignite. In the United Kingdom, more
than 10 million tonnes of coal are obtained annually from open mining. The main difference
between these mines and open pit mines is that the waste material extracted to discover the coal
seam, instead of being transported to distant dumping areas, is returned to the cavity created by
the recent exploitation. Therefore, the mines advance little by little, filling in the land and
returning to the surface as much as possible the appearance it had before the extraction began.
Unlike an open pit mine, which tends to get larger and larger, an open pit mine reaches its
maximum size in a very short time. When exploitation is completed, the remaining pit can be
converted into a lake or filled with material from the excavation carried out at the beginning of the
mine.

Some of the equipment used in open pit mining is the same as that in open pit mines, especially
that used to extract coal. To obtain the waste rocks located above, the so-called overburden, the
largest equipment in all of mining is used.

Quarries
Quarries are quite similar to open pit mines, and the equipment used is the same. The difference is
that the extracted materials are usually industrial minerals and construction materials. In general,
almost all the material obtained from the quarry is transformed into some product, so there is
considerably less waste material. In turn, this means that a large excavation remains at the end of
the quarry's useful life. However, due to the low prices that products from most quarries usually
have, they have to be located relatively close to the markets. If this were not the case,
transportation costs could make the quarry unprofitable. For this reason, many are located near
urban agglomerations. It also means that the cavities created by many quarries acquire a certain
value as landfills for urban waste.
Caleras Cochabamba – CALCO
CALCO-BOLIVIA, has deposits in different parts of the country, having concessions in the
Departments of Oruro, Potosí, Cochabamba, Santa Cruz and Tarija.
Exploitation
Obtaining limestone:
It includes all the processes carried out in the quarry from which limestone, the main raw material
for obtaining lime, is obtained. These processes consist of:
Mining geological studies, in which the geological and geochemical information of the areas to be
exploited is obtained.
Limestone extraction, which consists of extracting the raw material from quarries.
The exploitation of Limestone is done by the “open pit” system or open pit. The process of
exploitation and extraction of limestone consists of clearing the deposit or vein, once it has been
cleaned, drilling is carried out using rotational, percussion and drill rigs; These equipment work
with air compressors responsible for providing the energy necessary to drill the reservoir. Having
benches from 4.0 to 5.0 meters high. Subsequently, detonation is carried out with AN/FO
(Amonium Nitrate Fuel Oil), dynamite, detonating capsules and detonating cord. During this stage,
special attention is paid to controlling the chemical composition, granulometry and humidity of
the raw material, which is limestone.
2.- Description of the production process for the manufacture of quick and hydrated lime
Once the limestone is extracted from the quarries, it goes through the following stages:
1. Preparation of the stone:
It consists of primary and secondary crushing and screening of limestone. Through this process, it
is possible to give the stones the diameter required for the calcination oven.

2. Calcination:
Calcination consists of the application of heat for the decomposition (thermal reaction) of
limestone. In this process, about half of the weight is lost due to decarbonation or loss of carbon
dioxide from the original limestone. Calcination is a process that requires a lot of energy so that
decarbonation can occur and it is in this step that limestone (CaCO3) is “converted” to quicklime
(CaO).
3. Hydration:
At this stage the quicklime (calcium oxide) is transferred to a hydrator, where water is added to
the product. When quicklime stones are hydrated they become hydrated lime (fine white powder).
It is an exothermic process, which consists of when water is added to quicklime, the reaction
releases heat.
4. Spraying / Bagging / Dispatch:
In this process, the size of the hydrated particles is reduced to finally be bagged. The hydrated lime
from our company is packaged in polyethylene, polypropylene, and paper bags in different
weights. All the processes described above are completely industrial. Strict quality controls are
carried out in them to achieve the standards required for the manufacture of hydrated lime. To do
this, compliance with the chemical requirements (silicon dioxide, aluminum oxide, ferric oxide,
calcium oxide, magnesium oxide, non-hydrated oxides and carbon dioxide) and the physical
requirements of fineness and water retention are determined. . Allowing us to offer a product of
excellent quality.

mines of pleasure
Placers are deposits of mineral particles mixed with sand or gravel. Placer mines are usually
located in or near river beds, since most of the placers are gravel pits from current rivers or fossil
gravel pits from disappeared rivers. However, beach deposits, seafloor sediments, and glacial
deposits also fall into this category. The nature of the concentration processes that give rise to the
placers means that in this type of mines dense materials are obtained, already released from the
surrounding rock. This makes the extraction process relatively simple and is limited to
earthmoving and the use of simple physical, not chemical, recovery systems to obtain the useful
content. The extracted material can be deposited in already exploited areas as the mine
progresses, while the surface is recovered. Land-based placer mines use similar equipment to
other surface mines.

Gold in Bolivia
It is found in hydrothermal quartz veins, associated with granitic rocks; due to its insolubility in
water, it remains in the oxidation zones of sulphurous veins. In the alluvial Placeres, gold is found
in river gravel and sand, in moraine and fluvioglacial deposits, and on river terraces in the form of
nuggets and fine grains.

In the Department of La Paz, gold is exploited in the Chuquiaguillo mine, a 7 kilo nugget was
found. There are 99 gold-bearing rivers, from the stream of La Paz, Itenez, border with Brazil, also
in Guanay, Mapiri, Tipuani, Challana, Coroico, in the KAKA river with wide terraces, in Teoponte,
Sorata, Vilaque, Huallani, Palca, Emma, the Western flank of the Apolobamba mountain range,
Perechuco, Cajuata, Choquetanga, Saya, Corani, Cocapata, Altamachi, Cotacajes, Santa Elena,
Yucán, Alaska, Lenay Russia.
In the Department of Oruro, the mines of San Bernardino, La Joya, the Kori Kollo mine, Iroco, Kori
Chaka, in the Inti Raymi Company, an estimated production of 150 Kilos of fine gold per month in
Caracollo mines.

In the Department of Potosí: Agua de Castilla (Porco). Yura River, Caracota, Chilcobija, Yaretani,
Candelaria, in Tupiza, San Antonio, Cotani, Santa María, Cosuña Pulacayo, Quetena, Marte,
Guadalupe, Amayapampa, Capacirca, Cebadillas, Irpa Irpa, San Pablo de Lípez, K'ari K' ari.

In the Department of Beni, the Alluvials of Madidi, Tuichi, Mamoré, Itenez, Cachuela Esperanza,
Riveron, Araraz, in Alto Beni Quiquiboy.

In the Department of Santa Cruz: Concepción, San Ignacio, San Ramón, San Javier, Don Mario, NE
of San Juan de Chiquitos.

In Cochabamba: Choquecamata, Ayopaya.

In the Department of Pando, the Madre de Dios River is the longest, 400 km. crosses the country
from West to East border with Peru, the mines of Itenez, Tahuamanu, Mapiri, El Cairo,
Genechiquia, Carmen with concentrations of 0.25 Grams/m3, Guayaramerín, Riveron, Araras.

Underground mining
Underground mining can be subdivided into soft rock mining and hard rock mining. Mining
engineers talk about soft rock when it does not require the use of explosives in the extraction
process. In other words, soft rocks can be cut with the tools provided by modern technology. The
most common soft rock is coal, but so are common salt, potash, bauxite, and other minerals. Hard
rock mining uses explosives as an extraction method.
Underground soft rock mining: coal
Regarding the case of underground extraction of soft rock, especially coal exploitation, there are
two main methods: pillar extraction and longwall extraction.

In pillar mining, coal is extracted by cutting a network of galleries into the coal seam and leaving
"pillars" of coal to support the roof of the mine. These pillars can represent up to 40% of the total
coal, although this can be extracted at a later stage.

Longwall mining is based on the complete extraction of coal from a section of the seam using
mechanical loaders.

Underground hard rock mining: metals and minerals

In most hard rock mines, extraction is done by drilling and blasting. First, holes are made with
compressed air or hydraulic drills. Drill holes are then inserted into the holes and exploded,
whereby the rock is fractured and can be extracted. Special loading machines – often with diesel
engines and tires – are then used to load the blasted rock and transport it to special high-
inclination galleries. The rock falls through these galleries and is collected in the access shaft,
where it is loaded into special containers called buckets and removed from the mine. It is later
transported to the processing plant, if it is mineral, or to the landfill, if it is waste material.

Subterranean mine
Underground mines are opened in areas with promising mineral deposits. The shaft is the main
vertical drilling and is used for people's access to the mine and to extract the ore. A ventilation
system located near the main shaft brings fresh air to the miners and prevents the build-up of
dangerous gases. A system of cross galleries connects the ore deposit to the main shaft at various
levels, which in turn are connected by openings called rises. The steps are the chambers where the
mineral is extracted.
In order to access the mineral deposit, a network of access galleries must be excavated, which
usually extends through the waste rock that surrounds the deposit. In horizontal tubular deposits,
mechanized loading and transport systems must be installed to handle the extracted rock. In very
inclined reservoirs, a large part of the rock movement can be carried out by gravity. In the block
scour method, the force of gravity is even used to break the rock. The block to be extracted is
undermined and allowed to fall under its own weight.
Underground mining is the most dangerous, so it is preferred to use one of the surface methods
whenever possible. Furthermore, the underground exploitation of a deposit requires greater
technical complexity, although the extraction facilities vary significantly depending on the
characteristics of the structure of the deposit itself, the size of the production unit and the cost of
the investment.

Mining in Bolivia
Since colonial times, Bolivia has been a mining country. For decades, the rich hill of Potosí has
been the most important deposit of silver minerals in the world. Its discovery in 1545 began the
mining cycle in the territory that today constitutes Bolivia. To take advantage of the silver from
Potosí, cutting-edge technologies for their time are introduced; but neither the effects on the
native population nor the impacts on the environment are taken into account. The profits
generated are not distributed equitably and colonial mining does not result in a broad stream of
regional development. Nor are companies created that last over time, since the profits obtained
are not reinvested in the mining exploitation areas. However, colonial mining begins an economic
circuit in which transportation and commerce assume a determining role. Production is based on
the work of indigenous people under the mita regime. Every year around 13,500 mitayos arrive in
Potosí with their families, forming a contingent of 40,000 people. The city became one of the main
urban centers in the world and had about 160,000 inhabitants in 1560, while Madrid only had
45,000 inhabitants. This migratory phenomenon depopulates the 16 provinces subject to the mita
and severely affects their agricultural production.
The 1952 revolution nationalized (against high compensation) the three large mining companies
and founded COMIBOL (Mining Corporation of Bolivia.) In this same period the COB (Central
Obrera Boliviana) emerged, which later became the most powerful union center. from the
country. Since then, Bolivian political life has been so eventful and unstable that foreign investors
do not risk investing in the exploitation of the country's important geological potential. Although it
is estimated that the participation of international private funds encourages better management
and greater efficiency of operations, COMIBOL only manages nationalized mines in an adverse
environment: low ore grade, depletion of reserves, high production costs, decrease in demand and
price. COMIBOL lacks both capital and business training, and must assume the financial burden of
the development of the East, promoted by the State. Consequently, it does not invest in
prospecting, exploration, maintenance and replacement. This era is characterized by poor
management, extremely low productivity, waste of resources and environmental neglect. The
convergence of these factors leads to a crisis that progressively worsens. Next to state mining, a
large number of medium and small companies coexist in private hands. While the former receive
public loans, which allow them to continually increase their production, the lack of technical and
financial support for small mining (2,000 entrepreneurs) and cooperatives (20,000 miners)
determines that this sector operates in archaic and precarious conditions, locking itself in a vicious
circle of lack of resources and inability to evolve, which has not changed to date. In the last 10
years, Bolivian mining is projected into a new scenario and adapts to the emergence of metals that
appear to have better opportunities in the market than tin. Among others, zinc, silver and
especially gold, which presents the most spectacular growth. At the same time, state mining is
replaced by private mining and within this the medium-sized sector is consolidated as the largest
producer, while in the gold sector cooperatives acquire greater relevance. The restructuring of
COMIBOL causes a rapid decline in the participation of the mining sector in national employment,
partially compensated by the growth of cooperatives, although the conditions they offer are not
equivalent at all.

CONCLUSIONS.-
From what can be seen in the work carried out, mining in Bolivia becomes very important since it
promotes the development of the country and is a factor that impressively helps the country's
economy, generates jobs, generates industry, generates wealth, etc
Among the main points to highlight we have:
 There are two types of mineral extraction and exploitation: surface and underground.
 Surface extraction is further divided into: open-pit mining, uncovered mining, quarrying
and placer mining.
 Underground extraction is further divided into: exploitation of soft rock mines and
exploitation of hard rock mines.
 The difference between these two underground extractions is that the exploitation of soft
rock mines can be cut with the tools provided by modern technology, whereas the
exploitation of hard rock mines uses explosives as an extraction method.
 The hill was and continues to be an important mineralogical deposit for Bolivia, from
colonial times to the present day.
 Bolivia contains important and immense mineral deposits and reserves that are not yet
being exploited but projects are already in process.
 Bolivia is characterized by the export of three main minerals: Gold, Silver and Tin and in
addition to other minerals that it also exports.
 Coal mining exploitation can be found in both open pit extraction and underground
extraction.
 Bolivia plans to diversify the export of minerals such as Lithium, where its main reserve is
in the Salar de Uyuni.