104 Section 2⚫ Guide to Structure and Written Expression

2
Sample Structure and Written
Expression Test
Time: 25 minutes

This section tests your ability to recognize grammar and usage suitable for standard written
English. This section is divided into two parts, each with its own directions.

Structure

Directions: Items in this part are incomplete sentences. Following each of these sentences, there are four
words or phrases. You should select the one word or phrase—(A), (B), (C), or (D)—that best completes the sentence. Then
fill in the space on your answer sheet that matches the letter of the answer that you have selected.

Example I
Sample Answer

Α
O

Pepsin
in digestion.

(A) that
(B) is
(C) of
an enzyme used

(D) being

This sentence should properly read "Pepsin is an enzyme used in digestion." You should fill in (B) on your
answer sheet.

Example II
Sample Answer

A
B

large natural lakes are found

 in the state of South Carolina.

(A) There are no

(B) Not the
(C) It is not
(D) No

This sentence should properly read “No large natural lakes are found in the state of South Carolina." You
should fill in (D) on your answer sheet.
As soon as you understand the directions, begin work on this part.

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Section 2⚫ Guide to Structure and Written Expression 105

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1. Martha Graham,
of the pioneers
of modern dance, didn't begin dancing
until she was twenty-one.

(A) who, as one

5. Many communities are dependent on
groundwater
water supply.
(A) that obtained
from wells for their
 experimental studies of the
(B) she was
(B) obtained
(C) one
(C) is obtained
(D) was one
(D) obtain it

2. Tiger moths
wings marked with
6.
stripes or spots.
(A) have
(B) with
(C) their
(D) whose

3. Platinum is harder than copper and is

almost as pliable
(A) gold
(B) than gold
(C) as gold
aging process, psychologist Ross McFarland
determined that people could work productively much
longer than had previously been thought.
(A) In that
(B) Through
(C) Since
(D) Into

7.
often raise funds from the sale
of stock.

(D) gold is

4. Most of Annie Jump Cannon's career as an

astronomer involved the observation, classification,
and

(A) she analyzed stars

(B) the stars' analysis
(A) For corporations to operate (B) The
operations of corporations (C)
Corporations operate by (D) To operate,
corporations

8. While all birds are alike in that they have

feathers and lay eggs,
(C) stars were analyzed (D)
analysis of stars
great
 differences among them in terms of size,
structure, and color.

(A) there are

(B) but are
(C) if there are
(D) to be

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106 Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression

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9. There were
federal laws

regulating mining practices until 1872.

(A) none
(B) not
(C) no
(D) nor

10. The Masters, one of the most important of

 13. In 1791 Quebec was divided into two
sections, Upper Canada and Lower Canada, were ruled
by elected
assemblies.

(A) they both

(B) both of them
(C) in which both

all golf tournaments,

in Augusta, Georgia.
(A) has held
(B) being held
(C) is held
(D) holding

11. Not only

12.
every year
14.

places of beauty; they

serve scientific and educational purposes
as well.

(A) are botanical gardens

(B) botanical gardens to be
(C) botanical gardens are
(D) to be botanical gardens

quicksand can be found all over the world, little

was known about its composition until recently.

(A) Except
(D) both of which

are a form of carbon has been

known since the late eighteenth century.
(A) Diamonds
(B) Because diamonds
(C) That diamonds
(D) Diamonds, which

15. Designed by Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi,

 (A) the United States was given the Statue of Liberty by
the people of France (B) the people of France gave the
Statue of
Liberty to the United States
(C) the Statue of Liberty was given to the United
States by the people of France
(D) the French people presented the
United States with a gift, the Statue of Liberty
(B) Although
(C) Even
(D) Despite

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Section 2 * Guide to Structure and Written Expression

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Written Expression
Directions: The items in this part have four underlined words or phrases, (A), (B), (C) and (D).
You must identify the one underlined expression that must be changed for the sentence to be correct. Then find the
number of the question on your answer sheet and fill in the space corresponding to
the letter.

Example I
Sample Answer

B
D

Lenses may to have either concave or convex shapes.

A
B
C
D

This sentence should read “Lenses may have either concave or convex shapes." You should therefore select
answer (A).

Example II
Sample Answer

A
D

When painting a fresco, an artist is applied paint directly to the damp plaster of a wall.
A
B
C
D

This sentence should read “When painting a fresco, an artist applies paint directly to the damp plaster
of a wall.” You should therefore select answer (B).

As soon as you understand the directions, begin work on this section.

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16. There are thousand of different types of roses.

A
B
C
D

17. Since 1908 breeders set out to produce chickens that could survive Canada's cold climate.
A
B
C

18. From 1865 to 1875, a remarkable various of inventions was produced.

A
C
D

19. The simplest kind of plant, alike the simplest kind of animal, consists of only one cell.
A
B
C
D

20. The first recorded use of natural gas to light streetlamps it was in the town of Frederick,
A

New York, in 1825.

B
C
D

21. A museum in Denver, Colorado, chronicles black cowboys and his role in the history of the
 American West.
A
BC
D

22. Bluegrass music is a kind of country music who was pioneered by Bill Monroe of Rosine,

Kentucky.
A
B
C
D

23. A number of the materials used in manufacturing paint are potential dangerous if mishandled.
A
B

24. There are several races of giraffes, but there are only one species.
D

A
B
C
D

25. Chestnuts were once the most common tree in the eastern United States, but almost of them
A
B

were destroyed by a disease called chestnut blight.

D
C

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Section 2⚫ Guide to Structure and Written Expression 109

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26. Despite they are small, ponies are strong and have great stamina.
A
B
C
D

27. Physical therapists help patients relearn how to use their bodies after disease or injure.
A
B

28. Liquids take the shape of any container which in they are placed.
A
B
C
D
C

29. The Sun supplies the light and the warmth that permit life on Earth existing.
B
C
D
D

30. For seventeen years, between 1932 to 1949, Fred Allen was one of the most popular

comedians on radio.
D
B

31. Boolean algebra is most often used to solve problems in logic, probability, and engineer.
A
B
C
 D

32. Attorney Clarence Darrow is knowing for his defense of unpopular persons and causes.
A
B
C

33. Phi Beta Kappa is a honor society that encourages scholarship in science and art.
Α
B
D

34. The French Quarter is the most famous and the most old section of New Orleans.
D

A
B
C
Ꭰ

35. There was once a widespread believe that all lizards were poisonous.
A
B
C
D

36. In the late nineteenth century, many public buildings, especially that on college campuses,
A
B

were built in the in the Romanesque Revival style of architecture.

C
D

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110 Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression

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37. Sponges have neither heads nor separate body organs.

A
B
D

38. A wooden barrel is made from strips of wood called staves holding together with metal hoops.
A
B
C

39. Salt was once too scarce and precious that it was used as money.
A
B
C

40. Sharks acquire many sets of tooth during their lifetimes.

D
D

A
B
Ꭰ

THIS IS THE END OF SECTION 2.

IF YOU FINISH BEFORE TIME IS CALLED, CHECK YOUR WORK ON SECTION 2 ONLY. DO NOT READ OR
WORK ON ANY OTHER SECTION OF THE TEST.
 STOP STOP
STOP
STOP
STOP
STOP
PARTA

About Structure

Introduction

This
part of the test consists of fifteen incomplete sentences. Some portion of each sentence has been replaced by a blank.
Under each sentence, four words or phrases are listed. One of these completes the sentence grammatically and logically.

Sample Item

Pepsin

(A) that
an enzyme used in digestion.
 (B) is
(C) of
(D) being

A
D

The sentence consists of a single clause (Pepsin is an enzyme) and a reduced (shortened) adjective
clause (used in digestion). Each clause must contain a subject and a verb. There is a subject but no main
verb. (The verbal form used is NOT the main verb in this sentence; it is a past participle.) Therefore, a
main verb is needed. Only choices (B) and (D) are verb forms. However, an -ing verb can never be used
alone as a main verb. The only possible choice is (B), the main verb is.

111
112
Section 2 Guide to Structure and Written Expression

What Is Tested in This Section?

In general, there are five main points tested. The chart below shows how these are presented in the next section of the Guide.

Main Testing Points

Sentence Structure

Word Order

Verbs and Verbals

Proper Style

Word Choice
Lesson

Lesson 17: Incomplete Independent Clauses

Lesson 18: Incomplete Adjective Clauses
Lesson 19: Incomplete/Missing Participial Phrases
Lesson 20: Incomplete/Missing Appositives
Lesson 21: Incomplete Adverb Clauses
Lesson 22: Incomplete Noun Clauses
Lesson 23: Incomplete/Missing Prepositional Phrases

Lesson 24: Word Order Items

Lesson 25: Items Involving Verb Problems

 Lesson 26: Incomplete/Missing Infinitive and Gerund Phrases

Lesson 27: Items Involving Parallel Structures

Lesson 28: Items Involving Misplaced Modifiers

Lesson 29: Incomplete/Missing Comparisons Lesson 30.

Missing Conjunctions
Lesson 31: Missing Negative Words

The points practiced in the first group of lessons (Lessons 17 to 23) are tested on almost every TOEFL exam. The points in
the second group (Lessons 24 to 31) are tested on many TOEFL exams.

What Is the Best Way to Answer Structure Items?

If the answer choices are fairly short, you should begin by taking a quick look at the answer choices to get an idea of what to
look for when you read the sentence. A look at the answer choices can often tell you that you are looking at a problem
involving verb forms, word order, parallel structure, misplaced modifiers, or others.
If the answer choices are long or complicated, begin by reading the stem. Don't analyze it word for word, but as you are
reading, try to form a picture of the sentence's overall structure. How many clauses will there be in the complete sentence?
Does each clause have a complete subject and verb? Is there a connecting word to join clauses? Are any other elements
obviously missing?
Then look at the answer choices. If you're not sure of the answer, try to eliminate as many distractors as
possible. Distractors in Structure are generally incorrect for one of the following
reasons:

■ A necessary word or phrase is missing, so the sentence is still incomplete.

■ An unnecessary word or phrase is included.
■ Part of the answer choice is ungrammatical when put into the stem.

Never choose an answer until you've read the sentence completely; sometimes an option seems to fit in the sentence unless
you read every word.
After you have eliminated as many answer choices as possible, read the sentence quickly to yourself with the
remaining choice or choices in place of the blank. If an answer doesn't “sound right," it probably isn't. If you still can't
decide, guess and go on. If you have time, come back to these more difficult items later.
Section 2⚫ Guide to Structure and Written Expression 113

Punctuation clues can sometimes help you solve Structure problems. For example, if there are a series of items in a sentence
separated by commas (A, B, and C), you will probably see a problem involving parallel structures.

Tactics for Structure

• If the answer choices are short, look them over before you read the sentence. Try to get an idea of what type of problem
you are working with.

• Read the sentence, trying to determine which elements are missing. Never choose an answer until you have read the entire
sentence; sometimes an answer will seem to fit until you have read the last few words of the sentence.

• Mark your choice immediately if the answer is obvious. If you're not sure, try to eliminate incorrect answers.

• Read the sentence with the remaining answer choices in place of the blank. Choose the option that sounds best.
 • If you are still unable to decide on an answer, guess and and go on. Lightly mark these items on your answer sheet and come back
to them if time permits.
•

Go on to the second part of this section (Written Expression) as soon as you've finished
Structure. Don't spend so much time working on Structure that you don't have enough time to finish Written Expression.
114 Section 2 • Guide to Structure and Written Expression

LESSON 17

INCOMPLETE INDEPENDENT CLAUSES

The structures practiced in this lesson are the ones that are most often tested in the Structure section. About 20% of all
problems in the section (usually three or four per test) involve incomplete independent clauses.

A) Clauses

All sentences consist of one or more clauses. A simple sentence consists of one clause.

People need vitamins.

The man took a vitamin pill.
Judy lives in northern California.
In the summer, Tom walks to his office.

A compound sentence consists of two independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction (such as and and
but).

The man took a vitamin pill, and he drank a glass of orange juice. Judy lives
in northern California now, but she was raised in Ohio.

A complex sentence consists of an independent clause (called the main clause) and a dependent (subordinate)
clause. Subordinate clauses may be adverb clauses, noun clauses, or adjective clauses. In the sentences below, the
independent clauses are italicized.

The man took a vitamin pill because he had a cold.

(independent clause + adverb clause)
I didn't realize that Nancy was here.
(independent clause + noun clause)
Tom walks to his office, which is located on Broadway, every day during the summer.
(independent clause + adjective clause)

All three types of subordinate clauses are commonly seen in the Structure part of the test, and each is considered in
separate lessons (Lessons 18, 21, and 22). The emphasis in this chapter, however, is on the basic components of independent
clauses.

B) Missing Subjects, Verbs, Objects, and Complements

All clauses have a subject and a verb. Clauses with an action verb often take a direct object as well.

Subject
People
 Verb need
Object vitamins.

The verb missing from an independent clause may be a single-word verb (need, was, took, had, walked) or a verb phrase
consisting of one or more auxiliary verbs and a main verb (will need, has been, should take, would have had, had
walked). The verbs may be active (need, take) or passive (was needed, is taken).
The missing subject and direct object may be a noun (people, vitamins, Tom) a noun phrase (some
famous people, a vitamin pill, my friend Tom) or a pronoun. (He, she, it, and they are subject pronouns;
him, her, it and them are object pronouns.)
After the verb to be and certain other non-action verbs, a subject complement is used rather than a
direct object. (Subject complements are also known as predicate nominatives and predicate adjectives.)

Subject She
The teacher
Verb

is
seemed
Section 2⚫ Guide to Structure and Written Expression 115

Complement
an architect.

upset.

In the Structure section of TOEFL, it is common for any of these elements or a combination of two or more of these elements
to be missing from the stem. The most common problem in Structure involves a missing verb. A missing subject and a
missing subject-verb combination are common as well. The missing element may also be part of rather than all of the verb or
noun phrase.

▼ Sample Items

The art of storytelling

almost as old as humanity.

(A) that is
(B) is
(C) it is
(D) being

A
D

The correct answer supplies the missing verb. Choice (A) is incorrect because the word that is used to
connect a relative clause to a main clause; in this sentence, there is only one verb, so there can only be one
clause. Choice (C) is incorrect because there is an unnecessary repetition of the subject (The art of
storytelling it ...). Choice (D) is not correct because an -ing form (being) cannot be the main verb of a
clause.

(A) Only
a few of the sounds produced by insects can be heard by humans.

(B) There are only

 (C) That only
(D) With only

B
D

The correct answer completes the noun phrase that is the subject of the sentence. The expletive There in choice (B) is
incorrectly used. In (C), the word That creates a noun clause, but each clause must have its own verb.
(Produced is used as a participle, not a main verb, in this sentence.) Choice (D) is incorrect because a
preposition may not be used directly before the subject.

when lava cools very rapidly.

(A) Because pumice is formed

(B) To form pumice
(C) Pumice is formed
(D) Forming pumice

A
B
D

The best answer supplies an independent clause to join to the adverb clause when lava cools very rapidly.
Choice (A) consists of an adverb clause; two adverb clauses cannot be joined to form a complete sentence.
Choices (B) and (D) are incorrect because they do not contain main verbs, and an independent clause
must contain a main verb. (To form and forming are not main verbs.) Only choice (C) could serve as
an independent clause because it contains a subject (Pumice) and a full verb, the passive verb is formed.
116 Section 2⚫ Guide to Structure and Written Expression

Duke Ellington wrote

(A) that over a thousand songs

(B) over a thousand songs
(C) over a thousand songs were
during his career.

(D) there were over a thousand songs

A
CD

The direct object is missing from this sentence. In choice (A), the connecting word that is used
unnecessarily. In (C), the verb were is used unnecessarily because there is only one clause and it
has a verb (wrote). In choice (D) the phrase there were is not needed between a verb and its direct
object. Choice (B) correctly supplies a noun phrase that serves as the direct object.

Before the invention of the printing press, books

(A) that were very rare

(B) were very rarely
(C) were very rare
(D) as very rare
 A
B
D

Choice (A) incorrectly forms an adjective clause; an adjective must be joined to a main clause.
Choice (B) contains an adverb; after the verb to be, an adjective is required. Choice (D) lacks a
verb. Choice (C) correctly supplies a verb (were).

C) Clauses with There and It

Some clauses begin with the introductory words there or it rather than with the subject of the sentence. These
introductory words are sometimes called expletives.
The expletive there shows that someone or something exists, usually at a particular time or place. These sentences
generally follow the pattern there + verb to be + subject:

There are many skyscrapers in New York City. There was a

good movie on television last night.

The expletive it is used in a number of different situations and patterns:

It is important to be punctual for appointments. (with the verb

to be + adjective + infinitive)
It was in 1959 that Alaska became a state.
(with the verb to be + adverbial + noun clause)
It takes a long time to learn a language.
(with the verb to take + time phrase + infinitive)
It was David who did most of the work.

(with the verb to be + noun + relative clause)

It and there, along with the verb and other sentence elements, may be missing from the stem.
Section 2⚫ Guide to Structure and Written Expression 117

Sample Items

In Michigan,

(A) salt deposits

over six hundred feet deep.

(B) where salt deposits are

(C) having salt deposits
(D) there are salt deposits

A B

Choice (D) correctly supplies an introductory word (there), a verb, and a subject, Choice (A) lacks a
verb. Choice (B) contains a subordinator, used to introduce a clause; there is only one verb, however, so
there can only be one clause. Choice (C) also lacks a main verb.

a tomato plant from 75 to 85 days to develop into

a mature plant with ripe fruit.
 (A) It takes
(B) To take
(C) That takes
(D) By taking

BOO

Choice (A) correctly completes the sentence with the introductory word It and a verb. Choice (B) and (D) do not
supply main verbs. Choice (C) incorrectly creates a noun clause.

Exercise 17

Focus: Completing structure problems involving incomplete independent clauses. (Note: Three or four items in this
exercise do not focus on missing subjects, verbs, complements, or introductory words; these items are marked in the answer
key with asterisks.)

Directions: Choose the one option—(A), (B), (C), or (D)—that correctly completes the sentences, and then mark
the appropriate blank. The first one is done as an example.
1. In the United States,
(A) for water treatment (B)
water treatment
(C) where water treatment
(D) in which water treatment

2. Crop rotation

3.
(A) it is one method
(B) one method
(C) a method is one
(D) is one method
is generally the responsibility of municipal governments.

of preserving soil fertility.

the dollar as its monetary unit in 1878.

(A) Canada adopted
(B) Adopted by Canada,
(C) It was adopted by Canada
(D) The Canadian adoption of