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3 Chemical bonding

This topic introduces the different ways by which chemical bonding occurs and the
effect this can have on physical properties.

3.2 shapes of simple molecules

SHAPES OF MOLECULES

BILAL HAMEED SHAPES OF MOLECULES

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220
3 Chemical bonding
This topic introduces the different ways by which chemical bonding occurs and the effect this can have
3
onChemical bonding
physical properties.
This topic introduces the different ways by which chemical bonding occurs and the effect this can have
on physical properties. Learning outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
Learning outcomes
3.1 Ionic bonding Candidates
a) describeshould be able to:
ionic bonding, as in sodium chloride, magnesium oxide and
calcium fluoride, including the use of ‘dot-and-cross’ diagrams
3.1 Ionic bonding a) describe ionic bonding, as in sodium chloride, magnesium oxide and
3.2 Covalent bonding a) calcium
describe,fluoride, including
including the usethe use of ‘dot-and-cross’
of ‘dot-and-cross’ diagrams
diagrams:
and co-ordinate (i) covalent bonding, in molecules such as hydrogen, oxygen, chlorine,
(dative covalent)
3.2 Covalent bonding a) describe, including
hydrogen the carbon
chloride, use of ‘dot-and-cross’ diagrams:
dioxide, methane, ethene
bonding
and including
co-ordinate (i)
(ii) covalent bonding,
co-ordinate (dativeincovalent)
molecules such assuch
bonding, hydrogen, oxygen,
as in the chlorine,
formation of the
shapes covalent)
(dative of simple
hydrogen
ammonium chloride,
ion andcarbon dioxide,
in the Al 2Cl 6
methane,
molecule ethene
molecules
bonding including
b) (ii) co-ordinate
describe (dative
covalent covalent)
bonding bonding,
in terms such
of orbital as in the
overlap, σ and π
formation
giving of the
shapes of simple 2 3
ammonium
bonds, includingion
theand in the of
concept Alhybridisation
2Cl 6 molecule to form sp, sp and sp
molecules
orbitals (see
b) describe also Section
covalent bonding14.3)
in terms of orbital overlap, giving σ and π
c) bonds,
explain including theof,
the shapes concept
and bondof hybridisation to form sp,
angles in, molecules sp2 and
by using thesp3
orbitals (see
qualitative also Section
model 14.3) repulsion (including lone pairs), using
of electron-pair
as simple
c) explain theexamples:
shapes of,BF 3 (trigonal),
and CO2 in,
bond angles (linear), CH4 (tetrahedral),
molecules by using theNH3
(pyramidal),model
qualitative H2O (non-linear), SF6 (octahedral),
of electron-pair PF5 (trigonal
repulsion (including bipyramidal)
lone pairs), using
d) as simple
predict theexamples:
shapes of,BF 3 (trigonal),
and CO2 in,
bond angles (linear), CH4 (tetrahedral),
molecules NH3
and ions analogous
(pyramidal), H2O (non-linear),
to those specified SF6also
in 3.2(b) (see (octahedral), PF5 (trigonal bipyramidal)
Section 14.3)
d) predict the shapes of, and bond angles in, molecules and ions analogous
3.3 Intermolecular a) to those specified
describe hydrogeninbonding,
3.2(b) (see also
using Section and
ammonia 14.3)water as simple
forces, examples of molecules containing N–H and O–H groups
electronegativity
3.3 Intermolecular a)
b) describe hydrogen
understand, bonding,
in simple terms,using ammonia
the concept of and water as simple
electronegativity and apply
and bond properties
forces, examples ofthe
it to explain molecules containing
properties N–H and
of molecules O–H
such groups
as bond polarity (see
electronegativity also Section in
b) understand, 3.3(c)),
simplethe dipolethe
terms, moments
conceptof
ofmolecules (3.3(d))and
electronegativity andapply
the
and bond properties behaviour of oxides with water (9.2(c))
it to explain the properties of molecules such as bond polarity (see
c) also Section
explain 3.3(c)),
the terms the energy,
bond dipole moments of molecules
bond length (3.3(d)) and
and bond polarity and the
use
behaviour of oxides
them to compare thewith water (9.2(c))
reactivities of covalent bonds (see also Section
5.1(b)(ii))the terms bond energy, bond length and bond polarity and use
c) explain
d) them
describe intermolecular
to compare forces (van
the reactivities der Waals’
of covalent forces),
bonds (seebased on
also Section
permanent and induced dipoles, as in, for example, CHCl 3(l); Br2(l) and
5.1(b)(ii))
the liquidintermolecular
d) describe Group 18 elements
forces (van der Waals’ forces), based on
permanent and induced dipoles, as in, for example, CHCl 3(l); Br2(l) and
3.4 Metallic bonding the liquid metallic
a) describe Group 18 elements
bonding in terms of a lattice of positive ions
surrounded by delocalised electrons
3.4 Metallic bonding a) describe metallic bonding in terms of a lattice of positive ions
3.5 Bonding and a) surrounded by delocalised
describe, interpret electrons
and predict the effect of different types of bonding
physical properties (ionic bonding, covalent bonding, hydrogen bonding, other intermolecular
3.5 Bonding and interactions,
a) describe, metallic
interpret andbonding) on the
predict the physical
effect properties
of different ofof
types substances
bonding
physical properties b) (ionic
deduce the type
bonding, of bonding
covalent present
bonding, from given
hydrogen information
bonding, other intermolecular
c) interactions, metallic of
show understanding bonding)
chemicalon reactions
the physical properties
in terms of substances
of energy transfers
associated
b) deduce the with
type the breakingpresent
of bonding and making
from of chemical
given bonds
information
c) show understanding of chemical reactions in terms of energy transfers
associated with the breaking and making of chemical bonds

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SHAPES OF MOLECULES
The shape of a molecule plays a large part in determining its properties and
reactivity.
The specific orientation of electron pairs in covalent molecules imparts a
characteristic shape to the molecules.
The shape of a molecule made of only two atoms, such as H2 or CO, is easy to
determine. Only a linear shape is possible when there are two atoms. Determining
the shapes of molecules made of more than two atoms is more complicated.
Using Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) theory one can predict the
shape of a molecule by examining the Lewis structure of the molecule.

VSEPR THEORY
The electron pairs around the central atom
of the molecule arrange themselves to Bonds are closer
minimise electronic repulsion and so that together so repulsive
forces are greater
they can be as far away as possible from Al
Bonds are further
each other.
apart so repulsive
forces are less
This fact is used to predict molecular shape.
Molecules contain covalent bonds. Al
All bonds are equally
spaced out as far apart
as possible
As covalent bonds consist of a pair of
electrons, each bond will repel other bonds.

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VSEPR THEORY
Bonds will therefore push each other as far apart as possible to reduce
the repulsive forces.
Because the repulsions are equal, the bonds will also be equally spaced.

Denniston: General, 4. Structure and Properties Text Bonds© The

areMcGraw−Hill
closer together so
Organic and Biochemistry, of Ionic and Covalent Companies,
repulsive 2003 are greater
forces
ourth Edition Compounds

Al
Bonds are further apart so repulsive
forces are less
4.4 Drawing Lewis Structures of Molecules and Polyatomic Ions 103

BeH2 HSBeSH All bonds are equally spaced out as

Al
OS
SF far apart as possible
BF3 OSB
SF
Q OSFOS
Q
3
H
CH4 OSH
HSC
Q
H

NH3 O
HSN
QSH
H

H2O HSO
QSH

e electron pairs around the central atom of the molecule arrange themselves
imize electronic repulsion. This means that the electron pairs arrange them-
so that they can be as far as possible from each other. We may use this fact
dict molecular shape. This approach is termed the v alence shell electron p air
ion (VSEPR) theory.
t’s see how the VSEPR theory can be used to describe the bonding and
ure of each of the preceding molecules. LINEAR
Beryllium chloride has two shared electron pairs around the beryllium
saw in Example 4.14, beryllium hydride has two shared electron pairs
Only four electrons surround the
atom.
d the beryllium atom. These electron pairs have minimum repulsion if they
beryllium atom in BeH . Consequently, 2

ated as far apart as possible while still bonding the hydrogen to the central BeH2 is a stable exception to the octet
This condition is met if the electron pairs are located on opposite sides of the rule.
These electron pairs have minimum repulsion if they are located as far
ule, resulting in a linear structure, 180! apart:
apart as possible while still bonding the chlorine to the central atom.
HSBeSH

ThisH—Be—H
condition is met if the electron pairs are located on opposite sides of
the molecule,
180! resulting in a linear structure, 180o apart:
nd angle, the angle between H—Be and Be—H bonds, formed by the two
ng pairs is 180! (Figure 4.4).

180! BeCl2 CO2

180° 180°
Figure 4.4
Cl Be Cl
Bonding and geometry in beryllium O C O
Linear BeH hydride, BeH2.
angle: 180 o 2
shape: linear

trifluoride has three shared electron pairs around the central atom. Placing BF3 has4only six electrons around the
ctron pairs in a plane, forming a triangle, minimizes the electron pair repul- central atom, B. It is one of a number of
this molecule, as depicted in Figure 4.5 and the following sketches: stable compounds that are exceptions to
the octet rule.
F F F F F F
S
S
S
S

H E H E
S
S
S
S

B or B or B
O
FS
SQ 120° | 120° |
F F

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TRIGONAL PLANAR
Denniston: General, 4. Structure and Properties Text © The McGraw−Hill
NowofCompounds
think
Organic and Biochemistry,
Fourth Edition
about what happens when the Companies,
Ionic and Covalent
central 2003
atom is surrounded by
three shared pairs. Look at BF3.
Boron trifluoride has three shared electron pairs around the central atom.
104 Chapter 4 Structure and Properties of Ionic and Covalent Compounds

Placing the electron pairs in a plane, forming a triangle, minimizes the

Such a structure is trigonal planar, and each F—B—F bond angle is 120!. We also
find that compounds with central atoms in the same group of the periodic table
electron pair repulsion
have similar in this molecule.
geometry. Aluminum, in the same group as boron, produces com-
pounds such as AlH3, which is also trigonal planar.

F
120°
F B
120°
120!

F 120°
angle: 120o shape: trigonal planar
Planar
Figure 4.5 5
Representation of the two-dimensional
(a) (b)
structure of boron trifluoride, BF3.
(a) Trigonal planar structure. (b) Ball and
stick model of trigonal planar BF3. BF3

CH4
CH4, NH3, and H2O all have eight Methane has four shared pairs of electrons. Here, minimum electron repulsion is
electrons around their central atoms; all achieved by arranging the electrons at the corners of a tetrahedron (Figure 4.6).
obey the octet rule. Each H—C—H bond angle is 109.5!. Methane has a three-dimensional tetrahedral
structure. Silicon, in the same group as carbon, forms compounds such as SiCl4
and SiH4 that also have tetrahedral structures.

Projecting away
from you, behind the
plane of the paper H

H
TETRAHEDRAL In the plane of
H the paper

Methane
109.5°
has four shared pairs of electrons.
C
H
H
1.09Å C Here, minimum electron
C
repulsion is achievedHby arranging the electrons
H H
at theH corners
H
of a tetrahedron. H
Projecting toward
you, in front of the
H plane of the paper

(a)
Each H—C—H (b)
bond angle is 109.5º. (c)

Figure 4.6
Methane NH
has a three dimensional tetrahedral structure.
Representations of the three-dimensional
structure of methane, CH4. (a) Tetrahedral 3
methane structure. (b) Ball and stick Ammonia also has four electron pairs about the central atom. In contrast to
model of tetrahedral methane. (c) Three- H
methane, in which all four pairs are bonding, ammonia has three pairs of bonding
dimensional representation of electrons and one nonbonding lone pair of electrons. We might expect CH4 and 109.5°
structure (b). 109.5° that are similar but not identical. The lone
NH3Hto have electron pair arrangements
pairxoin ammonia is more negative than the bonding pairs; some of the negative
charge C
x on the bonding pairs is offset by the presence of the hydrogen atoms with
Hxo Cpositive
their oH H in ammonia is dis-
nuclei. Thus the arrangement of electron pairs
xo
torted. The resulting distribution appearsH as
H H
4-28
angle: 109.5o shape: tetrahedral

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5 AND 6 BONDS

F
angle: 90o and 120o shape: trigonal bipyramidal
90°
F
120° P F
F
F
F
F
F
S
F
F

angle: 90o shape: octahedral F

IRREGULAR SHAPES
NH3 also has four electron pairs about the central atom. In contrast to CH4, in
which all four pairs are bonding, ammonia has three pairs of bonding
electrons and one nonbonding lone pair of electrons.

H oo
xo
H xo Nxo xo H
H xo Cxo xo H
H H

The lone pair in ammonia is closer to the central atom, N, than the bonding
pairs and has greater repulsion.
Thus the arrangement of electron pairs in ammonia is distorted.
8

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has four pairs of electrons
ammonia surrounding
and water. Space-fithe
lling models of these
m. Note that in drawing three-dimensional
molecules are shown in Figure 4.17. Classes
Online Each of these
: [email protected]
he triangular ‘wedge’has
molecules is the
fourbond
pairscoming
of electrons surrounding the225
u and thecentral
dashedatom.
black line
Noteis that
the bond going three-dimensional
in drawing
you.
diagrams, the triangular ‘wedge’ is the bond coming
towards you and the dashed black line is the bond going
away from you.
IRREGULAR SHAPES
H The H atoms in NH3 are pushed closer together than in CH4. The bond
H
angle is 107o because lone pair–bond pair repulsions are greater than
109.5º repulsions
C aH Methane bond Cpair–bond
H equal pair repulsions.
H H
H H
H
109.5º repulsions
H C H C H equal
a H
Check-up H lone pair
H greatest repulsion between lone pairs

N 5H The table lists bond lengths and bond O

greater intermediate repulsion
a energies
Ammonia of Nsome hydrogen
repulsion halides.
H O H angle is 104.5°
H 107º
H lone pair H H
H
Hydrogen H Bond Bond energy / least repulsion between bonding pairs
halideH N lengthH / nm kJ mol−1
greater
H Cl 0.127 N431 repulsion Figure
9
4.15 Repulsion between lone and bonding electron pairs in water.
H Br H
0.141 intermediate 366
107º
H
H
greatest
O HH I O 0.161H repulsion H 299
repulsion
104.5º Working out the shapes of molecules
What is the relationship
a aWater H between the The differences in electron-pair repulsion determine
bond length and the bond energy for the shape and bond angles in a molecule. Figure 4.16
these hydrogen halides? intermediate
he bond angles in a methane, b ammonia and c water
greatest compares the shapes and bond angles of methane,
ttype of electron-pair H
b Suggest O the Hbond energy values O
why
repulsion. repulsion H repulsion
ammonia and water. Space-filling models of these
decrease in the order HCl > HBr > HI. 104.5º molecules are shown in Figure 4.17. Each of these
c Suggest a value for the bond length in H molecules has four pairs of electrons surrounding the
hydrogen fluoride, HF. IRREGULAR SHAPES
central atom. Note that in drawing three-dimensional
Figure 4.16 The bond angles in a methane, b ammonia and c water
If a molecule,
depend on the type or ion,
of electron-pair has lone pairs on the diagrams,
repulsion.
the triangular
central atom, ‘wedge’
the shapes areisslightly
the bond coming
distorted away from the regular shapes. towards you and the dashed black line is the bond going
away from you.
4.4 Shapes of molecules
This is because of the extra repulsion caused by the lone pairs.
Electron-pair repulsion theory
Because all electrons have the same (negative) charge,
BOND PAIR BOND PAIR < LONE PAIRa Methane
BOND PAIR < LONE PAIR
H
LONE PAIR

they repel each other when they are close together. So, H
a pair of electrons in the bonds surrounding the central 109.5º repulsions
H C H C H
atom in a molecule will repel other electron pairs. This O O
equal
O H
repulsion forces the pairs of electrons apart until the H
H
repulsive forces are minimised.
The shape and bond
As aangles
resultofofa the
covalently bonded bond angles
extra repulsion, tend to be slightly less as the bonds
a Ammonia
molecule dependare
on:squeezed together. lone pair
• the number of pairs of electrons around each atom
H N H
• whether these pairs are lone pairs or bonding pairs. 10
greater
N repulsion
Lone pairs of electrons have a more concentrated H
H 107º
H
electron charge cloud than bonding pairs of electrons. H
Their cloud charges are wider and slightly closer to the
a Water
nucleus of the central atom. This results in a different
amount of repulsion between different types of electron intermediate
BILAL HAMEED SHAPES
greatest OF MOLECULES
repulsion
pairs. The order of repulsion is lone pair–lone pair (most H O H
repulsion O H
104.5º
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H
(least repulsion).
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AMMONIA
N
• Nitrogen has five electrons in its outer shell H
H
• 3 covalent bonds are formed and a pair of non- H

bonded electrons is left

• As the total number of electron pairs is 4, the N
H
shape is BASED on four bond tetrahedral shape H
H

• Not all the repulsions are the same.

angle: 107o shape: trigonal pyramidal
Repulsions: LONE PAIR - BOND PAIR > BOND PAIR - BOND PAIR
• The N-H bonds are pushed closer together N
H
• Lone pairs are not included in the shape H
107°

11

WATER
O
• Oxygen has six electrons in its outer shell
• 2 covalent bonds are formed and 2 pairs of non— H
H

bonded electrons are left

• As the total number of electron pairs is 4, the shape
O
is BASED on the four bond tetrahedral shape.
H
• Not all the repulsions are the same. H

Repulsions: LONE PAIR — LONE PAIR > LONE PAIR — BOND PAIR >
angle: 104.5o shape: angular / bent
BOND PAIR — BOND PAIR

• The O—H bonds are pushed even closer together O

• Lone pairs are not included in the shape H

104.5°
H

12

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SUMMARY OF SHAPES

bonds lone pairs shape angle example

2 0 linear 180o BeCl2 CO2

3 0 trigonal planar 120o BF3 AlCl3

2 1 bent / angular 117o SO2

4 0 tetrahedral 109.5o SiCl4 CH4

3 1 trigonal pyramidal 107o NH3 PCl3

2 2 bent / angular 104.5o H2O

5 0 trigonal bipyramidal 90o & 120o PCl5

6 0 octahedral 90o SF6

13

CALCULATING SHAPES
The shape of a molecule or a complex ion is calculated by:
1. Calculating the number of electrons in the outer shell of the central
species
2. Pairing up electrons, making sure the outer shell maximum is not
exceeded
3. Calculating the number of bond pairs and lone pairs
4. Using VSEPR to calculate shape and bond angle(s)

14

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CALCULATING SHAPES
For IONS:
The number of electrons in the outer shell depends on the charge on the ion

• if the ion is positive you remove as many electrons as there are positive
charges

• if the ion is negative you add as many electrons as there are negative
charges

e.g. for PF6 add one electron to the outer shell of P

for PCl4+ remove one electron from the outer shell of P

15

EXAMPLES

BOND PAIRS 3 PYRAMIDAL

NH3 A compound with an overall charge may
LONE PAIRS 1 H N H 107°
not be ionic, it can also be covalent.

NH4+ BOND PAIRS 4 TETRAHEDRAL e.g: NH4+

LONE PAIRS 0 H N H 109.5°
Number of valence electrons = 5
But due to “+” it loses 1e ∴ = 4
NH2 BOND PAIRS 2 ANGULAR
LONE PAIRS 2 H N H 104.5°

16

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SKILL CHECK 1
Determine the number, and type, of electron pairs around the central
atom(s) in each of the following. Predict the shape and bond angles of
each. (Hint: it may help to draw ‘dot-and-cross’ diagrams)
(a) phosphine, PH3
(b) sulfur dichloride, SCl2
(c) dichloromethane, CH2Cl2
(d) cobalt(II) chloride, COCl2
(e) xenon tetrafluoride, XeF4

17

MORE

BF3 3 bp 0 lp 120º trigonal planar boron pairs up all 3 electrons in its

outer shell
SiCl4 4 bp 0 lp 109.5º tetrahedral silicon pairs up all 4 electrons in its
outer shell
PCl4+ 4 bp 0 lp 109.5º tetrahedral as ion is +, remove an electron in the
outer shell then pair up

PCl6 6 bp 0 lp 90º octahedral as the ion is , add one electron to

the 5 in the outer shell then pair up
SiCl62 6 bp 0 lp 90º octahedral as the ion is 2 , add two electrons
to the outer shell then pair up

18

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SKILL CHECK 2
Draw the shapes for the following molecules. The underlined atom is
the central atom
a. NF3 b. CH3OH c. BeF2 d. CCl2F2 e. HOCl

19

SKILL CHECK 3
Draw the shapes of the following molecules
a. CF4 b. Cl2O c. PF3 d. NCl3 e. SiCl4 f. SO3

20

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SKILL CHECK 4
Deduce the shapes of the following ions:

a. NH4+ b. CH3+ c. CH3 d. CO32 e. SO42 f. AlH4 g. AlF63

21

SKILL CHECK 5
Lycra® is a polyurethane fibre used in the fashion industry. It is a polymer
made from two monomers, one of which has the following formula.

O=C=N—(CH2)n—N=C=O

What is the O-C-N bond angle in this molecule?

A 90° B 109° C 120° D 180°

22

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SKILL CHECK 6
Organic nitrates in photochemical smog can cause breathing difficulties.

The diagram shows an example of an organic nitrate molecule.

What is the correct order of the bond angles shown in ascending order
(smallest first)?
A1 2 3 B 2 1 3 C 3 1 2 D 3 2 1

23

HYBRIDISATION
Hybridisation is the mixing of atomic orbitals to produce a new set of orbitals (the
same number as originally) that have characteristics of the original orbitals and
are better arranged spatially for covalent bonding.
To form a covalent bond, an orbital containing one electron is required. These
orbitals overlap to form a covalent bond.
Carbon has six electrons and and the outer shell electronic configuration 2s2 2p2:
2p

2s

As it has only two unpaired electrons, carbon should form two covalent bonds.

24

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HYBRIDISATION
However, it is well known that carbon virtually always forms four covalent bonds.
One of the electrons in the 2s orbital must then be promoted to the 2p sub-shell
to give four unpaired electrons. This requires energy.
2p

2s

However, bond formation releases energy and the formation of four bonds instead of two
more than pays back the energy needed to promote an electron to a higher sub-shell.

Carbon now has four unpaired electrons and can form four covalent bonds, but the
atomic orbitals do not point in the correct direction for bonding.

25

HYBRIDISATION
CH4 is tetrahedral with bond angles of 109.5° but the p orbitals are at 90° to each other.

This requires energy. However, bond forma

the formation of four bonds instead of two mor
energy needed to promote an electron to a high
Carbon now has four unpaired electrons and
bonds, but the atomic orbitals do not point in th
bonding. CH4 is tetrahedral with bond angles of
the p orbitals are at 90° to each other (Figure 3.
When carbon forms methane, the four atomi
s and three p, then mix to give four sp3 hybri
26
to the vertices of a tetrahedron. This is the proce
(Figure 3.60).

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(Figure 3.60).
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SP 3 HYBRIDISATION
When carbon forms methane, the four atomic orbitals on carbon, one s and three p,
then mix to give four sp3 hybrid orbitals, which point to the vertices of a tetrahedron.
This is the process of hybridisation.

The four sp3 hybrid orbitals all have the same energy (they are
The four sp3 hybrid orbitals all have the same energy
degenerate):

27

The Lewis structure for ethene is shown in Figure 3.62.

The shape about each C atom is trigonal planar, and the molecule is
planar overall:

Of the three p orbitals on each C atom, one of them is not in the same
plane as the H atoms or the otherSP C 3atom. This p orbital is not involved in
HYBRIDISATION
hybridisation. Mixing the two p orbitals and one s orbital all in the
Should
same plane only three
produces sp2 orbitals
threeatoms bondpointing
to the sp 3 hybridised atom, then the
towards the corners of
an equilateral triangle:
molecular geometry is trigonal pyramidal. Ammonia is an example of this.

In water the oxygen is sp3 hybridised but because only two atoms have
bonded to the oxygen, the molecular geometry is bent.

28

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 Carbon now has four unpaired electrons and can form four covalent
bonds, but the atomic orbitals do not point in the correct direction for
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bonding. CH4 is tetrahedral with bond angles of 109.5° (Figure 3.59), but
235
the p orbitals are at 90° to each other (Figure 3.60).
When carbon forms methane, the four atomic orbitals on carbon, one
s and three p, then mix to give four sp3 hybrid orbitals, which point
to the vertices of a tetrahedron. This is the process of hybridisation
(Figure 3.60). SP 2 HYBRIDISATION
In an sp2 hybridisation one 2s and two 2p orbitals combine to form a new hybrid shape.
In this hybridised state the carbon will make two single bonds and one double bond.
Of the three p orbitals on each C atom, one of them is not in the same plane as the H
atoms or the other C atom.
This p orbital is not involved in hybridisation.

The four sp3 hybrid orbitals all have the same energy (they are
degenerate):
29

The Lewis structure for ethene is shown in Figure 3.62.

The shape about each C atom is trigonal planar, and the molecule is
planar overall:

SP 2is not
Of the three p orbitals on each C atom, one of them HYBRIDISATION
in the same
plane as the H atoms or thethe
Mixing other
twoC atom. This pand
p orbitals orbital
oneis snot involved
orbital in
all in
hybridisation. Mixing the two p orbitals and one s orbital all in the
the same plane produces three sp2 orbitals
same plane produces three sp2 orbitals pointing towards the corners of
pointing towards the corners of an equilateral
an equilateral triangle:
triangle:

This leaves one p orbital, containing one

electron, perpendicular to the single bond ()
framework on each C atom:

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236

HYBRIDISATION
sp3 hybridisation sp2 hybridisation sp hybridisation

Number of Atoms
Bonded to the Central 4 3 2
Atom

Angle between Atoms

Bonded to Central 109.5° 120° 180°
Atom

Tetrahedral with four atoms

bonded. Trigonal pyramidal with Trigonal planar with three Linear with two atoms
Molecular Geometry
three atoms bonded. Bent with atoms bonded. bonded.
two atoms bonded.

One single and one triple

One double bond and two
Types of Bonds Found Four single bonds. bond. (Or) Two double
single bonds.
bonds.

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