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Chapter 6
The periodic table
Development of the periodic table
The majority of elements readily form compounds and,
consequently, are not found in nature in their elemental form.
The number of known elements more than doubled from 31
in 1800 to 63 by 1865
In 1869, Dmitri Mendeleev in Russia and Lothar Meyer in
Germany published nearly identical classification schemes
English physicist Henry Moseley (1887–1915) developed the
concept of atomic numbers.
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When the Elements Were Discovered
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Electron Configurations
Quantum-mechanical theory describes the behavior of electrons in
atoms.
Quantum Numbers
1-The principal quantum number, n:
The principal quantum number, n, can have positive integer values 1, 2,
3.
2. The angular momentum quantum number, l:
the angular momentum quantum number, l, can have integer values
from 0 to (n-1) for each value of n.
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3. The magnetic quantum number, ml:
The magnetic quantum number, ml , can have integral values between –
l to +l, including zero. This quantum number describes the orientation
of the orbital in space
ns2np6
Ground State Electron Configurations of the Elements
ns1
ns2np1
ns2np2
ns2np3
ns2np4
ns2np5
ns2
d10
d1
d5
4f
5f
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Energy levels, sublevels, and orbitals
1. Principal energy levels – n, assigned values 1-7 (Like floors in a
hotel)
2. Energy sublevels- s, p, d, f (Type of suite in a hotel)
s sublevel – 1 orbital
(Orbitals are like the
p sublevel – 3 orbitals number of rooms in a
d sublevel – 5 orbitals suite)
f sublevel – 7 orbitals
3. Orbitals – Two electrons per orbital (Two people per room)
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Electron configurations
The way electrons are distributed among the various orbitals of an
atom is called the electron configuration of the atom.
We should remember that the number of electron for any atoms equal
its atomic number.
Three rules determine electron configurations
1- The Pauli Exclusion Principle
2- the Aufbau Principle,
2- Hund’s rule
The Pauli Exclusion Principle
Each electron occupies the lowest energy orbital available
Like filling the hotel from the bottom up
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Pauli exclusion principle
• A maximum of two electrons may occupy a single orbital
• Like only two people sharing one hotel room
Hund’s Rule
• If two or more orbitals of equal energy are available, electrons will
occupy them singly with the same spin, before filling them in pairs
with opposite spins
• A spin is denoted with an up ↑or down ↓ arrow to fill orbitals
• This is like trying to find your own room in the same suite before
having to share a room with someone else
Paramagnetic: when contain unpaired spin
Diamagnetic: when contain paired spin 15
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Exceptions to Electron Configurations for transition
metal
• Copper and chromium are exceptions to the Aufbau principle.
Element Should be Actually is
Copper 1s22s22p63s23p64s2 3d4 1s22s22p63s23p64s1 3d5
Chromium 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d9 1s22s22p63s23p64s13d10
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Electron Configurations of Ions
When electrons are removed from an atom to form a cation, they are
always removed first from the occupied orbitals having the largest
principal quantum number,
For example, when one electron is removed from a lithium atom (1s1
electron):
Li: 1s22s1 Li+ : 1s2
Likewise, when two electrons are removed from Fe:
Fe: [Ar]3d64s2 Fe2+ : [Ar]3d6
Fe3+ : [Ar]3d5
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a. Write the electron configuration for (a) Ca2+, (b) Co3+, and (c) S2-.
Ca2+ : [Ar], the atom loses the two electrons in the 4s2
Co3+ : [Ar]3d6
S2- : [Ne]3s23p6 = [Ar]
b. Write the electron configuration for (a) Ga3+, (b) Cr3+, and (c) Br-.
Ga3+ : [Ar]3d10
Cr3+ : [Ar]3d3
Br- : [Ar]3d104s24p6 = [Kr]
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SIZES OF ATOMS AND IONS
One half distance between the nuclei of homonuclear diatomic molecular .
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Periodic Trends in Atomic Radius
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Cation is always smaller than atom from which it is
formed.
Anion is always larger than atom from which it is
formed.
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Ionization energy
is the minimum energy (kJ/mol) required to remove an electron from an
atom in its ground state.
I1 + X (g) X+(g) + e- I1 first ionization energy
I2 + X+(g) X2+(g) + e- I2 second ionization energy
I3 + X2+(g) X3+(g) + e- I3 third ionization energy
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General Trend in First Ionization Energies
Increasing First Ionization Energy
Increasing First Ionization Energy
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Electron affinity
Electron affinity is the negative of the energy change that
occurs when an electron is accepted by an atom to form an
anion.
X (g) + e- X-(g)
F (g) + e- X-(g)
O (g) + e- O-(g)
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“Generally” increases across period
hydrogen
hydrogen has the electron configuration 1s1 its usual position in the
periodic table is above the alkali metals.
However, hydrogen does not truly belong to any particular group.
Unlike the alkali metals, it is a nonmetal that occurs as a colorless
diatomic gas, H2(g), under most conditions.
Hydrogen reacts with active metals to form solid metal
Reactions between hydrogen and oxygen is combustion reaction to form
water
2H2(g) + O2(g) 2 H2O(l)
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Group 6A: The Oxygen Group
As we proceed down group 6A, there is a change from nonmetallic to
metallic character. Oxygen, sulfur, and selenium are typical nonmetals.
Tellurium is a metalloid, and polonium, is a metal.
Oxygen is a colorless gas at room temperature; all of the other members
of group 6A are solids. Oxygen is molecular forms,O2 and O3.
After oxygen, the most important member of group 6A is sulfur. This
element exists in several allotropic forms, the most common is formula
S8.
In fact, most sulfur in nature is present as metal sulfides.
Both Se and Te favor the oxidation state (-2), as do O and S.
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Group 7A: The Halogens
all the halogens are typical nonmetals. Their melting and boiling points
increase with increasing atomic number.
Fluorine and chlorine are gases at room temperature, bromine is a
liquid, and iodine is a solid. Each element consists of diatomic
molecules: F2,Cl2,Br2, and I2
Astatine, many of its properties are not yet known.
The halogens have highly negative electron affinities. Thus, their
tendency to gain electrons from other elements to form halide ions.
Fluorine and chlorine are more reactive than bromine and iodine.
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Chlorine is the most
industrially useful of the
halogens. In 2008, total
production was 21 billion
pounds, making it one of the
top ten most produced
chemicals in the United
States.
Chlorine is often added to
drinking water and swimming
pools, as a disinfectant.
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Group 8A: The Noble Gases
The group 8A elements, known as the noble gases, are all nonmetals
that are gases at room temperature. They are all monatomic (that is,
they consist of single atoms rather than molecules).
The noble gases have completely filled s and p subshells. All elements
of group 8A have large first ionization energies.
Because the noble gases possess such stable electron configurations,
they are exceptionally unreactive. In fact, until the early 1960s the
elements were called the inert gases because they were thought to be
incapable of forming chemical compounds.
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