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CONTENTS

1 Page
OVERVIEWix

LESSON 1 1
The purpose, functions and principles of social work within the developmental approach
and applicable theories 1
1.1 SPECIFIC LEARNING OUTCOMES 1
1.2 INTRODUCTION 1
1.2.1 The purpose of the Framework for Social Welfare Services 1
1.2.2 International social work and declarations: 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development and the Global Agenda for Social Work and Social Development 2
1.2.3 Globalisation 3
1.2.4 Comments 3
1.3 ASSESSMENT CRITERIA 4
1.4 KEY CONCEPTS 4
1.5 THE CONTEXT OF DEVELOPMENTAL SOCIAL WORK 5
1.5.1 Definition of developmental social work 5
1.5.2 The purpose, functions and principles of developmental social work 6
1.6 APPLICABLE THEORIES FOR DEVELOPMENTAL SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE 7
1.6.1 Introduction 7
1.6.2 Differences between a theory, model, perspective and approach 8
1.6.3 Principles for selecting an approach/perspective/theory/model for intervention 8
1.7 PERSON-CENTRED THEORY 9
1.7.1 Definition of the person-centred theory 9
1.7.2 Purpose, functions and principles of the person-centred approach 9
1.8 THE ECOSYSTEMS PERSPECTIVE 10
1.8.1 Definition of the ecosystems perspective 10
1.8.2 Purpose, functions and principles of the ecosystems perspective 10
1.9 THE STRENGTHS PERSPECTIVE 11
1.9.1 Definition of the strengths perspective 11
1.9.2 Purpose, functions and principles of the strengths perspective 11
1.10 THE SOCIAL JUSTICE PERSPECTIVE 12
1.10.1 Definition of social justice 12
1.10.2 Purpose, functions and principles of social justice 12
1.11 SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIONISM 13
1.11.1 Definition of social constructionism 13
1.11.2 Purpose, functions and principles of social constructionism 13
1.12 SOLUTION-FOCUSED PERSPECTIVE 14
1.12.1 Definition of the solution-focused perspective 14

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1.12.2 Purpose, functions and principles of the solution-focused perspective 14
1.13 SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOOD APPROACH (SLA) 15
1.13.1 Definition of the SLA 15
1.13.2 Purpose, functions and principles of the SLA 15
1.14 CONCLUSIONS 18
REFERENCES 20

LESSON 2 21
The levels of intervention, specific target groups for intervention, types of services and
focus areas for service delivery on the micro, meso and macro levels 21
2.1 SPECIFIC LEARNING OUTCOMES 21
2.2 INTRODUCTION 21
2.3 ASSESSMENT CRITERIA 22
2.4 KEY CONCEPTS 22
2.5 CRITICAL THINKING IN RENDERING INTEGRATED SOCIAL WELFARE SERVICES 23
2.6 THE CONTEXT OF INTEGRATED SOCIAL WELFARE SERVICES 23
2.6.1 Definition and purpose of social welfare services 23
2.6.2 Three perspectives on social welfare 24
2.7 DEFINING THE CONCEPT OF INTEGRATED SOCIAL WELFARE SERVICES 25
2.8 THE GENERALIST APPROACH TO SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE 27
2.8.1 Definition and nature of the generalist approach 27
2.8.2 Case study illustrating the practical application of the GIM on the micro, meso and
macro levels 29
2.9 LEVELS OF INTERVENTION FOR SOCIAL WELFARE SERVICE DELIVERY 30
2.10 THE LIFE CYCLE APPROACH (TARGET GROUPS) TO SERVICE DELIVERY 32
2.11 TYPES OF SOCIAL WELFARE SERVICE DELIVERY 33
2.12 FOCUS AREAS FOR INTEGRATED SOCIAL WELFARE SERVICE DELIVERY 38
2.12.1 Poverty alleviation on the micro, meso and macro levels 38
2.12.2 Social integration on the micro, meso and macro levels 40
2.12.3 Social crime prevention 42
2.12.4 Victim empowerment 43
2.12.5 Preventative services and social welfare service delivery to vulnerable populations 44
2.13 THE FUNCTION OF SOCIAL ENTREPRENEURSHIP AND SOCIAL ENTERPRISE IN
SOCIAL SERVICE DELIVERY 46
2.14 CONCLUSION 48
REFERENCES 50

LESSON 3 52
Social work intervention strategies and techniques at the micro, meso and macro levels 52
3.1 SPECIFIC LEARNING OUTCOMES 52
3.2 INTRODUCTION 52
3.3 ASSESSMENT CRITERIA 52
3.4 KEY CONCEPTS 53
3.5 SOCIAL WORK INTERVENTIONS IN THE DEVELOPMENTAL FRAMEWORK 54

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3.6 PRINCIPLES FOR INTERVENTIONS FROM AN AFROCENTRIC APPROACH AND
CULTURAL COMPETENCY PERSPECTIVE 54
3.7 PRINCIPLES FOR INTERVENTION FROM A SOCIAL JUSTICE PERSPECTIVE 55
3.8 THE GENERALIST INTERVENTION MODEL (GIM) 56
3.8.1 Engagement phase 57
3.8.2 Assessment 61
3.8.3 Planning 65
3.8.4 Implementation 66
3.8.5 Evaluation 66
3.8.6 Termination 66
3.8.7 Follow-up 66
3.9 CRISIS INTERVENTION AND SUICIDE RISK ASSESSMENT 67
3.10 FAMILY INTERVENTIONS 69
3.10.1 Introduction 69
3.10.2 Principles for intervention with families as multi-person client systems 70
3.10.3 Guidelines for planning a family assessment 70
3.1.4 Learning environment
3.11 PERSPECTIVES AND SKILLS APPLICABLE FOR INTERVENING WITH FAMILIES 72
3.11.1 Introduction 72
3.11.2 Guidelines for family intervention from an ecosystems perspective 72
3.11.3 Skills applicable for family intervention from the ecosystems perspective 73
3.11.4 Guidelines for family intervention from the strength perspective 73
3.11.5 Skills applicable for family intervention from the strengths perspective 73
3.11.6 Guidelines for family intervention from the solution-focused perspective 74
3.11.7 Skills applicable for family intervention from the solution-focused perspective 74
3.11.8 Guidelines for the termination and evaluation of a family intervention 74
3.12 SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE WITH GROUPS 75
3.12.1 Introduction 75
3.13 GROUP WORK AND THE SOCIAL JUSTICE PERSPECTIVE 76
3.14 APPLICATION OF THE GROUP WORK PROCESS WITHIN THE DEVELOPMENTAL
APPROACH 77
3.14.1 Leadership roles in groups 83
3.14.2 Group work skills for social workers 83
3.15 SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE WITH COMMUNITIES 84
3.16 COMMUNITY WORK PERSPECTIVES FOR EFFECTIVE COMMUNITY INTERVENTION 86
3.17 COMMUNITY ASSESSMENT 87
3.18 THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN COMMUNITY WORK AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT 88
3.19 REQUIREMENTS FOR A SOCIAL WORKER DOING COMMUNITY WORK 89
3.19.1 Knowledge requirements for social workers 89
3.19.2 Attitudinal requirements 90
3.19.3 Skills requirements for social workers 91
3.20 A PROGRAMME LOGIC MODEL (PLM) TOOL 91
3.21 COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES AND THE USE OF MEDIA IN A COMMUNITY WORK
PROJECT 92

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3.22 DEFINING AND COMPARING WEYERS’ (2011) PRACTICE MODELS 93
3.23 COMMUNITY CHANGE AND THE STAGES OF REACTION 95
3.24 THE APPLICATION OF THE FIVE PRACTICE MODELS (WEYERS 2011) 95
3.25 THE COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT MODEL 96
3.26 SOCIAL PLANNING MODEL 100
3.27 THE PHASES (LIFECYCLE) OF A PROJECT 104
3.28 THE COMMUNITY EDUCATION MODEL 106
3.29 THE SOCIAL MARKETING MODEL 109
3.30 THE SOCIAL ACTION MODEL 112
3.31 COMMUNITY WORK TECHNIQUES 113
3.32 KEY ROLES OF A COMMUNITY WORK PRACTITIONER 116
3.33 SPECIALISED FIELDS OF SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE 116
3.34 CONCLUSION 118
REFERENCES 120

LESSON 4 122
The nature of social service delivery by social workers, in collaboration with inter-sectoral
and multi- and/or interdisciplinary teams 122
4.1 SPECIFIC LEARNING OUTCOMES 122
4.2 INTRODUCTION 122
4.3 ASSESSMENT CRITERIA 123
4.4 KEY CONCEPTS 123
4.5 THE ROLE OF THE SOCIAL WORKER IN A MULTIDISCIPLINARY TEAM (MDT) 124
4.6 THE SOCIAL WORKER WORKING IN A MULTIDISCIPLINARY TEAM IN A HEALTHCARE
SETTING 126
4.7 MULTIDISCIPLINARY TEAMWORK IN FAMILY AND CHILD WELFARE SETTINGS 128
4.8 LEVELS OF SERVICE INTEGRATION IN SOCIAL WELFARE 129
4.8.1 Intersectoral collaboration 129
4.8.2 Interdepartmental integration 130
4.9 THE ORGANISATIONAL CONTEXT OF CONTEMPORARY SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE:
PARTNERSHIPS WITH OTHER AGENCIES/MULTI-PROFESSIONAL TEAMWORK 131
4.10 THE ROLES AND FUNCTIONS OF THE SOCIAL WORKER REGARDING CHANGE IN AN
ORGANISATIONAL CONTEXT 133
4.11 CONCLUSION 136
REFERENCES 138

LESSON 5 139
Integrated social service delivery to a diversity of populations 139
5.1 SPECIFIC LEARNING OUTCOMES 139
5.2 INTRODUCTION 139
5.3 ASSESSMENT CRITERIA 139
5.4 KEY CONCEPTS 140
5.5 THE CONSTRUCTION OF INDIVIDUAL, FAMILY, GROUP AND COMMUNITY
IDENTITIES IN RELATION TO OPPRESSION 141

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5.6 ANTI-OPPRESSIVE PRINCIPLES FOR SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE WITH INDIVIDUALS,
GROUPS AND COMMUNITIES 142
5.7 SOCIAL DIFFERENTIATION, STRATIFICATION, INEQUALITY, ANTI-DISCRIMINATION
AND SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE 144
5.8 THOMPSON’S (2006) PCS ANALYSIS MODEL 146
5.9 PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL JUSTICE 147
5.10 SOCIAL JUSTICE AND CASEWORK 148
5.11 SOCIAL JUSTICE AND GROUP WORK 149
5.12 APPLICATION OF GROUP MODELS FROM A SOCIAL JUSTICE PERSPECTIVE 151
5.13 COMMUNITY WORK AND SOCIAL JUSTICE 152
5.14 POVERTY AND SOCIAL EXCLUSION 152
5.15 DEFINING POVERTY AND SOCIAL EXCLUSION 153
5.16 CAUSES OF POVERTY AND SOCIAL EXCLUSION 154
5.17 SOCIAL WORK POVERTY INTERVENTIONS FOR PROMOTING ECONOMIC GROWTH 155
5.18 CONCLUSION 157
REFERENCES 158

LESSON 6 160
Social security and client systems 160
6.1 SPECIFIC LEARNING OUTCOMES 160
6.2 INTRODUCTION 160
6.3 ASSESSMENT CRITERIA 161
6.4 KEY CONCEPTS 161
6.5 BACKGROUND AND THE CONCEPT OF SOCIAL SECURITY 161
6.6 SOCIAL ASSISTANCE AS SOCIAL JUSTICE 163
6.7 GUIDELINES FOR ASSISTING CLIENTS TO APPLY FOR SOCIAL ASSISTANCE AND
SOCIAL INSURANCE 163
6.7.1 Child support grant 163
6.7.2 Care dependency grant (CDG) 164
6.7.3 Foster care grant 164
6.7.4 Disability grant 164
6.7.5 Grant-in-Aid 165
6.7.6 Older person’s grant (old-age pension) 165
6.7.7 War veterans’ grant 165
6.7.8 Social relief of distress 165
6.7.9 Unemployment Insurance Fund (UIF) 166
6.7.10 The Compensation for Occupational Injuries and Diseases Fund 166
6.7.11 Road Accident Fund (RAF) 166
6.8 APPLICATION GUIDELINES FOR SOCIAL ASSISTANCE 166
6.9 THE ROLE OF THE SOCIAL WORKER REGARDING SOCIAL SECURITY AND POVERTY
ALLEVIATION 169
6.10 CONCLUSION 170
REFERENCES 171

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(viii)
OVERVIEW

2 Dear student
Welcome to the study guide, BSW4802, which deals with Integrated Service Delivery
3

in Social Welfare. This guide focuses on advanced theoretical knowledge, skills and
intervention strategies which aligned with the values of social work, to equip you as a
student to intervene in the different fields of social welfare service delivery on the micro,
meso and macro levels.
Developmental social work practice enables social workers to be change agents at the
4

micro, meso and macro intervention levels. Developmental social work, supported by
approaches, perspectives, theories and models that are person-centred and guided by
strengths, the principles of sustainable livelihoods and social constructivism (among
others), provide the overarching framework for this study guide. Here, you will be further
equipped by learning about different intervention strategies, using the three methods
of case, group and community work, to practise social work on the micro, meso and
macro levels.
Collaboration and partnerships are important on the national and local levels. People’s
5

participation in interventions and multidisciplinary teamwork will be unpacked, along

with the complexities of class, culture, ethnicity, social inequality, social injustice and
social security in the delivery of social welfare services, all within the framework of
developmental social work.
There are specific outcomes and assessment criteria for module BSW4802. At the end of
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each lesson, please revisit the stated outcomes, to ensure that you have achieved all of
them.
7 The following modules need to be used in conjunction with BSW4802:
y BSW3701 (Group work: Theories, approaches and models)
y BSW3702 (Case work: Theories, approaches and models)
y BSW3703 (Community work: Approaches and models), and
y BSW3705 (Integrated social work practice).

These study guides provide a solid foundation, by serving as the building blocks for
8

the current guide on Integrated Service Delivery in Social Welfare. Some aspects in the
previous guides will be broadly revised, to ensure continuity.
9 Outcomes and assessment criteria
The specific outcomes for this module, and the assessment tasks/criteria related to
10

each, will demonstrate your level of knowledge, comprehension, application and skills
on completion of the module. The outcomes appear at the beginning of each lesson.
The assessment methods for this module will be one or more assignments, as well as
11

a written examination. Formative assessment through written assignments will ensure

that your learning can be monitored, thereby providing you with ongoing feedback to
enable you to improve your learning. This form of assessment will further assist you in

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identifying your strengths and weaknesses, as well as target areas that still need work.
The assessment will also help the Department of Social Work to recognise which areas
our students are struggling with, and enable us to resolve those issues.
At the end of the year, you will be expected to write an examination to assess your knowledge
12

and understanding of theory. The examination will also assess your understanding of the
integration of theory and practice.
The assignment topics and instructions for the completion of those assignments, as well
13

as information on the written examination and the scope of the work that needs to be
prepared for the written examination, will be explained in the tutorial letters complementing
the study guide.
Figure 0.1 below illustrates the specific learning outcomes. The assessment criteria are
14

included for each specific learning outcome in the lesson.

15

Figure 0.1: Specific learning outcomes

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16 Module-level development
Universities have to meet certain standards and requirements when developing study
17

materials for a qualification. Module BSW4802 complies with the purpose of social
work education and the key outcomes set by the South African Qualifications Authority
(SAQA) and the Higher Education Qualifications Framework (HEQF) and is pitched at
NQF level 8. Each specific or key outcome has certain assessment criteria which you, as a
student, can use to assess whether you have met the required outcomes.

Table 0.1: Module specifications

Module name Integrated Service Delivery in Social Welfare

Module code BSW4802

NQF level Level 8

Module credits 24

Table 0.2: Notional hours

Workload for module BSW4802 Notional
hours

Engage with the study guide. Read the study guide attentively, 70
to understand the information. Make notes to reflect your
understanding

Engage with the tutorial letter(s). Read them attentively, to understand 10

the information contained in them

Complete the exercises, activities and self-assessment tasks in the study 23

guide

Complete the assignments set for this module 40

Engage with other tutorial materials and additional resources 10

recommended for this module

Attend video conferences /broadcasting 24

Prepare for the examination 60

Write the examination 3

Total number of notional hours 240

18

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19 The structure and key concepts of this study guide
This guide, which consists of six lessons, is primarily focused on providing theory for the
20

practice of developmental social work, by developing your knowledge of, and skills in,
facilitating human and social change. The guide offers an overview of many different
aspects of integrated social welfare service delivery, and it may feel overwhelming to
you. Understanding the context and structure of this study guide may offer you some
guidelines on how to proceed further.

The purpose of this guide is to define and explain the concepts of integrated social welfare
21

service delivery. ‘Integration’/‘integrated’ can be explained as follows:

y Integrated social welfare services: such services refer to service providers in the
social welfare services system who work together to make it easier for service users to
receive the services and information they need. This includes government departments
working with other organisations to address the needs and problems of individuals,
families and communities. Developmental social welfare services in South Africa are
based on collaborative partnerships between the public sector, private sector, civil
society, and training and research institutions. Integrated social welfare services also apply
a range of approaches and methods, to enable them to achieve more coordinated
service delivery, and offer more effective outcomes for service users.
y The integration of approaches, perspectives and theories: a multi-theoretical
perspective, using different approaches and theories, produces a social worker who
has the necessary flexibility to address the needs of a client in the most effective way,
at a specific point in time. This multi-theoretical perspective has the advantage of
using the best and most useful range of theories to address different areas related to
the functioning of individuals, families, groups and communities.
y Integrated practise of social work methods: integrated practice, which makes use
of the three methods of social work (case, group and community work), is meant to
intervene on different levels, to resolve a client’s issues. Using all three social work
methods ensures that target groups receive holistic services, which touch all dimensions
of their needs on the micro, meso and macro levels.
y Integration of theory and practice: integrating theory and practice refers to a process
whereby connections are made between the social work knowledge, values, and skills
learned during the course of social work, and the integration of formal knowledge
with fieldwork practice, before embedding it in social work practice.

This guide will assist you in developing a critical understanding of the framework of
22

Integrated Service Delivery in Social Welfare. Figure 0.2 offers a holistic view of how you,
as a student, need to contextualise the content of this guide.

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24

Figure 0.2: Integrated service delivery in social welfare

The developmental approach to social work is an integral factor in the delivery of integrated
25

social welfare services in South Africa. The focus of collective responsibility for, and
collaborative partnerships between, government, welfare organisations and the public
and private sectors, is crucial for ensuring the provision of equitable services which meet
the needs of society. The use of certain approaches, perspectives, theories and models
is complementary to the developmental approach, which will empower you, as a social
worker, to employ a multi-theoretical perspective to effectively assist individuals, family
groups and communities. The methods of social work (case, group and community work)
can be used interchangeably for certain individuals, groups and communities, to ensure
that target groups receive holistic services, and to address all their needs on the micro,
meso and macro levels. In the diverse societies and communities within South Africa,
social workers also need to be culturally sensitive, and must be able to embrace cultural
differences on all levels of service delivery. The ability to render effective services further
requires knowledge of the various sectors within the social welfare domain, such as social
security, the different specialised fields in social work, teamwork and interventions with
vulnerable populations.

26 Contact with the lecturer

All queries related to the content of this module should be directed to the primary lecturer
27

for this module. You will find the name of the lecturer, his/her e-mail address and office
telephone number in the tutorial letter for this module.

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28 Recommended books
29There is no prescribed book for this module, but the following works are recommended:
Berg-Weger, M, Adams, D & Birkenmaier, J. (2020). The practice of generalist social work. 5th
edition. New York: Routledge.
Birkenmaier, J & Berg-Weger, M. (2017). The practice of generalist social work. 4th edition.
New York and London: Routledge.
Patel, L. (2015). Social welfare and social development. South Africa: Oxford University Press.
Toseland, RW & Rivas, RF. (2014). An introduction to group work practice. 8th edition. Boston:
Pearson.
Weyers, ML. (2011). The theory and practice of community work: A southern African
perspective. 2nd edition. Potchefstroom: Keurkopie.
30

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Lesson 1
The purpose, functions and principles of social work
within the developmental approach and applicable
theories

1.1 SPECIFIC LEARNING OUTCOMES

On completion of this lesson, you should be able to critically analyse the purpose,
31

functions and principles of social work within the developmental approach and
applicable theories.

1.2 INTRODUCTION
After you have completed this lesson, you will be able to understand and critically analyse
32

developmental social work, supported by other applicable approaches, perspectives,

theories and models. Developmental social work is supported by different approaches,
perspectives, theories and models, to assist social workers to serve as change agents on
all levels of intervention. It is important that you, as a student, equip yourself with the
necessary knowledge and understanding of the applicable approaches, perspectives,
theories and models, in order to be able to apply them when practising developmental
social work in different practice settings and at diverse intervention levels. This lesson will
introduce you to the context of developmental social work and provide background on
how the social welfare policy and commitments of the Global Agenda for Social Work
and Social Development (GASWSD 2012) contribute to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development (SDG 2015), which was adopted by the United Nations, both nationally
and globally. The developmental approach requires social workers to have a broader
understanding of political, economic and cultural aspects (nationally and internationally)
and of the interconnectedness of the global world and local societies, all of which challenge
the provision of social welfare services.

In South Africa, the first democratic social welfare policy framework with a developmental
33

approach was adopted in 1997, in the form of the White Paper for Social Welfare (RSA 1997).
The fact that developmental social work is consistent with the Global Agenda for Social
Work and Social Development (2012) and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development
(2015) ensures that our profession is aligned with the international context of social work.

1.2.1 The purpose of the Framework for Social Welfare Services

In this country, developmental social work which is underpinned by the developmental
34

approach and integrated social welfare service delivery, is guided by a specific document,
the Framework for Social Welfare Services (RSA, DSD 2013). This framework seeks to facilitate

1 BSW4802/1
the implementation of a comprehensive, integrated, rights-based, well-resourced and
quality developmental social welfare service (RSA, DSD 2013), by guiding the delivery of
related services.

‘Developmental welfare’ is the term used to describe South Africa’s welfare system. It is
35

informed by the theory of social development, as discussed in the White Paper for Social
Welfare (RSA 1997). Developmental welfare comprises five concepts which include a
rights-based approach, social and economic development, democracy and participation,
a pluralist approach, and the bridging of micro and macro divides.

In this lesson, we will discuss the developmental approach and the relevant theories and
36

models which support it, to enable the delivery of integrated social services. In previous
modules – BSW2602 (“Focus areas and fields of social work practice”), BSW2603 (“Social
welfare policy within the South African context”) and BSW3704 (“Integrated social work
practice”) – you were introduced to the background of the developmental approach and
the framework for social welfare services.

It is important to understand that the developmental approach forms part of a bigger

37

picture and supports certain worldwide goals and agendas. That is explained and discussed
next.

1.2.2 International social work and declarations: 2030 Agenda for

Sustainable Development and the Global Agenda for Social Work
and Social Development
In 2015, South Africa – along with many other countries – signed the United Nations’
38

declaration, the 2030 Agenda, to achieve the 17 sustainable development goals (SDGs) and
their 169 targets by 2030 (Lombard 2015:53). This agenda calls on countries worldwide to
address issues related to development, the economy, human rights and the environment.
The broad overall themes of the different SDGs can be summarised in five main areas,
namely people, planet, prosperity, peace and partnerships (the five Ps). The five areas can
be shortly described as follows:
y People refers to the promotion and development of human dignity and wellbeing,
and the combatting of inequalities, poverty and gender imbalances.
y Planet refers to combatting climate change, promoting the sustainable use of resources,
as well as sustainable consumption and production.
y Prosperity refers to sustainable and economic growth.
y Peace promotes a life free from fear and violence.
y Partnerships calls for global solidarity and the formation of partnerships/collaborative
undertakings.

The target groups include women, children, youths, older persons, persons with disabilities,
39

indigenous people, internally displaced people, migrants and refugees. The social work
profession can and should play a leading role in this action plan, by contributing towards,
and helping to achieve, these goals.

2
The International Association for Schools of Social Work (IASSW), the International
40

Federation of Social Workers (IFSW) and the International Council on Social Welfare
(ICSW) consulted over three years regarding the development of a global agenda for social
work. Together, they recognised the unequal consequences of political, economic, social
and cultural orders, and prepared a document to guide future and continuing actions
(Lombard 2015:482). The Global Agenda for Social Work and Social Development (2012)
aims to address unjust and unsustainable social, economic and political systems around
the world (Lombard 2015:482). The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and the
Global Agenda for Social Work and Social Development (2012) are aligned with each other,
working to achieve justice, equity and socially inclusive societies (Lombard 2015:483). The
developmental approach also aligns with the Global Agenda for Social Work and Social
Development (2012) and contributes to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development
(Lombard 2019a:49). The essence of developmental social work is in understanding what
makes societies unequal, and how poverty, and a lack of access to health/income/education
contribute to exclusion and work to maintain unjust societies (Lombard 2019a:49).

1.2.3 Globalisation
Globalisation can be defined as a “process of international exchange and integration involving
41

economic activities, social interactions, political cooperation and improved communication”

(Midgley 2014:32). Social workers need to recognise that developmental social work
includes globalisation. Globalisation has changed (and will continue to change) social
work practice, because social workers also address social problems across borders, such
as human trafficking and environmental issues (Lombard 2019a:49).

1.2.4 Comments
In BSW2602 (“Focus areas and fields of social work practice”), BSW2603 (“Social welfare
42

policy within the South African context”) and BSW3704 (“Integrated social work practice”)
you were extensively educated on the White Paper for Social Welfare (RSA 1997), and
on the themes of the developmental approach (human rights, economic and social
development, integrating micro and macro practice, people’s participation and collaborate
in partnerships). Here, we will continue to critically analyse developmental social work;
its purpose, functions and principles; and how it interconnects with certain supportive
approaches, perspectives, theories and models.

Integrative approaches, perspectives, theories and models by nature offer multi-theoretical

43

perspectives, and their use assists the social worker by equipping him/her with the
flexibility to address the needs of a client in the most effective way, at a specific point in
time. The developmental approach and applicable approaches, perspectives, theories
and modules form part of a comprehensive approach for rendering social welfare services
in South Africa.

3 BSW4802/1
44

Reflective exercise 1.1

y Visit the following link and download the document to assist you in understanding
the Framework for Social Welfare Services (RSA, DSD 2013).
[Link]/resources/framework-social-welfare-services-–-south-
africa
y What is your perception of social welfare service delivery, from a developmental ap-
proach ?

1.3 ASSESSMENT CRITERIA

Demonstrate the achievement of the learning outcomes, by understanding,
45

applying, critically appraising and evaluating a number of assessment criteria.

You must be able to
y appraise and evaluate applicable theories used in relation to the social
developmental approach
y compare and analyse different theories and models for social work
intervention
y compare and critique the principles of the social developmental approach
and applicable theories
y analyse the relationship between the purpose, functions and principles of
social work and those of the developmental approach
y compare social issues extrapolated from the developmental approach and
other related theories
y apply strategies for human and social capital formation within the
developmental approach.

1.4 KEY CONCEPTS

The following concepts will be used extensively in this lesson. Make sure that
46

you understand their meaning, before studying this unit:

Key concept Meaning/definition

Globalisation “A process of international exchange and

integration involving increased economic activities,
social interactions, political cooperation and
improved communication” (Midgley 2014:232).

4
 Key concept Meaning/definition

Developmental “… reaffirms social work’s commitment to social

social work justice and poverty eradication by promoting social
change and human development for sustainable
(social, economic and environmental) development
outcomes. It recognises the local–global link of
social problems, and is relevant to all social work
fields, service levels and methods through the lens
of human rights, ecological justice, micro and macro
practice and people participation. It is aligned with
the commitments of the Global Agenda (2012) and
2030 Agenda (UN 2015)” (Lombard 2019a:51).

Activity 1.1

Revisit the previous year’s modules (e.g., BSW2602) regarding the five themes and features
of developmental social work, and critically reflect on how you would implement those
in practice.

1Feedback

y A rights-based approach: this approach focuses on social justice, a minimum standard

of living, equitable access and equal opportunity to access services.
y Economic and social development: this involves the promotion of social and economic
inclusion through enhanced personal functioning and the strengthening of people’s
human capital.
y Democracy and participation: service beneficiaries needs to contribute to the develop-
ment of their society and their own wellbeing.
y Social development partnerships: collaboration between individuals, families, groups,
organisations, and the private and government sectors is important for achieving goals.
y Micro and macro divides: developmental social welfare interventions should be done
on the micro, meso and macro levels, using different methods and generalist practice
interventions.

1.5 THE CONTEXT OF DEVELOPMENTAL SOCIAL WORK

The context of developmental social work is explained by defining the concept and
47

analysing its purpose, functions and principles.

1.5.1 Definition of developmental social work

y There is no universal definition for developmental social work. Key concepts, which
provide a foundation to define and understand developmental social work, include:
social change, empowerment and focusing on people’s and communities’ strengths,
client participation, social justice principles, and social investment. Developmental social

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 work is applicable to both micro and macro practice and includes fields of practice such
as child welfare, mental health, social work with disability, social assistance, restorative
justice and statutory work.
y Patel (2015:127) defined developmental social work as: “Informed by the social
development approach to social welfare, [it] involves the practical and appropriate
application of knowledge, skills and values to enhance the well-being of individuals,
families, groups and communities in their social context.”
Social policy development and implementation which contribute to social justice and
human development is also included and promotion of social change of the person
and the environment interaction.
y Lombard (2019a:51) defines developmental social work further concluding that it
“reaffirms social work’s commitment to social justice and poverty eradication by
promoting social change and human development for sustainable development
outcomes. It recognises the local–global link of social problems and is relevant to
all social work fields, service levels and methods through the lens of human rights,
ecological justice, micro and macro practice, and people participation. It is aligned
with the commitments of the Global Agenda (2012) and 2030 Agenda (UN 2015)”.
y These definitions emphasise the importance of social change. Other core elements
focused on, are structural injustices, poverty, inequality, and human wellbeing and
development.

1.5.2 The purpose, functions and principles of developmental social

work
y Importantly, developmental social work aims to promote social change by focusing
on the person and the environment, and using the principles of social justice and
human development.
y Developmental social work emphasises the use of macro-level practices which have
a greater impact for change, but in developmental social work interventions on the
micro and meso levels are also important, because social problems are complex and
intervention on all levels is necessary.
y Developmental social work aims to balance needs with resources, and thus explores
clients and environments, resources and strengths (Patel 2015:127).
y The focus is on the strengths of individuals and communities, not on their weaknesses.
y Developmental social work facilitates the participation of different people,
groups and communities in solving problems. It includes making clients, groups
and communities’ part of the planning process and interventions aimed at social
change (Patel 2015:128).
y Integrated service delivery is therefore informed by the generalist approach (to which
you were introduced in previous modules).
y Developmental social work integrates multidimensional approaches, perspectives
and theories, all of which inform the generalist practice framework (Patel 2015:137).
y Assessment of the client system is holistic, and the levels of intervention need to be
decided on once a problem has been identified and understood in context (Patel
2015:137).
y Integrated social and economic development is supported in developmental social
work, which focuses on economic development (increased income), but also promotes

6
 people’s choices to live healthy lives supported by human rights, freedom, capabilities
and opportunities (Lombard 2019a:57).
y Developmental social work focuses on meeting the needs of people, and on promoting
and protecting their rights (especially those of the disadvantaged) (Patel 2015:127).
y Shifting interventions are needed to prevent problems, rather than focusing on social
treatment (Patel 2015:128).
y Developmental social work practice promotes economic, social and cultural rights,
and the provision of social services. Social work practitioners need to stand up against
inequalities and injustices, by promoting and advocating the human rights of their
clients (Lombard 2019a:57).

Activity 1.2

y Create and design a mind map indicating all the important factors to remember when
practising social work from a developmental approach.

2Feedback

48

1.6 APPLICABLE THEORIES FOR DEVELOPMENTAL SOCIAL

WORK PRACTICE

1.6.1 Introduction
A social worker uses certain techniques, processes and roles to complement the specific
49

approaches, perspectives, theories and models available. Before studying the different
approaches, perspectives, theories and models, it is crucial to define these concepts.

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1.6.2 Differences between a theory, model, perspective and approach
y A perspective is a way of observing (interpreting, perceiving) the world (Birkenmaier
& Berg-Weger 2017:1–19). One example is the strengths perspective.
y An approach is a broad term which suggests how we work in the world we are
observing, or “how it is done”. One example is the developmental approach.
y A theory is an explanation of an event or phenomenon. It puts forward principles and
propositions that can provide a framework for prediction and applicability (Birkenmaier
& Berg-Weger 2017:1–26). One example is the person-centred theory.
y A model is a set of specific scientific guidelines or activities and procedures which
offers solutions to problems. One example is the Generalist Intervention Model.

Social workers should master a number of approaches, perspectives, theories and models,
50

so that they have an option to choose from when deciding how to address a client’s needs
in the most effective way. Your choice of an approach, perspective, theory or model should
be motivated by the desire to render the best possible service to the client system.

1.6.3 Principles for selecting an approach/perspective/theory/model for

intervention
Consider the following when choosing an approach/perspective/theory/model for an
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intervention (Engelbrecht 1999:76–77):

y The approach/perspective/theory/model must primarily be suited to the person(s)
involved, to behaviours (problems and situations) and the environment
y The social worker’s personality (it will influence the intervention)
y The agency that delivers the service and the field of service (e.g., institutional care,
care of the disabled, child and family care)
y The extent to which the approach/perspective/theory/model is supported by empirical
research
y The extent to which the approach/perspective/theory/model can guarantee results
within the shortest time, at the lowest cost, and with the least effort being expended
y The extent to which the techniques prescribed by that approach/perspective/theory/
model can be applied in the course of an intervention
y The approach/perspective/theory/model used, must be ethically sound and must comply
with the ethical code of the social work profession.

Let us discuss and critically analyse the approaches, perspectives and theories which
52

are relevant to developmental social work practice, to determine their advantages and
limitations, as that will assist the social worker in making suitable choices that best serve
the client system.

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8
 1.7 PERSON-CENTRED THEORY
In levels 1, 2 and 3 of your social work modules BSW1501, BSW2601 and BSW3701, you
54

were extensively exposed to different theories as well as the person-centred approach/

theory, the ecosystems perspective and the strengths perspective. Please revisit those
modules to refresh your knowledge of all Rogers’ values and propositions (statements),
along with facilitation and communication skills.

1.7.1 Definition of the person-centred theory

y The person-centred approach is a “non-directive and emphatic approach to social work
practice that cultivates a therapeutic environment that is conducive to personal growth”
(Mbedzi 2019b:199). The approach encourages people to explore their experiences
and identify which challenges prevent them from fulfilling their potential.

1.7.2 Purpose, functions and principles of the person-centred approach

y The person-centred approach specifically focuses on the human potential to grow
and adapt (Murphy, Duggan & Joseph 2012:707).
y A most significant assumption of Roger’s approach is that people behave in accordance
to their perceptions of reality and therefore the client’s needs and issues, need to be
understood in the light of how he/she experiences reality.
y Another assumption of Roger’s approach is that people want to develop their potential.
It is therefore complementary to developmental social work practice, as it seeks to
recognise and develop human potential.
y The facilitator or social worker’s attitude, characteristics and the quality of the client-
facilitator relationship plays a core role in the change which will occur in the process.
y Many values of this approach are reflected in social work practice. Core conditions
in facilitating the process of working with clients from a person-centred approach
include congruency, unconditional positive regard and empathy. The values of the
person-centred approach involve respect, individualisation, self-determination and
confidentiality (Mbedzi 2019b:206–211).
y Roger’s 19 propositions/statements provide a framework from which individuals,
groups and communities can be better understood, and from which social workers
need to think and view people.

55

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The advantages and limitations of using the person-centred approach are outlined in
56

Table 1.1.

Table 1.1: Advantages and limitations of the person-centred approach

Advantages Limitations

y Allows people to find their own y The role of the social worker may
solutions and make their own not be appropriate for this non-
decisions in their own time directive approach, where statutory
y Assumes that all people strive for self- interventions are concerned
realisation and are inherently good y This is not a time-limited approach,
y Values all forms of human experience which may not be in line with the
y Resists the temptation to criticise organisation’s focus on service delivery
people y Is difficult to apply, if the service user
y Emphasises is on building an equal is not motivated to engage
and meaningful working relationship y Mainly focuses on individual change,
with service users rather than societal factors
y Is widely applicable across service user y Has limited recognition of
groups environmental challenges
y Affirms the dignity and worth of all y A client who is emotionally
people overwhelmed and challenged
y Compatible with the Social Justice with environmental issues (e.g.,
Perspective insufficient income, violence) is not
a recommended candidate for this
approach

1.8 THE ECOSYSTEMS PERSPECTIVE

1.8.1 Definition of the ecosystems perspective

y The ecosystems perspective can be defined as a “blend of systems theory (which
focuses primarily on the dynamics within systems) and the ecological perspective
(which focuses primarily on the dynamics between one system and the systems
around it)” (Mbedzi 2019a:87).

1.8.2 Purpose, functions and principles of the ecosystems perspective

y The ecosystems perspective is often used in social work generalist practice (Birkenmaier
& Berg-Weger 2017:25). This perspective describes the functioning and adaptation of
persons within their environment and in their relationships with others, as well as how
they are influencing one another.
y The ecosystems perspective focuses on exchanges between individuals, groups, families
and communities and their environment. While systems theory examines activities
in the social environment, the ecological theory explains how people adapt to, and
influence, their environment (Birkenmaier & Berg-Weger 2017:25).

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y The ecosystems perspective is highly applicable to social work practice, in that
it matches people (as far as possible) to their environments. Social work from an
ecosystems perspective focuses on promoting a balance between the person and his/
her environment, by changing both (or one of) the components (Mbedzi 2019a:87).

The advantages and limitations of the systems and ecological perspectives are described
57

in Table 1.2.

Table 1.2: Advantages and limitations of the systems and ecological perspectives
Advantages Limitations

y Emphasises changing environment, y Does not explain why things happen,

rather than the individual does not give guidance on how to act
y Focuses on patterns, rather than cause to bring about change
and effect, which allows for different y May overemphasise the “bigger
ways of achieving the desired outcome picture” at the expense of details
y Sees the social worker as part of a y Values maintenance and integration
system of change, rather than solely over conflict – may not explicitly
responsible – may lend itself to challenge inequality. Does not
multidisciplinary work encourage challenging oppressive
y Acknowledges the interrelationship systems
between the person and the
environment
y Considers a range of resources to
support people (both internal and
external)

1.9 THE STRENGTHS PERSPECTIVE

1.9.1 Definition of the strengths perspective

The strengths perspective can be defined as “an approach in social work that centres
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on the social worker’s perception of people as possessing or having access to strengths

and capabilities to deal with their life challenges” (Van Breda 2019:245). The strengths
perspective emphasises individuals, groups and communities’ strengths and the resources
available in their environments (Birkenmaier & Berg-Weger 2017:28).

1.9.2 Purpose, functions and principles of the strengths perspective

Saleebey (in Birkenmaier & Berg-Weger 2017:28) identifies six principles of the strengths
59

perspective:
y Every person, group, family and community have strengths.
y Social ills in society (abuse, violence, struggle, illness) are challenging, but also provide
opportunities to teach clients how to overcome these difficulties with new skills. The

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 capacity for growth which clients and communities have is limitless; the social worker
should not see their goals as unrealistic, but rather encourage them to work towards
meeting high expectations.
y Collaboration between the client and social worker is an important aspect of the
strengths perspective.
y Every environment has resources to offer.
y The strengths perspective recognises the inclusion of all community members in
society, as well as the principle of social justice.

60 The advantages and limitations of the strengths perspective are described in Table 1.3.

Table 1.3: Advantages and limitation of the strengths perspective

Advantages Limitation

y Focuses on individuals’ and y Focuses on strengths, but if weaknesses

communities’ strengths are neglected and managed poorly/
y Acknowledges the resources of not managed at all, this can eventually
individuals, groups and communities influence the individual to the point
y Believes in the potential and where s/he is less effective in that
capabilities of people, groups particular scope of work
and communities
y Acknowledges the indigenous
knowledge of people and
communities
y Focuses on setting up relationships
based on mutuality with client
systems, affirming of human dignity

1.10 THE SOCIAL JUSTICE PERSPECTIVE

1.10.1 Definition of social justice

The concept ‘social justice’ refers to the way in which society distributes resources
61

amongst its members, inclusive of rights, protections, social benefits and material goods
(Birkenmaier & Berg-Weger 2017:25). Every person deserves equal economic, political and
social rights and opportunities.

1.10.2 Purpose, functions and principles of social justice

y The social work profession generally accepts the concept of the fair distribution
(egalitarian focus) of material and nonmaterial resources and equal access for all
(Birkenmaier & Berg-Weger 2017:25). The social justice perspective focuses on how
social workers respond to injustices in our society.
y The focus of the social justice perspective is on identifying individual, family, group
and community needs, and on seeking to address any areas of injustice.

12
y Practising social justice in social work mainly includes advocacy; the empowerment
of clients through consciousness-raising, skills-building and resource
development, community education and organising; legislative and media activism;
social movement participation; policy analysis and development; violence intervention;
diversity promotion; and programme development and evaluation.

62 The advantages and limitations of the social justice perspective are described in Table 1.4.

Table 1.4: Advantages and limitations of the social justice perspective

Advantages Limitations

y Focuses on systems, rather than y Does not acknowledge the social

individuals contexts in which individuals function
y Addresses structures, policies and in society
legislation which may contribute to y The redistribution of resources,
practices promoting social injustice freedom to compete, or greater access
y Promotes human rights, human do not transform the structures that
dignity and fairness created the inequalities in the first
y Creates opportunities for people to place
improve their lives

1.11 SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIONISM

1.11.1 Definition of social constructionism

Social constructionism can be defined as “the view that realities and knowledge are
63

created among people and relationships” (Schenck 2019:71). Social construction implies
that people construct their realities according to their experiences and social worlds,
which include a certain culture and context (Birkenmaier & Berg-Weger 2017:29).

1.11.2 Purpose, functions and principles of social constructionism

y Social workers who work from the perspective of social constructionism, view social
realities as beliefs which were formed through social interchanges to make sense of
the world and form judgements.
y People’s realities are based on their experiences and perceptions, and there can be
more than one reality (Birkenmaier & Berg-Weger 2017:290).
y Exploring particular beliefs through the process of deconstruction can change how
people see the world. Constructions are also made within the political, economic and
social contexts.
y People construct their worlds in a community context, rather than independently
(Patel 2015:26). Social workers working from this perspective have to deal with a
client’s realities (rather than their own!), therefore they must take care not to impose
their framework of reference on their clients.

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The advantages and limitations of the social constructionist approach are described in
64

Table 1.5.

Table 1.5: The advantages and limitations of social constructionism

Advantages Limitations

y Emphasises the client system’s y Does not guide the direction of the
experiences and the construction change process
of reality (not the social worker’s y The outcome of the process cannot
framework!) be determined
y Emphasises the relationship between
the social worker and client system,
where new meanings can be
co-constructed
y Has a strong foundation in the
importance of the client system’s
self-determination to make his/her
own choices and attach his/her own
meaning
y Recognises our collective being

1.12 SOLUTION-FOCUSED PERSPECTIVE

1.12.1 Definition of the solution-focused perspective

The solution-focused perspective assists the social worker and client in exploring the
65

change they want to make in the latter’s life, and to identify the resources and strengths
available to make those changes (Birkenmaier & Berg-Weger 2017:31). The solution-focused
perspective is a future-focused, goal-directed approach with a focus on searching for
solutions, rather than emphasising problems.

1.12.2 Purpose, functions and principles of the solution-focused

perspective
It helps clients to identify specific goals connected with specific strengths, to achieve
66

their set goals. This perspective is cognitive orientated, and fits in with anti-oppressive
practices and the empowerment perspective.

67

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68 The advantages and limitations of this approach are outlined in Table 1.6.

Table 1.6: Advantages and limitations of the solution-focused approach

Advantages Limitations

y A co-operative therapy with a wide y May not fit with the agency’s own
range of application possibilities procedures
y Emphasises listening to the service y May not be suitable for people who
user’s story have difficulty responding to questions
y Seeks solutions which fit in with the y Feminist critique that the language is
service user’s life constructed by men, and thus does
y Can fit in with anti-oppressive practices not reflect women’s experience
and be empowering y Attempts to understand the solution
y Is less intrusive – takes easiest route without understanding the problem,
to solutions could be misunderstood
y Reduces the risk of “dependency” on y Focuses on behaviour and perceptions,
the worker rather than feelings, which may limit
y Optimistic approach which assumes its efficacy
change is possible y May not be effective with people
y Time limited in crisis or those with very low self-
esteem, who may not accept that they
have strengths and skills

1.13 SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOOD APPROACH (SLA)

1.13.1 Definition of the SLA

The sustainable livelihood approach is a people-centred, holistic, dynamic approach which
69

builds on people’s strengths, emphasises the importance of macro policy, and ensures
the sustainability of poverty-reduction initiatives. Its emphasis is on poverty reduction,
equity, people participation, human rights, the capabilities and strengths of people, and
sustainable development.

1.13.2 Purpose, functions and principles of the SLA

y SLA is compatible with developmental social work and is strongly connected with
the strengths perspective and the assets-based community development approach
(Lombard 2019b:179).
y This approach focuses on people’s assets and strengths, and is people-centred
(Lombard 2019b:179). It is a method for understanding people who live in poverty
and in disadvantaged communities.
y The core principles of the SLA are its people-centredness, its holistic approach, and the
fact that it takes into consideration the dynamics of change, building on the strengths
of communities, bridging the micro–macro gap by emphasising macro-level policy
and focusing on sustainability, to ensure the future existence of a project (Lombard

15 BSW4802/1
 2019b:181). The SLA can be applied when working with an individual, a family or
a community. The following concepts regarding SLA help to explain the context of
this approach:
− A livelihood can be defined as follows: “A livelihood comprises the capabilities,
assets and activities required for a means of living. A livelihood is sustainable
which can cope with and recover from stress and shocks, maintain or enhance its
capabilities and assets, and provide sustainable livelihood opportunities for the
next generation” (Chamber & Conway in Lombard 2019b:183).
− The ways in which people combine their assets to support themselves and their
families, together with the decisions they make, determine their livelihood strategy.
− Assets are divided into different categories and, together, these form people’s
livelihoods, which allow them to adopt different livelihood strategies to make a
living. Included are:
Human assets (capital): these include the skills, knowledge, and physical and
70

mental strengths needed to work and take up employment.

Social assets (social capital): these are the social resources people can draw upon,
71

such as formal and informal relationships with family, friends and neighbours, as
well as networks such as forums, clubs and groups within the wider community.
Physical assets (capital): included are decent housing, affordable transport, work
72

clothes/equipment, basic white goods, a computer, a sewing machine.

Natural assets: these include, for example, irrigation and access to water supply,
73

land and clean air.

Public assets: these include local public services, facilities and amenities (resource
74

and community centres, libraries, local organisations and various projects) as well
as the level of people’s engagement, participation and involvement in community
activities beyond their household and immediate family and friends.
Financial assets: included here are earned income, savings, pensions, credit
75

facilities, state (welfare) benefits and grants.

y The SLA not only focuses on people and their strengths (assets) but also explores
how organisations, policies and practices (operating locally, regionally and nationally)
impact people’s lives.
y The SLA also assists in identifying barriers which are institutional or policy-based.
Another principle is the recognition of the diversity and power relations that exist
within relationships, households and communities.
− Livelihood outcomes result from following livelihood strategies, but depend on the
focus of those strategies. The social worker can evaluate whether certain outcomes
were achieved, by evaluating the following (Lombard 2019b:192):
76  Increasing income (amount of money in the household)
77  Increased wellbeing (physical, emotional, psychological and social)
78  Reduction of vulnerability
79  Improvement in food security
80  Use of natural resources to improve sustainability.

81

16
82 The advantages and limitations of the SLA are described in Table 1.7 (see Serrat 2017:25).

Table 1.7: Advantages and limitations of the SLA approach

Advantages Limitations

y Not restricted to identifying problems y Does not pay enough attention to

and seeking solutions, but rather inequalities of power
looks at contexts and relationships y Underplays the fact that enhancing the
y Understands the changing livelihoods of one group can undermine
combinations of modes of livelihood those of another
within a dynamic context
y Emphasises the importance of macro
and micro connection
y Stresses the importance of
understanding the applicable
institutions and policies

The following case study illustrates how to identify the different assets and their impacts.
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Guidelines are given for assisting the individual through the use of the SLA. A key principle
here, is to recognise that these assets are all interconnected and need to be considered
together, as a whole, in order to understand which livelihood strategies would be best
to employ.

Tebogo and Sipho lived together for five years. Both worked full time (strong financial
asset). When Tebogo became pregnant, her partner was no longer interested in the
relationship or the child, and that caused Tebogo to become so depressed (reduced
human asset) that she had to leave her job. Sipho started drinking heavily and lost his
job (reduced financial asset). After a while Tebogo left her partner (reduced social
assets). Sipho initially paid maintenance, but after a while stopped paying (reduced
financial asset). Tebogo lost her house (reduced financial asset) and had to move
in with family (social asset). She received an RDP house (public asset) and a social
grant (public asset). When Tebogo became involved in a community project offering
skills training (social and human assets), she also received support from the church
she joined (social asset).
Here is a summary of the guidelines the social worker can follow, to assist the client
system in applying the SLA process:
y By starting to understand the individual or family’s everyday experiences, the social
worker builds up a picture of their existing assets and livelihood.

17 BSW4802/1
 y The process then actively involves assisting the client system to come up with
their own potential ways/strategies of using their assets to improve their situation.
y Next, the social worker and client system explore how existing service provision
(or a lack thereof) affects the individual or his/her family. It is important to interact
with policies and institutions, so that they promote the agenda of those people
experiencing poverty, while seeking ways of supporting them to achieve their
livelihood goals.
y The social worker assists the client system in developing a personal development
plan (PDP) that respects the individual’s views and encourages his/her participation
in finding his/her own solutions.

Activity 1.3

y Critically analyse the advantages and limitations of the following theories, models,
approaches or perspectives:
− Social constructionism
− Strengths approach
− Ecosystems approach
− The social justice perspective
− Sustainable livelihood approach
y According to the SLA, assets can be divided into different categories. Provide an
outline for each category.
y Evaluate which aspects or guidelines a social worker needs to consider before decid-
ing on the theory, model, perspective or approach s/he wants to implement with the
client system.
y Propose how the nature (principles) of developmental social work is applicable in
practice, and illustrate this by providing examples.

1.14 CONCLUSIONS
Discussed here were several theories, models, perspectives and approaches which
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are compatible with, and complement, developmental social work. In Lesson 1, the
different theoretical perspectives applicable to practising developmental social work were
discussed, and the advantages and limitations of each were listed. Developmental social
work integrates multidimensional theories, and informs the generalist practice framework.

The next lesson will focus on how a social worker practically implements the different
85

theories, models, perspectives and approaches in a developmental framework, at different

levels of intervention.

18
Self-assessment 1

y What are the functions and principles of developmental social work?

y Which perspectives or approaches will be supportive of developmental social work?
y Why is the SLA approach of significance to social work?

19 BSW4802/1
 REFERENCES
Birkenmaier, J & Berg-Weger, M. (2017). The practice of generalist social work. New York
and London: Routledge.
Engelbrecht, LK. (1999). Introduction to social work. Wellington: Lanzo.
Global Agenda for Social Work and Social Development. 2012. Collaboration between
IASSW, IFSW, ICSW. Available from: [Link] (Accessed
6 May 2020).
Lombard, A. (2019a). Sustainable livelihood approach. In Theories for decolonial social
work practice, edited by A. van Breda and J. Sekudu. South Africa: Oxford University
Press:178–197.
Lombard, A. (2019b). Developmental social work. In Theories for decolonial social work
practice, edited by A. van Breda and J. Sekudu. South Africa: Oxford University
Press:47–66.
Lombard, L. (2015). Global agenda for social work and social development: A path toward
sustainable social work. Social Work/Maatskaplike Werk, 51(4):482–499.
Mbedzi, P. (2019a). Ecosystems. In Theories for decolonial social work practice, edited by A.
van Breda and J. Sekudu. South Africa: Oxford University Press:86–104.
Mbedzi, P. (2019b). Person-centred approach. In Theories for decolonial social work practice,
edited by A. van Breda and J. Sekudu. South Africa: Oxford University Press:198–221.
Midgley, J. (2014). Social development: Theory and practice. London: Sage.
Murphy, D, Duggan, M & Joseph, S. (2012). Relationship-based social work and
its compatibility with the person-centred approach: Principled versus instrumental
perspectives. British Journal of Social Work, 43(4):703–719.
Patel, L. (2015). Social welfare and social development. South Africa: Oxford University Press.
Republic of South Africa (RSA), Department of Welfare. 1997, August 8. White paper for
social welfare: Principles, guidelines, recommendations, proposed policies and
programmes for developmental social welfare in South Africa. Government Notice
R1108 of 1997. Government Gazette 386(18166). Pretoria: Government Printer.
Schenck, R. (2019). Social constructionism. In Theories for decolonial social work practice,
edited by A. van Breda and J. Sekudu. South Africa: Oxford University Press:67–85.
Serrat, O. 2017. Knowledge solutions: Tools, methods and approaches to drive organizational
performance. The Philippines: Springer.
United Nations (UN). (2015). Transforming our world: The 2030 agenda for
sustainable development. Advanced unedited version. Available from: https://
[Link]/content/documents/21252030%20Agenda%20for
%20Sustaibanble%20Development%[Link] (Accessed 6 May 2020).
Van Breda, A. (2019). Strengths practices. In Theories for decolonial social work practice,
edited by A. van Breda and J. Sekudu. South Africa: Oxford University Press:243–261.
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20
Lesson 2
The levels of intervention, specific target groups for
intervention, types of services and focus areas for
service delivery on the micro, meso and macro levels

2.1 SPECIFIC LEARNING OUTCOMES

On completion of this lesson, you should be able to critically analyse and interpret
87

the appropriate social work intervention strategies and techniques at the micro,
meso and macro levels.

2.2 INTRODUCTION
Lesson 1 critically analysed the context of developmental social work and the applicable
88

approaches, perspectives, theories and models which are complementary to the

developmental approach. The application of multi-theoretical perspectives, using different
approaches, perspectives, theories and models, enables a social worker to intervene
with flexibility, to address the needs of a client in the most effective way, at a specific
point in time. The developmental approach, in conjunction with supportive approaches/
perspectives/theories/models, provides an umbrella approach for rendering social welfare
services in South Africa.

The environment within which social welfare services are rendered has changed over
89

the past 15 years. This has necessitated legislative and policy reviews, to make social
welfare programmes and services more responsive in addressing the plight of the most
vulnerable groups in society. The White Paper for Social Welfare (RSA 1997) has guided
this transformation process. To achieve integrated developmental social welfare services
further guidance was needed, therefore the Framework for Social Welfare Services (RSA,
DSD 2013) was developed to enhance the nature, scope, extent and level of the integrated
service offering.

The focus of Lesson 2 will be on the service levels of intervention, the life stages (target
90

groups) and the focus areas for service delivery on the micro, meso and macro levels.
Importantly, social welfare interventions take place on the micro (individuals, families
and households), meso (groups) and macro levels (communities and organisations).
The different levels are linked with one another, because micro interventions focus on
individuals and families, whereas macro interventions aim to change those structures
and institutions within society that perpetrate or perpetuate socioeconomic injustices.
The implementation of different intervention strategies and methods depends on the
client or system of intervention (RSA, DSD 2013:15).

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 2.3 ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
Demonstrate your achievement of the learning outcomes by understanding,
91

applying, critically appraising and evaluating the assessment criteria. You must
be able to
y critically appraise the services, levels of intervention, life stages (target
groups) and focus areas extrapolated from the integrated framework for
social work service delivery
y evaluate the function of social enterprise in social service delivery.

2.4 KEY CONCEPTS

The following concepts will be used extensively in this lesson. Make sure that
92

you understand their meaning, before studying the unit.

Key concept Meaning/definition

Critical thinking “Critical thinking requires the synthesis

and communication of relevant information,
integrates multiple sources of knowledge,
including research-based knowledge, [and]
analyses models of assessment, prevention,
intervention, and evaluation” (Council on
Social Work Education’s Educational Policy
and Accreditation Standards 2012)

Generalist approach “The application of an eclectic knowledge

base, personal values, and a wide range
of skills to target individual, family, group,
organisational or community systems for
change within the context of five primary
processes” (Kirst-Ashman 2017:115).

Social enterprise “Social enterprise is about finding solutions to

socio-political problems” (Visser 2011:235).

Social entrepreneurship An innovative activity by an individual or

group, to exploit an opportunity and reinvest
profits in the business (Chella, Nicolopouloua
& Karatas-Ozkan 2010:486).

22
 2.5 CRITICAL THINKING IN RENDERING INTEGRATED SOCIAL
WELFARE SERVICES
A social worker needs critical thinking skills to render effective, integrated and sustainable
93

services to service users. Do you agree with this statement? What are your reasons for
agreeing or disagreeing?

You are already familiar with the concept of critical thinking in social work. The
94

definition of critical thinking, from the Council on Social Work Education’s Educational
Policy and Accreditation Standards (2008) in the USA is as follows: “Critical thinking
requires the synthesis and communication of relevant information, integrates multiple
sources of knowledge, including research-based knowledge, [and] analyses models
of assessment, prevention, intervention, and evaluation.” It is crucial to demonstrate
effective oral and written communication in working with individuals, families, groups,
organisations, communities and colleagues. Critical thinking involves the scrutiny of what
is stated to be true, and the formulation of a conclusion. A critical thinker questions what
others take for granted (Kirst-Ashman 2017:7).

The following is an outline of the s k i l l s needed for critical thinking in social work
95

practice (Plath, English, Connors & Beveridge 2007:209). The social worker needs to
acquire specific skills to render effective social welfare services, including the ability to
y state problems in clear and not-too-limited terms
y understand the meanings of the major concepts used
y think through the implications at various levels, e.g. individual and group, community
y identify the major models, theories, paradigms that inform his/her thinking
y determine gaps in the theory or evidence, values and assumptions
y see the issue from the different viewpoints of the various stakeholders
y arrive at a meaningful conclusion
y reflect on, and state, his/her own ideas and conclusions.

Entering the field of social work practice will require you to use critical and integrated
96

thinking skills, in order to analyse situations which present themselves, and make
decisions about the most appropriate social work interventions.

The point of departure for this lesson is to revisit the concept of integrated social welfare
97

services from a developmental approach.

2.6 THE CONTEXT OF INTEGRATED SOCIAL WELFARE

SERVICES

2.6.1 Definition and purpose of social welfare services

y The Framework for Social Welfare Services (RSA, DSD 2013) defines social welfare as
“conditions of social well-being when social problems are satisfactorily managed, social
needs are met and social opportunities are created to meet the needs of individuals,
families, groups and communities”.

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y Social welfare can be described as a system of programmes, benefits and services
which assist people in meeting their social, economic, educational and health needs
(Kirst-Ashman 2017:6). Social welfare is therefore a broad concept, used to explain the
general wellbeing of people in society.

2.6.2 Three perspectives on social welfare

The different social welfare perspectives are the residual, the institutional and the
98

developmental (Kirst-Ashman 2017:6–9; RSA, DSD 2013). Each perspective is summarised

in Table 2.1, before being discussed in depth.

Table 2.1: The three perspectives of social welfare

Residual Institutional Developmental

Focuses on problems Focuses on services Focuses on identifying social

and gaps needed as part of the interventions with a positive
human condition as economic developmental impact
well as future needs
(e.g., education that is
available to all)

y Service delivery is y People have the y Achieved in three ways,

only implemented right to ongoing namely through a)
when people fail service delivery investment in education,
to provide for y This perspective nutrition and healthcare; b)
them­­selves favours large- the creation of economic
y Minimal inter­vention scale government and social infrastructure;
in the provision and intervention and c) programmes to bring
financing of social y The model reflects people into employment/
welfare services and the belief that self-employment
social security the environment y The focus is a socioeconomic
y The model blames negatively affects process that involves the
people’s difficulties the individual, as a integration of social and
on their own member of society economic subjects
mistakes and
inadequacies
y This approach leads
to client dependency

y Residual perspective
This perspective is reactive in nature, responding to challenges when no other societal
99

support is available. Assistance is withdrawn again as soon as the system becomes

independent. Addressing or changing pre-existing conditions is therefore seen as assisting
the poor. This perspective is viewed as a safety net, with a negative perception and a
stigma attached, namely that it views citizens as incompetent.

24
y Institutional perspective
This perspective focuses on the fact that everyone needs assistance from the community
100

and government, even if such aid is not requested. The focus is also on preventative
services. The disadvantage of this perspective is that it does not provide poor people
with options for exiting from the social welfare system. This perspective may be seen as
a poverty trap. Examples are homes for battered women, mental institutions and youth
care centres.

y Developmental perspective
The developmental approach seeks to alleviate poverty, and promote social and economic
101

development. This approach has five themes which include a rights-based approach,
interrelations between social and economic development, democracy and participation,
social welfare pluralism and bridging the micro–macro gap. The developmental approach
emphasises the prevention of social problems although remedial services. Social workers
therefore need to be proactive in terms of service delivery.

Activity 2.1

Consult the article “Towards the reconceptualization of social welfare in South Africa:
An analysis of recent policy trends” by Weyers (2011). It was published in the Social
Work/Maatskaplike Werk journal, and can be viewed at the following link: [Link]
org/10.15270/49-4-33. Now answer the questions below:
y According to Weyers (2011), how can the developmental approach enhance economic
development on the micro and macro levels?
y For )Weyers (2011), what is the difference between the vision of the institutional per-
spective and the social development perspective?

3Feedback

y On the micro level, investments in job training, literacy, employment placement and
capacity-building programmes can help reduce poverty and dependency in society. Money
spent on macro social services (e.g., education, nutrition and healthcare) may improve
people’s skills and health, thereby creating a stronger economy (Weyers 2013:434–435).
y The vision of the institutional approach is the elimination of individual and societal dys-
function, while the social developmental approach focuses on eliminating poverty and
inequality (Weyers 2013:436).

2.7 DEFINING THE CONCEPT OF INTEGRATED SOCIAL

WELFARE SERVICES
y “Integrated social welfare services” refers to service providers in the social welfare
services system working together to make it easier for service users to receive
the services and information they need. This includes government departments
collaborating with other organisations to address the needs and problems of individuals,
families and communities.

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y The motivation for using integrated service delivery is to address service fragmentation
and inefficiencies in service delivery. Integrated social service delivery provides holistic
services to vulnerable individuals, families and service users who have multiple needs
on the micro, meso and macro levels (RSA, DSD 2013:27).
y Integrated social welfare services are also understood to apply a range of approaches
(refer to Lesson 1 on developmental social work and the applicable theories, perspectives,
models and approaches) and methods (case, group and community work) for achieving
more coordinated and effective service delivery, and delivering more effective outcomes
for the users of such services (RSA, DSD 2013:27; Munday 2007:7).

Table 2.2 outlines the continuum of integration regarding services, to assist you in
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understanding and critically analysing why integrated service delivery is the preferred
option.

Table 2.2: Continuum showing the integration of social welfare service delivery
Autonomy Cooperation Coordination Collaboration Integration
Welfare Welfare Agencies Welfare Welfare
organisations organisations working organisations organisations
work with share with a similar agree to work agree to work
clients information target group in partnership together to
with­out through undertake to deliver a meet the
references networks to joint planning service to meet client’s needs.
who may, or understand around the an identified Participant
could, be what others can needs of the need with organisations
involved. offer, actively target group, the resources agree on
Referrals may refer clients forming a available. the “rules”
occur, but and might partnership Planning and of working
it is for the work together to plan and developing together,
client and to conduct a fund new or is done and are
next service programme to extended together. The accountable
provider to meet common services. They independency for them.
determine client needs. may develop of The
their work or common organisations is organisations
relationship. processes (e.g., maintained. may merge
a common into a single
assessment organisation.
tool) to benefit
clients.

Source: QCOSS (2013:40)

y Integration of services can happen in different ways, which may include cooperation
and coordination among service providers, collaboration amongst professionals across
different sectors, the physical or virtual collocation of complementary services, or a
mix of these (OECD 2015:16).

26
y To render integrated social welfare services, the social worker needs to be familiar with
the generalist practice in social work, which is the guiding framework for integrated
social development practice (Patel 2015:204). This approach assists social workers in
working with different client systems of varying sizes and diversities, in an integrated
manner.

The generalist approach to social work practice will be discussed further, paying attention
103

to how the approach can be applied in developmental social work practice.

2.8 THE GENERALIST APPROACH TO SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE

2.8.1 Definition and nature of the generalist approach

y Kirst-Ashman (2017:115) defines the generalist approach to social work practice as
follows: “The application of an eclectic knowledge base, personal values, and a wide
range of skills to target individual, family, group, organisational or community systems
for change within the context of five primary processes.” The five processes are client
empowerment, working in an organisational structure under supervision, assuming a
variety of roles as a social worker, adhering to evidence-based practice, and applying
critical thinking skills to the process.
y The advanced generalist practitioner is “a social worker who wears many hats and can
change them often in response to competing client and community needs” (Lavitt
2010:462). The social worker who works within the framework of the generalist approach
seeks to address service users with individual problems, as well as a wide range of
problems affecting communities and organisations (Kirst-Ashman & Hull 2012:3).
y To intervene on the micro, meso and macro levels, generalist practitioners use the
Generalist Intervention Model (GIM), to address all three levels of practice.
y The GIM emphasises client empowerment, social and economic justice and human
diversity; it follows evidence-based practices, using critical thinking and a planned
change process (Kirst-Ashman 2017:117; Kirst-Ashman & Hull 2012:9).
y The GIM also aligns with the developmental approach and the Framework for Social
Welfare Services (RSA, DSD 2013).
y The foundation for the generalist intervention model is based on social work’s unique
set of knowledge, skills and values, using a specific seven-step method of planned
change (see below) (Kirst-Ashman & Hull 2012:4).
y Lastly, the GIM focuses on problem-solving on multiple levels.

The seven steps of the GIM, as applicable to micro, meso and macro practice, are illustrated
104

in Figure 2.1 and discussed hereunder.

Step 1: Engagement
y Engage as a social worker by using micro skills such as building a relationship and
ensuring effective communication.
y Develop a mutually agreed-on focus of work and desired outcomes.

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 Step 2: Assessment
y Assess the problem by gathering information. Next, decide whether to intevene on
the micro, meso or macro level (or a combination of these), to address the problem.
y Collect, organise and interpret client data.
y Assess client strengths and limitations.
y Develop mutually agreed-on intervention goals and objectives.
y Select appropriate intervention strategies.

Steps 3–7: Planning, implementation, evaluation, termination and follow-up

y Step 3: Plan (an integral part of the change process), as this will determine which
goals the client and social worker are working to achieve.
y Step 4: Implement the interventions to achieve the agreed-on goals.
y Step 5: Critically analyse, monitor and evaluate interventions, and determine
whether set goals have been achieved.
y Step 6: Terminate. Facilitate an effective termination.
y Step 7: Follow up when further intervention is needed.

105

Figure 2.1: The seven steps of the Generalist Intervention Model

28
2.8.2 Case study illustrating the practical application of the GIM on the
micro, meso and macro levels

A neighbour of an elderly 70-year old man next door has called for help after falling in
the bath. The neighbour noticed that the house was unkept, with garbage standing
around, dirty dishes and laundry standing around. It seemed to the neighbour if his
elderly neighbour could not take properly care of himself. You, as a social worker, are
called in to assist.

Engagement is the initial phase for establishing a relationship with the elderly person.
Use the guidelines of the person-centred approach to build a relationship with your
client (Rowe 2017:36). You need to involve your client in the planned change process.
You also need to explore his needs and wants. After the assessment phase, decide
which approach (or combination of approaches) to follow, and determine the levels
of intervention.

The planning and implementation phases are part of the discussion of interventions
on the micro, meso or macro level.

Micro level

You and the client may decide to get him involved in appropriate services such as
Meals on Wheels or to have a volunteer assist him. The Council for the Aged could
get involved by rendering support services. You might make use of systems theory to
assess the different subsystems and resources available in the client’s life, and discuss
these with him. Making use of the strengths-based approach (a more goal-oriented
process), you can identify – with the client – what his strengths are, and how he can
utilise them (Martinez-Brawley & Zorita 2017:416).

Meso level

On a meso level you may contact the elderly person’s family or relatives, so that they
become involved in the helping process. You may also determine which neighbours
and friends might be able to assist. Involving the elderly person in a support group
for people with similar needs may be another option. The advantage of a support
group is that through the process of group dynamics, older persons’ socio-emotional
needs can be met (Toseland & Rivas 2014:68). Linking the elderly person to a religious
facility may be another supportive resource.

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 Macro level

You may be aware of many elderly people in the same neighbourhood who face
the same challenges, and this may indicate that specific services are needed. Your
organisation can implement a programme to meet the needs of this client group.
The social planning model for community work may assist you in establishing new
services where these are lacking (Weyers 2011:219).

Evaluation and termination will follow once the goals have been achieved on the
micro, meso or macro levels, and follow-up can be done (if necessary).

2.9 LEVELS OF INTERVENTION FOR SOCIAL WELFARE SERVICE

DELIVERY
The level of service delivery is determined by the specific developmental needs and
106

social challenges of the service user. The social worker and service user must jointly
determine the service user’s current level of social functioning, as well as his/her needs
and challenges, and then develop an intervention strategy to enable the service user to
improve his/her level of social functioning and self-reliance.

The levels of intervention for service delivery are illustrated in Figure 2.2. These levels will
107

be further discussed, with examples of how service delivery can be implemented on the
micro, meso and macro levels.

108

Figure 2.2: Levels of intervention for social welfare service delivery

30
y Prevention
Preventative services refer to interventions that seek to prevent or moderate major
109

social problems before they occur. Examples of preventative services may be awareness
programmes on HIV/Aids or substance abuse. On the micro level, the social worker
can educate individuals and families about the dangers of HIV/Aids or substance abuse.
S/he can use the ecosystems theory to identify all the subsystems and their functions
within a client or family, to support and assist the family (Bowers & Bowers 2017:246).
Meso-level involvement may be directed at educating groups in schools and churches
about the dangers of HIV/Aids or substance abuse. The purpose of educational groups
is to assist members in learning new skills and gathering information (Toseland & Rivas
2014:23).

Prevention on the macro level may entail implementing programmes using

110

the community education practice model (Weyers 2011:251). This model specifically
targets communities, by empowering them to eliminate ignorance and acquire the
necessary skills to function more effectively (Weyers 2011:251).

y Early intervention
Early intervention refers to attempts to address the problems facing service users, before
111

these become more difficult to reverse. Service users’ functioning may be assessed as being
adequate, with the possibility of at-risk behaviour arising at a later stage. On the micro
level, a social worker can intervene with a pregnant teenager about the responsibilities of
parenting, for instance. On the micro level, the social worker can apply multi-theoretical
perspectives which include the person-centred theory, the ecosystems theory and the
social justice perspective. The social worker can take into account all subsystems in the
pregnant teenage mother’s life, by looking at the advantages and disadvantages of each
subsystem. Regarding the strengths theory, the social worker can identify and accentuate
the pregnant teenager’s strengths, to enable her to care for her child (Martinez-Brawley &
Zorita 2017:416). From the social justice perspective, the social worker can advocate for the
teenager to continue receiving an education at school, rather than being excluded from this
right. On the meso level, a social worker can make use of different types of groups (e.g.,
supportive and growth groups) to support the pregnant teenager with stressful life events,
and allow her to develop skills and insight into her role as a teenage parent (Toseland &
Rivas 2014:20–25). On the macro level, the social worker can involve other role players
in the community to raise awareness of pregnant teenagers, through a campaign which
implements the community educational model (Weyers 2011:251). The social marketing
model of community work may also be useful for creating awareness in communities of
a variety of programmes to prevent teenage pregnancy (Weyers 2011:304).

y Statutory/residential/alternative care
Statutory or residential care is applicable when the service user is involved in some form
112

of court case, or is no longer able to function adequately in the community. Included at

this level are children who are placed in alternative care. On the micro level, the social
worker can refer a substance abuser to a rehabilitation centre for treatment. S/he can
also use different theoretical approaches to intervene with the family of the substance
abuser being referred for treatment (Martinez-Brawley & Zorita 2017:411). After the
substance abuser’s discharge from the centre, the social worker can involve him/her in

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a self-help group such as the AA (Alcoholics Anonymous) or NA (Narcotics Anonymous).
On the meso level, the social worker can create a support group for substance abusers
(post-treatment), to address their coping abilities and reintegration into the community
(Toseland & Rivas 2014:20–21). On the macro level, a social worker can – after doing a
situation analysis and identifying many substance abusers in a neighbourhood – plan
an initiative with stakeholders such as the police and community leaders, to make the
neighbourhood safer. The community development practice model may be suitable to
use for such initiatives (Weyers 2011:153).

y Reunification and aftercare

Reunification and aftercare services include programmes aimed at reintegration, and
113

support services to enhance self-reliance and optimal social functioning. An example

may be children’s reintegration with their families after their removal and institutional
care. On the micro level, the social worker may start a parenting skills programme to
strengthen parents’ ability to take care of their children, as part of the reunification
services. To intervene with the family, using the life model (Gitterman 2017:287) or family
life cycle perspective will help to explain the different developmental tasks for each
stage of life. On the meso level, the social worker can involve the parents and children
in support and treatment groups, to strengthen family relationships. The goal of these
groups is to change behaviours and help members cope with any personal issues that
may be applicable (e.g., parents whose children are placed back in their care) (Toseland
& Rivas 2014:25). The social worker may intervene on the macro level by identifying
problems in the community, for instance where children are regularly in jeopardy, so
that they can be removed from their parents’ care. The social worker might negotiate
with stakeholders to start at-risk programmes to prevent statutory procedures. S/he can
implement the community educational model to achieve these goals on the macro level
(Weyers 2011:252).

2.10 THE LIFE CYCLE APPROACH (TARGET GROUPS) TO SERVICE

DELIVERY
Social welfare services are delivered to service users in terms of a person’s life cycle
114

(child, youth, adult and aged). In South African society, specific target groups are more
vulnerable than others.

The following quote is noteworthy: “The people who are most likely to benefit from
115

integrated service delivery are vulnerable populations with multiple disadvantages

and complex needs” (OECD 2015:19). Target groups can be delineated in terms of their
life cycle, and divided into specific groups (RSA, DSD 2013) (see Figure 2.3).

116

32
 117

Figure 2.3: Age groups in society

2.11 TYPES OF SOCIAL WELFARE SERVICE DELIVERY

The various types of service delivery will be discussed, with examples of how to implement
118

interventions on the micro meso and macro levels. Figure 2.4 illustrates the types of social
welfare service delivery.

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 119

Figure 2.4: Types of social welfare service delivery

y Promotion and prevention services

Promotion and prevention programmes focus on enhancing the process of enabling
120

people to take greater control of those factors that affect their wellbeing. Prevention
services analyse the individual, environmental and societal factors that contribute to
problem development, and address those factors. These categories of programmes can
be successfully implemented by a social worker using the community education model
(Weyers 2011:251). That model focuses on communities which lack knowledge, education,
training and skills (Weyers 2011:254).

The biggest impact of the work of the promotion and prevention services, is to uplift
121

all people and communities by promoting wellbeing, encouraging people to make

healthy choices, and supporting them in those choices. Promotion and prevention
services encourage community development services which focus on target groups
(especially socioeconomically underdeveloped communities). Prevention and promotion
services include creating supportive environments, strengthening community action
and developing personal skills (RSA, DSD 2013:32). The development of communities on
a socioeconomic basis can be effectively addressed by the social worker implementing
the community development model and the community education model (Weyers
2011:153 & 251).

122

34
Table 2.3 lists the various types of programmes which form part of prevention and
123

promotion services or interventions.

Table 2.3: Programmes for prevention and promotion services/interventions

Educational programmes

Capacity-building and empowerment programmes

Life skills programmes

Awareness programmes

Early childhood development programmes

Substance abuse prevention programmes

Marriage preparation programmes

Parenting programmes

Information and advisory services

Diversion programmes

y Social assistance and relief services

“Social assistance and relief services are for people who, for various reasons, cannot take
124

care of themselves” (RSA, DSD 2013:32). These people are often in urgent need of support.
Depending on the type of need, assistance can be given in the form of food parcels or
housing, food at soup kitchens, employment support or disaster relief programmes. Social
workers can intervene on this level by implementing the community development model
in communities, and focusing on the community’s specific needs (Weyers 2011:153).

y Social support services

Social support services are aimed at enhancing, strengthening and stabilising people on
125

the micro, meso and macro levels. Emotional, informational, appraisal, or instrumental
support (e.g., grants) can be given, depending on the needs of the client. Figure 2.5 shows
the types of support services or interventions.

35 BSW4802/1
 126

127 Figure 2.5: Support services or interventions

y Protection services
Protection services focus on ensuring the safety of individuals and families. Such services
128

are usually delivered in the context of a legislative and/or policy framework, and include
statutory services. There are different categories of protection services, which are mostly
provided within a legislative framework.

Table 2.4 describes the types of protection and statutory services or interventions you
129

are already with familiar at this level (RSA, DSD 2013:33).

Table 2.4: Protection and statutory (court-ordered) services/interventions

Mediation and intermediary services

Foster child services

Adoption

Diversion programmes

Court preparation

Divorce mediation

Alternative care programmes

Mediation and intermediary services

36
y Therapeutic, rehabilitation and restorative services
The focus of the aforementioned services is on improving and maintaining the social
130

functioning of service providers, which may be impaired for various reasons (e.g., due
to injuries). Rehabilitation services also assist in reducing the demands on families and
publicly funded support systems. Service provision occurs within a wide range of settings,
including the home, service agencies and residential facilities.

For the different types of therapeutic, restorative and rehabilitative services or interventions,
131

see Figure 2.6.

132

Figure 2.6: Therapeutic, restorative and rehabilitative services/interventions

y Continuing care services

Continuing care services seek “to maintain or improve the physical, social and psychological
133

wellbeing of individuals who, for a variety of reasons, are not able to care for themselves
fully” (RSA, DSD 2013:33). Improving service users’ independence is an important aspect
of service delivery in continuing care services.

y Reintegration and aftercare services

When interventions are terminated outside the home environment, reintegration services
134

aim to reintegrate and reunite individuals and their families. Such service delivery is for
individuals who are discharged from residential care, alternative care and correctional
service facilities. The willingness of the client is important, if these services are to be
successful.

The types of reintegration and after-care services/interventions include re-unification

135

services, community safety programmes, vocational programmes, probation and

supervision.

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 2.12 FOCUS AREAS FOR INTEGRATED SOCIAL WELFARE
SERVICE DELIVERY
136 A number of focus areas for service delivery are identified in Table 2.5 (see RSA, DSD 2013).

Table 2.5: Focus areas for integrated social welfare service delivery
Poverty alleviation

Social integration

Social crime prevention

Victim empowerment

Protection of vulnerable populations

Prevention, care and support of HIV and Aids

Prevention, care and support of substance abuse

Prevention, care and support of mental/social wellness

2.12.1 Poverty alleviation on the micro, meso and macro levels

Social workers will most likely work with populations and communities which are trapped
137

in poverty, or are at risk/vulnerable to poverty, due to circumstances (Patel 2015:290).

Examples of circumstances which aggravate poverty include individual pathology,
structural forces, unemployment and a lack of opportunities. Think of other factors
which might cause poverty. Remember that poverty is a multidimensional phenomenon,
caused by various factors. Poverty reduction is a priority, and various strategies (e.g., the
sustainable livelihoods strategy) aim to address the causes of poverty. A social worker can
intervene on the micro, meso and macro levels with poverty alleviation, but macro-level
interventions will have the greatest impact, and that is the preferred approach.

138 The different strategies and approaches for addressing poverty are illustrated in Figure 2.7.

139

38
 140

Figure 2.7: Sustainable livelihoods strategies

The sustainable livelihoods strategies approach, discussed in Lesson 1, is suitable for

141

addressing poverty. It encompasses the following aspects (see Figure 2.8) (Patel 2015:294).
y Social capital: this includes social networks and relationships where family, friends,
neighbours and community members support one another, by offering personal and
material support and resources.
y Natural capital: included here are water, land, vegetation, etc. This type of capital is
important for people to grow food.
y Financial capital: this refers to people’s income and access to credit facilities.
y Assets: housing, land, livestock and savings are all protective factors which enable
people to make a living.
y Physical capital: this refers to the availability of water, communication networks,
energy (electricity) and transport, to fulfil people’s basic needs.
y Human capital: this refers to mental and physical health, and the skills and knowledge
needed to be able to provide for oneself.
The different types of capital strategies can alleviate poverty and improve livelihoods.
142

The implementation of interventions aimed at securing sustainable livelihoods can be

linked with the community development approach. Such implementation can occur on
the micro, meso or macro level, but working on the macro level is preferable for creating
greater engagement in an effort to ensure sustainable development and change (Patel
2015:295).
Poverty alleviation is also associated with social assistance, social insurance and private
143

insurance (Patel 2015:162). Lesson 6, “Social security and client systems” in this study
guide will discuss these poverty-alleviation strategies in greater depth. A social worker
may assist clients on the micro level, for instance to complete an application for a social
grant. Different types of grants are available: from pensions for the elderly, to child support
grants, disability grants, foster-care and other caregiving grants (Patel 2015:169). A social
worker can also link clients to a public works programme.

39 BSW4802/1
2.12.2 Social integration on the micro, meso and macro levels
The White Paper for Social Welfare (RSA, DSD 1997:37) defines social integration as follows:
144

“A humane, stable and just society can only be built through social intervention which
will address [the] alienation and marginalisation of large sectors of the population.” Social
integration is about the social relationships and interactions between minority groups
and the majority of the other populations in a country. Social integration is important
for individuals, groups and communities, and therefore needs to be addressed on the
micro, meso and macro levels.

In the White Paper for Social Welfare (RSA, DSD 1997:37), the importance of social integration
145

is emphasised as part of the social development approach. Social integration focus areas
in South Africa especially target poverty reduction, family life and special populations
(e.g., people living with HIV/Aids). Micro-, meso- and macro-level intervention can be
implemented in each of the focus areas.

Understanding the social justice perspective (as discussed in Lesson 1) and implementing
146

certain applicable interventions (as discussed in Lesson 3) will be applicable here.

To understand how the implementation of social integration can form part of a social
147

worker’s role, a few practical examples are discussed.

The role of a social worker in fighting poverty on the macro level, is to act as an activist for
148

the poor, to implement community development and promote micro-enterprises to assist

impoverished communities. On the meso level, the social worker can strengthen family
life through following a holistic, multicultural approach and promoting the integration
of families with illnesses/disabilities/special needs. A social worker can attend to special
populations such as homeless adults, institutionalised persons and people with HIV/Aids,
by adopting appropriate interventions to integrate them in communities on the micro
level, but also at the meso and macro levels.

Social integration is important for decreasing inequalities, as these only aggravate poverty
149

(Ferguson 2008:13). Except for combatting discrimination and inequalities in terms of

race, gender, age and ethnicity, there is the stigma of HIV/Aids in sub-Saharan Africa that
social workers also need to address (Ferguson 2008:14).

Social integration includes working with indigenous people, the elderly, people with
150

disabilities, refugees and those subjected to gender inequalities – all of these need to be
addressed, and this is where social workers can play an important role.

The international framework for promoting social integration proposes three areas
151

which require attention: the recognition of diversity, the redistribution of socioeconomic

resources, and the representation of a political voice (Ferguson 2008:24).

The recognition of diversity includes the removal of discriminatory legislation, an awareness

152

of discrimination and its impact on all levels, a recognition of the cultural practices of
minority groups, and multicultural education. The redistribution of socioeconomic
resources can be addressed by promoting equal opportunities for disadvantaged groups,
and developing resources for them. The representation of a political voice involves helping

40
minorities and disadvantaged groups to participate in decision making, both within
their communities and on a legislative level.

153 Social integration at different levels of intervention is illustrated in Figure 2.8.

154

Figure 2.8: Framework for social integration on the micro, meso and macro levels
Source: Pretorius (2003:20)

Social integration is a process which social workers and organisations can implement
155

by focusing on all three levels. On the micro level, a social worker can enhance social
integration on the personal and interpersonal levels, by working with families to establish
social networks; and involving people so that they feel attached to, and participate in,
social institutions. This type of intervention takes into consideration the systems approach
and the strengths approach (Martinez-Brawley & Zorita 2017:415–417). Social workers can
promote cooperation, fellowship, reconciliation and nation-building, and enhance mutual
acceptance and meaningful co-existence. Pretorius (2003:9) defines the dimensions of social
integration as follows: “Cultural integration or consistency among the standards of a culture;
normative integration or conformity in the group to cultural standards; communicative
integration or the exchange of meaning throughout a group; and functional integration
or the level of interdependence through the exchange of services.” On the meso level,
the social worker can establish support, growth and socialisation groups, to empower
clients with a view to improving their social integration and quality of life (Toseland &
Rivas 2014:20–26). On the macro level, a social worker can make use of the social action
model of community work, to eliminate unjust practices towards minority groups and
promote the same basic rights and opportunities for all (Weyers 2011:347).

41 BSW4802/1
2.12.3 Social crime prevention
Crime prevention involves two approaches: the situational crime-prevention approach
156

(which focuses on criminal events and on reducing crime rates by minimising opportunities
for offenders) and the social crime-prevention approach (which focuses on people and
their disposition towards criminal behaviour) (Manaliyo 2012:12). From a legal perspective,
crime is an action that could be followed by criminal proceedings and sentencing.

South Africa should be a society where people can live in peace and safety, free from
157

fear of crime and violence. An integrated social crime-prevention strategy was developed
by the Department of Social Development (DSD), in consultation with the Justice Crime
Prevention and Security cluster, the Social Protection and Human Development cluster
and civil society organisations (Manana 2015:11). Social crime prevention efforts seek to
reduce any factors that contribute to crime.

According to the Social Crime Prevention Strategy (RSA, DSD 2011:7), the focus is on
158

prevention on three different levels: the first level, primary crime prevention, includes
the following factors which social workers might address:
y Risk factors associated with criminal trends in communities
y Unemployment
y Lack of economic opportunities for women
y Strengthening and building capacity and self-reliance in a child, through education
y Family preservation
y Ensuring children stay in school and do not drop out
y Making social grants accessible to those who qualify for them.

The primary level (level 1) addresses those conditions and factors that may lead to the
159

development and prevalence of crime (Manana 2015:29).

Secondary prevention (level 2) targets situations where people or neighbourhoods are

160

particularly at risk, and related efforts include the following:

y Assisting at-risk youth
y Guiding teenage mothers from disorganised communities
y Implementing developmental and therapeutic programmes to ensure that children
who have been identified as at-risk are assisted before they require statutory services
(which are more intensive).

This level of crime prevention acknowledges that the community has a role to play in
161

promoting the positive behaviour of individuals in a community (Manana 2015:29).

Tertiary prevention (level 3) refers to strategies that prevent recidivism by assisting with
162

the social reintegration of offenders, as well as other preventive mechanisms (reintegration

programmes), as prescribed in Chapter 8 of the Children’s Act, 35 of 2008 (RSA 2008).

The implementation of community-based approaches is one of the most appropriate

163

for meeting the standards of the Social Crime Prevention Strategy. The developmental
approach to social crime prevention includes addressing any contributary factors (e.g., a
lack of social cohesion, limited access to housing, unemployment, and limited education
and health services).

42
2.12.4 Victim empowerment
South Africa’s Victim Empowerment Policy is built on the concept of restorative justice
164

(RSA, DSD 2008). The restorative justice perspective includes a process whereby all
parties with a stake in an offence come together to resolve – collectively – how to deal
with the aftermath of the offence and its future implications. The philosophy on which
the Integrated Victim Empowerment Policy is based, states that all individuals, families
and communities have the right to privacy, safety and human dignity.

The National Policy Guidelines for Victim Empowerment (RSA, DSD 2008:3) define victim
165

empowerment as follows: “Victim empowerment is an approach to facilitating access

to a range of services for all people who have individually or collectively suffered harm,
trauma and/or material loss through violence, crime, natural disaster, human accident
and/or through socio-economic conditions.” Exceptional attention should be given to
assist vulnerable groups such as women, victims of domestic violence, victims of sexual
assault and rape, abused children; abused older persons; abused people with disabilities;
victims of human trafficking; victims of hate victimisation; farm workers and dwellers; and
ex-combatants (RSA, DSD 2008:11–12).

Victim support includes providing emotional support and counselling on the micro
166

level. Often, a social worker will need to intervene by using the crisis intervention model,
regarding a victim who needs assistance in securing a safe place to stay, providing him/
her with information, and the mobilisation of community resources to assist in this regard
(Mirabito 2017:123). The crisis intervention model focuses on the immediate crisis, with
possible referral for long-term services. Further awareness creation through educational
programmes can promote victim empowerment and can be implemented on both the
meso and macro levels. “The Victim Empowerment Programme is strongly based on
building and maintaining partnerships at all levels of government with government,
business and civil society organisations” (Moeketsi 2013:72). Social workers can play a
role by collaborating and networking with different stakeholders, to promote the victim
empowerment programme on a macro level. On the meso level, a social worker can
establish treatment groups for victims of crime.

Victim empowerment programmes need to prioritise certain people for service delivery
167

(Moeketsi 2013:20). Such groups include

y women
y victims of domestic violence
y victims of sexual assault and rape
y abused children
y abused older persons
y abused people with disabilities
y victims of human trafficking
y victims of hate victimisation.

The Victim Empowerment Programme underlines a victim-centred approach, with strong

168

emphasis on service delivery to victims. Social workers in practice are confronted with
victims of crime on a daily basis, and need to prioritise service delivery to this vulnerable
group.

43 BSW4802/1
2.12.5 Preventative services and social welfare service delivery to
vulnerable populations
In this segment, the focus is on preventative services for people with HIV/Aids, those
169

with substance use disorders, and those with mental illnesses (at different levels of
intervention). The research clearly indicates the interdependency of persons who have
HIV/Aids and their vulnerability to substance abuse and/or mental illness (Chuah, Ong,
Haldane, Cervero-Liceras et al. 2017:4–27).

[Link] Preventative services for people with HIV/Aids

Patel (2015:231) recommends using the developmental approach to address interventions
170

for people with HIV/Aids, noting that all service providers offer a component of service
delivery to that group.

171 Such services are provided on the micro, meso and macro levels (see Table 2.6).

Table 2.6: Services on micro, meso and macro levels

Micro level Meso level Macro level

Pre- and post-test Strengthening families Inter-sectoral

counselling for and communities collaboration between
individuals different social services

Supportive counselling, Participatory community Implementing HIV/

advice, education and development Aids policies in the
guidance programmes workplace

Short-term crisis Home care services

intervention

Education programmes

Home and community-

based care programmes

Certain key elements are profound in delivering services to people living with HIV/Aids,
172

and social workers need to be sensitive to a number of issues:

y Gender-sensitivity: unequal gender relations are linked to high infection rates of HIV/
Aids amongst women (Patel 2015:233). Empowering women on the micro level can
assist in addressing gender insensitivity. Empowering women to go for testing and
participate in education programmes may assist in promoting preventative intervention.
y Non-discrimination practices: people living with HIV/Aids experience discrimination at
the individual, institutional and societal levels, which may lead to their isolation (Patel
2015:234). Educational and awareness programmes aimed at preventative measures
at the meso level may assist in changing society’s behaviours and attitudes towards
affected persons.

44
y Workplace and HIV/Aids: social workers can assist organisations and companies to
implement programmes and policies on HIV/Aids through interventions on the meso
and macro levels. Assisting with awareness and educational programmes may help
to address this social problem on a preventative level.
y Mental health: people living with HIV/Aids are more likely to experience mental health
disorders such as depression, anxiety, a tendency towards suicide, and substance abuse
(Chuah et al. 2017:4–27). Social workers need to be sensitive to the fact that mental
illnesses and/or substance use disorders can co-exist, and they may have to refer an
individual for the necessary treatment.

[Link] Preventative services for people with substance use disorders

The types of substance use disorders and treatment options and interventions were
173

discussed in detail in your level 2 module, BSW2602, “Focus areas and fields of social work
practice”. The focus now shifts to the type of services available on the different levels of
intervention.

The SA National Drug Master Plan 2013–2017 (NDMP) gives guidance regarding service
174

delivery (Patel 2015:242). Community mobilisation, the use of evidence-based interventions,

harm reduction and prevention are key factors in service delivery relating to substance
use disorders. Educational and awareness programmes can be implemented on the
meso level to prevent such disorders. Referral to treatment, rehabilitation facilities and
after-care services, along with support for families, may be amongst the interventions
needed on the micro level. On a preventative level, a social worker can refer a person in
the early stages of substance abuse to support groups and counselling services. Assisting
in developing drug policies for organisations and companies is an intervention a social
worker can become involved in, on a macro level. Training for managers and staff
in companies and organisations, on the symptoms of drug abuse, may also be a focus
area for delivering preventative services.

[Link] Preventative services for people with mental illnesses

A mental disorder may be a psychological, emotional or cognitive impediment of a
175

person’s wellbeing and functioning (Kirst-Ashman 2017:417). A social worker can assume
many roles in this broad field, within different settings.

Important issues to be conscious of include the rights of persons with mental illness and
176

their right to treatment. Non-discriminatory services are key here.

On a micro level, practice will include an assessment of clients, the linking of clients
177

to services, and crisis interventions. Meso-level practices may include therapy groups
in institutions, support groups for family members, and educational groups (Toseland
& Rivas 2014:20–25). On a preventative level, a social worker will focus on awareness
and educational programmes, as well as advocacy for the rights of people with mental
illnesses. A social worker doing community work might implement the social action
model and/or the education community model to assist in rendering services to people
with mental illnesses.

45 BSW4802/1
Multicultural competencies need to be promoted in organisations when dealing with
178

mental illnesses, because of how diverse types of mental illness are perceived and
defined in South Africa. Policies and legislation regarding this topic would resort under
interventions on the macro level, where a social worker can play a role. Understanding the
healing traditions of various cultures is important in health and mental care (Moodley &
West 2005:xv). In Sao Paul, Brazil, for example, there are more than 75 spiritism psychiatric
hospitals which integrate medical and spiritism techniques based on reincarnation and
the use of mediums (Moodley & West 2005:xix). Viewing certain therapeutic approaches as
superior and universally applicable is no longer acceptable, therefore various techniques
must be employed to address mental illness.

Cultural worldviews on illness and healing need to be taken in account when working
179

with different cultural groups. Traditional African views on health are synonymous with
harmonious relationships, both with the universe and on an interpersonal level (Moodley
& West 2005:63). Ill health is viewed as indicative of disharmony between nature and
people, including the ancestral spirits. Understanding the different worldviews of our
rainbow nation will help to promote cultural competency amongst social workers.

Reflective exercise 2.1

y Reflect on the social problem of poverty alleviation, and state how you think it can
be addressed on the different levels of intervention.
y Reflect on the causes of why violence and crime are inextricably linked.
y Research indicates the interdependency of persons who have HIV/Aids and their
vulnerability to substance abuse and mental illness. How is the interconnectedness
between HIV/Aids, substance use disorders and mental illness practically interrelated?

2.13 THE FUNCTION OF SOCIAL ENTREPRENEURSHIP AND

SOCIAL ENTERPRISE IN SOCIAL SERVICE DELIVERY
Social workers in practice face multiple challenges, including poverty, unemployment,
180

child abuse, human trafficking and HIV/Aids, therefore “the adoption of innovative and
creative approaches has become imperative, given the complex social challenges that
require the intervention of social work” (Frank & Muranda 2016:31). Social entrepreneurship
is an innovation which aims to address certain societal issues.

Social entrepreneurship involves “the production of goods and services in an ethical

181

manner while its operations are clearly guided by the ultimate desire to attain a social
purpose and tangible social impact” (Frank & Muranda 2016:31). Social entrepreneurship
refers to the behaviour or processes of individuals which lead to the creation of social
enterprises. Social entrepreneurship can be further defined as an innovative activity
which an individual (or group) undertakes, to exploit or utilise an opportunity and
reinvest profits in the business (Chella, Nicolopouloua & Karatas-Ozkan 2010:486). Social
entrepreneurs adopt business principles which they integrate in an organisation, in order
to promote social, economic and environmental values. Social entrepreneurs can bring
hope to communities and improve their quality of life.

46
A social enterprise can be defined as an entity or organisation that does not trade for
182

private gain, but aims to explicitly benefit the community (Frank & Muranda 2016:32). A
social enterprise is therefore the outcome of social entrepreneurship on the part of an
entrepreneur who establishes an organisation, thus accepting the mission to create and
sustain social value. The ultimate goal of social enterprise organisations is to address
aspects such as poverty, inequality and unemployment (Frank & Muranda 2016:31).
Social enterprises are businesses which have the social objective of reinvesting surpluses
(profits) into the business or community, rather than increasing the wealth of their
shareholders (Chella, Nicolopouloua & Karatas-Ozkan 2010:486). A social enterprise may
be an organisation which is run according to business principles, but whose purpose is
to have social value, rather than accruing wealth and profit.

Social enterprise entails a type of social work done in macro practice, that includes a variety
183

of sustainable economic activities to bring about social change for individuals, families
and communities (Fernando 2017, sv ”social enterprise”). Macro practice in social work,
which encompasses guided interventions to effect change in organisations, communities
or policies, usually involves more than one profession in the process of bringing about the
necessary social change. Macro activities often start with identified needs, problems and
concerns, which arise when doing one-on-one individual interventions with the recipients
of services. Macro practice interventions can occur in communities, organisations and
small groups. Social workers who do community development in communities advocate
social entrepreneurship as a way of improving the quality of life in those communities. The
Department of Social Development aims to link social grant beneficiaries to opportunities
for economic activity, working from the understanding that a more holistic approach should
be followed to link such beneficiaries or unemployed people to potential poverty alleviation
opportunities. Social workers need to play a role in poverty reduction and community
development, by using intervention strategies such as social entrepreneurship (Lombard
& Strydom 2011:328). Community development is a model which social workers can use
to work in communities, by focusing their social programmes on economic development
(Lombard & Strydom 2011:330). The community development model (Weyers 2011:153)
outlines projects aimed at income generation which can be implemented on macro level
(Weyers 2011:203).

Looking for solutions to socioeconomic problems is not the sole responsibility of one
184

organisation or the government alone. It is important that all stakeholders (individuals,

groups, non-profit organisations and public and private organisations and businesses)
become involved in the challenges facing the economy, society and the environment.
The social worker therefore has an important role to play in advocating, and assisting in,
the development of social enterprises and social entrepreneurship.

Unemployment in South Africa has created a crisis, with 42 per cent of adults under the
185

age of 30 unemployed (Viviers, Venter & Solomon 2012:71). Joblessness contributes to

social problems such as poverty, substance abuse and crime. Since the economy and
social problems are linked, social workers have always been involved in innovatively
creating and establishing ways of assisting with a variety of social problems, in the
process of creating social change. Therefore, social workers have a social entrepreneurial
legacy to carry forward. The benefit of promoting social enterprises can be to establish
alternative service delivery systems for the public, where government cannot sufficiently
provide communities with services (Visser 2011:236).

47 BSW4802/1
The following historical case study showcases social enterprise as an example of
186

entrepreneurial initiatives which make a difference in communities.

A unique case study of a social enterprise: Play pumps

Two social entrepreneurs, also engineers, were motivated by the limited access to
water in communities in KwaZulu-Natal, to design a special children’s merry-go-
round. While the children are playing on it, its rotating action pumps water from
a deep borehole into a water tank. The children have a facility to play on, and
the community has access to water (Shodhi & Tang 2011:147). Women and girls who
used to have to collect water from far-flung places now no longer have to do so,
and as a result they can either seek employment or attend school, for instance.
Question:
y What is your positive feedback and critique regarding this case study, which
showcases an example of social enterprise ?

Activity 2.2

Study the community work prescribed book (Weyers 2011:203–215) and propose the
steps you would take to establish income-generating projects.

4Feedback

Weyers (2011:203–215) neatly outlines the steps of the different practice models and business
plans.

2.14 CONCLUSION
Lesson 2 focused on the levels of service intervention, as well as the target groups, types
187

of service delivery and focus areas involved in service delivery on the micro, meso and
macro levels. The steps of the generalist intervention model (GIM) were discussed – these
allow the social worker to address service users with individual problems as well as any
concerns affecting both communities and organisations. There are different types of
service delivery, and diverse programmes are applicable when rendering social welfare
services. The life stages approach (target groups) of service delivery was mentioned, and
the focus areas for integrated social welfare service delivery on the micro, meso and macro
levels were identified and discussed. The importance of the role of social enterprise and
social entrepreneurship in service delivery was also covered.

48
Self-assessment 2

y Compare the three different perspectives on social welfare, and describe why the
developmental approach is the best alternative for social welfare service delivery.
y Compare and critically analyse the different levels on the continuum of integration
for social welfare service delivery.
y Apply the generalist intervention model to a hypothetical case study to illustrate the
different steps, and then analyse it.
y Critically analyse the different levels of intervention, and illustrate the application
thereof on the micro, meso and macro levels.
y There are different areas and types of social welfare service delivery, according to the
Framework for Social Welfare Services (RSA, DSD 2013). Differentiate which services
can be rendered for poverty alleviation on the micro, meso and macro levels.
y Discuss the types of intervention strategies which you, as a social worker, can use in
social crime prevention and victim empowerment programmes.
y Compare the concepts of social enterprise and social entrepreneurship, to highlight
the difference between them.

49 BSW4802/1
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51 BSW4802/1
Lesson 3
Social work intervention strategies and techniques at
the micro, meso and macro levels

3.1 SPECIFIC LEARNING OUTCOMES

On completion of this lesson, you should be able to critically analyse and interpret
189

the appropriate social work intervention strategies and techniques at the micro,
meso and macro levels.

3.2 INTRODUCTION
The focus of Lesson 2 was on the levels of intervention, the types of service delivery, the
190

life stages or target groups for intervention, and the focus areas for social welfare service
delivery according to the Framework for Social Welfare Services (RSA, DSD 2013).

The core aspects of Lesson 3 involve the delivery of social welfare services, using different
191

social work methods and intervention strategies in ways which are complementary to
one another on the micro, meso and macro levels of practice. The generalist intervention
model (GIM) for social work practice will be further unpacked, by focusing on each step
and its application in practice, using different theories, perspectives and intervention
strategies which complement developmental social work practice.

3.3 ASSESSMENT CRITERIA

Demonstrate the achievement of the learning outcomes by understanding,
192

applying, critically appraising and evaluating the assessment criteria. You must
be able to
y critically analyse social work intervention plans by considering how social
systems affect client systems’ functioning
y construct and design intervention plans which are theoretically founded
and based on assessment, and appropriately use and implement strategies
and techniques to achieve identified goals
y compare and evaluate specialised fields of social work.

IMPORTANT: This lesson needs to be studied in conjunction with the Level 3 study
193

guides BSW3701 (Case work), BSW3702 (Group work), BSW3703 (Community work) and
BSW3705 (Integrated social work practice). These study guides form the foundation on
which the building blocks for this lesson will build. Some aspects in those study guides
will be broadly revised, to ensure continuity.

52
 3.4 KEY CONCEPTS
The following concepts will be used extensively in this lesson. Make sure that
194

you understand their meaning, before studying the unit.

Key concept Definition/meaning

Intervention “The process of planning and implementing steps

to make positive changes and attain goals that
solve clients’ problems or improve clients’ quality
of life” (Kirst-Ashman 2017:115).

Assessment The process of making sense out of the client’s

situation, to prioritise important factors which need
to be addressed and decide which actions need
to be taken (Birkenmaier & Berg-Weger 2017:105).

Crisis intervention A crisis occurs when a stressful event disrupts

a person’s life, and his/her coping mechanisms
are inadequate to deal with the event. The social
worker needs to conduct an assessment, before
supporting and empowering the client.

Community intervention “Community intervention is an action to

improve community conditions and [the] quality
of life for residents or members” (Birkenmaier &
Berg-Weger 2017:508).

Afrocentric approach It is a culturally grounded social work practice-

based model that affirms and integrates common
cultural experiences, values and interpretations
that cut across people of African descent.

Cultural competence The ability to understand, communicate with, and

effectively interact with, people across cultures.
Cultural competence involves being aware
of one’s own worldview, developing positive
attitudes towards cultural differences, and gaining
knowledge of different cultural practices and
worldviews.

Social justice It is a concept involving fair and just relations

between the individual and society, as measured
by the distribution of wealth, opportunities for
personal activity, and social privilege.

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 3.5 SOCIAL WORK INTERVENTIONS IN THE DEVELOPMENTAL
FRAMEWORK
Intervention can be defined as “[t]he process of planning and implementing steps to
195

make positive changes and attain goals that solve clients’ problems or improve clients’
quality of life” (Kirst-Ashman 2017:115). Social workers use a series of steps or processes
to assist clients in resolving their problems, as part of their interventions. Developmental
social work emphasises the person, the environment and the interaction between them,
and the uptake of multimodal interventions; it acknowledges human rights, social justice,
economic development and follows a generalist planned process of intervention (Van
Breda 2019:2).

A key element of the social work process is the selection of intervention methods, informed
196

by theory. Interventions demand that a social worker possesses the necessary knowledge,
values, skills and combination of skills to assist clients in achieving their goals.

Taking cognizance of the principles of developmental social work and the seven steps of
197

the GIM (see Lesson 2), the Afrocentric approach, the principles of cultural competency
and the social justice perspective will be further discussed. The steps of the GIM will
then be unpacked to illustrate the interventions and skills for each step, using different
theories and perspectives.

3.6 PRINCIPLES FOR INTERVENTIONS FROM AN AFROCENTRIC

APPROACH AND CULTURAL COMPETENCY PERSPECTIVE
The person-in-environment framework, empowerment theory and strengths perspective
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– which you have already been introduced to – all support ethnic-centered interventions
(Gilbert, Harvey & Belgrave 2009:243). A social worker who delivers integrated social welfare
services not only needs to recognise people’s strengths and cultural variety, but should
also follow an Afrocentric approach (Gilbert, Harvey & Belgrave 2009:243).

There is a set of principles that a social worker needs to take into consideration, when
199

rendering Afrocentric services/interventions (Gilbert, Harvey & Belgrave 2009:245):

y Striving for unity in the family, community and race
y Defining, naming, creating oneself
y Building and maintaining a community and solving problems together
y Building the economic foundation of the community
y Restoring people to their original, traditional persons
y Enhancing the advantages and benefits of a community
y Belief in righteousness and the expression of one’s spiritual self

In interventions, the abovementioned principles are key elements for effecting behavioural
200

change and empowering communities.

Taking into consideration the principles of the Afrocentric approach, the social worker
201

needs to have several cultural competencies, to work in a diverse environment (Yanca

& Johnson 2008:55). Responding to the potential impacts and specific needs arising

54
from culture and ethnicity is an important aspect of working with diversity. Cultural
characteristics have been shown to have the potential to impact significantly on parenting
styles, development milestones, how families respond to the wider community and how
they receive services. A social worker needs to understand the following aspects of the
person-in-environment, diversity and societal influences:
y The history of the diverse groups involved in service delivery
y Historical and current stereotypes and prejudices, forms of discrimination and
oppression
y The culture and circumstances that make each group diverse
y The strengths of diverse groups and the resources available in their ecosystems
y The values, beliefs and customs of each diverse group
y The social, psychological, economic and political effects which historical and current
stereotypes and prejudices, as well as forms of discrimination and oppression have
on diverse groups.

How families are constituted, the roles, relationships and responsibilities of, and between,
202

individual family members, and how the family unit relates to the wider community
structures are all significantly influenced by both culture and ethnicity. It is important for
you as a social worker, that these aspects are considered and responded to appropriately,
in both the way you approach families and in how you interpret situations and behaviours.
Social workers must challenge culture specific practices that are harmful to children without
pathologising all the parents’ caregiving practices. To become a culturally competent
social worker you will need to demonstrate respect and understanding of service user
situations, histories and belief systems and ensure that these are reflected in your practice.

Reflective exercise 3.1

y Think about what is important to you in your culture and if someone asked you: “what
is your culture?” will you be able to answer this question easily or would you struggle
to answer it.
y Reflect on the traditions you feel is important to you and why.
y How do your cultural beliefs impact on how you work with children and families?

3.7 PRINCIPLES FOR INTERVENTION FROM A SOCIAL JUSTICE

PERSPECTIVE
Several criteria for the achievement of social justice are part of social work practice for decades
203

already, including fostering a sense of belonging for clients, protection of client dignity through
understanding and respect, mutuality of rights and responsibilities between clients and workers,
and commitment to the belief that access to services that meet human needs is a right not an
entitlement (Havig 2010:6). In today’s social work practice, a social justice perspective is
also including advocacy; empowerment of clients through consciousness-raising, skill-
building, and resource development; community education and organizing; legislative
and media activism; social movement participation; policy analysis and development;
violence intervention; diversity promotion; and program development and evaluation
(Havig 2010:6).

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During your dialogue with clients they may refer to individual exclusion which involves the
204

client’s perception that she/he was left out in the participation in interpersonal situations.
An example may be that the client feels he was harassed by his/her peers because of his/her
race (Birkenmaier & Berg-Weger 2017:94). A client may have experienced organisational
exclusion, which involves when a client or group are excluded from participating in
activities. An example may be hiring practices which seem legal but may actually favor
some groups over others (Birkenmaier & Berg-Weger 2017:94). Structural exclusion
refers to: “The interconnected roles of institutions and societal forces in preventing
participation or limited access for certain groups” (Birkenmaier & Berg-Weger 2017:94).
Structural exclusion can result in restricted housing for the poor, poor health care and
limited education opportunities.

When a social worker engages with a client who describes his/her hardships and oppression,
205

the context calls for strategies and skills which often resort under the domain of policy.
A social worker can apply the following strategies to assist such clients (Birkenmaier &
Berg-Weger 2017:94):
y Assisting clients to understand the consequences of social injustices done to them
y Influencing legislative bodies by recommending that they amend laws and policies
y Assisting clients to gain access to legal entitlements
y Educating the community regarding certain populations, for instance, families with
disabilities
y Facilitating the redistribution of resources
y Testifying in court regarding issues of social injustice that affect the client.

Reflective exercise 3.2

Think about and note down particular groups that you consider as being disadvantaged
in our society. Consider the following questions:
y How are these groups disadvantaged?
y What is the impact of that disadvantage?
y How do public services add to, or challenge, this disadvantage?
y How could you challenge this disadvantage in your social work practice?

3.8 THE GENERALIST INTERVENTION MODEL (GIM)

Developmental social work focuses more on macro practice than therapeutic and remedial
206

approaches for individuals. Although the focus has shifted in the welfare approach, social
case work is still predominantly part of service delivery (Van Breda 2019:6). The social
worker can incorporate certain key values of the developmental approach in interventions
with a client. Two of these values are respect for the client’s human rights and the client’s
right to receive certain basic services. The social worker also needs to inform the client
of his/her rights (Van Breda 2019:6).

When practicing case work, you need to apply the different phases in the social work
207

process from specific theoretical perspectives, and employ specific skills to achieve the
goals of each phase of the intervention process.

56
Let us investigate how to integrate the different perspectives (complementary to the
208

developmental approach) and skills which are applicable for each perspective.

3.8.1 Engagement phase

The GIM explains the concept of engagement as the first step when working with a client.
209

This phase will be discussed from different perspectives, including the person-centred
approach, and will include the different skills for each perspective as well as the theory
which needs to be mastered, to intervene effectively during the engagement phase.

y Engagement from a person-centred approach

The person-centred approach is a non-directive approach to counselling, where the client
210

takes the lead in the communication process. The person-centred approach is an effective
way of engaging in cross-cultural counselling (Mbedzi 2019:200). This perspective has
an important place in social work practice, because of the skills and values of the latter
which overlap with it.

Building a relationship is critical to the success of social work practice (Birkenmaier &
211

Berg-Weger 2017:69). Engagement includes all the person-centered values of building a

relationship (Grobler, Schenck & Mbedzi 2013): values such as empathy, respect, genuineness,
unconditional positive regard, confidentiality, individualisation and self-determination.
The social worker has to understand the client’s experiences, and needs to communicate
to him/her the elements of the developmental approach (that includes respect for her/
his human rights and the right to receive social welfare services) (Van Breda 2019:66–78).
The social worker should inform the client of her/his rights as a service user, as well of
her/his right to see her/his file, and the rights to, and limits of, confidentiality (Van Breda
2019:66–78). Cultural competency demands that the social worker’s skills, knowledge and
programmes include the competency to address a client’s cultural needs (Kirst-Ashman
2017:75). The social worker needs to be aware of the client’s cultural perspective, in order
to do an effective assessment during the next phase.

y Engagement from an ecosystems perspective

The ecosystems perspective is a combination of two theories – the ecological and general
212

systems theory. The ecosystems perspective views the individual and his/her environment
as forming an ecosystem. Such a system includes the individual, the systems with which
the individual has relationships, the wider environment and the interrelationships that
are present between the individual and these subsystems.

A fundamental principle in the ecosystems perspective is that change in one part of

213

the system creates changes in other parts of the system – changes which influence the
functioning of the system as a whole. Social workers need to be able to recognise the
client’s interconnectedness with all the systems and subsystems in his/her environment.
The social worker also needs to take into consideration the influences the environment
has on the client, and the client’s interaction and connectedness with the environment
(Birkenmaier & Berg-Weger 2017:25).

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Understanding the feelings, thoughts and actions of people in their environment, as well
214

as their interactions with their subsystems, is crucial (Yanca & Johnson 2008:115). Figure 3.1
illustrates which subsystems may influence a client’s functioning, and need to be taken
into account when engaging with a client.

215

Figure 3.1: An ecosystems perspective

y Engagement from a strengths perspective

The strengths perspective emphasises the client’s strengths and the resources available
216

to him/her (Birkenmaier & Berg-Weger 2017:28). The strengths-based perspective focuses

on the client’s ability to overcome obstacles (Birkenmaier & Berg-Weger 2017:28). During
the engagement phase it may be challenging to apply the strengths perspective, because
the social worker wants to identify the individual’s needs, challenges or issues. Mobilising
people’s strengths can help them discover ways of resolving their problems. The strengths
perspective also recognises indigenous knowledge, which focuses on what works for the
client and will help him/her overcome his/her problems; it does not focus on external
inputs or prescribe to clients what they need to do to overcome their problems (Van
Breda 2019:245).

y Engagement from a solution-focused perspective

The solution-focused perspective is consistent with the strengths and ecosystems
217

perspectives, as it focuses on holding clients accountable for solutions, rather than

problems (Lee 2017:513). The solution-focused perspective invites clients to explore the
change they want in their lives, and the resources and strengths the have to make the
necessary changes. This perspective supports the values and principles of social work
practice, of building relationships with clients through empathy, respect, genuineness,
unconditional positive regard, confidentiality, individualisation and self-determination.
The social worker can practise the values of social work practice during the engagement

58
phase from a solution-focused perspective, by focusing on building relationships, and
emphasising the client’s strengths and resources.

218 Skills requirements in the engagement phase, from the different perspectives
The skills needed during the engagement phase of the person-centred approach, include
219

the following (Birkenmaier & Berg-Weger 2017:75–80):

y Listening: this means being involved, by attending verbally and non-verbally to the
client
y Silence: allow moments for silence in any dialogue with the client, because s/he may
need more time to think how to express him/herself.
y Discovery-oriented questions: these explore the client’s perspective and situation,
thereby allowing the social worker to get to know the client. An example of such phrases
may be “Where would you like to begin?” or “Tell me what brings you here today”.
y Following responses: these are a means of providing feedback to the client in the
form of paraphrasing, summarising and short statements, to show you are attentive
and listening.
y Paraphrasing: this is used to express the client’s statement in your own words, and
may help clarify statements.
y Clarification: this is used to understand more accurately the client’s statements. An
example of clarification is: “What I understand you are saying, is…”
y Summarising: this can be of value in providing closure or consensus for part of a
session or the whole session.
y Basic empathy: this involves mirroring the client’s statements.
y Advanced empathy: this is when the social worker gives ideas about the client’s
feelings that may be underlying his/her statements.
y Skills regarding the strengths perspective the social worker can use include
mirroring (the social worker reflects on the client’s capabilities and strengths in his/
her daily life). Another skill is reinforcement (acknowledging the client’s progress
and accomplishments).
y From the ecosystems perspective, the skill of contextualising can be used, where
the social worker views the issues confronting the client from the community and the
environmental perspectives. Contextualising accentuates the environmental causes
which contribute to a client’s challenges.
y Working from the solution-focused perspective, the social worker will ask questions
to identify the client’s strengths and resources.
y Open-ended questions are designed to elicit extensive answers and encourage
clients to share their experiences – these are valuable skills in the engagement phase,
enabling the social worker to better understand the client.

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Table 3.1: Engagement phase: The goal, theoretical approaches and skills (Birkenmaier
& Berg-Weger 2017:88)
Phase Goal Theoretical Core elements of Specific
approach the theoretical skills
approach
Engagement Build Person- Listen to the Basic and
relationship centred client’s perspective advanced
approach Empathy empathy

Unconditional
positive regard
Respect
Individuali-sation
Self-determination
Set the tone Explain Clarify
and outline confidentiality Summarise
the ethics of Affirm the client’s
the helping Use open-
rights ended
relationship
Articulate the questions
social worker’s role
Express cultural
competency

Take into Ecosystems Identify the Ask

account perspective different discovery-
interactions subsystems oriented
and involved questions
transactions Contextualise
between
people
and their
environments
Emphasise Strengths Identify positive Clarify
and identify perspective accomplish-ments Summarise
the client’s and dimensions in
strengths the client’s life Paraphrase
Mirroring
Reinforce

60
 Phase Goal Theoretical Core elements of Specific
approach the theoretical skills
approach
Focus on Solution- Identify previous Ask open-
the client’s focused successes and ended
strengths perspective solutions questions
to identify
and apply
solutions to
problems

3.8.2 Assessment
The second step in the intervention process is the assessment phase. The values and skills
220

used in the person-centred approach are still applicable here. The client needs to be
actively involved in the process of assessment (Van Breda 2019:7). Assessment usually
includes the use of an ecomap and genogram, which are tools for assessing a client
(discussed in previous levels). According to the developmental approach, this a holistic
ecosystemic perspective which focuses on the client’s strengths (Van Breda 2019).
Assessment in the developmental approach includes empowering the client to become
self-sustaining or economically self-sufficient (Van Breda 2019:7).

Assessment is the process of making sense out of the client’s situation, so as to prioritise
221

the important factors which need to be addressed and decide on the actions to be
taken (Birkenmaier & Berg-Weger 2017:105). Assessment is both a product and a process
(Yanca & Johnson 2008:179). Assessment involves first a process of gathering, organising,
and making judgements about information. The product of assessment is the outcome
or statement of the information gathered of the client's holistic functioning (Yanca &
Johnson 2008:179).

The role of the social worker is to gather information, organise it, and, together with the
222

client, interpret its meaning and implications. During assessment the social worker needs
to openly discuss the work processes, methods and resources of the organisation with the
client, to avoid confusion and prevent frustration. Some organisations use standardised
assessment tools in their service delivery – tools which you, as a social worker, will have
to employ during the assessment phase.

Assessment takes into consideration any factors which influence the identified problem
223

on the micro, meso and macro levels (Kirst-Ashman 2017:127). An identified problem can
be assessed and addressed from multiple levels of intervention. Figure 3.2 demonstrates
the assessment process on all levels of intervention (Kirst-Ashman 2017:126). Assessment
on the micro, meso and macro levels can include goal-setting at the community level
(macro), the organisational level (macro), the group level (meso), and the family and
individual level (micro).

224

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 225

Figure 3.2: Assessment on the micro, meso and macro levels

Source: Kirst-Ashman (2017:126)

Another assessment tool that a social worker can make use of during the assessment
226

process, is the “systems” tool, which Clemons (2014:8) developed to allow the social
worker to assess a client from the ecosystems perspective. When using this tool, five
questions need to be asked:
y What brings the client for services today? Who makes up the client system?
y Is safety an issue for the client system? Immediately provide resources, support and
assistance if safety is an issue.
y Are basic needs being met for the client system? What other issues need to be addressed?
y What support is in place? What strengths does the client system bring to this response?
How were challenges dealt with previously? What resources are needed?
y What treatment modality is appropriate with this client system today? How imminent
and immediate is the need? Is there time for an ongoing process? From the strengths
perspective, the following assessment questions developed by Saleebey (2013:107–108)
may be included during this phase (see Table 3.2).

Table 3.2: Assessment questions from a strengths perspective

Types of assessment questions Examples

Survival questions How did you survive thus far, given all the
challenges you have experienced?

Supportive questions Who is the people you can depend on?

Exception questions When things were going well for you,

what was different from the way things are
today?

62
 Types of assessment questions Examples

Possibility questions What are your goals and dreams?

Esteem questions What good things do people say about

you?

Perspective questions How would you describe your current

situation to others?

Change questions What coping strategies assisted you

previously, that may be helpful now?

Meaning questions What gives you a sense of purpose?

Solution-focused assessment determines what a client can do, his/her strengths and the
227

resources within him/herself, and in the environment. The focus in the assessment phase
will be on developing a clear goal and solution determined by the client (Lee 2017:519).

The following questions may be asked of the client, from the solution-focused perspective
228

(Lee 2017:519–521).

Table 3.3: Assessment questions from the solution-focused perspective

Exception questions are tools used in solution-focused assessment. They inquire
about the times the problem was absent/less intense/more acceptable for the
client.

Miracle questions suggest that the problem is gone, and ask the client what
would be signs that the problem has been solved.

Coping questions help the client notice the times s/he coped with a problem.
An example is: “How have you coped despite all the difficulties you have
encountered?”

Scaling questions may be asked so that the client can rate his/her situation on a
scale on one to ten. It can also assist in evaluating progress.

Relationship questions ask the client to imagine how others in his/her

environment might react to his/her problem, and to envisage any changes s/he
wants to make.

Making a thorough assessment is important for the client system. Taking into consideration
the significance of oppression and trauma that may be present, needs to form part of
the process.

229

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y A practical guideline for client assessment
The following guidelines may assist you in assessing a client holistically (Birkenmaier &
230

Berg-Weger 2017:152–154):
y Demographic data (names, contact information, legal status)
− Presenting need
− Living situation (stability and safety, housing)
− Social environment (neighbourhood, resources)
− Individual strengths
− Cultural environment (cultural beliefs and practices)
− Religion/spirituality
− Family composition (genogram)
− Sexual history
− Trauma history
− Finances/employment
− Educational history
− Legal needs
− History of substance use/abuse
y History of emotional/behavioural functioning
− Self-mutilation (hurting self with objects)
− Hallucinations (seeing and hearing voices or images that do not exist in reality)
− Delusions or paranoia (belief that they are being followed, prosecuted, famous,
superior to everyone else)
− Mood swings (very low or high)
− Recurrent recollections of past events (traumatic events)
− Lack of interest and pleasure (can be symptoms of depressed mood)
− Feelings of sadness, hopelessness, isolation or withdrawal (can be symptoms
of depressed mood)
− Decreased concentration, low energy (can be symptoms of depressed mood)
− Anxiety
− Crying spells (can be symptoms of depressed mood)
− Appetite and sleep changes (can be symptoms of depressed mood)
− Inability to function at school or work (can be symptoms of depressed mood)
− Irritability or agitation (can be symptoms of depressed mood)
− Reckless behaviour
− Stealing, shoplifting, lying (criminal tendencies)
y Health history
− Serious illness
− Disability
− Chronic condition
− Family mental and/or physical conditions (inherited)
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64
 y Mental status
− Attention (perhaps diagnosed with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
[ADHD])
− Affect (appropriate/inappropriate, blunt, expansive)
− Mood (low/high, mood swings, depressed, anxious)
− Motor activity (tics, tremors, muscle spasms)
− Appearance (neat/neglected)
− Thought content (thoughts jump around, logical/illogical reasoning)
− Memory (forgetfulness which influences functioning/dementia)
− Orientation (client knows what day and date it is, and why he/she is with you)
− Intellect (normal, low, retarded, poor abstraction)
− Judgement and insight
− Current psychiatric treatment (use of medication)
− Community resources being used
− Summary of social worker’s observations and impressions.
y Expectations of client
− What does the client want to happen because of service delivery? (goals)
− What are the client’s ideas and plans, relevant to the services?
− What is the client’s motivation for involving services to make changes?
− What are the client’s resources for change? (internal and external)
− Are there resources in the community that can support/mitigate the change
process?

3.8.3 Planning
The third step in the social work process is planning. This process involves the following
232

steps (Birkenmaier & Weger-Berger 2017:107):

y Setting and prioritising goals
y Identifying methods of reaching goals
y Developing a clear understanding of responsibilities
y Setting time frames
y Recognising when an alternative plan is necessary
y Identifying resources
y Identifying a timeline, with eventual termination of services.

An important part of the developmental approach is to evaluate whether the set goals
233

call for a micro, meso or macro intervention, before formalising the plan with a contract
(Van Breda 2019:9).

The social worker should plan with and not for the client, as both are involved in prioritising
234

goals (Kirst-Ashman 2017:131). Assisting the client in evaluating the pros and cons of each
action plan is also important. The contract should include the goals, time frames and
responsibilities of the people involved in the process (Kirst-Ashman 2017:131).

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3.8.4 Implementation
Once the planning process has been finalised, the next step is to implement actions to
235

achieve the identified goals (Kirst-Ashman 2017:131). In the developmental framework, the
social worker will consider a wide range of intervention models that are appropriate to
assist in the process of change (Van Breda 2019). S/he will go beyond those factors of the
client which require attention, and work across the micro, meso and macro continuum (Van
Breda 2019). Clients can be also referred to relevant projects, to focus on their economic
empowerment (Van Breda 2019).

3.8.5 Evaluation
The fifth step is the evaluation process, which will determine to what extent the intervention
236

was effective in achieving the different goals (Kirst-Ashman 2017:131). Social workers need
to be accountable, thus their intervention(s) must be effective. Each goal needs to be
evaluated to determine to what extent it was achieved. Evaluation should be a continuous
process when working with a client, even from the engagement phase, and not merely
be done at the end of an intervention (Birkenmaier & Weger-Berger 2017:97). Evaluation
(from a developmental approach) also entails an evaluation of system changes, of the
growth the client experienced and of developments in the community (Van Breda 2019).
Evaluation may take on the form of a summative or formative assessment (Yanca & Johnson
2008:283). While summative evaluation focuses on the outcomes of the intervention,
formative evaluation involves an evaluation of the whole intervention process as well as
the influence the process had on the outcome (Yanca & Johnson 2008:283).

3.8.6 Termination
After the process of evaluation, the termination phase follows, ending the social worker–
237

client relationship (Kirst-Ashman 2017:133). Three types of termination are applicable

(Kirst-Ashman 2017:134):
y Some terminations can be predictably expected
y Some terminations are “forced” (social worker or client leaves the organisation/
institution)
y Unplanned termination (the client fails to come back, s/he relocates or is unmotivated
to continue receiving services).
The developmental approach encourages starting the termination process even before
238

achieving the goals which the social worker set together with the client (Van Breda
2019). The social worker, in collaboration with the client, can plan the process of change
and, with ongoing evaluation during the process, when it is apparent that the client can
continue implementing the goals without the social worker, services may be terminated.
The most effective terminations occur when the planned process has been completed,
239

and the client is prepared for termination.

3.8.7 Follow-up
In some instances, follow-up may be required to assist the client (again) with other
240

challenges.

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 3.9 CRISIS INTERVENTION AND SUICIDE RISK ASSESSMENT
Accurate statistics about suicide in South Africa are hard to find, but it is estimated that
241

there are at least 23 suicides in this country, every day. The statistics indicate that 70% of
South Africans with a mental health disorder have attempted suicide in the past, which
make this population especially vulnerable and at high risk of attempting suicide again
(South Africa Depression and Anxiety Group [SADAG] 2020). Attempted suicides amongst
teenagers are also escalating, with statistics showing that at least one in four will have
attempted suicide in this country (SADAG 2020). Statistics from the United States indicate
that attempted suicide by LGBTQ youth increased by more than 30% of teenagers
attempted suicide within the past year, while youth who identify as transgender will
attempt suicide at least once by the time they are 20 years of age (SADAG 2020).

Increasing awareness within the community is crucial, in order to work to prevent suicide
242

attempts. It is crucial for social workers to have the necessary skills to complete risk
assessments and implement safety plans in order for their clients to receive proper care.

243 The following signs are considered the strongest indications of suicide risk:
y Threatening to hurt or kill oneself, or talking about/wanting to hurt/kill oneself;
y Looking for ways to kill oneself by seeking access to firearms, available pills or other
means; and
y Talking or writing about death dying/suicide, when these actions are out of the ordinary
for that person.

Social workers need specific competencies to respond to the range of crises they will
244

encounter in practice (Birkenmaier & Berg-Weger 2017:162). A crisis occurs when a stressful
event disrupts someone’s life, and his/her coping mechanisms are inadequate to deal
with the event. The social worker needs to conduct an assessment before supporting
and empowering the client. There are seven stages of crisis intervention which the social
worker may follow (Birkenmaier & Berg-Weger 2017:162):
y Plan and conduct a crisis assessment (including danger to self and others) and determine
immediate psychosocial needs
y Build rapport and show a genuine, empathetic expression of concern
y Identify prominent issues and factors related to the client’s crisis
y Use active listening skills to deal with emotions
y Identify which strengths and coping mechanisms of the client were successful in the
past
y Develop and formulate an action plan
y Establish a follow-up plan.

A client who is threatening suicide, has attempted to take his/her life, families who have
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to deal with a suicide in the family, or a client who is experiencing depression and poses
a suicide risk are all presenting crises which a social worker needs to deal with. The social
worker needs to conduct a suicide risk assessment by asking the client whether s/he is
having thoughts about death, plans to commit suicide, or has a time frame for committing
suicide. The social worker also needs to determine whether the client has a history of

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suicide attempts. It is important that the social worker know the employment organisation’s
procedures regarding the proper and immediate response to threats of, or attempts of,
suicide.

Activity 3.1

Case study scenario 1

You have seen a client several times in the past, and have talked to him about cutting down
on his drinking. He was able to stop drinking for three months after deciding one evening
he needed to stop, but then he unfortunately relapsed. The incident which triggered the
relapse was a fight with his wife. Now the problem has progressed to the extent that it is
affecting both his work and his marriage. You, as a social worker, have decided that you
want to use the solution-focused perspective to assist the client. Which type of questions
will you ask him, to meet the requirements of a solution-focused intervention?
Case study scenario 2
Tebogo is a mother of two who has been diagnosed with a mental health condition. She
has a history with the child welfare system, and has had difficulties with substance abuse
in the past. Her children, aged two and five, are currently in foster care with family. Tebogo
is unemployed, but she receives a disability grant. She rents a basement apartment from
a long-term friend who is familiar with her situation. Tebogo receives services rendered
from a social worker at her local community mental health centre. The social worker
who renders services to Tebogo, had an assessment session with her from the strengths
perspective. Which aspects or domains were covered, in exploring this client’s current
psycho-social functioning from a strengths perspective?

5Feedback:

Case study scenario 1

The social worker can start from a solution-focused perspective, by focusing on building
relationships and emphasising the client’s strengths and resources.

S/he can respond to the client with the following dialogue: “I can certainly understand why you
feel so discouraged, after all that hard work staying on the wagon for three whole months.”

The social worker can ask the client a scaling question, by asking him to rate his stress regard-
ing his drinking problem on that specific day (on a scale of 1–10, with one being the worst
and ten being the best).

S/he can make use of coping questions, and the following dialogue can be used to help the
client envision the times when he could cope with his drinking problem. S/he might ask: “I am
really curious: How did you manage to stop drinking after only one night, and how did you
cope without drinking for the past three months?”

The social worker can further focus on assisting the client to think about solutions, by asking:
“What have you learned from this relapse that will help you next time you have an argument
with your wife, and feel the urge to drink?”

The social worker can pose a follow-up question, for greater clarity about what triggered the
client and caused him to relapse, by asking: “I would be interested to know how you would
like to handle yourself the next time you and your wife get into a big argument.”

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 The social worker can move on goal formulation with the client, by asking him the following
question: “What steps can you take to get closer to your goal to stop drinking again?”

Case study scenario 2

The purpose of the strengths assessment is to identify personal goals by exploring the needs
of the client. These goals are then linked with current strengths and past resource domains.

A strengths assessment includes three domains:

(1) current strengths
(2) individual needs, and
(3) past resources.

These three domains include seven categories:

(1) home/daily living
(2) assets/financial/insurance
(3) employment, education/specialised knowledge
(4) supportive relationships
(5) wellness/health
(6) leisure/recreation, and
(7) spirituality/culture.

Open, possibility, survival, perspective change and supportive questions can be used to explore
all the information which needs to be taken in account, to assess an individual’s strengths,
needs and resources in each of the seven categories.

3.10 FAMILY INTERVENTIONS

3.10.1 Introduction
The family is the basic unit for service delivery in a community. Many families in South
246

Africa live in a context of poverty, lack employment, face food insecurity and experience
the fragmentation of family life. Many face challenges related to HIV/Aids, family violence,
substance abuse, and a lack of familial/community support. Changing family structures
(e.g., extended families and child-headed households) are social trends which have
developed in this country, and they challenge social welfare services to plan accordingly,
with a view to implementing effective interventions.

Taking into account earlier modules which exposed you to the different types of
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families/family structures in South Africa, the focus of this lesson is on equipping you
with the necessary knowledge and skills to intervene with individuals, families, groups
and communities. Keeping in mind the previous lesson (intervening with individuals from
different theoretical perspectives and applying different skills in the framework of the
GIM), the following principles, guidelines and skills are specifically applicable to family
interventions.

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3.10.2 Principles for intervention with families as multi-person client
systems
In the assessment phase, the social worker needs to pay attention to the family’s
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environment, strengths, life cycle, as well as the cultural, spiritual, historical, psychological
and biological factors affecting them (Birkenmaier & Weger-Berger 2017:262). S/he must
be aware of the family’s culture and values ( Yanca & Johnson 2008:308).

Principles to take into consideration when working with families, include the following
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(Yanca & Johnson 2008:309):

y An understanding relationship needs to be developed with the whole family, not just
certain members.
y Responsibility for the change process must be owned by the family. Blame and guilt
need to be avoided, so as not to place responsibility on specific family members.
y The social worker needs to encourage family members to talk for themselves, not for
one another.
y The expectations and concerns of different family members need to be clarified.
y The cultural context of the family is important, as are differences in family functions
and structure, as per their different cultural groups.
y The social worker needs to assess the strengths of the family and the systems within
the family’s environment.
y The social worker uses the same phases with the family intervention as previously
discussed in social case work.
y The social worker needs to understand the family as a social system, the relationships
amongst members, and their interactions with one another.
y In the planning phase, the social worker needs to assist each family member to identify
his/her personal goals, as well as common goals for the whole family.
y The social worker’s role will be to advocate for the family’s rights when the family
experiences oppression, and to assist them in gaining access to resources.
y The social worker will often get involved with the individual/family or subsystem (e.g.,
parent–child system). S/he and client will then decide whether to provide services for
the whole family, or only for the subsystems.

3.10.3 Guidelines for planning a family assessment

There are important aspects a social worker needs to focus on, when doing a family
250

assessment. In BSW2602 (“Focus areas and fields of social work practice”), you were
introduced to the various roles and functions of a family and the different assessment
tools available in social work practice with families.

The social worker begins the assessment process by using questions to explore family
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members’ perceptions. The types of questions which can be posed during the assessment
process are as follows (Birkenmaier & Berg-Weger 2017:289):
y General questions to achieve joining (the skill of informally engaging with family
members)
y Normalising questions (allowing the family to view their current situation as a normal
response to a crisis)

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y Goal-formulating questions (to prompt clients to imagine how the situation will be,
when a goal is achieved)
y Exception questions (asking families to recall successful experiences, so as to identify
their strengths and resources)
y Scaling questions (inviting family members to quantify the past and future within
the context of the situation, by rating – on a scale of one to ten – their perception of
finding a solution to the problem)
y Coping questions (connecting a family’s past successful coping skills and applying
these in the present)
y Circular questions (asking family members how they believe others see them).

The following guidelines can further assist a social worker in assessing a family (Birkenmaier
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& Berg-Weger 2017:299; Yanca & Johnson 2008:314–315):

y Demographic information
− State the identifying information of the family members (names, birth dates, etc.)
− Cultural background (language, ethnicity)
y Family information
− Presenting needs or concerns
− Living situation
− Family composition (ecomap and genogram can be used)
− Life cycle of members
− Nature of relationships and functioning of the marital, parental, sibling and parent–
child subsystems
− Family norms, rules and boundaries
− Communication and decision-making patterns in the family
− Role performance (parenting standards and care, housekeeping practices)
− Involvement of other significant persons (extended family)
− Significant life events which the family experienced
− Cultural environment
− Spirituality of the family
− Family strengths
− Educational history of family members
− Substance use history
− Emotional/behavioural functioning of family members (mental health issues)
− Risk and protective factors of the family
− Physical health
− Legal status and concerns
− Financial/employment circumstances
y Social and environmental information
− Strengths and concerns regarding neighbourhood and community
− Safety issues (children, domestic violence, and neighbourhood
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y Other interventions
− Current service providers (e.g., psychiatrist, healthcare worker, mental health
practitioner, educational psychologist)
− Community resources being used
− Family interventions of other service providers
y Strengths and challenges regarding service delivery
− What does this family want to happen because of service delivery?
− What are the family’s ideas and plans, relevant to the services?
− What is the family’s motivation for involving services in order to make changes?
− What are the family’s resources for change? (internal and external)
− Which community resources can support/mitigate the change process?
− Any other factors that affect the family’s opportunity to change

3.11 PERSPECTIVES AND SKILLS APPLICABLE FOR

INTERVENING WITH FAMILIES

3.11.1 Introduction
Interventions with families share many similarities with individually focused interventions
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(discussed earlier in social case work) (Birkenmaier & Berg-Weger 2017:322). Let us look at
the specific guidelines and skills for family interventions, from an ecosystem, strengths
and solution-focused perspective.

3.11.2 Guidelines for family intervention from an ecosystems perspective

y Changes in one component/family member affect the other components/family
members.
y The subsystems of a family are the individual family members, while the family itself
is a subsystem of the community.
y Boundaries or limits separate subsystems from one another, and reflect the relationships
between subsystems. If boundaries are non-existent or diffuse, parents have little or
no decision-making authority. Boundaries between members that are too rigid, where
subsystems are unconnected, are referred to as a disengaged family.
y Identifying family norms is important from a systems perspective, as these are often
an implicit part of the family’s functioning. Examples of family norms may be that all
family members need to attend religious services, or when a door is closed nobody
enters without knocking.
y Family structure refers to the relationships among the different generations within a
family, and this needs to be noted.
y Intergenerational patterns are patterns of relationships between one generation and
another – such patterns play an important role in family interventions.
y There are various family systems therapy models with specific theoretical models
originating from systems theory, the best-known of which is Bowen’s family systems
theory.

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3.11.3 Skills applicable for family intervention from the ecosystems
perspective
y The social worker will focus on the interactions and processes in the relationships
between family members, rather than on an individual; s/he will pose questions to
identify patterns in the family, in their communication and their relationships.
y One of the best ways to start an intervention and gain an understanding of how
subsystems operate within a family system, is to compile a family genogram.
y In family interventions, be aware of the reciprocal influence behaviours have on family
members, how each member is the cause and effect of the interactional chain. This
draws attention to the part each family member plays in an interaction. It also assists
in gaining information on the family, by looking at the contribution of each member’s
interactions with the others, and his/her responsibilities and self-change. Questions
can be put to family members, to make them aware of their roles and reactions to
one another.

3.11.4 Guidelines for family intervention from the strength perspective

The guidelines for intervention with families, from a strengths perspective, are discussed
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along with the applicable skills (Birkenmaier & Berg-Weger 2017:322):

y The concerns of the family need to be identified by listening to family members as
they share their perspectives and experiences.
y You, as a social worker, need to acknowledge their pain.
y Identifying the strengths of individual family members, as well as the family system’s
strengths, is important as these specific strengths will be used during the intervention
process.
y Asking questions about when the family experienced positive times will inform you
about which aspects the family members enjoy together, and will encourage positive
relationships.
y Encourage the family by assuring them that they have the necessary resilience to
overcome challenges.
y Link the family’s strengths to the goals of the family members.
y Encourage family members to assist one another to achieve the agreed-upon goals.
y Brainstorm with the family for solutions to assist them in seeing their situation differently.
y Strategies such as written homework, assignments and task designations can be
helpful, where appropriate.
y A family conference with a predetermined agenda will help to ensure a focused
conversation.

3.11.5 Skills applicable for family intervention from the strengths

perspective
y Reframing is a skill where the social worker describes a situation in different terms; it
helps to defuse a situation between two family members. Reframing can also be used
to focus on strengths. Perspectival questions seek the perspectives of the rest of the
family, to clarify one family member’s feelings and meanings.

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y Family group conferencing is an empowerment-focused intervention that aims to
create or strengthen a network of support for families experiencing a crisis. A family
conference is a collaborative effort involving the family, extended family, and members
of the family’s community, who may serve as resources in this regard.

3.11.6 Guidelines for family intervention from the solution-focused

perspective
y The solution-focused perspective focuses on strengths and on empowering clients,
promoting self-determination, and mobilising assets and resources to bring about the
necessary change (Birkenmaier & Berg-Weger 2017:318).
y This perspective uses specific questions to move the family from a crisis situation
towards seeking solutions.
y Solution-focused interventions emphasise the importance of relationships, along with
clients’ skills and strengths.
y The role of the social worker is to encourage the family to think about solutions.
y The social worker needs to focus on creating a balance between talking about a
problem and seeking solutions. S/he must move the conversation from a problem-
focused to a solution-focused perspective.
y Each family member must have an opportunity to reflect on an issue from his/her
own viewpoint, and to suggest solutions.
y The social worker needs to assist the family in establishing solution-focused goals
tasks and goals, and may also give “homework” to family members.

3.11.7 Skills applicable for family intervention from the solution-focused

perspective
256 The social worker needs to be able to include the following skills in the intervention process:
y Giving compliments as often as possible, when strategies are successfully implemented.
y Using summarising skills, and regularly summarising each family member’s contribution,
keeping focused on the goal of what the family wants to achieve.
y Keeping the focus on creating solutions, and redefining problem-focused communication
so that it becomes solution-focused communication.
y Identifying goals together with the family, and shifting the focus to tasks which family
members can engage with.
y Letting family members give one another feedback.

3.11.8 Guidelines for the termination and evaluation of a family

intervention
In social work, family interventions are terminated once the goals have been reached.
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Family members can openly discuss their feelings about the end of interventions and what
they have accomplished (Birkenmaier & Berg-Weger 2017:334). The social worker needs
to keep in mind how the family can sustain change(s) into the future. S/he can work from
a strengths perspective, to focus on the strengths identified in the process or created
during the intervention. During the evaluation process, the family can focus on lessons
learned, determine why certain goals were not achieved, and suggest strategies for working

74
further in the future, to achieve goals. When using the solution-focused perspective, the
termination phase will be emphasised from the beginning of the intervention, because
the approach is built on a limited time/period.

Reflective exercise 3.3

y Keeping the strengths perspective in mind, what are your strengths, and what type
of social work job do you think will enable you to use them?
y Using your own family as an example, write down a family assessment profile from the
assessment guidelines in this lesson. Reflect on the experience, and explain how you
would compile an assessment profile with the family, in your capacity as a social worker.

3.12 SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE WITH GROUPS

3.12.1 Introduction
In study guide BSW3702, which dealt with group work, all theories, approaches and
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models were extensively discussed. BSW3702 familiarised you with the different types of
groups, group dynamics and group diversity. Different leadership styles and roles were
discussed, and different group leadership skills were identified. The assessment process
– to establish the needs of a group, the methods of recruitment, and the screening and
selection of group members – was also explained. The group phases, techniques and
tools for evaluating individual group members, and group dynamics and processes, were
discussed. Please revisit the BSW3702 study guide, to ensure that you are familiar with
the theoretical approaches, models and group work processes and dynamics, as well as
all other related factors involved, before continuing with this lesson.

Making decisions about the implementation of a group work process depends on the
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major relevant issues confronting the client population a social worker is working with,
within an organisation. Furthermore, before a social worker can begin a group work
process, certain aspects need to be determined – this involves doing an assessment
of the needs of the group, the purpose, the composition and structure of the possible
group, the content of the group sessions and the organisation’s context and the focus
of service delivery. The involvement of individual clients with similar needs can then be
sought as part of a group process, and this can also form part of each client’s individual
intervention plan (Birkenmaier & Berg-Weger 2017:377).

Characteristically, in group work which is aligned with the developmental framework, group
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members assist one another – this accentuates the fact that people have the inherent
capacity to help both themselves and others (Van Huysteen & Strydom 2016:547). The
strengths perspective is also applicable where group members use their strengths to
assist one another, which is an important component of developmental service delivery.
The following quotation about the strengths perspective supports the group work
process: “Mutual aid has helped social workers to realise the strength in communal action
and create a safe environment where clients can assist with each other’s healing” (Van
Huysteen & Strydom 2016:547). Group work is a proven, valuable method for working with
oppressed and vulnerable populations, such as sexual abuse survivors and Aids patients
(Van Huysteen & Strydom 2016:547).

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 3.13 GROUP WORK AND THE SOCIAL JUSTICE PERSPECTIVE
Since group work is invaluable when working with oppressed and vulnerable populations,
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it is important to be able to facilitate a group work process which accommodates the social
justice perspective. Approaching group work from a social justice perspective should
include the following fundamental competencies (Birkenmaier & Berg-Weger 2017:405):
y Social workers need to equip themselves to be culturally competent – they need
knowledge of many different cultures, and should display multicultural competencies
when working with members of various cultural groups.
y A social worker needs to address interactions related to social inequities and oppression
that may occur amongst members in a group setting.
y The perceptions, experiences and needs of group members, regarding the injustices
they face and how they are moving towards their own empowerment, form part of
the group work process and need to be facilitated with competency.
y Emphasising issues regarding power within the group can empower group members
to engage in advocacy in other areas of their lives.

There are multiple strategies and formats for intervening at group level within a community.
262

A case study of community engagement which implements interventions on the meso

level, will be discussed to illustrate the integrated approach to social work practice.
Please revisit your study guide, BSW3702, for information on the different types of group
formations.

Activity 3.2

Please read this case study and do the assignment which follows.

Communities and the formation of groups: A case study

A social worker working in an organisation which does generalist social work, is
confronted with community members who are becoming increasingly concerned
about the youths’ consumption of alcohol and illegal substances, and the negative
impact this is having on the community. A group of parents, residents and professionals
approached the organisation, and the social worker was asked to assist the community
members in this regard.
The community members expressed the need for a support group for family members
with children who are experimenting with alcohol and/or other substances. A
psycho-educational group for teenagers has been suggested to prevent the youth
from experimenting with substances, along with a therapy group for community
members who have substance-use disorders, have received treatment, and are in need
of support. The community members also want a task group to be established, to look
at implementing constructive leisure-time activities for the youth in their community.

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 Assignment
Identify the type of groups in the case study above, and discuss the aims of each.
Please consult the prescribed book you used during your third year (Toseland & Rivas
2014:20–37) and the study guide BSW3702, regarding group work

6Feedback

Support groups: a support group is a type of treatment group which uses supportive interven-
tion strategies. Members’ primary aim is to share mutual experiences, provide assistance to
one another, and share coping strategies to ensure that, in future, they will cope better with
stressful life events.
Psychoeducational groups: these treatment groups aim to help members learn new infor-
mation and skills, by offering mutual support with an educational focus – in this instance,
it will be substance-related information and preventative skills.
Therapy groups: their primary aim is to assist members in addressing personal problems,
in changing behaviours, promoting coping strategies and restoring functioning.
Task groups: such groups have three purposes – to meet the needs of the client, the organisa-
tion and the community. In this case study, an action group will be implemented.

3.14 APPLICATION OF THE GROUP WORK PROCESS WITHIN

THE DEVELOPMENTAL APPROACH
y Pre-group planning and engagement phase
The social worker needs to meet with community members to gather information, explore
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their needs and identify potential stakeholders who may invest in the issue in the future.
S/he will do an assessment, to identify and prioritise options for interventions on the meso
and macro levels. The social worker can also conduct a thorough community assessment
of the client system. In the case study above, the community members expressed the
need for a support group for families with children who are experimenting with alcohol
and/or other substances. A psycho-educational group for teenagers is proposed, to
prevent the youth from experimenting with substances. Also proposed is a therapy group
for community members with substance-use disorders, who have received treatment,
and are in need of support. A task group will be established to look at implementing
constructive leisure-time activities for youths in the community.

From a developmental approach, the social worker will adhere to certain key values in
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the pre-planning and engagement phases. Respect for the community and prospective
group members’ human rights, and the basic rights of the community and group members
to access certain services, must be considered. The community and prospective group
members have the right to make decisions about the choices they wish to exercise, and
this right needs to be respected. It is also important to inform service users of their rights,
of the right to confidentiality, of any limits to such confidentiality, and of mechanisms

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for laying complaints (Van Breda 2019). The developmental approach focuses on social
justice, diversity and human rights, and social work with groups must be committed to
these aspects. Therefore, the social worker needs to use evidence-based practices to
inform a decision when deciding on a heterogenous or homogenous group structure
(Birkenmaier & Berg-Weger 2017:402).

Pre-group planning involves recruiting, screening and meeting possible group members
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individually, and assessing their needs, interests and their appropriateness for a specific
group. In the study guide of module BSW3702, you were extensively exposed to the
recruitment, screening and selection of group members. Potential members should be
orientated about, and prepared for, the group work process, before proceeding with group
sessions. The social worker needs to put together a group work programme consisting
of activities and exercises.

During the pre-planning phase, the social worker needs to identify theoretical perspectives
267

from which to work. For the different perspectives, see the study guide of group work
module BSW3702. Please revisit the different theoretical perspectives. Often, the group
work process is guided by the inclusion of the systems and strengths perspectives, with
which you are familiar. Including the solution-focused perspective in group work practice
can be beneficial, because it encourages purposeful interaction between group members
within a time-limited space, allowing members to collaborate with one another to create
a plan for change which focuses on solutions (Birkenmaier & Berg-Weger 2017:372).

The group formation includes several tasks in the pre-planning phase which need attention.
268

Certain broad underlying principles for group interventions before conducting a group
include a needs assessment, establishing the purpose of the group, drawing up the criteria
for selection of the group members, making decisions about the type of group, the format
(open or closed), the homogeneity and heterogeneity of the group, and the number of
group members who will join the group. Decisions regarding the frequency of the group
sessions, the time period of the group program (number of group work sessions), the
group times and logistic arrangements also are determined in the pre-planning phase
(Ezhumalai, Muralidhar, Dhanasekarapandian & Nikketha (2018:514-521). The following
aspects which the social worker needs to take in consideration are highlighted below in
the pre-planning phase.

 The structure of the group

Deciding if the group will be and open or closed group depends on various factors. An
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open group can be defined as a group where members can join and leave any time during
the group process depending if they have reached their goals for joining the group. Closed
groups distinguish itself by the fact that when the members start the group no new
members can join, and all members will start and complete the group process together. The
main advantages of closed groups are (a) that it offers a structured framework in a specific
time period; (b) that it allows participants to live a common experience of the group from
the beginning through the end ensuring that the therapeutic potential can be reached
for each participant; and (c) that it may increase better confidentiality and relationships
between members and a greater sense of security to share their experiences. A closed
group format also allows group facilitators developing trust with their group members
without the “disturbance” of group members entering and leaving the group regularly.

78
The disadvantage of closed groups is the inability to immediately address community
needs for intervention and people need to be placed on a waiting list.

Open groups according to Turner (2011:248) “offer advantages to members through

270

flexibility and immediate availability and that diversity among the participants, including
different levels of experience in the group, provides a significant learning opportunity.”
The disadvantages of open groups are group members may not build meaningful
relationships with one another and may be reluctant to disclose personal information.
Many community substance abuse groups are functioning in an open group format.

The structure of the group also includes the logistical arrangements of the group’s location,
271

frequency of sessions, time of meetings and duration (Birkenmaier & Berg-Weger 2017:379).

 Group composition
Group composition refers to the number of group members and their characteristics
272

(Birkenmaier & Berg-Weger 2017:378). The social worker must determine with
the composition of the group which degree of heterogeneity or homogeneity will be
accommodated. Common characteristics of group members provides a unifying focus
but there must be also enough differences to promote growth through exposure to
different ideas (Birkenmaier & Berg-Weger 2017:378). The social worker needs to take also
in consideration potential group members behavioural characteristics, levels of verbal
development, interpersonal styles. Similar age groups would be important to consider
with children’s groups than with adult groups. The need and purpose of the group will
assist to determine the selection criteria and type of members for the group.

y Assessment and planning

Pre-planning, engagement, assessment and planning are important for an effective
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group intervention. The developmental approach places the focus on the person, not
his/her problems. In the developmental approach, participatory democracy, through
the active involvement of the client in decision-making, is crucial. During assessment,
the social worker will facilitate the process in a democratic manner (Van Breda 2019).
Developing people is another fundamental factor in the developmental approach, and
the goals of the group must be aligned with this aspect. Assessment must also be aligned
with a focus on the person’s strengths and capabilities, not merely his/her challenges
(Van Breda 2019). From the developmental approach, a holistic ecosystemic approach
will be followed, supported by the strengths perspective. The social worker will explore
the client’s economic impediments and skills, to empower him/her towards developing
economic self-sufficiency. Group work, as a method of social work practice, can focus on
a variety of socioeconomic needs, and empower clients to improve their socioeconomic
conditions. Establishing a group for empowering women, by teaching them financial
planning skills, is an example of economic empowerment through a group work process.
In social work practice, group work which focuses on skills development can also improve
a client’s self-sufficiency.

In the beginning, planning the group is largely a group worker’s responsibility. It should,
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however, be informed by individual members’ needs. Involving group members in the

planning of the group process is essential. Planning is a continuous and flexible process
that needs to be revisited throughout the duration of the group. Group sessions need to
be planned in detail, and continuous adjustments have to be made, if necessary.

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y Interventions
Many theoretical models and approaches are related to group interventions. When the
275

social worker decides on a specific theoretical approach, s/he must use the theory to
guide the group formation, roles, dynamics and interactions. In the study guide BSW3702,
you were exposed to different models and theoretical approaches. The developmental
approach supports the ecosystems, person-centred and strengths perspectives. Social
work skills were also intensively discussed in BSW3702 – please revisit the social work
skills for group interventions in that guide.

y Termination and evaluation

During the termination of the group work process, the social worker assists group members
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in examining their accomplishments, determining which goals were achieved/not achieved,

in reviewing their experiences and expressing both negative and positive emotions
regarding termination. A strengths perspective in the process of termination can help
group members reflect on the strengths of the group, as well as the future application
of certain strategies within their living environment.

Different evaluation practices are available. With evaluation, the two focus points are
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the group process and the individual group members. Revisit study guide BSW3702 for
detailed discussions on termination and evaluation in social group work.

Pre-group planning
y Gather information to support the need for, and appropriateness of, this group
intervention (member- and community-generated, in the case study).
y Analyse the data of the organisation, and confirm plans to move forward in forming
a group with the organisation’s formal approval and support. Assess any potential
stakeholders who may invest.
y Research the applicable literature for approaches on how to facilitate a
psychoeducational group with teenagers.
y Determine the purpose and goals of the group, as well as group components (e.g.,
its composition, recruitment and screening strategies, the orientation of members,
contracting with members, the structure of the group [open/closed], the time-
frame, content, and social and cultural influences).
y Apply the values of the developmental approach.
y Gain the necessary permission/informed consent from parents/guardians to secure
group members’ involvement, and also that of mature group members.
y Planning is a continuous and flexible process that needs to be revisited throughout
the duration of the group. Planning may be needed again at different points, for
individual and group goals.

80
 Engagement and assessment of group members (beginning phase)
y Screen and select group members by way of personal interviews, explaining the
purpose of the group, the content, the process and the rules/norms. Use pre-
planned screening criteria to include/exclude members.
y In the developmental approach, the focus is on developing group members and
their strengths, thus is it vital to follow a holistic, person-centred approach in
assessment.
y An agreement/contract must be formalised as regards the duration and frequency
of meetings, attendance requirements, confidentiality, the manner in which
discussions will take place and how decisions will be made, as well as the time
and venue for meetings.
y Formulate contracts with individual members, as regards what they would like to
achieve from the group experience.
y Assessment is a continuous process, beginning as early as the recruitment and
screening of members. You may need to assess and plan at different times
throughout the life of the group, as individual and group goals change.
y Engagement with the group will continue with the first session, during which
members will share their expectations and develop statements outlining the
purpose, rules and norms of the group. The group worker will also clarify his/her role.

The middle and end phases include the intervention, termination and evaluation of the
278

group process (Birkenmaier & Berg-Weger 2017:401). Termination and evaluation are dual
processes involving both group members and the group. In the study guide BSW3702, on
group work, the middle and end phases, evaluation, and different skills and roles were
extensively discussed. Revisit the study guide for group work, BSW3702, to refresh your
understanding of the group work process and phases.

Table 3.4. summarises the intervention (middle), termination (end) and evaluation
279

phases pertaining to a substance abuse group for teenagers (Birkenmaier & Berg-Weger
2017:436–439).

280

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Table 3.4: The social worker’s role in the intervention, termination and evaluation phases
Intervention (middle Termination (end Evaluation (end phase)
phase) phase) Determine whether
Begin each session by Termination should be goals were met (formal
reviewing the rules and done, as planned, from and informal, for
norms and conducting the beginning phase. individual members and
a member check-in by Check in with each group the group itself).
asking members to share member regarding Administer (for
events since the previous their feelings about the evaluation) a data-
session. termination of the group collection instrument
Engage in ongoing process. (e.g., questionnaire).
assessment of Talk about individual Ask members for
members’ needs, group gains and continuing feedback on their
interactions, group needs. Discuss the satisfaction with the
member functioning and impact of the group group process.
group cohesiveness. on the group and its
Monitor progress towards members.
goals of the group and Discuss plans for
of individual group sustained change.
members.
Provide resources to help
Assess the roles of group members sustain change.
members and group
relationships. Conduct a termination
ritual or celebration.
Manage difficult group
interactions/group
members.
Revisit the needs of
the group and adapt
intervention, if necessary.
Assess the group’s
environment.
Encourage and mobilise
the group’s strengths.
Be knowledgeable about
the resources available
in the community for
referral, if required.
Regularly revisit time-
frame goals and plans
for termination and
evaluation.

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Social work practice with groups provides an opportunity to address social justice, diversity
281

and human rights. Social workers working with groups add to their skills repertoire
by working with individual and families, and developing additional skills for group
interventions.

3.14.1 Leadership roles in groups

The social worker’s primary role involves taking leadership of the group intervention,
282

but the social worker is fulfilling other roles as well in a group which includes the role of
(Birkenmaier & Berg-Weger:2017:422):
y Facilitator: The social worker needs to be an active listener, who encourages sharing
and participating, link issues, reframes ideas and maintains boundaries and rules of
the group.
y Synthesiser: The social worker needs to summarise group members’ discussions, be
able to identify themes and patterns and connects one session to the next to promote
continuity.
y Setter of norms: When the social worker models’ appropriate behaviour for the group,
she is acting to be a setter of norms. She may encourage the group interaction by
using “I” statements, also by discussing the norms and values of the group.
y Educator: The social worker provides many times information for group members,
acting as an educator.
y Advocate: The social worker can empower group members by advocating on behalf
of the group members to obtain access to services or resources they are needing.
y Collaborator: A social worker may need to collaborate with other professionals
regarding services needed for group members.

3.14.2 Group work skills for social workers

A social worker requires a variety of skills to conduct group work in an organisation,
283

including the following skills (Ezhumalai, Muralidhar, Dhanasekarapandian & Nikketha

(2018:514-521).
y Skills in creating and maintaining purposeful relationships with group members.
y Skills in analysing the group interactions and dynamics.
y Skills in participating with the group.
y Skills in facilitate group members in sharing their feelings and ideas.
y Skills in guiding the group in developing goals which meet their needs.
y Skills to assist the group members in locating and utilising resources in the community.
y Skills in evaluating the group process and assisting the group to review their experiences
of the group process.

Specific skills which is important for the social worker to apply in groups are shortly
284

discussed as follows (Birkenmaier & Berg-Weger 2017:418):

y Scanning: The skill of scanning involves observing and engaging with all group
members and is the group version of the attending skill.

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y Maintaining cohesiveness or connectedness involves that the social worker
encourages the use of ‘we’ language in the group process and encourages the use of
rituals at the beginn9ing or end of a group session.
y The social worker also needs to make use of facilitating skills to assist group members
to progress towards their goals.
y The skill of developing mutual aid in the group is important and may involve
revisiting the group values and conflict resolution strategies.
y Encourage a respectful balance that all group members get the change to share their
thoughts and feelings by directing the group process in such a manner.
y The social worker also needs to use the skill of redirecting questions and concerns
away from her/himself by using the group dynamics and members’ experiences to
share their ideas. The social worker therefore, avoid being the person giving the
answers and ideas in the group session.
y on issues discussed in the group is important to accommodate all
y The skill of inviting agreement and disagreement about ideas of group members
can support them to voice their opinions and learn that to accommodate and appreciate
differences.
y The use of silence as a skill in the group session is a skill which encourages group
members to engage and communicate.
y The social worker may also use problem-solving skills in group sessions by
summarising the progress of the group and connecting it to the group’s goals. The
social worker can also make use of problem-solving skills’ to assist group members
to identify resources and assets within themselves and in the community, which can
assist them.

Reflective exercise 3.4

Reflect on your experiences of doing group work with a specific group, by answering
the following questions:

y How do you think groups experience you?

y Which skills and roles do you find difficult to use in the group work process?
y What would you do differently next time?

3.15 SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE WITH COMMUNITIES

Working with communities requires many social work competencies, employing ethical
285

principles and cultural competencies and promote human rights and economic justice.
People find identity and meaning for their lives in communities and the characteristics
of the community in which people live have important implications on their developing
of their attitudes, interpersonal relationship psychosocial functioning and behaviours.

A community is the structure that supports interaction and connectedness between

286

people (Birkenmaier & Berg-Weger 2017:449). “Community intervention is an action to

improve community conditions and quality of life for residents or members” (Birkenmaier
& Berg-Weger 2017:508). Promoting community intervention is an important task for any

84
social worker who seeks to influence outcomes for his/her clients. In this lesson, the focus
is on the intervention plans which can be implemented in community work.

Revisit your study guide, BSW3703 and ensure that you are familiar with the definition
287

of a community, community work and a contextual community. Also review the goals
of community work.

A community can be defined as a social system, localised in a specific geographical

288

area, with structures and relationships to deal with impediments and develop a sense of
identity, activities and cultural values (Weyers 2011:56). Therefore, a community can be
grouped into different dimensions: the social, spatial, functional and cultural-symbolic
(Weyers 2011:56–57).

Community work is a method of social work that consists of various processes and
289

interventions on the part of the social worker. The target is the community system, as
well as its sub-systems and certain external systems, and the purpose is to bring about
the required social change. Change might happen with the help of the practice models
of especially community development, social planning, community education, social
marketing and social action (Weyers 2011:28).

A contextual community includes the employment organisation and the

290

geographical community/communities in which it operates. Dividing the

contextual community into more sub-systems than just the four dimensions of
a community can determine the system’s geo-spatial boundaries. Geo-spatial community
criteria, combined with geo-social community criteria, can assist in demarcating the client
system. Combining the geo-spatial community and geo-functional criteria can assist in
identifying specific target systems (Weyers 2011:60–61).

The purpose of community work is to address social change on three levels: the micro,
291

meso and macro. Social change on a micro level aims to develop people’s abilities and
coping skills, in order to eliminate social problems; on the meso level it creates the necessary
resources and services; and on the macro level it links communities and systems, to render
the required services (see Weyers 2011:31).

In your study guide on community work, BSW3703, you were extensively introduced to
292

the purpose, goals and objectives of community work, the dimensions and demarcation
of a community and community theories and models, the community work process,
and community work values and principles. We will review the community work
theories regarding the ecosystems and strengths perspectives, and add the power
dependency and conflict perspectives which are applicable to community interventions.
An overview will also be given of the differences between community work and community
development, community assessment, the five practice models for community work
interventions, and the criteria for choosing the most appropriate model (Weyers 2011). The
intervention frameworks of Weyers’ (2011) five practice models will be further discussed.

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 3.16 COMMUNITY WORK PERSPECTIVES FOR EFFECTIVE
COMMUNITY INTERVENTION
y Ecosystems perspective
Ecosystems theory focuses on the interdependence of people and their environment
293

(Birkenmaier & Berg-Weger 2017:455). This theory emphasises the spatial organisation
of community resources, and the relationships between the resources themselves and
with community members, while taking into account social and economic influences
(Birkenmaier & Berg-Weger 2017:455). The interrelatedness of people and the environment
can be divided into a nurturing and a sustaining environment (Weyers 2011:20): a nurturing
environment involves the systems within which a person interacts, while a sustaining
environment involves the services, resources and opportunities which enable a person’s
wellbeing to be sustained, enhanced or even damaged. Any changes in a sub-system
influence the other systems.

The United Nations’ Global Compact (UN 2000) is the world’s largest corporate sustainability
294

initiative, with 13 000 corporate participants and stakeholders from over 170 countries.
This initiative supports the sustainable development goals (SDGs) which outline ten
principles in the areas of human rights, labour, the environment and anti-corruption. The
ecosystems perspective, for instance, aligns with the goals of promoting environmental
and community sustainability.

y Strengths-based perspective
Strengths theory focuses on the assets and strengths of communities, rather than on their
295

deficits. Identifying such strengths can help a community to empower its own members.
The community’s strengths include community members’ skills and competencies.

The strengths perspective requires all interventions to be focused on strengths (Weyers

296

2011:23). The human strengths which a social worker as a community worker needs to
take into account, include the following:
y People’s experiences of themselves, others and the world
y Personal qualities and character traits (e.g., creativity, loyalty and spirituality) can be
motivational when working with community members
y The intellectual knowledge which community members gained over the course of
their lifetime
y Talents which may provide members with the resources and tools to assist them in
reaching their goals
y Community stories regarding culture can be sources of strength and guidance
y The community’s neighbourhood, workplace and organisations can be sources of
strength which assist others.

The community work practitioner can use five practice principles of strengths interventions
297

(Weyers 2011:24):
y The strengths perspective acknowledges the strengths of individuals, groups
and communities, and identifies these assets.
y Experiences of abuse and traumatic incidents may help to develop certain strengths.

86
y An individual, group or community is capable of change and growth, and the practitioner
should not underestimate this.
y Each community has useful resources, as does the broader society.

The goal of the strengths perspective is to improve resilience and empower communities
298

to deal with challenges effectively (Weyers 2011:25).

Techniques which support the strengths perspective include asset mapping, which
299

helps the community work practitioner learn about the types of assets available in
the community (Birkernmaier & Berg-Weger 2017:482).

y Power dependency theory

The power dependency theory involves the community’s relationships with the external
300

suppliers of resources (Birkenmaier & Berg-Weger 2017:456). A community’s dependence on

a resource may influence decisions about developing small businesses in the community.
The social worker as a community worker needs to take into consideration how power and
control play a role in a community – for instance, groups with power may be oppressing
others (Birkenmaier & Berg-Weger 2017:456).

y Conflict theory
The conflict theory views the community as divided between groups competing for
301

limited resources (Birkenmaier & Berg-Weger 2017:456).

This theory implies that the influential group has power over the non-influential group in
302

the community. People with greater income and more political connections may influence
decisions taken in and for the community. Diversity in terms of race, socioeconomic status
and ethnicity may be factors which give rise to community conflict.

3.17 COMMUNITY ASSESSMENT

During a community assessment, the major domains must be explored by making use
303

of assessment techniques (Birkenmaier & Berg-Weger 2017:460).

The following aspects need to be taken into consideration when assessing a community
304

(Birkenmaier & Berg-Weger 2017:460; Weyers 2011:58–59):

y Physical setting: this includes the main geographical boundaries, neighbourhoods,
townships, organisations, medical complexes, shopping district.
y History: the identity of the population, major historical events, the way history impacts
on the community’s present functioning.
y Economic system: employment for community residents, the types/numbers/industry
of businesses, and the availability of small businesses, stores, transportation, as well
as the distribution of wealth and income, and major economic activities.
y Political system: an awareness of the community’s political system, their level of
political involvement, and the degree to which the political system is connected
to community residents. Included are the power and leadership structure, political
parties and their representatives.

87 BSW4802/1
y Social characteristics: included are demographics regarding social class, race, ethnicity,
age and diversity, along with religious affiliations, clubs, associations, recreational
areas, population density, types of households and family size.
y Human service system: health, education, social services, public and private schools and
local voluntary agencies, along with the presence of religious affiliations, community
development services and service organisations.
y Values, beliefs and traditions: awareness of community members’ values, ethnicity,
beliefs and traditions.
y Evidence of oppression and discrimination: the history of oppression or discrimination
within the community.
y Community needs assessment: identifying unmet needs and prioritising them.
y Community’s strengths and weaknesses: strengths that can be utilised, along with
any limitations which affect the community.

Key principles to adhere to when doing a community assessment are the following
305

(Birkenmaier & Berg-Weger 2017:474–479):

y Seek multiple perspectives and value the participation of diverse community members.
y Make use of quantitative and qualitative methods to gather data about the community.
The most informative assessments of communities use both types of data.
y Encourage community members and stakeholders to participate, to ensure that data
are relevant.
y Keep the assessment process realistic and factual.
y Note the strengths and assets in the community.

3.18 THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN COMMUNITY WORK AND

COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
Community work is a method of social work that encompasses the various processes
306

and helping acts of the social worker. The target is the community system, as well as
its sub-systems and certain external systems, and the purpose is to bring about the
required social change. Change might happen with the help of the practice models
of especially community development, social planning, community education, social
marketing and social action (Weyers 2011:28).

Community development involves a method, process, programme and strategy to

307

assist change agents (including community work practitioners). This method helps
agents of change (with or without the support of external systems) to speed up the
tempo at which the community develops; to provide direction to the development
process; and to contribute to human growth and the unlocking of human potential by
empowering community members. Empowering community members entails allowing
them to take responsibility for their own development, as well as the development of
the entire system (Weyers 2011:39).

Community development may involve different change agents from diverse professions,
308

and a broader focus on social change in different areas. The differences between community
work and community development are outlined in Table 3.5.

88
Table 3.5 Community work versus community development
Community work Community development

The focus is narrower and on social The focus is broad and not only includes
workers only social workers, but also other change
agents

The role players are social workers The role players form a multi-professional
and social auxiliary workers team comprising several change agents

The main purpose is social change The main purpose is change in different
areas

Social work methods are used The methods used may include different
professions

3.19 REQUIREMENTS FOR A SOCIAL WORKER DOING

COMMUNITY WORK
A social worker needs to have a broad range of knowledge, attitudes and skills to meet
309

all the requirements of community work (Weyers 2011:64–76). Social workers who
do community work need to understand the government policies and social relations
that govern the relationships between different structures and various communities, and
to keep these in mind when working to bring about social justice through change. The
most used practice skills in community work include group work skills such as fostering
leadership, enabling communication, encouraging problem solving, facilitating decision-
making, managing processes and facilitating meetings.

3.19.1 Knowledge requirements for social workers

The social worker needs to possess theoretical and practical knowledge of a variety
310

of subjects, to do community work. The relevant knowledge requirements, which are

illustrated in Figure 3.3 (Weyers 2011:64), can be summarised from a general level (level
1) to specific requirements (level 5). Revisit the recommended book by Weyers (2011) for
more on the knowledge required of social workers.

311

89 BSW4802/1
 312

Figure 3.3: Knowledge requirements

Source: Weyers (2011:65)

3.19.2 Attitudinal requirements

The social worker who does community work, must be guided by professional values
313

and the code of ethics of the profession. According to Weyers (2011:65–71) there are
nine important principles to adhere to, when doing community work. Please revisit this
recommended book to familiarise yourself with the attitudinal requirements for a social
worker.

Now complete Reflective exercise 3.5, which deals with the attitudinal requirements
314

expected of you, as a social worker.

90
 Reflective exercise 3.5

Study the attitudinal requirements for social workers wanting to do effective community
work (Weyers 2011:65–71), and reflect on the following questions:
y Which attitudinal requirements are mentioned in the above literature?
y Which attitudinal requirements do you still need to develop, in order to be an effec-
tive community worker?

3.19.3 Skills requirements for social workers

According to Weyers (2011:71–77), the social worker who does community work needs
315

to meet certain skills requirements, in order to be effective. Please study and summarise
the eight skills requirements described in your recommended book (Weyers 2011:72–77).
After studying that section, complete Activity 3.3.

Activity 3.3

A social worker needs to meet certain requirements in terms of the knowledge, attitudes
and skills needed to render effective community work services. Name and explain TWO
of these skills requirements.

Feedback
7

y Social workers need to continually empower themselves by studying new developments

related to community work theory and practice. The social worker also needs to empower
her/himself by ensuring that s/he is knowledgeable about community work theory, and
the skills needed to become an effective community worker. S/he can ensure his/her com-
petency by joining professional groups, where practitioners share their experiences and
knowledge. Building self-awareness, a positive self-concept and nurturing a willingness
to learn, are further ways of empowering oneself.
y Social workers need to spend time on self-reflection, thinking about their own personal
wellness and seeking people to support them emotionally. They must practise self-care
and maintain a healthy balance between managing their personal lives and health, and
their responsibilities as a community worker. Social workers also need to reflect on nega-
tive events and how these affect them in the performance of their duties as community
workers, and they must be realistic about their personal shortcomings.

3.20 A PROGRAMME LOGIC MODEL (PLM) TOOL

The programme logic model (PLM) is a framework or tool which assists the social worker
316

in designing a strategic plan to effectively implement projects or programmes which

have been decided on (Weyers 2011:108–114). The PLM has certain principles or features
which make it an effective tool for guiding the social worker in terms of project design.
For more on the different features or principles of the PLM tool, see Weyers (2011:108).
The PLM has different components which need to be addressed when the community
worker designs a project s/he wants to implement (Weyers 2011:109–114).

91 BSW4802/1
The main components of the PLM are to define and describe problem(s) or impediment(s).
317

A list of resources (which includes staff, volunteers, facilities, etc.) needs to be specified.
The activities to be implemented and the persons responsible for each task, need to be
outlined. The intended short-term goals must be described, as well as the long-term
outcomes of the planned activities. Also outlined must be the environmental factors to
take into consideration, and assumptions regarding the strategies which will be followed.
Lastly, the project should be reviewed before and after implementation, and the reviewing
process must also be incorporated in the design.

3.21 COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES AND THE USE OF MEDIA

IN A COMMUNITY WORK PROJECT
Many types of communication strategies and media (auditive, audiovisual) can be used
318

in community work, to influence the target system (Weyers 2011:122–128). There are three
levels of communication, namely interpersonal, intermediate and mass communication:
y Interpersonal communication – which includes face-to-face interviews,
audiovisual communication, letters, emails, telephonic interviews – has the greatest
impact. A shortcoming is that a limited number of people can be reached at a time.
y Intermediate communication can convey specialised information with a high impact,
at low cost. Intermediate media can include visual, audiovisual and auditive platforms.
y Mass media have a broad impact, but do not guarantee effectiveness. Mass media can
stimulate interest, convey non-specialised information, and shape general opinions.

Table 3.6 illustrates the different media and communication strategies to utilise in
319

a community work project (Weyers 2011:122).

Table 3.6: Media, and communication strategies

Auditive Audiovisual Visual sense/
media

Interpersonal Telephonic interviews Face-to-face SMS, letters,

media and tape recordings interviews e-mails

Intermediate Public speaking Mechanical media Office letters,

/small group (announcements/ (movies, videos), newsletters,
media testimonies), special special events advertisements,
meetings (group (promotions, local
work) and gatherings exhibitions, open newspapers,
(conferences, workshops) days, competitions) brochures

Mass media Local and international National/ Regional

radio services international and local
television services newspapers,
trade/scientific
journals

Source: Weyers (2011:122–123)

92
 3.22 DEFINING AND COMPARING WEYERS’ (2011) PRACTICE
MODELS
The different practice models (Weyers 2011) are defined and their criteria for use are
320

summarised in tables 3.7 and 3.8. Please study the different definitions and criteria (when
to use) each practice model in the recommended book of Weyers (2011).

Table 3.7: Weyers’ (2011) practice models

321 The definitions of each practice model also indicate their respective goals.

Community Social Community Social Social

development planning education marketing action
model Model model model model

The community The focus A community’s A community’s This model

is best suited is on social social social focuses
to develop needs functioning functioning on power,
itself and and social is based on is based justice and
overcome pathology; individual on community inequality
impediments a community and collective members’ rather than
in the member knowledge, social problems; it
community might attitudes and attitudes; may lead to
have social skills (KAS) impediments conflict, as
problems can be the aim is to
which require overcome bring about
intervention by using the a change
and principles of in social
preventative/ selling policies and
remedial commercial structures
services goods and
services

93 BSW4802/1
Table 3.8: Criteria for choosing a practice model
Community Social Community Social Social action
development planning education marketing model
model model model model (Weyers
(Weyers (Weyers (Weyers (Weyers 2011:353)
2011:155) 2011:221) 2011:252) 2011:306)
The The The The The
community community community community community
y is poorly y lacks new y did not y has not yet y appear to
organised services receive accepted be victims
y is dominated y has the education new ideas or of an unjust
by external services, and training practices dispensation
systems, but their needed y clings to y are
y conflict quality y shows inappropriate subjected
and poor needs deficiencies ideas to unjust
cooperation improve­ in that it does y lacks practices
between ment not function knowledge and policies
members y needs to effectively of services
y does facilitate y lacks y has a
not have access to knowledge, negative
problem- services skills and image of
solving skills appropriate services’
or a self-help attitudes y does not use
attitude the services
y has available
stagnated y has a
and lacks negative
vision image of the
y feels profession
powerless y lacks
and is overly sympathy
dependent for certain
on external service
resources recipients
y is uncertain
of making
constructive
decisions

322

94
 3.23 COMMUNITY CHANGE AND THE STAGES OF REACTION
What are the causes of community change? Community change originates from an
323

outside force (e.g., political or economic factors) or can be generated from internal forces
(from community members, groups and organisations) (Weyers 2011:61–62).

Community members may experience changes in the community as troublesome,

324

because it involves trying new and unproven ways of coping with their circumstances.
The process can be explained as change that happens in various stages (Weyers 2011:63).
Community change often starts with a crisis, when new ways need to be implemented
to cope with circumstances. When working with the community, the social worker has
to take into account all community members’ reactions to the process of change. Table
3.9 illustrates the different stages of community change.

Table 3.9: Communities’ reactions to change in various stages

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stages 4–6

Doubt, fear, Discomfort and Negative and Discover new

anxiety, attempts to positive coping problem-solving
passive use inadequate behaviours are tried skills (stage 4)
resistance problem-solving
skills

A crisis develops Positive coping Understand new

skills may be ways of coping with
used to enhance challenges (stage 5)
learning, growth
and achievement

Integrate new skills,

such as coping skills
and behaviours
(stage 6)

3.24 THE APPLICATION OF THE FIVE PRACTICE MODELS

(WEYERS 2011)
In BSW3703 (“Community work: Theories, approaches and models”) you were introduced
325

to the five practice models, the holistic assessment of the client system, the different skills
and techniques applicable, and to how to match the different theories and practice models
to the community profile. BSW3703 focused extensively on the theoretical perspectives
and background of community work in social work practice. Hereafter, the focus is on the
framework for the various steps to follow when implementing the five different practice
models according to the prescribed text by Weyers (2011), and integrating the applicable
skills and techniques. Please revisit the implementation steps and tasks of all five practice
models, to be able to differentiate between the steps and tasks applicable to each.

95 BSW4802/1
 326

3.25 THE COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT MODEL

The community development model needs to be a community-driven process which
327

promotes self-help and community participation (Weyers 2011:153).

The application of the community development model occurs in different steps, as
328

each step has unique tasks and techniques that need to be integrated, to achieve the
implementation of the practice model (Weyers 2011:156).

329 Step 1: Do a situation analysis

The first step, which involves doing a situation analysis, requires a number of tasks to be
330

achieved, and calls for the use of certain skills and techniques during each step.

331 Task 1: Analyse the context

332

y A broad-angled scan can be used to obtain information about the context of

the community and analyse the employer organisation’s structural-functional
dimension, its management, staff and resources, and the nature of its service delivery.
All of this will inform the social worker about the context of the employer organisation.
y The contextual community needs to be analysed, as it is the target for change.
y The context of the socioeconomic and political-administrative requirements that may
impact the social worker’s service delivery, needs to be analysed.

333 The techniques and skills needed to perform these tasks include
y direct observation, by driving or walking through the community;
y streetwalking surveys and/or personal and telephonic interviews with key informants.

334 Task 2: Analyse expectations

335

336 The second level of tasks can be achieved by

y analysing the expectations of your (the social worker’s) employer organisation by
studying the background of your post, the expectations of management and staff,
and gaining information from minutes of meetings.

96
y contacting key informants in the community, who may assist in analysing the
expectations of the community.
y analysing expectations regarding the type of change the community expects, and
using key informants to gain this information.

337 Task 3: Compare findings with practice models

338

The information gathered during tasks 1 and 2 should reveal specific results and conclusions
339

which will help to determine whether the community development model is the most
applicable to implement.

340 Step 2: Identify and analyse the impediments

341 Task 1: Make contact and negotiate entry

342

The social worker needs to perform three core tasks during this step of the community
343

development model.
The two ways of gaining entry to the community are via direct and indirect routes: direct
344

routes involve gaining entry by working with other organisations in the community, while
the indirect route is via a community leader or influential member.

345 Task 2: Mobilise representation from the community

346

Community development initiatives need formalised action or a task/action group to

347

analyse and prioritise the community’s needs, assess its resources and empower the task
group, to address the community’s impediments.

348 Task 3: Undertake a needs and resource assessment

349

y The social worker needs to determine the community’s resources, impediments and
assets. The action group needs to prioritise the impediments after they have been
defined and analysed.
y The action group has to gather knowledge of the needs and resources of the community.
y Gathering information about a community’s needs and resources requires research, and
there are two major methods to follow: qualitative or quantitative methods (or a mixed
approach, where the quantitative and qualitative methods are used in a complementary
way). The social worker has to decide which method is appropriate to use, to gather

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 all the information needed, based on secondary analysis, surveys, non-participatory
mapping, observation, interviews, focus groups, community workshops or meetings,
issue-raising via interviews, and (lastly) participatory assessment.
y Social workers are using many times the participatory assessment techniques for
gathering the information needed. There are various participatory assessment
techniques and the use of this techniques are shortly described.
350  Participatory assessment techniques (PATs)
The PAT’s described a variety of approaches, methods and techniques that can be
351

used to collect data through a reciprocal learning process between the practitioner
and the participating community members (Weyers 2011:188).

352  Characteristics of the PATs

The PAT’s have certain characteristics which include flexibility, learning directly from the
353

people, seeking diversity, focus on the sharing between participants and practitioner
about ideas and information, enhance dialogue, focus on visual communication
and combine qualitative and quantitative elements of needs and assessments in
different ways (Weyers 2011:188).
The PAT’s is especially useful when you have to work on grassroots and have to gain
354

deep understanding of the community. The procedure which can be applied to use
the PAT can be divided in four steps.

355  Application of the PATs

STEP 1
356

The social worker will make the necessary preparations which involve selecting the
357

target community and do a secondary analysis together with consulting of informers

in the community to get an idea of the nature of the impediments. Secondly, you will
make contact with representatives and key informants of the community and explain
the purpose of the project. Thirdly, you need to prepare yourself emotionally for the
approach you will follow which include respect for the community members, listening
actively to their feedback, encourage the members and ask relevant questions and
give feedback. Then lastly, you need to decide on the types of techniques to use and
prepare the material for the use of the techniques you have decided on.
STEP 2
358

You will introduce yourself and explain the reasons for your involvement, as well as
359

your purpose to understand community’s needs. The social worker has an attitude
that she wants to learn from the community.
STEP 3
360

In this step you will share information using a variety of techniques . Examples of
361

techniques the social worker may use include, ranking and scoring techniques (card
sorting, problem ranking, pocket chart voting, matrix ranking, wealth and opinion
ranking), mapping techniques (social maps, geographical maps, resource maps, street
maps theme maps) and diagramming techniques (transects, time lines, history profiles,
time trends, activity charts, Venn-diagrams).

98
 STEP 4
362

The group will formulate a plan of action to address the impediment.

363

After taking a needs and resource assessment the social worker can continue with the
364

next step of formulating a plan of action.

365 Step 3: Formulate a plan of action

y The action group might list a variety of projects, after identifying and analysing the
impediments.
y There are certain procedures for planning a community project, and the action group
needs to take responsibility for initiating the process.
y The social worker needs to assist the action group in formulating goals, objectives and
procedures in the development of a project, by deciding what must be done, how, by
when, and who will accept responsibility for each task.
y The types of projects which may be applicable for community development include
those aimed at improving (Weyers 2011:203–214)
− income generation
− housing
− infrastructure
− water provision and sanitation
− food and nutrition
− health
− education and the development of human resources
− social welfare.
366 Step 4: Implement the plan of action

y The procedure followed, will be determined by the type of practice model used.
y It is important to gain consent from all role-players before proceeding with the project.
This involves obtaining approval from the employer’s organisation, government bodies
(if applicable) and community members.
y Having gained the necessary approval, the social worker will assist the action group
in implementing the project.
y The social worker will especially need to fulfil the community work roles required from a
social worker doing community work, and must be competent in applying community
work techniques during this phase. Remember to
− legitimise the plan by gaining the relevant role-players’ consent to proceed with
implementation (the employer’s final approval, that of any government bodies
involved and the community themselves);
− implement the plan by mobilising the resources, community and other members,
and allocating tasks and responsibilities;
− execute change-inducing acts, by using his/her essential community work roles,
namely those of catalyst, facilitator, guide, consultant and motivator.

367

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368 Step 5: Evaluate the process and results and sustain change

y Three tasks need to be completed when conducting step 5:

369 Task 1: Evaluate the process

370

y This entails a continuing evaluation process, right from the start of the project: Is the
project making progress? Are the objectives still the focal point? Is the plan of action
still on track?

371 Task 2: Evaluate the results

372

y This involves determining the extent and nature of the change achieved.

373 Task 3: Sustain change

374

y The action group needs to decide on the future process of how changes are going
to be sustained. The community must take ownership of the project, and continue
to sustain the project.

375

3.26 SOCIAL PLANNING MODEL

The initial steps in the application of the social planning model are similar to those of
376

the community development model (Weyers 2011:222). The application of this model
differs in respect of the different tasks which the social worker needs to complete during
each step. The social planning model is used when implementing new services, improving
existing services and broadening access for communities (Weyers 2011:219).

377

100
378 Step 1: Do a situation analysis

The first step involves certain tasks which need to be achieved. It requires the use of
379

specific skills and techniques for each step.

380 Task 1: Analyse the context

381

A broad-angled scan can be used to obtain information about the context of the community,
382

and to analyse the employer organisation’s structural-functional dimension, its management,

staff and resources, and the nature of service delivery. All of these will inform the social
worker about the context of the employer organisation.
y The contextual community needs to be analysed, as it is the target for change.
y The context of the socioeconomic and political-administrative requirements that may
impact the social worker’s service delivery, needs to be analysed.
y The techniques and skills required for this task include the following:
− Direct observation, by driving or walking through the community.
− Streetwalking surveys and/or personal and telephonic interviews with key
informants.

383 Task 2: Analyse expectations

384

385 The second task can be achieved by

y analysing the expectations of your employer organisation, by analysing the background
of your post and the expectations of management and staff, and gaining information
from the minutes of meetings.
y contacting key informants in the community, who may assist in analysing the
expectations of the community.
y analysing expectations regarding the type of change the community expects and
making use of key informants to gain this information.

386 Task 3: Compare findings with the practice models

387

The findings gathered during tasks 1 and 2 will help to determine whether the social
388

planning model is the most applicable.

389

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390 Step 2: Identify and analyse impediments

y The social worker may take this step alone, but should preferably gather a task team
made up of colleagues from the organisation to assist, as that will be more beneficial.
y The social worker and task team should familiarise themselves with the presenting
impediments, as well as their impact, causes and negative consequences. Each
impediment needs to be researched to determine its priority according to the community.
y Each impediment needs to be analysed and prioritised, and any gaps in current services
need to be determined. The social worker needs also to find out whether resources
are available, and whether the power structures controlling the resources are willing
to make them available.
y The social worker may use reputable methods to assist in the research process.
y The information gathered will direct the social worker to make a final choice about
the using of the social planning model.

Step 3: Formulate a plan of action

391

y The social worker and the action group/task team should analyse what they require,
in order to implement an effective intervention.
y Aspects which need to be decided on, include what manpower is required, the
development of a clear vision, the nature of the incentives used to motivate people,
the resources needed and the formulation of a programme.
y After determining the aforementioned, the social worker needs to mobilise an
action committee comprising members of both the employer organisation and
the community. Members of this committee need to be competent or trained in the
necessary skills.
y The action committee needs to plan and formulate a plan of action. The seven tasks of
programme development may assist the committee in developing a sound programme –
these, and the characteristics of project planning, must be considered when developing
projects (Weyers 2011:226–246). The project costs need to be calculated, and a budget
must be drawn up.

392 The seven tasks of programme development:

1. Select and formulate a general goal which specifies the client system that will be
served, the impediment which needs to be eliminated, and the type of service being
planned.
2. Select the client system and subsystem. The client system may be too broad to
address specific problems or needs, and may thus have to be divided into subsys-
tems. The criteria used to divide the client system into subsystems include the client
system’s demographic characteristics.
3. Select the impediments of the subsystem, and identify which of them will receive
attention.
4. Select and formulate the objectives for addressing the impediments which were
decided on.
5. Identify and select the type of services which will achieve the set objectives in the
most effective way.

102
6. Follow up with a feasibility study, to determine whether it is possible and practical
to render the planned services. The social worker also needs to evaluate whether
the required resources, manpower, sanctioning and support of other organisations
are viable.
7. Formulate a detailed report once approval for the specific service has been ob-
tained. The report should outline the organisation which is providing the service,
the services to be rendered, the timelines, the long-term goal(s) of the project, the
contextual community, who the client system is, any impediments to address, the
objectives, and the implementation schedule.

y Projects go through certain phases (the so-called lifecycle of a project), from

conceptualisation and initiation, to planning, execution, and project closure. In each
phase, certain actions need to be achieved. In social planning, project development
will usually follow the phases indicated here.

393 Step 4: Implement the plan

y After completing the planning phase of the project, the action committee can
implement the programme/project.
y Such projects may include the creation and establishment of new organisations and
services.
y The implementation of a project requires the acquisition of initial capital, often from
sponsors.
y The legitimation of projects involving a new organisation will need official registration.
Remember to legitimise the plan by gaining the relevant role-players’ consent to
proceed with implementation (employer’s final approval, that of government bodies
involved and the community themselves).
y Implement the plan by mobilising members, resources and community members,
and allocating tasks and responsibilities.
y Execute change-inducing acts by using your crucial community work roles – those of
researcher, social planner, programme developer, administrator and networker.

394 Step 5: Evaluate the results

y Three tasks need to be completed when conducting step 5:

395 Task 1: Evaluate the process

396

y This entails a continuing evaluation process from the start of the project: Is the project
making progress? Are the objectives still the focal point? Is the plan of action still on
track?

397

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398 Task 2: Evaluate the results

399

y This involves determining the extent and the nature of the change achieved.
y Projects must be submitted to a post-implementation review (PIR), to evaluate the
goals and activities achieved. The identified outcomes can be used to improve the
performance of future projects.

400 Task 3: Sustain change

401

y The action group will cease to exist once the management of the new service /
organisation takes over the administration of the new service organisation.

3.27 THE PHASES (LIFECYCLE) OF A PROJECT

As mentioned, projects unfold in phases (they have a lifecycle) (Weyers 2011:232–246).
402

According to Weyers (2011:232), the four phases involve the conceptualisation and initiation
of the project, project planning, project execution and project closure. In each phase,
certain tasks need to be accomplished.

Activity 3.4

Study the four phases of a project, as outlined in Weyers (2011:232–246), and answer the
following question:
(1) Each project unfolds in phases. Identify and describe the four phases that constitute
the ‘lifecycle’ of a project when you implement the social planning model.

8Feedback (see Weyers 2011:232–233)

y Conceptualisation/initiation phase
− The recognition of needs, opportunities or problems to address, and ways of resolv-
ing them.
− A feasibility study to determine which solutions are viable and can assist the social
worker in making the most appropriate choice in selecting an option.
− The action committee or organisation must formulate the objectives, scope, cost and
structure of the new project (“project charter”).
− A project leader needs to be designated to manage the project. S/he will begin to
recruit members for the project team, before moving on to the next phase (planning).
y Project planning phase
− The social worker will analyse the project charter, to ensure that the decision was ap-
proved at a management meeting, prior to implementing the project. Management’s
sanctioning of a project and a programme plan/draft is necessary before starting the
project. The social worker must ensure that expectations are understood – this may

104
 involve spelling out the project objectives, scope and financial costs. The social worker
will have to determine whether the scope of the project entails different projects or a
specific programme.
− The social worker will mobilise a project team, by coopting the right people to serve
as team members. These members should represent the interests of the organisation
or community, they need to be knowledgeable in different fields, must be willing and
motivated to become part of the team, and need relationship and communication
skills if they are to work effectively as a team.
− The team begins by defining the project parameters, purpose, beneficiaries, target
system, action system, communication strategies, due dates, activities to bring about
change, resources, control measures, accountability and responsibilities, planning
procedures and tools. These parameters need to be outlined in writing, to clarify any
uncertainties. A project outline is a helpful tool (to assist with these tasks and the
planning of the project).
− A list of tasks to be completed must be drawn up with clear timelines, objectives,
measurables and needs, to cover all aspects of the project.
− There are various ways of identifying and listing tasks, including by brainstorming,
using multi-voting techniques or checklists, drawing network diagrams or compiling
GANTT-charts, etc.
− Schedule the action/link tasks to explain who does what, when and how.
− Determine the project costs/estimate the expenditure and draw up a budget.
− Formulate a plan of action and obtain approval for it, along with the action steps,
persons involved, target dates for completion, resources required and collaborators.
y Project execution phase
− The execution phase involves ensuring that each task on the list is done. The ac-
tion committee can now implement the programme. First implementation usually
includes the initial capital or fund acquisition.
− Money is needed to start and market the service.
− Monitoring and controlling the process will be accompanied by an ongoing process
of evaluation and monitoring of the project (PIR post-implementation review).
− The social worker needs to apply for the official registration of the project, if the em-
ployer organisation does not provide it.
− The activities of the team or action committee will come to an end when the manage-
ment of the new organisation is ready to run the project.
y Project closure
− Communicate the closure to all stakeholders.
− Implement a post-implementation review meeting with the team.
− Deliver the project to the organisation/authorities which initiated the programme.
− Evaluate the overall success of the project, and list the lessons which were learnt.
− Draw up a closure report.
403

404

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 405

3.28 THE COMMUNITY EDUCATION MODEL

The goal of the community education model is to empower communities, individuals
406

and groups with the necessary knowledge, attitudes and skills, to be more resilient and
improve their standard of functioning (Weyers 2011:251). Please revisit the prescribed
book (Weyers 2011:251–299) for an explanation of the community education model. The
steps followed in implementing this model, are as follows:

407 Step 1: Do a situation analysis

The first step involves certain tasks and requires the use of particular skills and techniques
408

during each step.

409 Task 1: Analyse the context

410

y A broad-angled scan can be used to obtain information about the context of

the community and analyse the employer organisation’s structural-functional
dimension, its management, staff and resources, and the nature of service delivery
of the organisation. All of this will inform the social worker about the context of the
employer organisation.
y The contextual community needs to be analysed, as it is the target for change.
y The context of the socioeconomic and political-administrative requirements that may
impact the social worker’s service delivery, needs to be analysed.
411 The techniques and skills required for this task include
− direct observation, by driving or walking through the community.
− streetwalking surveys and/or personal and telephonic interviews with key
informants.

412 Task 2: Analyse expectations

413

414 The second task can be achieved by

y analysing the expectations of the employer organisation, the background of your
post, the expectations of management and staff, and gaining information from the
minutes of meetings.

106
y contacting key informants in the community, who may assist in analysing the
expectations of the community.
y analysing expectations regarding which type of change the community expects, and
making use of key informants to gain this information.

415 Task 3: Compare findings with the practice models

416

The results gathered during tasks 1 and 2, will help to determine whether
417

the community education model is the most applicable practice model to follow.

418 Step 2: Identify and analyse the impediments

The second step involves identifying and understanding the nature of the specific
419

existing level of ignorance/impediment. The following tasks need to be completed when

identifying and analysing impediments.

420 Task 1: Identify levels of ignorance about issues that should receive attention

421

y You can identify an impediment by doing research to analyse the deficiencies your
organisation needs to deal with.
y Events in the community can indicate certain impediments.
y Addressing the impediments may be part of the service delivery of your organisation.
y You may receive an external request for certain services.

422 Task 2: Define and analyse impediments

423

y Assess the nature of the impediment and determine whether it falls under the area
of the intellectual, emotional, physical, social, occupational, environmental, financial
or spiritual cultural.

424 Task 3: Identify the level at which the need occurs

425

y Determine whether the impediment is experienced by individuals, groups in

the community, the whole community, or across the nation.

426

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 Task 4: Contextualise the impediments
427

428

y Identify the nature of the education and training services which have been received
in the past.
y Determine which previous services addressed the impediments.
y Determine which actions are being done presently, to address the impediments.
y Determine whether there is a need for a new or improved community education service.

429 Step 3: Formulate a plan of action

y The community education model is mostly practitioner driven, and there are
different components a social worker needs to analyse regarding educational projects.
y The components of a community education project which a social worker needs to
address, include
− deciding on the objectives and learning material;
− deciding on the level of intervention;
− choosing the programme/project format;
− deciding on educational opportunities and techniques;
− mobilising an action system;
− formulating the project and/or programmes.
430 Step 4: Implement the plan of action

y After completing the planning phase of the project, the action committee can
implement the programme/project by doing the following:
− Legitimise the plan by gaining the relevant role-players’ consent to proceed with
implementation (the employer’s final approval, that of the government bodies
involved and the community themselves).
− Implement the plan by mobilising the members, resources and community
members, and allocating tasks and responsibilities.
− Execute change-inducing acts by using your community work roles – the educator
role will be the most important with this model.

431 Step 5: Evaluate the process and results and sustain change

y Three tasks need to be completed when conducting step five:

432 Task 1: Evaluate the process

433

The evaluation of a project entails a continuing evaluation process, right from the start. Is
434

the project making progress? Are the objectives still the focal point? Is the plan of action
still on track?

108
435 Task 2: Evaluate the results

436

y An evaluation of the results will determine the extent and nature of the change
achieved.

437 Task 3: Sustain change

438

y A successful project will increase the community members’ knowledge and skills,
develop their insight, and bring about change in attitudes and behaviour.

439

3.29 THE SOCIAL MARKETING MODEL

The social marketing model can be implemented when communities do not know about,
440

or have not accepted, a service or practice in the community. Revise the implementation
of the social marketing model by revisiting Weyers (2011:301–346).

441 The steps in implementing the social marketing model are discussed below.

442 Step 1: Do a situation analysis

The first step involves certain tasks which have to be completed, and requires the use of
443

specific skills and techniques for each step.

444 Task 1: Analyse expectations

445

y As a social worker, you are expected to undertake marketing projects. Determine why
it is expected of you, what gave rise to the expectation, what authority you have as
a social worker, and what is practically possible to do, to meet those expectations.

109 BSW4802/1
446 Task 2: Do an environmental analysis

447

y The social worker needs to analyse the macro and task environments (the organisation’s
customers) to identify potential markets as well as competitors.

448 Task 3: Do an organisational analysis

449

y Identify positive and negative events in the organisation’s history.

y Analyse the impact of current services, how different role-players perceive the
organisation, the public’s image of the organisation, previous marketing projects,
and the organisation’s strengths and weaknesses.

450 Step 2: Identify and analyse the impediments

The goal of the social marketing model is to change people’s behaviour. To do this, the
451

social worker needs to understand what is ‘wrong’ with their current behaviour. S/he
needs to understand how their behaviours should change, before behavioural change
can be induced.

452 Tasks 1–4

453

Task 1: Define the impediments and broad target groups. The task team will preferably
454

do an analysis of the impediments and define a broad target group.

Task 2: Do a market segmentation, by dividing a broad audience into specific groups.
455

The social worker will have to choose one factor (or a combination of communal factors)
as a criterion. The criteria can be divided into general categories, including geographic,
sociodemographic, psychographic and behavioural descriptors. A segmentation matrix
can be used to illustrate the potential target groups, and another to show the products
to be marketed.
Task 3: Evaluate the market segments/target groups to determine which need attention.
456

The target group’s importance can be evaluated by determining a) whether marketing

can succeed with this group, b) the cost-effectiveness and c) the level of importance of
this specific group, in reaching the goal of the project. Determining changeability involves
evaluating the likelihood of the target group changing (Weyers 2011:315).
Task 4: Select the target markets/groups by comparing each, as well as the cost which
457

will influence groups to make an appropriate decision. This will be similar to a feasibility
study, to determine which decision would be worth the risk to promote.

458

110
459 Step 3: Formulate a marketing plan

460 Tasks 1–5

461

462 Task 1: Formulate the marketing goals (choose between task, operational or process goals).
Task 2: Decide on the type of marketing campaign to conduct (undifferentiated,
463

concentrated or differentiated marketing).

Task 3: Choose the marketing route and media (decide on the route to follow to get the
464

message across to the target group, and determine which type(s) of media will be used).
Task 4: Compile the marketing mix by linking your goals to the target group,
465

customers, commodity, cost, channel and communication medium (the five Cs).
466 Task 5: Formulate a written marketing plan.

467 Step 4: Implement the marketing plan

y The implementation of the marketing plan consists of three tasks, namely to legitimise,
implement and utilise the plan. The action committee can implement the programme/
project by
− legitimising the plan, by gaining the relevant role-players’ consent to proceed with
implementation (the employer’s final approval, that of the government bodies
involved and the community themselves);
− implementing the plan, by mobilising members, resources and community members,
and allocating tasks and responsibilities. The communication channels, media and
techniques that are being used need to be utilised during the implementation step.
− executing change-inducing acts, by using the social worker’s crucial community
work roles as marketer, public relations officer, spokesperson and public speaker.

468 Step 5: Evaluate the process and results

Three tasks in the evaluation phase are important, namely monitoring the marketing plan,
469

evaluating the results, and regularly undertaking a marketing audit (Weyers 2011: 342).

470

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 471

3.30 THE SOCIAL ACTION MODEL

The social action model focuses on power, rather than problems. Social action aims to
472

bring change to socio-political aspects in a community. Please revisit Weyers (2011:347–395)

regarding the nature and application of the social action model.

473 Step 1: Do a situation analysis

y Analyse the power structures within the community.

y Analyse the formal and informal leadership structures.
y Identify the people who may be important to the intervention.
y Identify the leaders and people who will be allies in a concerted effort.
y Analyse which policies and practices have the biggest impact on the community.

474 Step 2: Identify the issues

Your first task is to be sensitive to issues in your field of practice.

475

y Identify substantive issues which can be clearly defined and are explainable.
y Determine why these issues exist and have not yet been addressed.

476 Step 3: Mobilise a power base

y This phase is determined by building up a constituency of people and organisations

whose efforts will put pressure on the target system to make changes.
y You can accomplish this step by executing the following tasks:

Task 1: Contact potential role-players by recruiting powerful community members or

477

start building an organisation with core members.

478 Task 2: Establish a steering committee or working group.

479 Task 3: Make a decision about how the action system is organised.

Task 4: Get all the intended partners to commit to the joint action (e.g., by issuing a
480

declaration, signing a memorandum of understanding, or making a joint declaration of

intent).

112
481 Step 4: Plan and go over the plan of action

482 Task 1: Select the strategy of coercion or negotiation.

483 Task 2: Select the appropriate techniques and tactics which will determine your strategy.
y After completing the planning phase of the project, the action committee can
implement the program/project by
− legitimising the plan, by gaining the relevant role-players’ consent to proceed with
implementation (the employer’s final approval, that of the government bodies
involved and the community themselves).
− implementing the plan, by mobilising the members/resources/community members,
and allocating tasks and responsibilities.
− executing change-inducing acts, by using the social worker’s community work
roles as mobiliser, organiser, advocate, agitator, mediator and broker.

y After choosing the strategy and tactics/techniques, a scheduling of events needs to

be done. Different actions may include receiving written complaints, and organising
a petition drive or public demonstration.

484 Step 5: Evaluate

y Evaluation is done continuously, from the situation-analysis, planning and

implementation phases, up to the final evaluation of the results.
y The process can be terminated once goals have been reached, or when further action
becomes futile and it is best to end the process.

485 Below, we address the use of the community work techniques.

486

3.31 COMMUNITY WORK TECHNIQUES

Many techniques can be applied in community work practice (Weyers 2011:135). These
487

techniques overlap with the techniques and skills you would use in case and group work.
Integrating the techniques and using the most applicable technique for the required
intervention must be the aim of the community work practitioner. The techniques a social
worker can use, can be grouped into ten categories:
y Educational techniques: these involve the creation and utilisation of learning
experiences (formal or informal). They include education on a social issue, or the
improvement of teaching skills and knowledge regarding an impediment.

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y Group capacity-building techniques: these include contracting, maximising group
efficiency, the interpretation and clarification of information, giving guidance, group
motivation and encouragement, and making use of group work techniques to improve
the functioning of a group.
y Influencing techniques: the social worker takes direct action by writing protest letters
to policy makers, by bargaining, organising demonstrations, or demanding legal and
public investigations.
y Consultation techniques: these involve giving advice, counselling, and assisting
people to define their goals.
y Dispute-settling techniques: sometimes the social worker needs to intervene
between parties. Three types of dispute-settlement techniques are available, namely
mediation, arbitration and negotiation.
y Funding techniques: these include fundraising for a project by approaching the
public and/or business sector.
y Organising techniques: organising involves all the activities the social worker needs
to initiate, coordinate, facilitate and control during the lifespan of the project.
y Research techniques: research in community work is used to gain scientific insight
into the nature of certain impediments.
y Public relations techniques: these include communication activities aimed at
improving the employer’s organisational image, expanding contacts and eliciting
funding.
y Marketing techniques: these consist of all activities aimed at promoting a social
cause. The techniques can be divided into media creation and utilisation and
promotional techniques. Media creation and utilisation techniques focus on the media,
who communicate a marketing message. Promotional techniques focus on the target
system, and attempts to inform or persuade them to use the organisation’s services.

Activity 3.5

Read the following case study scenario and answer the questions which follow.
You are employed as a social worker who focuses on community work at a non-profit
organisation that renders services to youth in the community. High numbers of young
adults and teenagers in secondary school in this community are experimenting with drugs
and alcohol. Schools and clinics in the community regularly approach your organisation
to seek assistance with substance-abuse issues.
Undertaking a broad situational analysis of the target community and environment, you,
as a social worker, realise there is ignorance and a lack of knowledge amongst teenagers
about the dangers and consequences of substance use disorders.
(a) Based on Weyers (2011), select and motivate the most appropriate practice model for
addressing the impediment outlined in the case study.
(b) Discuss the different steps and tasks of the community work process, to address the
impediment outlined in the case study.
(c) A vast number of community work techniques can be used in practice (Weyers
2011:134–143). Select and motivate which community work techniques are applicable
to address the impediments outlined in this case study.

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9Feedback

(a) Community education model (Weyers 2011:251–254)

The community
y did not receive the education and training they needed
y showed deficiencies in terms of functioning effectively, and/or
y lacked knowledge, skills and appropriate attitudes.
KAS focuses empowerment on eight domains: the intellectual, emotional, physical, social,
occupational, environmental, financial and spiritual.

Using this model, assume that your actions will have the biggest impact if you

y eliminate the ignorance of community members

y change their attitudes
y equip them with the skills necessary to function effectively, and
y perform your main role of being an educator.
(b) T he steps and tasks of the community education model (see earlier in Lesson 3) must be
described here.

(c) T he techniques applicable to the community education model are those concerned with
the creation of formal, non-formal or informal learning experiences.

y Formal learning experiences include

 f ormal educational opportunities (e.g., in-service-training programmes, university
courses)
 non-formal educational opportunities (e.g., conferences workshops, short courses)
 informal education (e.g., media such as pamphlets, posters, radio, etc.)

y Education aims to bring about change in people’s attitudes, knowledge and behaviour/
skills. This includes
 improving their knowledge of, and insight into, the abuse of drugs/substance abuse
 stimulating attitudinal change and critical thought processes regarding drug use
 teaching youths how to solve problems and develop their full potential without using
drugs
 equipping youths with leadership and other skills, so that they become resilient enough
not to use drugs
 promoting interdisciplinary and intergroup relations and the mutual exchange of
knowledge and insights.
y Educating the public with regard to drug abuse and how to make use of social work
services, if needed.
y Group capacity building: committees can develop community projects to counter
substance abuse.
y Influencing techniques: these may involve media campaigns warning against the
consequences of drug abuse.
y Consultation techniques: these involve supplying information and counselling people,
or offering expert advice to other professionals regarding programmes they want to
launch against drug abuse.
y Funding techniques: financing a community project through fundraising efforts (e.g.,
applying for grants or implementing profit-making projects).

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 y Organising techniques: promoting communication, cooperation and coordination
between the organisation and external systems.
y Marketing techniques: promotional techniques can be used to inform or persuade the
target group of the services of an organisation which fights drug abuse.
y Public relations techniques: these help to improve the organisation’s image regarding
the delivery of services to combat substance abuse, and promote active involvement in
service delivery to fight drug abuse.
y Research techniques: these help the researcher gain insight into the nature of impedi-
ments, and enable cost-effective planning for the project.
y Dispute-settlement techniques: the social worker needs to intervene in disputes (e.g.
about resources) between different parties, to advise on how new groups can join, sug-
gest changes to policies and practices, address grievances, and resolve interpersonal/
intergroup conflict.

3.32 KEY ROLES OF A COMMUNITY WORK PRACTITIONER

Professional roles are patterns of professional behaviour and activities (Weyers 2011:129).
488

In each of the five practice models, a community work practitioner may have different
roles to fulfil. Familiarise yourself with the details of each role that may be prominent in
a practice model.

Table 3.10: The roles of the social worker in practice

Community Social Community Social Social
development planning education marketing action
model model model model model

Catalyst Researcher Educator Marketer Mobiliser

Facilitator / Social planner Public relations Partisan

enabler officer supporter
(activist,
negotiator)

Consultant Administrator Spokesperson

Networker Public speaker

Certain generic roles may be fulfilled, including those of committee members, fundraisers,
489

proposal writers, coordinators, leaders and empowerees (Weyers 2011:133).

3.33 SPECIALISED FIELDS OF SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE

Please review your study guide, BSW2602, in which the specialised fields of social work
490

practice are described, along with the respective tasks and functions. The specialised field
of adoption is outlined in BSW3704, while supervision and management are extensively
covered in BSW4804.

116
Table 3.11 gives a short description of each specialised field which is applicable to social
491

work practice.

Table 3.11: Specialised fields applicable to social work practice

Adoption

According to the Children’s Act, 38 of 2008 (p. 226), the Director-General may accredit
social workers in private practice and child protection organisations to provide adoption
services. Section 1(47) of the White Paper for Social Welfare indicates that adoption
is a specialised service requiring the expertise of accredited adoption social workers,
functioning within a statutory adoption system (Children’s Act 38 [RSA 2008:226];
White Paper for Social Welfare [RSA, DSD 1997:65]). The Social Service Professions Act
requires that adoption service providers be registered with the South African Council
for Social Service Professions (SACSSP) as a specialty in adoption work.

School social work

The aim of school social workers is to improve the overall functioning of learners,
teachers, school systems and communities (Kirst-Ashman 2017:482).

Management and supervision

Management in social work includes activities which can be grouped into
five components: planning, organising, commanding, coordinating and controlling.
Supervision refers to a process through which a supervisor helps social workers to
accomplish their professional tasks as efficiently as possible. A social work supervisor
supervises a social work practitioner by performing educational, supportive and
administrative functions, to promote the efficient and professional rendering of social
work services.
Social work in healthcare
Social workers who work in the healthcare field are often referred to as medical social
workers (Kirst-Ashman 2015:387). Such healthcare settings may include hospitals,
clinics and public health settings, such as mental health and rehabilitation facilities.

Occupational social work

Occupational social work is a specialised field of practice which deals with the human
and social needs of the work community, through a variety of interventions (Khubana
2012:27).

Forensic social work

Social work practice in which practitioners are directly involved with the court system
by conducting assessments, is called forensic social work. Forensic workers deal with
criminal and civil (child custody) legal systems, and may be involved in assessing
children and parents in custody battles, or doing pre-sentence reports for the courts
on someone who has committed a felony.

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 Clinical social work
The practice of clinical social work requires the application of advanced clinical
knowledge and skills in multidimensional assessment, diagnoses and the treatment
of psychosocial dysfunction/disability/impairment, including emotional, mental and
behavioural disorders, and substance use disorders.

Policy and planning

Policy practice is defined as the use of social work skills to propose and change policies,
to achieve the goals of social and economic justice.

Social workers seek change at all levels of practice, depending on the client system’s
492

needs. In the above social work settings, a social worker will pursue a combination of
goals involving change on the micro, meso and macro levels (Kirst-Ashman 2017:157).

3.34 CONCLUSION
This lesson introduced advanced theoretical knowledge and skills relating to an integrated
493

approach when intervening in the different fields of service delivery, at different levels of
intervention. The goal of the Integrated Service Delivery Model is the implementation of
a comprehensive, efficient, effective, quality service delivery system that contributes to
a self-reliant society (DSD 2005:9).

The core functions of the social work profession are to promote social change, solve
494

problems in human relationships, and empower people to enhance their wellbeing. The
social worker needs to utilise theories of human behaviour as well as social systems, and
to intervene where people interact with their environment.

Self-assessment 3.1

y Which principles should you, as a social worker, consider when working with a family
whose cultural background differs from your own?
y Describe the strategies a social worker can implement with clients from a social justice
perspective.
y Justify the use of the strengths perspective in the client assessment process.
118
y Categorise the different skills required for the various theoretical perspectives in the
client assessment phase.
y Critically analyse the importance of the evaluation phase in the intervention process
with a client.
y A client is threatening suicide while visiting your office at an organisation. Propose a
plan of action to assist the client.
y What fundamental competencies does a social worker need from a social justice
perspective, to do group work?
y Describe the social worker’s role in the intervention, termination and evaluation phases
of the group work process.
y Please revisit study guide BSW3702 (Group work) to identify and describe the different
group leadership styles and roles.
y Which tasks should a social worker attend to, during the pre-group planning and
engagement phases of a group work process?

Self-assessment 3.2

y Discuss the essence of the two theoretical perspectives, namely the ecosystems and
strengths perspective, that underpin community work according to Weyers (2011).
y What are the main components of the programme logic model (PLM) tool?
y What are the steps and tasks of each of the five practice models, according to Weyers
(2011)?
y When developing a programme or project to be implemented, there are seven tasks.
Name and discuss the seven tasks of programme development.
y Critically analyse how the community roles (see Table 3.10) are applicable for each of
the five community practice models (Weyers 2011:130–134).
y Identify and motivate the different community work techniques which you can
implement in practice.
y Which type of specialised services are part of social work practice?
y Which aspects need to be taken into consideration during the termination stage of
a group work process?

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 REFERENCES
Birkenmaier, J & Berg-Weger, M. (2017). The practice of generalist social work. New York
495

and London: Routledge.

Clemons, JW. (2014). Client system assessment tools for social work practice. Selected
abstracts: Conference at the North American Association of Christians in Social Work,
November, Annapolis, Maryland.
Ezhumalai, S, Muralidhar, D, Dhanasekarapandian, R & Nikketha, BS. (2018). Group
Interventions. Indian Journal of Psychiatry, 60(4): 514-521.
Gilbert, DJ, Harvey, AR & Belgrave, FZ. (2009). Advancing the Africentric paradigm shift
discourse: Building toward evidence-based Africentric interventions in social work
practice with African Americans. Social Work, 54(J):243–252.
Grobler, H, Schenck, R & Mbedzi, P. (2013). Person-centered facilitation. Cape Town: Oxford
University Press.
Havig, KK. (2010). Empowerment for social justice: A grounded theory study of social work
field instruction strategies. PhD thesis, Missouri, University of Missouri-Columbia.
Khubana, MI. (2012). Workplace support groups for people living with HIV and Aids: Challenges
faced by social workers rendering occupational social work services. MA dissertation,
Department of Social Work, Unisa, Pretoria.
Kirst-Ashman, KK. (2017). Introduction to social work & social welfare: Critical thinking
perspectives. 5th edition. Canada: Cengage Learning.
Kirst-Ashman, KK & Hull, GH. (2012). Generalist practice with organisations and communities.
USA: Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning.
Lee, MY. (2017). Solution-focused theory. In Social work treatment, edited by F.J. Turner.
USA: Oxford University Press.
Lombard, A & Strydom, R. (2011). Community development through social entrepreneurship.
The Social Work Practitioner-Researcher, 23(3):327–344.
Mbedzi, P. (2019). Person-centred approach. In Theories for decolonial social work practice,
edited by A. van Breda and J. Sekudu. South Africa: Oxford University Press:198–221.
Republic of South Africa. (1997). White paper on social welfare. Notice 1108 of 1997.
Government Gazette, 386 (18166). Pretoria. Government Printer.
Republic of South Africa, Department of Social Development. (2005). Integrated
service delivery model. Available from: [Link]
view&gid=187&Itemid=3(Accessed 6 May 2020).
Republic of South Africa, Department of Social Development. (2008). National policy
guidelines for victim empowerment. Pretoria: Government Printer.
Republic of South Africa, Department of Social Development. (2011). Integrated social
crime prevention strategy, 2011. Pretoria: Government Printer.
Republic of South Africa, Department of Social Development. (2013). Framework for social
welfare services. Pretoria: DSD.
Saleebey, D. (2013). Strengths perspective in social work practice. 6th edition. Boston, MA:
Pearson.
South Africa Depression and Anxiety Group (SADAG). (2020). Suicide takes its toll.
Available from: [Link]/[Link]?option=com_content&view=article&id
=2246:suicide-takes-its-toll&catid=92&Itemid=154 (Accessed 8 May 2020).
Toseland, RW & Rivas, RF. (2014). An introduction to group work practice. 8th edition. Boston,
MA: Pearson.

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Turner, H. (2011). Concepts for Effective Facilitation of Open Groups. Social Work with
Groups, 34:3-4, 246-256.
United Nations. (2000). Global compact. New York: UN. Available from: [Link]
[Link]/what-is-gc/mission/principles (Accessed 20 May 2020).
Van Breda, AD. (2019). Developmental social case work. International Social Work, 61(1):66–78.
Van Huysteen, J & Strydom, M. (2016). Utilising group work in the implementation of
family preservation services: Views of child protection social workers. Social Work/
Maatskaplike Werk, 52(4):546–569.
Weyers, ML. (2011). The theory and practice of community work: A southern African perspective.
Potchefstroom: Keurkopie.
Yanca, SJ & Johnson, LC. (2008). Social work practice: A generalist approach. Boston, MA:
Allyn & Bacon.
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Lesson 4
The nature of social service delivery by social workers,
in collaboration with inter-sectoral and multi- and/or
interdisciplinary teams

4.1 SPECIFIC LEARNING OUTCOMES

On completion of this lesson you should be able to critique and appraise the nature
497

of social service delivery by social workers in collaboration with inter-sectoral, multi-

and/or interdisciplinary teams.

4.2 INTRODUCTION
The guidelines in the Framework for Social Welfare Services (RSA, DSD 2013:17) (see
498

previous modules) emphasise the importance of social welfare service delivery based on
partnerships between different sectors (public and private, civil society, and training and
research institutions). Rapoo and Tshiyoyo (2014:19) state the importance of promoting
the integration of service delivery by different stakeholders as follows: “The South African
social welfare system is characterised by the transformation of services and the need to
promote service integration among different stakeholders.” Integrating the levels of service
delivery implies the need to establish collaborative partnerships among service providers,
to render quality services and to improve access to such services. Such integration can be
linked to the role of the social worker when working as a member of a multidisciplinary
team, along with various role players and different sectors. Social workers can assume
many roles within the boundaries of the social work field, while working in different
practice settings (e.g., mental healthcare facilities, hospitals, rehabilitation clinics, child
and youth care centres, school/educational systems and old-age homes) which often use
a multidisciplinary team to work together for the benefit of the client and the family. A
multidisciplinary approach is ideal when working with clients who require assistance or
input from more than one specific type of social work professional.

This lesson examines the complexity of working across organisational boundaries, and
499

highlights the important theme of effective communication in overcoming many of the

challenges and barriers which exist between different professions and organisations.

500

122
 4.3 ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
Demonstrate the achievement of the learning outcomes by understanding,
501

applying, critically appraising and evaluating the assessment criteria. You must
be able to
y analyse the purpose and value of the team approach in social work services,
and multidisciplinary and inter-sectoral collaboration.
y interpret and analyse the roles and functions of specific disciplines and
sectors in a range of organisations, the lines of accountability and the
boundaries of professional autonomy and discretion.
y critically analyse the roles and functions of the social worker in responding to
changing economic, social, political and organisational contexts in relation
to other stakeholders.

4.4 KEY CONCEPTS

The following concepts are used extensively in this lesson. Make sure that you
502

understand their meaning, before studying the unit:

Key concepts Definition/meaning

Multidisciplinary team approach A multidisciplinary approach in social

work comprises a team of professionals
from various backgrounds and areas of
expertise, working together to address
a specific area or problem (Kirst-Ashman
2017:423).

Intersectoral collaboration Intersectoral collaboration is the joint

action taken by government sectors
as well as representatives from private,
voluntary and non-profit groups, to
improve the social welfare of populations.

Interdepartmental collaboration Interdepartmental collaboration takes

place between government departments
which partner in promoting social
development and the delivery of
developmental social welfare services.

Accountability Accountability entails being answerable

to others, and is related to responsibility
(Thomas 2013:1).

Before starting the next section of this unit, complete the following reflective exercise.

123 BSW4802/1
503

Reflective exercise 4.1

Think about the last time you were working, or were placed to fulfil your practical
requirements in an organisation as a student social worker.
y Which types of professions were presented by the staff members of the organisation?
y If you worked in a team with other professionals in an organisation, how did you
experience teamwork?
y Have you ever worked with professionals from other organisations or departments?
If so, what challenges did you experience?

4.5 THE ROLE OF THE SOCIAL WORKER IN A

MULTIDISCIPLINARY TEAM (MDT)
Communication, cooperation, multidisciplinary teamwork and collaboration are all vital
504

elements of social work practice. A wide range of organisations and groups are involved
in the delivery of social welfare services which rely on practitioners working as a team
with other professionals to improve the outcomes for service users. There are various
settings in which MDTs render services in South Africa. MDTs in the domain of family and
child welfare bring together more than two groups of staff from different professional
backgrounds, with diverse areas of expertise, to organise and carry out work aimed at
addressing the holistic needs of the child. The MDT may include social workers, child and
youth care workers (CYCWs), social auxiliary workers, community development workers
and allied professions such as health workers, psychologists, educators and the police.

Social work has a history of offering team-based care, especially in healthcare settings. This
505

brings a unique perspective to healthcare environments. Four competency domains for

multidisciplinary teamwork can be outlined – they serve as guiding principles for anyone
wishing to be an effective member of a team (Ambrose-Miller & Ashcroft 2016:101):
y Adopt values/ethics for multidisciplinary practice: a social worker’s values, ethics
and scope of practice are described in legislation, and guided by the professional
association for social workers, which is the South African Council for Social Work
Service Professions (SACSSP).
y Understand the roles/responsibilities of members of the multidisciplinary team: such
teams require clarity on the roles and responsibilities of each person, to ensure optimal
team functioning.
y Enhance communication in teamwork: effective communication is necessary for
collaboration in a team, while poor communication presents a barrier to collaboration.
y Facilitate teams and teamwork: leadership skills, mentoring, and the ability to guide
decision making within the team, are important.

A multidisciplinary approach in social work involves a team of professionals from

506

various backgrounds and areas of expertise, working together to address a specific area
or problem (Kirst-Ashman 2017:423). Members of such teams collaborate with one another
in assessing their clients’ problems, and delivering the necessary services to restore their
clients’ functioning (Walton & Pretorius 2019:146).

124
A multidisciplinary approach is ideal when working with clients who require assistance
507

or input from more than one specific type of professional (not only from a social
worker). The team needs to have shared goals and values, understand and respect
the competencies of other team members, learn from other disciplines, and respect
different views/perspectives. Each member of a multidisciplinary team needs to
understand the other members’ roles in meeting the needs of service users. The role
of the social worker also depends on the organisation s/he is working for (its policies,
values, vision) and the responsibilities assigned to him/her. The multidisciplinary
team may range from a single professional who draws on other staff or services for
input, to a multi-professional team which takes shared responsibility for the care of
the service user. Interdisciplinary collaboration refers to the process of working
together within a multidisciplinary team and using interpersonal processes to facilitate
the achievement of the multidisciplinary team’s goals, and those of the client (Giles
2016:25). The interventions of each team member should be complementary, and
should contribute towards achieving mutual goals and outcomes, as determined
with the help of the client system (Walton & Pretorius 2019:147).

The social worker can undertake a variety of roles within a multidisciplinary team
508

(see Table 4.1).

Table 4.1: The social worker’s role in a multidisciplinary team

Advocate In this role, the social worker can advocate (within the
multidisciplinary team) for certain services for individuals or
groups. S/he can also advocate for social justice for her/his clients,
if required, and for clients to be treated holistically, rather than
just “labelling” them
according to their disease, addictions or mental health status,
is an important role.

Coordinator The social worker can coordinate communication

and services between the client, family, community
organisations and members of the multidisciplinary team.
S/he can also coordinate appropriate transfers to other facilities,
if necessary.

Assessor Social workers have a major role in assessing their clients’

of clients’ psychosocial functioning, their circumstances, needs and goals,
psychosocial and in communicating the necessary information to team
functioning members.

Case manager/ Social workers help to compile a treatment/care plan for clients,
Administrator based on the realities of the clients’ lives, by presenting wider
contextual concerns that will have an impact on the latter’s
functioning. The social worker needs to communicate the
information to the team, and all team members need to work
towards similar goals with the client.

125 BSW4802/1
 Agent of social The social worker assists the team by focusing on such matters
change as organisational effectiveness, improvement and development.
Social workers can present problems and issues in such a way
that a conviction about the need for change occurs, and can
then contribute to change implementation.

Supporter and Supports communication between team members regarding

team player clients’ functioning, needs and requests.

Facilitator Facilitates meetings of the multidisciplinary team, and between

the team and the client system.

Social work is a collaborative profession, where practitioners work alongside other

509

professionals to improve their clients’ psychosocial functioning, and assist in bringing

about change. Next, the focus shifts to the specific disciplines involved in multidisciplinary
teams within a specific organisational setting.

4.6 THE SOCIAL WORKER WORKING IN A MULTIDISCIPLINARY

TEAM IN A HEALTHCARE SETTING
Social workers practise in healthcare settings such as hospitals, clinics, public health
510

settings, mental health/treatment centres for substance abuse. They can fulfil many
functions in healthcare settings, depending on the type of setting and the policies and
responsibilities which management allocates to the social worker. The organisation’s
policies and guidelines will prescribe the roles and functions of the different members of a
multidisciplinary team. The social worker has a variety of roles to perform in such a team.
The key roles and tasks may include the following (Dominelli 2009:10–11) (see Table 4.2):

Table 4.2: Roles and tasks of a social worker in the multidisciplinary team
Facilitator Enabling others to reach their objectives

Gatekeeper (Dis)allowing access to social resources and services

Regulator Controlling unacceptable behaviours to maintain social

order and minimise service users’ capacity to harm
themselves or others

Upholder Upholding people’s human rights and citizenship

Advocate Advocating for change

511

126
Other applicable functions and responsibilities of a social worker working in a
512

multidisciplinary team within a healthcare setting are further discussed below (Kirst-
Ashman 2017:388):
y Assisting patients in understanding and interpreting medical jargon. Clarifying, for
patients and families, the implications of a diagnosis.
y Assessing the family circumstances and home environment of a patient.
y Offering a patient emotional support upon receiving a medical diagnosis, and discussing
the consequences and adjustments to be made.
y Assisting the terminally ill in dealing with their feelings and making end-of-life plans.
y Helping patients adjust their lives/lifestyles to accommodate their illness when they
return home after treatment.
y Assisting the parents and families of children or a spouse with a serious illness, to cope
with these conditions.
y Supporting the family of the patient to deal with their feelings and challenges, and
linking them to supportive resources.
y Assisting in planning for the financial implications and workplace challenges which
the patient and his/her family will face.
y Providing health education and psycho-social education, to promote a healthy lifestyle.
y Doing group work with patients with similar diagnoses.
y Presenting community awareness programmes related to the specific illness or
condition.

The members of a multidisciplinary team in a healthcare setting may include doctors,

513

nurses, physiotherapists, psychologists, occupational therapists and others. Each team

member has a specific role and scope of practice to fulfil for the patient (client). The
multidisciplinary team and its members are illustrated in Figure 4.1.

514

Figure 4.1: Members of a multidisciplinary team

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Social workers are involved in preventative, primary, restorative (aftercare) and continuing
515

care in healthcare and mental health settings. Studies indicate that people living in
poverty are more likely to have poor health (Kirst-Ashman 2017:395). Social workers have
a responsibility to promote access to health and mental care for vulnerable populations,
and to ensure that health and mental care facilities respond to the needs of these groups.

Activity 4.1

A multidisciplinary team consists of a group of diverse professionals who specialise

in specific disciplines. Each person in the multidisciplinary team is responsible for
providing the services/treatments in which s/he specialises. What are the advantages
and disadvantages of working in such a multidisciplinary team?

10Feedback

Advantages
y It gives the client access to an entire team of experts.
y The client’s functioning is addressed holistically.
y It improves service coordination.
y It expedites the referral process.
y It creates new avenues for service implementation.
y It allows patients to create goals for themselves, with the assistance of a team of experts.
y The whole team takes responsibility for achieving the set goals.

Disadvantages
y There are always time pressures in providing services.
y Different team members come from unique backgrounds, they have different personalities
and diverse scopes of practice, which may cause conflict/disagreements.
y It requires frequent collaboration to be effective.
y “If it wasn’t documented, it didn’t happen.” Any intervention needs to be documented
by each team member.
y Poor leadership and a lack of coordination amongst team members may lead to poor
outcomes in service delivery.

4.7 MULTIDISCIPLINARY TEAMWORK IN FAMILY AND CHILD

WELFARE SETTINGS
Multidisciplinary teamwork in family and child welfare settings requires more than
516

two groups of professionals, from different professional backgrounds, with different

areas of expertise, to organise and carry out work to address the holistic needs of
the child (and his/her family). It is a collaborative process of assessment, planning,
implementation and review. Decision making in this kind of teamwork is guided by
active listening, tolerance and problem solving. Children should be involved in case
conferencing as much as possible, depending on their age. Generally, the child and youth
care worker (CYCW) and social worker working together in a team which includes
other role players such as social auxiliary workers, nurses, educators, police and

128
psychologists. The social worker who is the case manager for statutory work regarding
children and families is often the team leader of a multidisciplinary team. The role of
the multidisciplinary team and the social worker is to guide the process of assessing,
planning, implementing and reviewing matters around the child or family. Figure 4.2
depicts the multidisciplinary team’s tasks regarding child and family interventions.

517

Figure 4.2: Tasks of the multidisciplinary team in family and child welfare practices
There are strong policy drivers from government for organisations and different
518

professionals to work together more closely. The integration of services is the best way
of making use of scarce resources and effectively rendering services for children and
their families.

4.8 LEVELS OF SERVICE INTEGRATION IN SOCIAL WELFARE

Multi-agency cooperation is an essential element of social work practice. Understanding
519

the roles and responsibilities of other professionals and organisations is an important part
of a social worker’s capabilities and skills requirements in practice.

Various levels of service integration are described in the Framework for Social Welfare
520

Services (RSA, DSD 2013:28). Social policy increasingly emphasises intersectoral and
multidisciplinary teamwork. The focus now falls on the different levels of service integration,
where a social worker needs specific competencies to collaborate with other service
providers.

4.8.1 Intersectoral collaboration

Intersectoral collaboration is the joint action taken by government sectors, as well as
521

representatives from private, voluntary and non-profit groups, to improve the social welfare
of populations. Intersectoral collaboration improves outcomes more effectively, efficiently

129 BSW4802/1
or sustainably than would be the case through the sole action of the social welfare sector.
Intersectoral action takes on different forms, including cooperative initiatives, alliances,
coalitions or partnerships. Successful intersectoral initiatives involve potential partners
from sectors outside of social welfare services, as well as from different disciplines and
levels within the social welfare sector. There is a common understanding that intersectoral
collaboration is both horizontal and vertical (Danaher 2011:6): horizontal collaboration
occurs across sectors, at the same level, while vertical collaboration occurs at different
levels and can include different levels of government (provincial or municipal) or
different levels within organisations (senior administrative to the level of service/
programme provision or direct care). Horizontal collaboration is effective in bringing
together diverse resources, expertise and experience to solve complex issues whose
solutions lie outside the capacity of any one sector (Danaher 2011:6).

People or sectors are brought together when they have a shared concern or wish to
522

address a shared issue (e.g., immigrants having difficulty accessing services, the high
crime rate in a community, or making a community a better place to live for the poor).
The context determines how a concern needs to be addressed. “This is critical because
the conditions that give rise to collaboration determine how an issue is framed, which
people come together and why, and what solutions are considered and implemented”
(Danaher 2011:8). Community engagement is an essential strategy if citizens are to engage
as full participants, because it ensures that their concerns are being heard.

4.8.2 Interdepartmental integration

Interdepartmental collaboration takes place between government departments which
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partner to promote social development and the delivery of developmental social welfare
services. The DSD delivers services through three core programmes, which include social
security, social welfare services and integrated development. These core programmes
ensure the provision of social development services, with a view to reducing vulnerability
and poverty (RSA, DSD 2013:28). Entry via any of these programmes should also provide
access to other programmes.

The social worker needs to be aware of factors within intersectoral and interdepartmental
524

collaboration which may influence the envisaged outcomes. Three groups of factors can
be recognised and must be considered when collaborating with other stakeholders,
namely the institutional, the interpersonal and the organisation of an alliance which can
either facilitate or hamper the collaborative process (De Jong, Wagemakers & Koelen
2019:11). A social worker who is part of a collaborative process needs to take note of these
factors, and stakeholders need to develop a learning culture in this collaboration. The
three factors influencing the intersectoral or interdepartmental collaboration process
are illustrated in Figure 4.3.

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130
 526

Figure 4.3: Three factors influencing collaborative processes

Source: adapted from De Jong, Wagemakers and Koelen (2019:11)

In Figure 4.3, the institutional factors which may influence the collaborative process are
527

policy, planning and funding. Interpersonal factors which may influence the collaboration
process between members of the team include attitudes, self-efficacy, social identity
and personal relations. The process of collaboration needs to be effective (a timeline)
and there must be a shared mission. Roles and responsibilities need to be clarified, each
member’s competencies and capacities must be utilised, and there must be transparency
and a structure of communication.

4.9 THE ORGANISATIONAL CONTEXT OF CONTEMPORARY

SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE: PARTNERSHIPS WITH OTHER
AGENCIES/MULTI-PROFESSIONAL TEAMWORK
In addition to the range of organisations and types of services, multi-agency cooperation
528

is an essential element of social work practice. Understanding your own role, and the
roles and responsibilities of other professionals and organisations, is an important
aspect of your capabilities in social work practice. Resource shortages and a lack of
understanding of different roles and responsibilities can create tensions within intersectoral
and multidisciplinary teams. Aspects such as responsibility, boundaries, accountability
and joint responsibility should be considered.

y Responsibilities
According to the SACSSP (2008) draft document on the scope of practice of a social
529

worker, the term “social worker” in the South African context “is a protected title in that no
person without the requisite qualification and registration with the South African Council
for Social Service Professions may use the title or practise as a social worker; any person
who violates this is liable to prosecution”. The social work profession is regulated through

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legislation. Social workers therefore have the responsibility to practise social work within
their scope of prescribed practice, as stipulated in the Social Services Professions Act, 110
of 1978 (RSA 1978) and the guidelines of their professional council, the regulating body,
the SACSSP. Social work is practised in a variety of settings, and various stakeholders and
organisations which are involved in social welfare delivery have their own specific vision,
policies and responsibilities which a social worker needs to adhere to, when joining the
organisation.

The main responsibilities of a social worker in social work practice are connected with
530

the tasks s/he needs to fulfil. Adopted from the draft document of the SACSSP (2008),
the following are the tasks for which a social worker needs to take responsibility, and the
skills required:
y Skills to challenge structural sources of poverty, inequality, oppression, discrimination
and exclusion
y Knowledge and understanding of human behaviour and social systems, and the skills
to intervene at the points where people interact with their environments, in order to
promote social wellbeing.
y The ability and competence to assist and empower individuals, families, groups,
organisations and communities to enhance their social functioning and their problem-
solving capacities.
y The ability to promote, restore, maintain and enhance the functioning of individuals,
families, groups and communities, by enabling them to accomplish tasks, prevent and
alleviate distress, and use resources effectively.
y An understanding of, and the ability to demonstrate, social work values and the
principles of human rights and social justice, while interacting with and assisting the
range of human diversity.
y The understanding and ability to provide social work services to protect people who
are vulnerable, at-risk and unable to protect themselves.
y Knowledge and understanding of both the South African and the global welfare
context, and the ability to implement the social development approach in social work
services.
y Understanding the major social needs, issues, policies and legislation in the South
African social welfare context, and the social worker’s role and contribution.
y The skills to work effectively within teams, including social work, multi- and inter-
disciplinary, as well as multi-sectoral teams.

y Interprofessional responsibility
Interprofessional responsibility arises in any instance where an individual professional
531

(or profession) could be perceived as having a responsibility for interprofessional behaviour

(Joyness 2018:138). The social worker is accountable “in terms of behaviours and thought
processes, and this includes the way in which professionals talk about their own identities;
the way they talk about the professional identity of others, and the way in which staff act
towards each other, in order to provide the highest standards of patient care” (Joyness
2018:139). Thus, the social worker must be aware of his/her professional identity and
boundaries, and adhere to the guidelines of the professional body governing the social
work profession (the SACSSP) when working in a multidisciplinary team or on inter-sectoral
levels with other stakeholders.

132
y Professional boundaries
y Professional boundaries are “a set of guidelines, expectations and rules which set
the ethical and technical standards in the social care environment. They set limits for
safe, acceptable and effective behaviour by workers” (Cooper 2012:11). There are a few
important boundaries and ethical principles which a social worker needs to adhere to,
when working in multidisciplinary teams and on an intersectoral level (Cooper 2012:11):
− You must understand the limits of your knowledge and not work beyond them.
You must work for the good of the patient, to the best of your ability, and not do
any harm to clients.
− You should not have sexual relations with anyone who has a connection to your
work.
− You should keep the details of your work with clients confidential.
− Interprofessional boundaries assist people who receive services to distinguish
between the different professionals and their roles within a multidisciplinary team.

y Accountability
Accountability means being answerable to others and is related to responsibility (Thomas
532

2013:1). Social work is accountable to its professional body which, in turn, is accountable
to government. Having a professional, statutory and regulatory structure and body
of governance bestows certain responsibilities on practitioners. Social workers must
manage and prioritise work; justify and be accountable for practice; and evaluate their
effectiveness in meeting organisational requirements and the needs of individuals,
families and communities through effective practice. Effective information sharing and
collaboration across organisational boundaries are essential for the provision of high-
quality, integrated care and support.

y Joint responsibility
The organisation or department in which the social worker is an employee needs to
533

have systems and approaches in place to support, monitor, review and (if necessary) take
action to ensure that social workers comply with the profession’s professional and legal
requirements. The employer organisation also needs to provide effective supervision
and employee development systems that link individual performance to services and
outcomes. Good practice needs to take into account ethical principles and ensure effective
induction, supervision, workload management and continuing professional development.

4.10 THE ROLES AND FUNCTIONS OF THE SOCIAL WORKER

REGARDING CHANGE IN AN ORGANISATIONAL CONTEXT
Social service organisations in South Africa can be divided into government sectors
534

and non-government sectors (Engelbrecht 2019:14): the non-government sector can be

further divided into a for-profit and a non-profit sector. Social workers need to engage
with, inform, and adapt to, changing organisational contexts, as well as to the social and
policy environments that shape practice.

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For social workers to practise social work effectively, they must be aware of the pressures
535

on the organisations within which they operate, and the political imperatives to which
they are subjected.

There are situations where organisational change is needed to address the needs of
536

clients and communities more effectively, and to respond to changes in the economic,
social and political environments. Organisational change may occur on a large or a
small scale (Birkenmaier & Berg-Weger 2017:579). Organisational change can emerge
from different sources (e.g., administrators, stakeholders, staff). The term ‘change’ refers
to any alternation which occurs in the overall work environment of an organisation.
Organisations encounter many different forces for change, from both external and internal
sources. External forces for change, which originate outside of the organisation, include
demographic characteristics, technological advances, market changes, and social and
political pressures. Internal forces for change, which come from inside the organisation,
include human resource problems and managerial behaviour/decisions.

Strategic planning intervention is a useful tool for initiating organisational change

537

(Patel 2015:323). It involves setting organisational objectives, mobilising resources and

managing integrated activities to achieve the stated objectives (Patel 2015:324). All staff
in an organisation need to be involved in the planning process, including service users,
stakeholders and other key role players. Strategic planning involves the following steps
(Patel 2015:324):
y Stating/determining the vision, mission or purpose and values of the organisation.
y Analysing the external and internal environments (the current economic and political
context in which the organisation functions).
y Conducting a SWOT analysis (of the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats
of the organisation).
y Establishing goals for the organisation, as well as programme-related goals.
y Selecting strategies to meet goals, as well as the actions to implement.
y Establishing objectives for the strategies, by stating what work will be carried out.
y Selecting activities for each objective and formulating plans (e.g., financial planning).
y Developing a funding strategy (e.g., fundraising proposals for donors and government).
y Developing a human resource plan (who is responsible for what?).
y Monitoring and evaluating the process of change, and determining whether goals
have been achieved.

The important roles and functions which a social worker needs to fulfil when working in
538

an organisation to promote change, include the following (Professional Association for

Social Work and Social Workers 2018):
y Keeping up to date with changing policy, and political and professional contexts at
the local and national levels.
y Demonstrating the ability to work effectively within the organisation, by identifying
and beginning to influence relationships between the organisation’s culture and
procedures, the demands of practice and wider changes in society as a whole.
y Identifying and communicating to supervisors and managers how organisational
practice can improve, to support better social work practice.

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y Keeping up to date with changing roles and service developments in the organisation,
while recognising, valuing and engaging with other disciplines and partnerships.
y Enabling and supporting people to consider and pursue a range of options that may
enhance their economic status (through access to education, work, housing, health
services and welfare benefits).
y Contributing to teamwork and taking an active role in inter-professional, inter-sectoral
and interdepartmental work, building networks and supporting collaborative working.

Reflective exercise 4.2

You are already familiar with the SWOT analysis from the community work theory
perspective (Weyers 2011). Define and discuss the SWOT analysis, which is one of the
steps in the strategic planning process for organisational change.
Apply the SWOT analysis to your skills and role as a future social worker in a multidisciplinary
team, by answering the following questions:

SWOT analysis: Strengths

What, in your view, do you do well?

y What do you consider your greatest strength to be?

y What do you think other people see as your strengths?

y What has been your major achievement in your most recent role?

y What knowledge or skill can you share with others?

y Under what circumstances do you learn or develop most effectively?

Weaknesses

What skills or knowledge do you think you could improve?

y What weaknesses have other people observed and pointed out to you?

y What feedback have you been given about areas you might want to develop?

y Under what circumstances do you find it most difficult to learn?

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 Opportunities
Do you know what you will need to do to return to social work in the immediate
or medium term?

y What resources will you need to help you improve your identified areas of
weakness?

y How can you try to make sure the resources are available?

y Where can you get help for things that concern you?

y What opportunities are there for you to build on your strengths?

y What method(s) would you choose for your own development?

y Do you know what vacancies currently exist for qualified social workers in your
local area?
Threats
Do you have personal issues or barriers that could stop you from developing?

y Can you anticipate events that might act as a barrier to your development?

y Are you able to reflect accurately and honestly on your development?

y Are you realistic about your capabilities?

11Feedback

A SWOT analysis involves analysing which external and internal factors influence the organisa-
tion. External factors may be political and economic, or may be related to policy and funding.
Internal factors call for an analysis of the advantages and limitations of the organisation. Once
these analyses have been done, the next step is to conduct an analysis of the strengths and
weaknesses of the organisation, as well as the opportunities and threats facing it.

4.11 CONCLUSION
This lesson focused on the importance of teamwork in a multidisciplinary team, as well
539

as intersectoral and interdepartmental teamwork. No social worker practises in isolation,

therefore practitioners need to take note of the organisational context, and their roles
and functions within the broader domain of the social welfare environment. The role of
the social worker in a changing social welfare environment, in an organisational context,
was also discussed here in terms of the implementation of a strategic plan.

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Self-assessment 4

y Critically analyse the role of the social worker, as well as the benefits and challenges
s/he faces as a member of a multidisciplinary team.
y Describe the roles and functions of a social worker at a healthcare facility.
y Compare intersectoral collaboration to interdepartmental collaboration.
y Discuss which factors may influence collaboration on an intersectoral or interdepart-
mental level.
y A social worker may be part of an organisation which is in the process of undergoing
change. Discuss the specific techniques and steps of intervention you would follow,
to guide such a process.

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 REFERENCES
Ambrose-Miller, A & Ashcroft, R. (2016). Challenges faced by social workers as members of
interprofessional collaborative health care teams. Health & Social Work, 41(2):101–108.
Birkenmaier, J & Berg-Weger, M. (2017). The practice of generalist social work. 4th edition.
New York and London: Routledge.
Cooper, F. (2012). Professional boundaries in social work and social care. London: Jessica
Kingsley.
Danaher, A. (2011). Reducing health inequities: Enablers and barriers to inter-sectoral
collaboration. Toronto: Wellesley Institute.
De Jong, MAJ., Wagemakers, A & Koelen, MA. (2019). Study protocol: Evaluation of
a community health promotion program in a socioeconomically deprived city
district in the Netherlands, using mixed methods and guided by action research.
BMC Public Health, 19:72. Available from: [Link]
(Accessed 17 January 2020).
Dominelli, L. (2009). Introducing social work. Cambridge: Polity Press.
Engelbrecht, LK. (2019). The context of management in social service organisations. In
Management and supervision of social workers, edited by L.K. Engelbrecht. Stellenbosch:
Cengage:12–14.
Giles, R. (2016). Social workers’ perceptions of multi-disciplinary team work: A case study
of health social workers at a major regional hospital in New Zealand. Aotearoa New
Zealand Social Work, 28(1):25–33.
Joyness, VCT. (2018). Defining and understanding the relationship between professional
identity and interprofessional responsibility: Implications for educating health and
social care students. Adv in Health Sci Educ, 23:133–149.
Kirst-Ashman, KK. (2017). Introduction to social work & social welfare: Critical thinking
perspectives. 5th edition. Canada: Cengage Learning.
Patel, L. (2015). Social welfare and social development. 2nd edition. Cape Town: Oxford
University Press.
Rapoo, AG & Tshiyoyo, MM. (2014). Management of collaborative partnerships for the
delivery of social welfare services. African Journal of Public Affairs, 7(4):19–29.
Republic of South Africa (RSA). (1978). The Social Services Professions Act, 110 of 1978. Pretoria:
Government Printer.
Republic of South Africa, Department of Social Development. (2013). Framework for social
welfare services. Pretoria: Government Printer.
South African Council for Social Services Professions (SACSSP). 2008. Policy guidelines for
course of conduct, code of ethics and the rules for social workers. Pretoria: SACSSP.
Thomas, M. (2013). Accountability. In Key concepts in social work practice, edited by A.
Worsley, T. Mann, A. Olsen, & E. Mason-Whitehead. London: Sage:1–13.
Walton, E & Pretorius, E. (2019). Contributions of social workers’ professional judgements
within a multidisciplinary team in mental health care. Southern African Review of
Education, 25(1):141–159.
Weyers, ML. (2011). The theory and practice of community work: A southern African perspective.
2nd edition. Potchefstroom: Keurkopie.
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Lesson 5
Integrated social service delivery to a diversity of
populations

5.1 SPECIFIC LEARNING OUTCOMES

On completion of this lesson, you should be able to analyse human behaviour
541

regarding the intersections of race, class, culture, ethnicity, gender, differential

abilities and sexual orientation, in relation to integrated social work service delivery.

5.2 INTRODUCTION
In this lesson, we critically analyse integrated social welfare service delivery to diverse
542

and multicultural groups and minorities. The impact of poverty and social exclusion
on vulnerable groups and communities will be critically assessed. The framework for
examining the nature of diverse and multicultural groups and communities will include
the principles of social justice. Social welfare organisations are responsible for providing
services to vulnerable individuals, groups and communities, and many have adopted an
anti-oppressive practice as an important theoretical framework. Anti-oppressive practices
include working with diverse populations, practising social inclusion and adhering to
the principles of social justice, in assisting oppressed persons, groups and communities.

5.3 ASSESSMENT CRITERIA

Demonstrate the achievement of the learning outcomes by understanding, applying,
543

critically appraising and evaluating the assessment criteria. You must be able to
y differentiate between the formation of individual, family, group and community
identities in relation to socio-structural forces of oppression and/or exclusion.
y appraise how social differentiation and social stratification pave the way for prejudice,
ethnocentrism and discrimination.
y critically assess the relationship between social differentiation and social stratification
and access to power, position, privilege, income, status and resources.
y determine and critically appraise the impact of poverty and social exclusion in relation
to the promotion of economic status through access to education, work, housing,
health services and welfare benefits.

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 5.4 KEY CONCEPTS
The following concepts will be used extensively in this lesson. Make sure that
545

you understand their meaning, before studying the unit:

Key concepts Definition/meaning

Oppression Oppression can be understood as injustice,

tyranny or cruelty (Soni 2011:27).

Ethnicity Ethnicity refers to commonalities between

people as regards language, religion, national
origin, skin colour and shared collective stories
(Soni 2011:20).

Ethnocentrism The tendency to evaluate other groups

according to the values and standards of
one’s own ethnic group, especially regarding
language, behaviours, customs and religion,
with the conviction that one’s own ethnic
group is superior to other groups.

Social inclusion Social inclusion is the extent to which people

exercise their rights and participate in ordinary
activities as citizens in the society in which
they reside.

Social stratification Social stratification refers to differential access

to resources, power, autonomy and status
across social groups, and it implies social
inequality.

Poverty Poverty is a multidimensional phenomenon

which is connected to socioeconomic and
political aspects of a society (Baikady, Pulla &
Channaveer 2017:25).

Social exclusion Social exclusion relates to “processes which

restrict or deny people participation” (Davis
& Wainwright 2005:260).

140
 5.5 THE CONSTRUCTION OF INDIVIDUAL, FAMILY, GROUP
AND COMMUNITY IDENTITIES IN RELATION TO
OPPRESSION
Identity gives a person an idea of who s/he is in relation to the world and society, and
546

in relationships (Soni 2011:2). An identity allows us to accept the ways in which we are
different from, as well as similar to, others. The sense of belonging to a family, group
or community, and being similar or different, affirms a person’s identity (Soni 2011:4).
Class, culture and religious affiliation further develop a person’s sense of belonging and
connections to others. Identity includes a sense of individuality and being distinct from
others, a need to be social, to have roots and feel comfortable with who you are (Soni
2011:6). Our cultural identities reflect our past experiences and shared cultural practices
which provide a framework of reference from which we perceive the world.
The concept of culture has many different meanings. Culture is also an aspect of our
547

identity and the way we connect with others whom we think/feel are culturally the same
as us. The concept of culture includes the characteristics of sharing or learning certain
symbolic meanings which we transmit as cross-generational values and customs, albeit
that these are adaptive to change (Soni 2011:7). Culture is part of a social heritage that is
passed on from one generation to the next, as shared and learned behaviour that results
in a specific way of life. Culture includes ideas, values, rules for living, and how people
solve problems and adapt to their environment. Culture also includes the learned habits
and complex ideas, symbols, behaviours and meanings that are shared by a society (Soni
2011:8). It is transmitted over years and therefore has the potential to change and adapt.
The construction of identities in families, individuals, groups and communities can be
548

affected by forces in society (such as oppression), which can happen through systematic,
structural and embedded norms and processes within a society or organisation.
What determines oppression is when a person is blocked from opportunities to
self-development, is excluded from the full participation in society, does not have
certain rights that the dominant group takes for granted, or is assigned a second-
class citizenship, not because of individual talent, merit, or failure, but because of
his or her membership in a particular group or category of people. (Mullaly 2010:40)

Oppression can be understood as injustice, tyranny or cruelty (Soni 2011:27), and five
549

types can be identified:

y Exploitation (transferring gains of one social group/individual to another/the action
or fact of treating someone unfairly to benefit from their work).
y Marginalisation (the process of making a group/class of people less important, based
on their age, race, ability and gender).
y Powerlessness (a group/person lacking authority or the ability to mediate the decisions
of others, and who is not allowed to develop or exercise personal skills).
y Cultural imperialism (the creation and maintenance of unequal relationships between
cultural civilisations, favouring a more powerful civilisation, or where a dominant
culture is imposed on another group).
y Violence (unprovoked attacks, humiliation, intimidation, stigmatisation and harassment).

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Anti-oppressive social work practice is a framework which includes many practice
550

approaches, such as liberating, antiracist, feminist, empowering and anti-discriminatory

practices (Hines 2012:23). Principles which promote anti-oppressive social work are
important for social work practice, when working with families, individuals, groups
and communities.

Reflective exercise 5.1

Reflect on the following questions:

y Can you think of a contemporary example of exploitation that you, as a social worker,
may encounter in social work practice?
y Cultural imperialism may be illustrated by the saying: “When in Rome, do as the Ro-
mans do.” What are your ideas regarding this statement?
y How do you think the fear of violence can influence a group?

5.6 ANTI-OPPRESSIVE PRINCIPLES FOR SOCIAL WORK

PRACTICE WITH INDIVIDUALS, GROUPS AND
COMMUNITIES
Identity formation
y The identity of a family, individual group or community is often a central feature of
oppression. Differences set individuals, groups and communities apart from one
another, and then those people or groups become excluded by, or marginalised
from, the dominant society. Social constructions such as homosexuality and migrancy
proscribe the oppressive relationships between the dominant group and the oppressed
(Hines 2012:25).
y Differences, be they physical, psychological or sociological characteristics, may cause
the creation of an us/them, insider/outsider, superior/inferior binary in society.
y Anti-oppressive social work practice considers identity to be multiple, multifaceted
and complex. Someone may have numerous identities and may identify with more
than one oppressed population (e.g., woman/lesbian/disabled). Oppressed people
may accept their position in society or reject it and resist the derogatory definitions
the dominant group uses to marginalise them (Hines 2012:26). A social worker needs
to be aware of these aspects, and should view identity from an anti-oppressive stance/
practice.

Understanding power
Can you think of a situation or example in which clients may feel powerless?
551

y Understanding power and power relations is vital in anti-oppressive social work

practice. Equality and diversity are underpinned using the power of individuals, groups
and societies. Hassenfeld (1987) applied certain theories to social work practice, and
identified four sources of power :
552 Power of expertise: this is professional power, acquired through training and
specialised knowledge

142
 553  R eferent power: people defer to a specific social worker because of his/her strong
personality or specialised knowledge in an area
554  Legitimate power: social workers are mandated through legislation, policy,
organisational duties and procedures, to make specific decisions and take certain
actions.
555  Power of resources: social workers have a gatekeeping role and they decide who
is eligible to receive services.

y It is crucial that a social worker act with professional integrity and adhere to the values
and ethics of the profession, to minimise the impacts of prejudice and discrimination.
When service users experience oppression from social welfare organisations they
may choose not to seek further services or become dependent due to feelings of
disempowerment (Ramsundarsingh & Shier 2017:2309).
− Examples of the oppressive actions which social workers need to avoid include
the following:
 Minimising or ignoring issues of race, class or other constructed distinctions
556

 Inconsistently and inadequately sharing power with the client regarding the
557

therapeutic process and relationship

 Disrespecting the client’s time with long waits
558

 Not treating the client as an expert in respect of his/her own life

559

 Seating arrangements during therapy.

560

Cultural competence
y Ethnicity refers to commonalities between people, as regards their language, religion,
national origin, skin colour and shared collective stories (Soni 2011:20). The tendency
to evaluate other groups according to the values and standards of one’s own ethnic
group – especially regarding language, behaviour, customs and religion – and the
belief that one’s own ethnic group is superior to other groups, is called ethnocentrism.
A social worker needs to be aware of the ethnic differences between groups, and to
exercise cultural competency skills in social work practice.
y Cultural competency is the ability to work with groups from different ethno-cultural
backgrounds, for example by including LGBTQ communities. The skills which a social
worker needs to be culturally competent, include the avoidance of stereotypes, an
acknowledgement of different spiritualities/ethnic groups/religions, and demonstrable
knowledge of historical oppression.
Service user participation
y A service user may participate in two ways: in the organisation, by making contributions
to programme evaluation and determining a treatment plan/making a decision about
treatment. Allowing service user participation is an anti-oppressive practice which
should be accommodated in service delivery efforts.
Advocacy
y The social worker may play a role in advocating change in systems which are viewed
as oppressive, and may advocate on behalf of an individual service user.
y The social worker can also play a role in raising awareness of how to combat different
forms of oppression.

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Reflective practice
y Social workers need to be aware of oppression. Reflective practice is a tool to use
in undoing social injustice, through personal reflection and a reflection on society.
Self-reflection can help social workers to recognise their own experiences of power,
inequality and oppression. A practitioner needs to challenge those societal standards
and shared values within an organisational culture that reflect the dominant culture
and advocate an oppressive approach. In doing so, alternative strategies that recognise
differences in peoples’ ability to participate and access resources, support and systems,
can result in organisations finding multiple ways of accommodating these differences.

Empowerment
y Empowerment requires the service provider to share power, and the service user to
realise and exercise his/her own power. The social worker can empower an individual,
group and community, by developing their skills and leadership qualities.

Collective workmanship
y The social worker can play an essential role in community-based approaches
where community members are partners rather than clients, and can build the capacity
of communities to support themselves.

Social inclusion
y Social inclusion is the extent to which people exercise their rights and participate in
ordinary activities as citizens of the society in which they reside.
y Cuthbert (2009) identifies ten areas of life that directly or indirectly affect the level of
social inclusion: family activity; social networks; employment, income and financial
services; community participation/leisure; housing; transport; mental health; physical
health; education and training; and civil justice.
y Inclusion can refer to the absence of discrimination in an organisation, and the emotional
safety the organisation creates for service users. Allowing service users to express
their identities without discrimination, providing services in multiple languages and
accommodating persons with disabilities, effectively create a sense of social inclusion
in an organisation.

5.7 SOCIAL DIFFERENTIATION, STRATIFICATION, INEQUALITY,

ANTI-DISCRIMINATION AND SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE
Social differentiation involves distinguishing between groups and persons on the basis
561

of their physiology, sociocultural factors, age, sex or ethnicity. This results in certain social
roles and statuses being assigned to them. Social differentiation involves the formation of
horizontal social divisions, whereas social stratification involves the vertical (hierarchical)
ranking of social strata. Social stratification refers to differential access to resources,
power, autonomy and status across social groups. Social stratification implies social
inequality; if some groups have access to more resources than others, the distribution of
those resources is inherently unequal. Social equality is when all people within a specific
society/group have the same status in certain respects, including civil rights, freedom of

144
speech, property rights and equal access to certain goods and services. Social justice
practices in organisations, institutions and society ensure that these basic human rights
are distributed equitably, without prejudice.

Social stratification refers to the way members of a society are organised in ranks or
562

classes, according to status. There is a measure of social stratification in all societies – in

some countries there are merely classes, but it is still a form of social stratification. A
person’s social class is usually determined by his/her level of education or earnings. The
terms ‘social stratification’, ‘social class’ and ‘social inequality’ can be used interchangeably
(Guo et al. 2018:1). Social class groups individuals into an upper, middle or working class.
People may feel they belong to a specific class/group as they share an identity/culture
with a similar class of society (Soni 2011:19).

Classism is relevant to social work, because social work is an inter-class profession (Strier,
563

Feldman & Shdaimah 2012:407). Social workers need to address social injustices and
inequities within society, because they primarily work with the vulnerable and excluded.
However, social workers belong to the middle class, and that may affect their service
delivery (Strier, Feldman & Shdaimah 2012:407). It is important to portray social work as
an inter-class profession, because social class often determines the interaction between
clients and social workers (Strier, Feldman & Shdaimah 2012:407). Classism is a form of
oppression based on class differences, and it causes one group to be privileged at the
expense of another. Class bias affects a person’s self-concept and his/her relationships with
others. The social worker needs to understand the dynamics of a client’s class situation, and
any barriers associated with class constraints. The skills a social worker needs to confront
classism include advocacy, the ability to question policies which promote classism, and
the ability to raise awareness of personal, interpersonal, organisational and political issues
relating to class (Strier, Feldman & Shdaimah 2012:407).

The two approaches of anti-oppressive practice (AOP) and anti-discriminatory practice

564

(ADP) are linked and sometimes used interchangeably. However, ADP focuses on reducing
discrimination against one individual by another individual/ organisation. AOP addresses
wider problems of discrimination within society, in social structures and systems. By
understanding discrimination and focusing on anti-discriminatory practices, the social
worker will be aware of those interconnections which play a role. Thompson’s (2006)
personal-cultural-social model (PCS analysis model) can help the social worker understand
discrimination and oppression.

Reflective exercise 5.2

Think about a time when you felt discriminated against by a system, another person or
a service. Now answer the following questions:
y How did this experience make you feel?
y What did you do in response to being discriminated against/disadvantaged?
y What impact did this experience have on how you approach similar situations?

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 5.8 THOMPSON’S (2006) PCS ANALYSIS MODEL
The most influential model in social work, when it comes to understanding discrimination
565

and oppression, is Thompson’s personal-cultural-social (PCS) analysis model. The model

links personal experiences, beliefs and attitudes with the wider context of society and
demonstrates that discrimination and oppression are also present in cultural and social
structures.

The different levels of oppression are in a dynamic interplay with one another as reinforcing
566

forces. Without each of them, oppression cannot be supported and perpetuated.

567

Figure 5.1: Thompson’s (2006) PCS analysis model

568 The personal (P) level

This is concerned with an individual’s views, particularly in the case of prejudice against a
569

certain group. It relates to individual actions which you are likely to encounter in practice
(e.g., racist remarks). The ‘P’ is in the centre of the diagram, because that individual has
his/her own beliefs and ideas, supported through two other levels.

570 The cultural (C) level

This relates to ‘shared values’ or ‘commonalties’ (e.g., shared beliefs about what is right
571

or wrong, good or bad).

572 The structural (S) level

This analysis demonstrates how discrimination is part of society, through institutions that
573

support both cultural norms and personal beliefs.

574 Example
P: A young man at the club where you work makes offensive and derogatory comments
575

about a gay man who also attends, saying ‘gay people are not natural or normal’.

146
 C: Gay people largely repulse the community around them, and many community
576

members, who are involved with the local church, hold firm views about ‘sexual morals’.
S: The popular tabloid media berate the ‘abnormal’ activities of gay people. Religious
577

leaders of all faiths support the promulgation of laws to stop equal rights for gay
people. Legislation is passed by parliament that compromises the rights of gay, lesbian
and bisexual people. An overwhelming ‘consensus’ of power is used in all forms of
structural life (see [Link]/aop_pcs.htm).
As a result, empowering and partnering with service users are crucial in anti-oppressive
578

and anti-discriminatory social work practice.

5.9 PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL JUSTICE

Social justice work involves challenging negative discrimination, recognising diversity,
579

addressing unjust policies and practices, and working in solidarity with others to promote
inclusivity (Hudson 2017:1961).

580 You are already familiar with the principles of social justice (see Table 5.1).

Table 5.1: Principles of social justice

Equity Ensuring the fair distribution of the available resources
across society

Access Ensuring that all people have access to goods and services,
regardless of age, gender, ethnicity, etc.

Participation Enabling people to participate in decisions which affect

their lives

Rights Protecting individual liberties by circulating information

about the circumstances and decisions affecting people,
and appealing decisions which people feel are unfair

Social justice can be illustrated on a continuum, between social oppression and social
581

equality (Bonnycastle 2011:270) (see Figure 5.2).

582

Figure 5.2: Social justice continuum

Source: Bonnycastle (2011:270)

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Using a continuum implies that social justice is a process which focuses on overcoming
583

oppression and strives to achieve social equality. Working towards social equality requires
actions and processes related to social justice, to arrive at the desired goal/outcome.
There are five interconnected and supportive categories from which social justice can
be understood (Bonnycastle 2011):
y The first category entails how a community should allocate its resources.
y The second focuses on nonmaterial injustice for women, children, transgender and
racial minorities.
y The third refers to the relationship between social justice and social welfare policy in
addressing poverty, inequality and exclusion.
y The fourth involves political ideologies which assist in making sense of what is
happening in a society, and the ideological frame which government uses to create
self-reliant societies.
y The fifth involves human rights (civil, political, economic, social and solidarity).

The social worker has a role to play in all five categories, to promote social justice as s/he
584

works towards the goal of attaining social equality.

5.10 SOCIAL JUSTICE AND CASEWORK

Social workers in direct practice are involved in many aspects of individual clients’ lives,
585

including the financial, cultural, medical, legal and spiritual issues facing them, and are
therefore able to assess and intervene in many areas in which injustices occur (McLaughlin
2009:51). Advocacy is a strategy for achieving social justice. It is applicable to all levels
of intervention, including the micro level. The aim is to redress power imbalances and
promote the rights of individuals who are marginalised or vulnerable.

Instrumental advocacy involves action being taken by social workers on behalf of their
586

clients (McLaughlin 2009:54). Engaging with other systems to secure rights and resources,
and ensuring access to certain services, are ways in which a social worker can advocate for
clients. Through advocacy and collaboration, practitioners can ensure that the services
or resources to which an individual client is entitled, are in fact received.

Educational advocacy involves heightening awareness of social justice issues, rights,

587

needs and opportunities – not just for clients, but also for their colleagues or the public
at large. Social workers can educate individuals about their rights, options or choices.

Practical advocacy involves working with clients directly to access resources, for instance
588

by accompanying them to appeals or even filling out documentation to help them access
resources. Within generalist practice, advocacy is considered a technique or skill, typically
a subset of case management.

Empowerment is another strategy for social workers, which allows individuals to build skills
589

and gain the strength to advocate for themselves wherever they experience injustice. Social
workers help clients to become independent, and exercise influence and control over their
own lives, as part of an empowerment strategy to achieve social justice. Empowerment

148
may also involve facilitating the process of naming the barrier or oppression, and working
together to develop strategies the client can use to overcome such barriers.

Interventions and counselling should be collaborative experiences, with clients

590

participating in the process. In their assessment, social workers need to include a contextual
view of client and family systems, using advocacy to remove environmental barriers.
Clients should give their input on the direction of the intervention process, and should
be equipped with the awareness, knowledge and skills needed to navigate their world
successfully (Lewis, Ratts, Paladino & Toporek 2011:8).

Practical examples of how a social worker can seek social justice for clients include the
591

following:
y Assisting a client who does not have access to the practitioner’s service organisation,
because s/he does not fit the criteria. The social worker needs to refer the client to
an appropriate resource, or should advocate for the client in his/her own service
organisation, despite his/her ineligibility.
y Advocating for the right of the mentally ill and disabled to access resources related to
health, education and welfare.
y Assisting families whose children do not have the financial ability to access school
camps, music lessons and sports, due to poverty. Securing sponsorships and advocating,
at government level, on behalf of these children.
y Assisting teen parents in obtaining access to education and support. Starting a project
to support this vulnerable group.

5.11 SOCIAL JUSTICE AND GROUP WORK

Group work can be an effective outlet for facilitating client empowerment at systemic
592

levels. A group worker may be left to wonder: “What am I actually supposed to be doing,
to promote social justice?” or “How do I know that what I am doing as a social justice
advocate really serves clients?”

Group work with culturally homogenous groups highlights key strategies that might be
593

useful for dealing with culture- and oppression-related issues (Hayes, Arrendondo, Gladding
& Toporek 2010:181). Possible strategies include values clarification, empowerment of
ethnicity and gender statuses, self-disclosure, consciousness raising, social and gender
role analyses, bibliotherapy, and the establishment of a structure to maximise group
cohesion work (Hayes, Arrendondo, Gladding & Toporek 2010:181). Group workers are
also charged with skillfully utilising cultural heterogeneity in promoting social justice in
heterogeneous groups.

Social justice-minded group workers use a social justice framework to promote

594

egalitarianism, by educating members about their rights, encouraging them to assume

an active role, and checking in with members to ensure the appropriateness of the group
content and process. As such, group leaders step away from an expert stance, demonstrate
openness, incorporate group members’ views, and self-disclose (as appropriate) to
encourage safety and cohesion and start a rich and balanced dialogue about issues
relating to social justice (Hayes, Arrendondo, Gladding & Toporek 2010:182).

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Group work can be a powerful place in which to raise consciousness of social justice
595

issues. Social justice-minded group workers can facilitate discussions about identity
development processes, cultural issues, privilege and oppression, and how these affect
group members and group processes. This, in turn, may help free clients from self-blame
(Hayes, Arrendondo, Gladding & Toporek 2010:182).

Conducting a cultural assessment at the beginning of the group session is important

596

for remaining focused on how client systems affect group processes and outcomes. At
the beginning of group work with a client (during either pre-screening or initial group
sessions when naturally occurring groups are used), social justice-minded group workers
should conduct a cultural assessment of clients’ concerns. Throughout group sessions
they should assess their clients’ cultural identity, acculturation level, the role of culture
and their experiences of oppression in the presentation, evaluation and experience of
symptoms in different contexts.

Empowerment in group work can assume many forms. “Group leaders may co-construct
597

solutions with group members for individual and systemic problems; build on the strengths
of individual group members as well as the group as a whole; and connect group members
to social, economic, political, and cultural resources” (Hayes, Arrendondo, Gladding &
Toporek 2010:184).

Social justice-minded group workers should seek to identify a shared struggle among
598

group members, so that the practitioner can attend to a key social issue, and advocate
with and for clients within the group itself, and across various systems.

Activity 5.1

A teenage mother, living with her grandmother who only does temporary jobs for an
income, is seeking assistance from you as a social worker. After a thorough assessment,
you realise she does not receive a child social grant. She wants to go back to school,
but the school nearest to her cannot accommodate her because it is full. The father of
the teenager’s baby is employed full time, but does not contribute to any expenses.

y Which type of advocacy is appropriate for you, as a social worker, to use in this case?
y If you can involve the teenage mother in group work for teen moms with children,
how would you ensure that you follow social justice principles in the group?

Feedback
12

y Instrumental advocacy is applicable for connecting the teenage mother with resources
such as enabling her to attend school again, and arranging for the baby to be cared for if
the grandmother is unable to assist. Educational advocacy is also applicable for educat-
ing the teenage mother about applying for a child social grant and for maintenance from

150
 the father through the maintenance court. Practical advocacy may also be applicable,
if you assist the teenage mother with school placement and application forms for child
grant assistance and maintenance.
y When applying social justice to a group of teenage mothers, the social worker can make
use of empowerment and promote egalitarianism by educating group members about
their rights. Gender role expectations and practices can also be addressed to empower
them to overcome the oppression associated with gender roles.

5.12 APPLICATION OF GROUP MODELS FROM A SOCIAL

JUSTICE PERSPECTIVE
Let’s look at the Mbizi group model as an example of group work from a social justice
599

perspective.

600 The Mbizi social justice group model

This model was developed from a social justice and empowerment perspective, to combat
601

the oppressive gender role expectations and practices which are enforced on adolescent
girls in Botswana (Nitza 2011:17). The model is designed to empower girls to overcome
gender inequality that puts women at risk of HIV infection, by assisting members in naming
the barriers and identifying their impact on them as adolescent girls. The structure and
goals of the group mainly conform to a psychoeducational model. The model has three
objectives: to examine and deconstruct dangerous cultural practices and traditions that
influence girls’ sexual decision making, to develop efficient skills and strategies for dealing
with related barriers, and to develop a supportive peer network for coping with present
and future challenges (Nitza 2011:17).

The three objectives of this model, which can be included in group work to obtain social
602

justice, can be summarised as follows:

y To examine and deconstruct social injustices and any ideas about a specific group (e.g.,
gender-based violence, child abuse, transgender discrimination groups)
y To develop skills and coping strategies for dealing with these barriers.
y To develop support networks to assist with such challenges.

603 Social justice group work with transgender clients

The goal of social justice group work with transgender clients is to empower and support
604

them with the unique issues they are facing. Social workers may choose from a variety
of group types, depending on the needs of the members (Dickey & Loewy 2011:46). The
social justice issues which transgender individuals face mainly revolve around equity in
almost all areas of their lives (Dickey & Loewy 2011:46). From a social justice perspective,
transgender people are not viewed as sick, but society and professionals need to become
more accepting of differences. Often, transgender people face discrimination. Applying
the Mbizi model’s three objectives of social justice in group work with these individuals
can promote the goal of social equality.

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 5.13 COMMUNITY WORK AND SOCIAL JUSTICE
Promoting social justice in community work involves the transformation of institutions
605

and systems so that they become more inclusive, democratic and redistributive (Reisch,
Ife & Well 2013). There is a difference between community work directed at achieving
social justice goals (e.g., redistribution of goods) and the use of socially just approaches
to achieve goals that are not explicitly justice-oriented (e.g., the expansion of existing
services) (Reisch, Ife & Well 2013).

Community practice, from a social justice perspective, is based on the strengths approach
606

and takes structural inequities into account. Examples of how social justice principles can
be applied in community work involve building social capital, expanding civic participation
amongst socially excluded populations, and focusing on leadership development. Socially-
just community work practitioners also explore how such policies can be promoted, can
empower people in low-power communities to participate in policy-making processes,
can train community members in public speaking, and can translate community needs
into socially just programmes and projects. The practice models of Weyers (2011) are
especially applicable for promoting social justice principles. The social action model
aims to address socio-political barriers, inequities and injustices (Weyers 2011:347). The
social planning model can assist in establishing new services, improving existing services
and facilitating access to services, especially for community members who do not have
access to certain services (Weyers 2011:219). The community educational model can
also be implemented as an approach (from a social justice perspective) that community
members have the right to be empowered, when there is a lack of education and skills
training to gain the knowledge and skills needed to be self-sustainable and function
effectively on a personal level. The community development model, from a social justice
perspective, can empower communities to overcome impediments by taking ownership
of, and addressing, inadequate physical and economic infrastructure (Weyers 2011:156).

5.14 POVERTY AND SOCIAL EXCLUSION

Activity 5.2

y Create a mental map in this blank circle, by writing down which issues might concern
someone who lives in poverty.

y What mental framework does a person in poverty have regarding food, money, time,
driving forces, destiny and power?

152
 Feedback
13

y On a daily basis, people in poverty worry about how they will access food, water, clothing,
housing or employment, or support their children/family members.
y The mental framework of people living in poverty, as regards food, money, time, driving
forces, destiny and power, can be illustrated as follows:

Food Did I have enough/can I get enough (quantity)?

Driving forces Survival and developing relationships for the purposes of survival

Money To be used and spent immediately

Time Living in the present, not concentrating on future goals or planning

Destiny Belief that powerful forces cause oppression, discrimination,

inequality and social exclusion
Belief in fate and the feeling that not much can be done to mitigate
change

Power Feeling powerless and needing to fight for survival

5.15 DEFINING POVERTY AND SOCIAL EXCLUSION

Poverty is a multidimensional phenomenon which is linked to socioeconomic and
607

political aspects in a society (Baikady, Pulla & Channaveer 2017:25). Poverty is understood
as people having low (or no) income and being unable to purchase basic goods to meet
the requirements for human survival (Taylor 2018:131).

The South African Child Gauge (2016:24) summarises the causes and effects of poverty
608

in South Africa as follows:

Structural factors contributing to this include the legacy of apartheid, poor-quali-
ty education for the majority, the lack of demand for unskilled labour, and economic
opportunities that are often located far from where people live. As a result, many
are unable to participate in the economy and almost a third (30% or 5.5 million) of
children in South Africa live in households where no adults are employed.

Poverty can be defined in various ways, depending on the measures used. Relative
609

poverty is where households live below a certain fixed level of income (Chikadzi &
Pretorius 2011:255). Absolute poverty is measured by per capita per household (Chikadzi
& Pretorius 2011:255). According to Chikadzi and Pretorius (2011:255), case poverty is
where individuals or families are poor within a predominantly affluent society, while mass
poverty is where a community as a whole is poor, and only a few noticeable members
are better off. Mass poverty is a characteristic of many developing countries, especially in
rural and informal settlements. Relational poverty focuses on the socioeconomic-political
relationships between the poor and those who are able to affect their lives (Feldman

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2018:5). Relational poverty shares the ideas of structural explanations for poverty, and
suggests that people’s choices and circumstances are constrained by social structures.

Social exclusion relates to “processes which restrict or deny people participation” (Davis
610

& Wainwright 2005:260). Social workers need to understand the processes by which
poverty is created and maintained, and how oppression and discrimination play a role.
They need to strive for social inclusion by promoting greater participation on the part of
service users in the design, evaluation and delivery of services. Excluding the poor is a
form of discrimination which bars people from fully participating in the labour market,
and causes the destruction of social links (Chikadzi & Pretorius 2011:256).

5.16 CAUSES OF POVERTY AND SOCIAL EXCLUSION

Various factors play a role in causing poverty. Two perspectives apply here: the individualistic
611

and the structural (Chikadzi & Pretorius 2011:256). The individualistic perspective argues
that the individual’s genetic factors (intelligence and other psychological factors) cause
him/her to be poor (Chikadzi & Pretorius 2011:256). The argument is that social and
behavioural deficiencies within individuals contribute to their poverty. The structural
perspective argues that poverty is the product of social forces (the economic, social and
political inadequacies of policies). Structural causes are viewed as external factors (limited
resources, a lack of skills, locational disadvantages, and economic and political forces)
(Addae-Korankye 2014:150).

Other aspects which may cause or exacerbate poverty are the following (adapted from
612

Addae-Korankye 2014:150):
y The lack of capacity of the poor to influence social processes, public policy choices
and resource allocation
y Low capacities through a lack of education, vocational skills, entrepreneurial ability,
poor health and poor quality of life
y The disadvantaged position of women in society
y Exposure to risks through lack of financial, social or physical security
y Low levels of consumption through a lack of access to capital, social assets, land and
market opportunities
y Exposure to shocks due to the limited use of technology to stem the effects of droughts,
floods, crop pests, crop diseases and environmental degradation
y Inadequate environmental protection measures
y Lack of macro-economic stability that erodes the resources of the poor through
inflation and other variables
y The inability of the national economy to optimise benefits within the global system
y Habits and conventions based on superstitions and myths, which give rise to anti-
social behaviour
y Other factors leading to vulnerability and exclusion
y Poor governance and corruption
y Poor infrastructure
y Political conflict.

154
Sen’s (in Taylor 2018:135) framework analyses the causes of poverty and inequalities in
613

relation to entitlements (ownerships) which influence people’s ability to participate in

economic and social dimensions. This framework analyses whether people can engage in
exchange in a market economy. The following dimensions of entitlements, which influence
people’s ability to engage in economic relations, are identified by Sen (in Taylor 2018:135):

y Trade-based entitlement
This is accomplished by willing parties exchanging goods at a value set by the market
614

and regulated by the state.

y Production-based entitlement
An individual needs certain abilities to engage in exchanges within the market. If s/
615

he lacks these abilities, it leads to poverty. The availability of employment, given the
skills a person has, also plays a role.

y Own-labour entitlement
This is achieved by using one’s own labour to engage in trade and the production of
616

goods. Using own labour is what a person earns by selling the goods produced, and
how much these cost to produce.

y Inheritance and transfer entitlement

After a person’s death an inheritance can become a legal entitlement (e.g., land, houses,
617

money or other assets which can be sold in the market).

A political-economic perspective defines poverty as stemming from ownership or

618

entitlement being denied someone, thus denying them an income and wealth. It sees
poverty as involving unequal access to entitlements such as land, power, wages and
economic rights. Any discussion of the different causes of poverty (which includes social
exclusion from the economy) needs to be followed up with a discussion of the strategies
a social worker needs to implement in order to address poverty and social exclusion. S/he
should promote the inclusion of the poor in the economic status of the country, through
access to education, work, housing, health services and welfare benefits.

5.17 SOCIAL WORK POVERTY INTERVENTIONS FOR

PROMOTING ECONOMIC GROWTH
Poverty reduction programmes aim to improve communities’ and individuals’
619

wellbeing. Social work is concerned with empowering communities and individuals, and
supporting individuals and households to start income-generating activities (Baikady,
Pulla & Channaveer 2017:27). The social worker needs to mobilise resources to promote
development within a community. Two approaches that are often followed, are the
remedial and the developmental (already discussed). The remedial approach involves
initiating, coordinating and assisting with access to relief assistance in the form of food,
accommodation and medical care.

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From a developmental approach, the social welfare policy and programmes which can
620

assist in eradicating poverty and inequality are the following (see Table 5.2) (adapted
from Taylor 2018:144).

Table 5.2: Approaches, goals and strategies for poverty eradication

Approach Goal Developmental strategies/
actions to follow

Protective Protect vulnerable Residential facility placements

groups from further Food parcels
exposure to poverty,
and provide immediate Social grants
assistance when they fall Safe houses
into poverty Substance abuse and mental
health treatment and care

Preventative Prevent the spread Education programmes

of poverty amongst Healthcare
vulnerable groups,
through promotional Food gardens
activities Social grants
Developmental programmes
Public employment programmes

Promotive Enhance the capabilities Protective workshops

of communities Early childhood development
to participate in programmes
developmental,
rehabilitative and Skills training
therapeutic services Aftercare services

Transformative Reduce inequalities Changes in policy and legislation

through systemic change. Resource distribution
Create a more accessible
environment and offer
quality services

Developmental Promote local economic Social grants

and generative and social development Education and skills training
for the vulnerable to
access opportunities Public employment programmes
Community development
programmes
Expansion of limited services

156
At the most basic level, social workers should ensure that clients receive the resources
621

and services they are entitled to from government and other organisations (Feldman
2018:13). Social workers need to become involved in policy practices, to voice concerns
where policies enforce unequal relations, and should advocate change to address poverty.

5.18 CONCLUSION
Lesson 5 discussed the forming of identities and the relationship with structural forces
622

which influence human behaviour. Social differentiation and social stratification were also
discussed and explained. The principles of social justice, social inclusion and exclusion
were examined, as were the application of these principles when practising case, group
and community work. The impact of poverty and strategies for combating poverty from
a social work perspective, were described. The background of working with diverse
populations is important, as are the strategies for combatting poverty. These need to
be seen holistically, and a multidimensional approach must be used with strategies
implemented to achieve social security.

Self-assessment 5

y Differentiate between the concepts identity, oppression, ethnocentrism, social inclu-

sion, social differentiation, social stratification, social class and social justice.
y Interpret an anti-oppression model and give an example of how it can be applied in
practice.
y Analyse the principles of social justice and state how a social worker needs to con-
sciously apply these principles in case, group and community work.
y Justify which types of approaches, goals and strategies can be used for poverty
reduction.

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Lesson 6
Social security and client systems

6.1 SPECIFIC LEARNING OUTCOMES

On completion of this lesson you should be able to interpret and analyse how social
623

security can be used to benefit the client system.

6.2 INTRODUCTION
Social security (also referred to as social protection) is an accepted policy in developing
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countries, which aims to prevent and reduce poverty and ensure minimum basic living
standards for people. The International Labour Organization (ILO 2000) defines social
security as follows:

The protection which society provides for its members through a series of public
measures, to offset the absence or substantial reduction of income from work
resulting from various contingencies (i.e., sickness, maternity, employment injury,
unemployment, invalidity, old age and death of the breadwinner); to provide people
with health care; and to provide benefits for families with children.

The South African constitution stipulates that everyone has the right to access social
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security. The White Paper for Social Welfare (RSA, DSD 1997:48) defines social security
as “a wide range of public and private measures that provide cash or in-kind benefits”.
Social security is mandated by legislation, and South Africa follows international standards
such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights of 1948, the ILO, the Social Security
Minimum Standards Convention of 1952, and the United Nations’ International Covenant
of: Economic, Social and Cultural Rights of 1966 (Patel 2015:164). Social security is available
in three major forms: social insurance, social assistance and universal benefits (Kaseke
2010:160).

The two common forms of social security in South Africa are social insurance and social
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assistance. Two additional forms of security are provided, namely private savings and
social relief. Social security (social protection) is used to address unequal gender relations,
intergenerational inequalities, stigma, discrimination and social oppression (Patel 2015:161).
Lesson 6 represents another building block (after the discussions of Lesson 5) in addressing
how to work with diverse populations, inequalities and oppression, within social work
practice. Social security strategies need to be integrated with other social work interventions
and programmes which seek to combat poverty and inequality. Addressing poverty is a
multidimensional approach which pays special attention to vulnerable groups.

The role of the different forms of social security will be discussed, as will the role which
627

social workers play in assisting in these functions.

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 6.3 ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
Demonstrate the achievement of the learning outcomes by understanding,
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applying, critically appraising and evaluating the assessment criteria. You must
be able to
y differentiate between, and evaluate, the types of social security benefits
available to people in South Africa.
y critically appraise how the procedures to access social security benefits are
implemented.
y evaluate the relationship between social security benefits and poverty
alleviation.

6.4 KEY CONCEPTS

The following concepts will be used in this lesson. Ensure that you understand
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their meaning, before studying the lesson.

Key concept Definition/meaning

Social security system A social security system seeks to protect

members of society from catastrophic financial
risk, and comprises two forms of social assistance:
non-contributory and contributory.

Social assistance Social assistance/social grants are financed

through government taxes.

6.5 BACKGROUND AND THE CONCEPT OF SOCIAL SECURITY

Social security programmes (also referred to as social protection measures) are well-known
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tools for reducing poverty and income inequality (Patel 2015:160). The social security or
social protection system in South Africa is mainly publicly funded (Patel 2015:161). The
system needs to be supplemented with social interventions from a social developmental
framework (Patel 2015:161). The areas of intervention in which social security plays a role,
include poverty alleviation/reduction/prevention, social compensation and income
distribution. Various social security strategies can be used to address poverty and inequality
in society. The social security domain incorporates social assistance, social insurance and
universal benefits, but, in addition, includes social welfare services and basic services to
vulnerable populations which may arise in the different phases of a person’s life cycle
(Patel 2015:163). The National Development Plan (NDP) 2030 includes a definition of social
security which not only encompasses social assistance and social insurance, but also
welfare services and active labour market policies (Patel 2015:165).

y Social security
A social security system, which seeks to protect members of society from catastrophic
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financial risk, involves two forms of social assistance: non-contributory and contributory.

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Contributory arrangements are funded by participant payments, while non-contributory
arrangements are funded from general tax revenue. Non-contributory assistance provides
immediate relief from income poverty, and contributory social security aims to protect
workers and their families through insurance arrangements against loss of income in the
event of unemployment, sickness, disability or death.

632 The aims of a social security system are to

y deepen social inclusion and cohesion
y contribute to decent work, as part of the overall wage structure
y complement job-creation strategies
y encourage self-reliance
y complement other developmental programmes
y operate in an efficient manner to avoid wasting resources
y be financially and institutionally sustainable over the long term.

The four forms of social security in South Africa are social insurance, social assistance (also
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known as cash transfers), private savings and social relief.

Social assistance (social grants) is financed by government taxes. Old-age pensions,

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child support grants, foster care grants, disability grants and care dependency grants
(for children with disabilities) are all social grants – they have certain criteria which an
applicant must meet, before this type of social grant is approved.

Government also provides food parcels as social relief to the needy. These are only valid
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for a period of three months. People who cannot afford medical care also receive free
medical assistance at public clinics or hospitals.

There are three social insurance schemes in South Africa: Unemployment Insurance, the
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Compensation for Occupational Injuries and Diseases (COID) fund and the Road Accident
Fund (RAF). These insurance schemes are managed by separate departments. There are
certain requirements which an applicant must meet, before any payments are made. A
social worker can refer clients to the different departments for assistance.

The Unemployment Insurance Fund is a contributory scheme which provides government

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assistance to cover unexpected events and employment risks. The scheme, which is
guided by the Unemployment Insurance Act, 63 of 2001 (RSA, 2001), safeguards workers
against the risk of temporary unemployment. Civil servants and non-South Africans are
not covered by this unemployment fund.

The Compensation for Occupational Injuries and Diseases (COID) Fund compensates
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people for work-related injuries and diseases. It is also guided by the Compensation for
Occupational Injuries and Diseases (COID) Act, 130 of 1993 (RSA, 1993). Domestic workers
are not covered by this scheme.

The Road Accident Fund, which is financed out of the obligatory fuel levy, pays compensation
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to the victims of road accidents. Social insurance plays a role to prevent uninsured people
from slipping into poverty, and is thus an anti-poverty measure.

162
Private savings are savings which people set aside voluntarily, in case of illness or
640

emergencies.
The South African Social Security Agency (SASSA) administers, manages and pays social
641

assistance grants in this country, but does not manage social insurance schemes. A social
worker can educate the different client systems that may qualify for a grant about the
requirements, and can refer them to a SASSA office to assist with their application.

6.6 SOCIAL ASSISTANCE AS SOCIAL JUSTICE

The support which social grants offer vulnerable populations also helps to improve human
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dignity – an important value which is reflected in the South African constitution. South
Africa’s history of discrimination and exclusion needs to be redressed, and the commitment
to improve the lives of all citizens and communities (including equality and social justice)
form part of the social assistance programmes’ motivation to ensure more equitable
societies (South African Child Gauge 2016:26). The role of the social worker in advocating
social justice and equity is also linked to advocating, educating and assisting vulnerable
populations regarding social assistance programmes. The aim is not just to assist with
social assistance programmes, but also to render other interventions to these vulnerable
persons as part of a multidimensional approach.

Reflective exercise 6.1

y Why do social workers need to understand social security?

y What role can a social worker play within the client system, regarding social security?

6.7 GUIDELINES FOR ASSISTING CLIENTS TO APPLY FOR

SOCIAL ASSISTANCE AND SOCIAL INSURANCE
Several guidelines can assist the social worker in practice, to educate clients about grants
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and social insurance, and to assess when clients qualify to receive some form of social
security. All grants (except the foster child and care dependency grants) require a means
test (apart from having other criteria), which involves an assessment of a person’s income
and assets – these should be below a certain amount (Patel 2015:167). These thresholds
are adjusted from time to time, to be in line with rising inflation rates.

Currently, South Africa has seven types of social grants in its social assistance system.
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The following guidelines explain which requirements a client needs to meet, in order to
qualify for social security.

6.7.1 Child support grant

Child income poverty is connected to adult (un)employment (South African Child Gauge
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2016:24). Children living in poverty experience multiple aspects of deprivation, including

malnutrition, limited access to quality services and poor living conditions (South African
Child Gauge 2016:24). The purpose of child support grants is to assist the caregivers of

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children living in poverty due to a lack of income. The maximum age threshold is below
18 years, for a child to qualify for such a grant.
The primary caregiver who lives with the specific child can apply for this grant. The
646

caregiver must meet the requirements of a means test, with a certain income limit.
Proof must be provided of caregiver status, if the person is not the biological parent. An
affidavit, a social worker’s report and an affidavit from the biological parents of the child/
letter from the school principal of the child must be supplied, to confirm caregiver status.
Applications are for children under 18 years, and the child must not be in the care of a
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government institution. Applications may be for more than six children, if adopted or
with a non-biological parent, provided the abovementioned criteria are met.

6.7.2 Care dependency grant (CDG)

The CDG is a means-tested grant which is available to the primary caregivers of children
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who (as a result of a physical or mental disability) require and receive permanent care
or support services. The grant is given to the caregivers of children with disabilities. To
qualify, certain requirements must be met when applying a means test. The child must
be found permanently and severely medically disabled by a medical officer, and must be
under the age of 18. The child cannot be cared for in a state institution.

6.7.3 Foster care grant

This grant supports foster parents who have been legally appointed by the courts to care
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for a child (requires a valid foster child court order). Both the caregiver and the child must
live in South Africa. The child must be under the age of 18, and there must be a court order
indicating that the specific caregiver has been designated the foster parent of the child.

6.7.4 Disability grant

If a person has a physical or mental disability which makes him/her unfit to work for a
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period of longer than six months, s/he can apply for a disability grant.

A permanent disability grant refers to a disability which will continue for more than a
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year. A temporary disability grant is paid if a disability lasts for a continuous period of not
less than six months and not more than 12 months. A permanent disability grant does
not mean the person will receive the grant for life, but that it will continue for longer
than 12 months.

To qualify, the person must be between the ages of 18 and 59. S/he needs to be found
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medically unfit for work by a medical officer, because of a mental or physical disability.
The grant is available on a permanent or temporary basis, for between six and 12 months.
When the temporary grant expires, and the person did not recover sufficiently to return to
work, a new application has to be lodged. A permanent grant can be reviewed to assess
whether a person is still disabled. To qualify for the grant, certain requirements must be
met when applying a means test. The recipient cannot receive other grants, and must
not be cared for in a state institution.

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6.7.5 Grant-in-Aid
Persons living on a social grant, but who cannot look after themselves, can receive an
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additional grant to pay the person who takes full-time care of them. The Grant-in-Aid is
an extra grant for people receiving disability/older persons’ or war veterans’ grants who,
because of their mental or physical disabilities, are unable to look after themselves and
need to pay a full-time caregiver.

To receive this grant, the person will need to be assessed by a medical officer. This grant
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is not available to persons being cared for in a state institution.

6.7.6 Older person’s grant (old-age pension)

This grant provides a monthly income to citizens, permanent residents and refugees, 60
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years or older, with no other means of financial income. The older person cannot be a
recipient of other grants, and must not be in the care of a state institution. To qualify for
the grant, the older person needs to meet the requirements of the means test.

6.7.7 War veterans’ grant

A war veteran is an individual who served in the active military forces during a period
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of armed conflict, or who received the armed forces’ expeditionary or other campaign
service medal during an emergency condition and was discharged/released under other
than dishonourable conditions. To qualify for the grant the person must have fought in
World War I, World War II or the Korean War. The person must also be over the age of 60,
or disabled. The person cannot be a recipient of other grants and must not be cared for
in a state institution. To qualify for the grant, the person needs to meet the requirements
of the means test.

6.7.8 Social relief of distress

Social relief of distress is a grant which provides temporary assistance to people in the
657

following situations:
y Persons who need help while waiting for a child grant to be processed
y Where a crisis or disaster has occurred (e.g. his/her house has burnt down)
y Persons who do not qualify for a grant, but are in a desperate situation
y Persons who are disabled for a period of less than six months and therefore not eligible
for a disability grant
y A person is unable to receive maintenance from the other parent of their child/children
y Where the breadwinner in the family has died
y Where the breadwinner has been sent to prison for a short time (less than six months)
y Where the person has been affected by a disaster, but the area or community in which
the person lives has not been declared a disaster area.

Social relief of distress is issued monthly, for a maximum period of three months. An
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extension of a further three months may be granted in exceptional cases. A person cannot
apply for this grant if s/he is already the recipient of a different grant.

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6.7.9 Unemployment Insurance Fund (UIF)
The UIF provides short-term unemployment insurance to qualifying workers. It pays
659

benefits to contributors or dependents in cases of unemployment, illness, maternity,

the adoption of a child or death. Workers earn credits for every day they work, based on
a four-year cycle, and the maximum credit accruable is for eight months. Workers who
are retrenched can claim a benefit from the UIF based on their income at the time of
retrenchment. The UIF also provides work-seekers with access to training schemes.

6.7.10 The Compensation for Occupational Injuries and Diseases Fund

Compensation funds provide medical care and income benefits to workers who are injured
660

on the job or suffer from occupationally related diseases. The funds provide survivor
benefits to the families of victims of job-related fatalities, and funding for vocational
rehabilitation for disabled workers. Costs are recovered from levies on employers. This
fund is administered by the Department of Labour.

6.7.11 Road Accident Fund (RAF)

This fund is a third-party insurance arrangement financed by the fuel levy. It
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provides compensation for a loss of earnings, general damages, medical and funeral
costs to victims of road accidents caused by the negligent or wrongful driving of another
vehicle. This fund is also administrated by the Department of Labour.

6.8 APPLICATION GUIDELINES FOR SOCIAL ASSISTANCE

The social worker’s role involves educating the client system about where to gain access
662

to the different social assistance programmes, and the guidelines for applying for different
grants. Table 6.1 explains what the client system needs to attend to and the documentation
required, to access the social assistance system and apply for some of the most common
grants.

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Table 6.1: Application guidelines for social assistance
Child support Care Foster care grant Disability grant
grant dependency
grant

y For the child y A care y A foster care y Visit the

support grant, dependency grant is paid to nearest
the client must grant helps a somebody who Department
pass a means carer care for takes care of a of Social
test. a child who child who has Development
y If living in a is ill or needs been placed (previously
rural area, then special in their care called Welfare)
the combined medical under the Child or Pensions
income of attention. Care Act. Office.
the client and y The child y A foster grant y If a person
spouse must must be in is different has a physical
not be more the carer’s from a child or mental
than R9600 a full-time support grant, disability
year (R800 a care. which is given which makes
month). y A child living to a caregiver, him/her unfit
y If living in an permanently while the foster to work for
urban area in a care grant is a period of
or informal psychiatric only given to a longer than
settlement, hospital foster parent. six months, s/
then or a care/ y A child can only he can apply
the combined rehabilita- be placed in for a disability
income for tion centre, the care of a grant.
client and does not foster parent by
spouse must qualify the Children’s
not be more for a care Court.
than R13 200 a dependency
year (R1 100 a grant.
month).
y The client
should also
not receive any
other payment
for taking care
of the child.

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Child support Care Foster care grant Disability grant
grant dependency
grant
Documents needed
y Bar-coded ID y Bar-coded ID y Bar-coded ID y Bar-coded ID
of client and of the person of client and
spouse applying spouse
for the care
dependency
grant
y Proof (e.g., an y Bar-coded y Proof (e.g., an y Documents
affidavit) that birth affidavit) that regarding
the person certificate or the person the income /
lodging the ID of the child making the earnings
application is application is and assets of
the primary the primary husband or wife
caregiver caregiver
y Proof of marital y Proof of y Proof of marital y Proof of marital
status income and status status (single,
assets married or
divorced)
y Proof of income y Medical y Bar-coded birth y A letter from
of client and reports certificate or ID applicant’s
spouse showing that of the child doctor
the child
needs care
y Proof that the y Proof that the y Any other
carer can give child receives no medical
proper care to income records in the
the child applicant’s
possession
y Proof of income
of client/
caregiver and
spouse
y A court order
placing the child
in the applicant’s
custody
y Proof that
the child is
attending school

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 6.9 THE ROLE OF THE SOCIAL WORKER REGARDING SOCIAL
SECURITY AND POVERTY ALLEVIATION
One of the most important policy goals in South Africa is to reduce poverty. Economic
663

growth and job creation are the preferred sources for alleviating poverty, but social grants
are still a significant way of reducing poverty (Beukes, Jansen, Moses & Yu 2017:511). The
two primary sources of poverty reduction are the child support grant and old-age pension
(Beukes, Jansen, Moses & Yu 2017:511). Studies found that even school attendance and
nutrition were positively impacted by caregivers receiving child support grants (Beukes,
Jansen, Moses & Yu 2017:511). A 2013 study reported that childhood poverty was reduced
by child support grants, and increased access to schooling and enrolment rates were
reached, along with an improvement in hunger indicators (Beukes, Jansen, Moses & Yu
2017:511). A study into the effect of an old-age pension on the reduction of poverty found
that a pension played an important role in female-headed households (Ralston, Schatz,
Menken & Gomez-Olive 2015:3).

Social workers have an important role to educate clients on the types of grants applicable
664

to their situation, and can assist and empower clients who may qualify for a social grant
to apply.

The most important role the social worker can play is to empower recipients of social
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grants with the necessary knowledge on how to spend the money responsibly, and how
to draw up a budget and prioritise expenses. The social worker can utilise group work in
the community, to empower recipients regarding the most effective ways of spending
the grants.

The role of the social worker is not only to educate, but also to assist and link clients with
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resources and skills training to promote their chances of employment. Social assistance
requires exit strategies so that people do not become dependent on the grant (Khosa
& Kaseke 2017:365). Therefore, community practitioners and social workers should assist
beneficiaries to initiate income-generating projects and small businesses (Khosa & Kaseke
2017:365).

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Table 6.2: The role of the social worker on the micro, meso and macro levels of intervention
in social security programmes
Levels of intervention Strategies regarding social security programmes

Micro Advocating, educating, empowering, assisting in gaining

access to social security, and linking clients to resources
and skills training

Meso Empowering groups in the community by implementing

skills training programmes in collaboration with other
departments, empowering persons in group work
practice regarding social security and other programmes
which promote development and opportunities to create
economic development

Macro Implementing community work initiatives to

assist community development (for client systems involved in
social security programmes) by making use of the community
development, social action, community education, social
planning and social marketing models.
Taking initiatives to influence policy development in social
welfare sectors, to benefit the client system.

6.10 CONCLUSION
The role of social security in the framework for social work service delivery was reviewed
667

in this lesson. The different forms of social security were discussed, with the focus on
the role the social worker plays in educating the client system on these aspects, and
rendering extensive social welfare services in addition to the social security programmes.
The importance of social security as a measure of poverty reduction and social assistance
as a goal to achieve social justice in South Africa, were also highlighted.

668

170
 Self-assessment 6

y Define the concept of social security and discuss the types of social security available
in South Africa.
y What is the role of the social worker in case, group and community work regarding
social security?

REFERENCES
Beukes, R, Jansen, A, Moses, M & Yu, D. (2017). Exploring the eligibility criteria of the child
support grant and its impact on poverty. Social Indicators Research, 134:511–529.
International Labour Organisation (ILO). (2000). World labour report, 2000. Geneva: ILO.
Kaseke, E. (2010). The role of social security in South Africa. International Social Work,
53(2):159–168.
Khosa, P & Kaseke, E. (2017). The utilisation of the child support grant by caregivers: The
case of Ba-Phalaborwa Municipality in Limpopo province. Social Work, 53(3):356–367.
Patel, l. (2015). Social welfare and social development. Cape Town: Oxford University Press.
Ralston, M, Schatz, E, Menken, J & Gomez-Olive, FX. (2015_. Who benefits – or does
not – from south Africa’s old-age pension? Evidence from characteristics of rural
pensioners and non-pensioners. International Journal of Environmental Research and
Public Health, 85(13):1–14.
Republic of South Africa. (2013). National development plan 2030. Our future, make it
work. Executive summary. Pretoria: National Planning Commission. Available from:
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-%20make%20it%20 work_0.pdf (Accessed 8 May 2020).
Republic of South Africa, Department of Social Welfare. (1997). White paper on social
welfare. Government Gazette No. 1108 of 1997. Pretoria: Government Printer.
South African Child Gauge. (2016). Children and social assistance: An introduction. Cape
Town: Children’s Institute.

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