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LOCOMOTION AND MOVEMENT
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IIB IIB IIB IIB CHAPTER-20
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IIB LOCOMOTION
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AND MOVEMENT
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IIB IIB IIB IIB MOVEMENT
IIB IIB IIB IIB 01. Movement is one of the important features of living beings.
IIB IIB IIB IIB 02. Animals and plants show a wide range of movements.
IIB IIB IIB IIB
03. Streaming of protoplasm in the unicellular organisms like Amoeba is a simple form of
IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB movement.
IIB IIB IIB IIB 04. Movement of cilia, flagella and tentacles are shown by many organisms.
IIB IIB IIB IIB 05. Human beings can move limbs, jaws, eyelids, tongue.
IIB IIB IIB IIB ] Movement is a change in posture or position.
IIB IIB IIB IIB ] It is an essential and significant feature of living organisms.
IIB IIB IIB IIB ] The movement of a nonliving object is due to external force or induced while the
IIB IIB IIB IIB movements of living things are self sustained i.e. autonomic
IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB ² Importance of Movements :
IIB IIB IIB IIB ] Movements of external organs :
IIB IIB IIB IIB u Movements of limbs, appendages, head and trunk help to maintain equilibrium of the body.
IIB IIB IIB IIB u In many animals, limbs and appendages also carry out locomotion,
IIB IIB IIB IIB u Movements of limbs, tongue, jaws, snout, appendages and tentacles enable different
IIB IIB IIB IIB animals to capture their food,
IIB IIB IIB IIB u Movements of eye balls help to see the object,
IIB IIB IIB IIB
u Movements of the pinna of the ear enable the animal to collect sound vibrations.
IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB ] Movements of internal organs :
IIB IIB IIB IIB u Food moves through the alimentary canal and urine moves through the ureter by
IIB IIB IIB IIB peristaltic movement.
IIB IIB IIB IIB u Movements of cardiac muscles enables the heart to receive and distribute the blood,
IIB IIB IIB IIB u Inspiration and expiration involves the movements of the diaphragm, ribs, etc.
IIB IIB IIB IIB u Movements of uterine wall help in child birth.
IIB IIB IIB IIB u Peristalsis propels secretions and wastes through the ducts.
IIB IIB IIB IIB u Movements of genital tract help in egg laying and delivery of the baby.
IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB u Visceral movements are also responsible for sound production, defaecation and
IIB IIB IIB IIB micturition.
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LOCOMOTION AND MOVEMENT IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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LOCOMOTION IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
01. Some of the movements result in a change of place or location, Such voluntary IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
movements are called locomotion. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
02. Locomotion includes following acts walking, running, climbing, flying, swimming are IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
all some forms of locomotory movements. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
03. Locomotory structures need not be different from those affecting other types of IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
movements. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
For example: IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
i) In Paramecium, cilia helps in the movement of food through cytopharynx and in IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
locomotion as well. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
ii) Hydra can use its tentacles for capturing its prey and also use them for locomotion IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
iii) Human beings use limbs for changes in body postures and locomotion as well. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
04. The above observations suggest that movements and locomotion cannot be studied
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IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
separately. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
05. The two may be linked by stating that all locomotions are movements but all movements IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
are not locomotions. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
06 Methods of locomotion performed by animals vary with their habitats & the demand IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
of the situation. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
07. However, locomotion is generally for search of food, shelter, mate, suitable breeding IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
grounds, favourable climatic conditions or to escape from enemies/predators. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
] Locomotion takes several forms such as walking (man), creeping (earthworm, lizard), IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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hopping (frog, rabbit), running (dog, horse), flying (in birds) and swimming (fish, whale).
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] Locomotion distinguishes most animals from plants. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
] Animals have suitable adaptations for their specific mode of locomotion. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
] Adaptations for running, hopping, swimming and flying are respectively called IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
cursorial, saltatorial, natatorial, and volant adaptations. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
u Types of movements : IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
01. Cells of the human body exhibit three main types of movements. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
i) Amoeboid movements ii) Ciliary movements IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
iii) Flagellar movements iv) Muscular movement. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
02. Some specialised cells in our body like macrophages and leucocytes in blood exhibit IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
amoeboid movement. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
03. It is carried out by pseudopodia formed by the streaming of protoplasm (as in Amoeba). IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
04. Cytoskeletal elements like microfilaments are also involved in amoeboid movement. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
05. Ciliary movement occurs in most of our internal tubular organs which are lined by IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
ciliated epithelium. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
06. The coordinated movements of cilia in the trachea help us in removing dust particles IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
and some of the foreign substances inhaled along-with the atmospheric air. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
07. Passage of ova through the female reproductive tract is also facilitated by the ciliary
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movement. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
08. Flagellar movement helps in the swimming of spermatozoa, maintenance of water IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
current in the canal system of sponges and in locomotion of Protozoans like Euglena IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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LOCOMOTION AND MOVEMENT
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IIB IIB IIB IIB 09. Movement of our limbs, jaws, tongue, etc require muscular movement.
IIB IIB IIB IIB 10. The contractile property of muscles are effectively used for locomotion and other
IIB IIB IIB IIB movements by human beings and majority of multicellular organisms.
IIB IIB IIB IIB 12. Locomotion requires a perfect coordinated activity of muscular, skeletal and neural
IIB IIB IIB IIB systems.
IIB IIB IIB IIB
] Amoeboid Movement are found in amoeboid protozoans like Amoeba, Entamoeba,
IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB leucocytes of blood- phagocytes, macrophages.
IIB IIB IIB IIB ] Movements are brought with the help of pseudopodia or false feet. So it is also called
IIB IIB IIB IIB pseudopodial movements.
IIB IIB IIB IIB ] These pseudopodia are formed by flow of cytoplasm, called cyclosis,
IIB IIB IIB IIB ] Cilia are found in ciliate protozoans e.g. Paramoecium.
IIB IIB IIB IIB ] Cilia are also present in certain internal structures of man and perform special functions
IIB IIB IIB IIB e.g. cilia lining the cells of ciliated epithelium of trachea, oviducts and vasa efferentia
IIB IIB IIB IIB beat and move dust particles, eggs and sperms respectively.
IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB ] Muscular Movement is the basic mechanism used in the majority of vertebrates,
IIB IIB IIB IIB including humans.
IIB IIB IIB IIB ] It creates a force by contraction and it is followed by relaxation.
IIB IIB IIB IIB ] Movement of our limbs, jaws, tongue, etc. require muscular movement.
IIB IIB IIB IIB ] Human sperm is typical example of flagellated cell showing flagellar movement.
IIB IIB IIB IIB u Advantages of locomotion :
IIB IIB IIB IIB
Locomotion is helpful to the animals in many ways.
IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB u helps in search of shelter, food and water,
IIB IIB IIB IIB u helps in escape from predators,
IIB IIB IIB IIB u helps in shifting to favourable environment from an unfavourable one,
IIB IIB IIB IIB u helps in collecting materials for nest building,
IIB IIB IIB IIB u helps in finding a suitable mate for reproduction,
IIB IIB IIB IIB u helps in search of suitable areas for breeding, i.e., laying eggs, rearing young ones,
IIB IIB IIB IIB u helps in spreading to new localities.
IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB MUSCLE
IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB 01. Muscle is a specialised tissue of mesodermal origin.
IIB IIB IIB IIB 02. About 40-50 per cent of the body weight of a human adult is contributed by muscles.
IIB IIB IIB IIB 03. They have special properties like excitability, contractility, extensibility and elasticity.
IIB IIB IIB IIB 04. Muscles have been classified using different criteria, namely location, appearance and
IIB IIB IIB IIB nature of regulation of their activities.
IIB IIB IIB IIB ] The muscle system consists of muscle tissue.
IIB IIB IIB IIB ] This is the most abundant tissue in most animals.
IIB IIB IIB IIB ] Movements in the majority of animals are brought about by the muscle tissue.
IIB IIB IIB IIB
] Muscular tissue consists of long, narrow, highly specialized cells called muscle fibres.
IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB ] The excitation in the membrane of muscle initiates contraction in the muscle fibre.
IIB IIB IIB IIB ] Study of muscles is known as Myology
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LOCOMOTION AND MOVEMENT IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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u Types of muscles : IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Based on their location, three types of muscles are identified : IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
(i) Skeletal Muscle (ii) Visceral Muscle (iii) Cardiac Muscle. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
² Skeletal muscles : IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
01. Skeletal muscles are closely associated with the skeletal components of the body. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
02. They have a striped appearance under the microscope and hence are called striated IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
muscles. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
03. As their activities are under the voluntary control of the nervous system, they are IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
known as voluntary muscles. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
] Skeletal muscles are found in the limbs, body wall, tongue, pharynx and beginning of IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
oesophagus. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
] These muscles are normally attached to the skeleton. So called as skeletal muscles. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
] They mainly involved in locomotory actions and changes of body IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
] Origin : End of muscle attached to non moving bone ( proximal fixed end) IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
] Insertion : End of muscle attached to moving bone ( distal moving end) IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
² Visceral muscles : IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
01. Visceral muscles are located in the inner walls of hollow visceral organs of the body IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
like the alimentary canal, reproductive tract, etc. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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02. They do not exhibit any striation and are smooth in appearance.
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03. Hence, they are called smooth muscles (nonstriated muscle). IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
04. Their activities are not under the voluntary control of the nervous system and are IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
therefore known as involuntary muscles. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
05. They help in the transportation of food through the digestive tract and gametes through IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
the genital tract. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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LOCOMOTION AND MOVEMENT
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IIB IIB IIB IIB ] These muscles lines the hollow organs e.g., posterior region of oesophagus, stomach,
IIB IIB IIB IIB
intestine, lungs, urinary bladder, urinogenital tract.
IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB ] Smooth muscles are not associated with bones.
IIB IIB IIB IIB ] A smooth muscle fibre is spindle-shaped, uninucleate cell without striations.
IIB IIB IIB IIB ] A smooth muscle contracts slowly but can remain contracted for a long time without
IIB IIB IIB IIB getting fatigued.
IIB IIB IIB IIB ] It is innervated mainly by autonomic nervous system.
IIB IIB IIB IIB ] Their fibres are not organised into parallel arrays.
IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB ² Cardiac muscles :
IIB IIB IIB IIB 01. Cardiac muscles are the muscles of heart.
IIB IIB IIB IIB 02. Many cardiac muscle cells assemble in a branching pattern to form a cardiac muscle.
IIB IIB IIB IIB 03. Cardiac muscles are striated in appearance.
IIB IIB IIB IIB 04. They are involuntary in nature as the nervous system does not control their activities
IIB IIB IIB IIB directly.
IIB IIB IIB IIB ] A cardiac muscle cell is cylindrical, uninucleate, striated and. branched.
IIB IIB IIB IIB ] The ends of the cells have intercalated discs and Gap junctions for cell to cell relay of
IIB IIB IIB IIB
signals during heart beat.
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STRUCTURE OF SKELETAL MUSCLE
IIB IIB IIB IIB 01. Each organised skeletal muscle is made of a number of muscle bundles or fascicles
IIB IIB IIB IIB held together by a common collagenous connective tissue layer called fascia.
IIB IIB IIB IIB 02. Each muscle bundle contains a number of muscle fibres.
IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB 03. Each muscle fibre is lined by the plasma membrane called sarcolemma enclosing the
IIB IIB IIB IIB sarcoplasm.
IIB IIB IIB IIB 04. Muscle fibre is a syncitium as the sarcoplasm contains many nuclei (multi-nucleated).
IIB IIB IIB IIB 05. The endoplasmic reticulum, i.e. sarcoplasmic reticulum of the muscle fibres is the
IIB IIB IIB IIB store house of calcium ions.
IIB IIB IIB IIB 06. A characteristic feature of the muscle fibre is the presence of a large number of parallelly
IIB IIB IIB IIB arranged filaments in the sarcoplasm called myofilaments or myofibrils
IIB IIB IIB IIB 07. Each myofibril has alternate dark and light bands on it.
IIB IIB IIB IIB 08. The striated appearance is due to the distribution pattern of two important proteins –
IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB Actin and Myosin.
IIB IIB IIB IIB 09. The light bands contain actin and is called I-band or Isotropic band.
IIB IIB IIB IIB 10. ‘A’ or Anisotropic band contains myosin.
IIB IIB IIB IIB 11. Both the proteins are arranged as rod-like structures, parallel to each other and also to
IIB IIB IIB IIB the
IIB IIB IIB IIB longitudinal axis of the myofibrils.
IIB IIB IIB IIB 12. Actin filaments are thinner as compared to the myosin filaments.
IIB IIB IIB IIB 13. Hence actin filaments and myosin filaments are commonly called thin and thick
IIB IIB IIB IIB
filaments respectively.
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IIB IIB IIB IIB 14. In the centre of each ‘I’ band is an elastic fibre called ‘Z’ line which bisects it.
IIB IIB IIB IIB 15. The thin filaments are firmly attached to the ‘Z’ line.
IIB IIB IIB IIB 16. The thick filaments in the ‘A’ band are also held together in the middle of this band by
IIB IIB IIB IIB a thin fibrous membrane called ‘M’ line.
IIB IIB IIB IIB 17. The ‘A’ and ‘I’ bands are arranged alternately throughout the length of the myofibrils.
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LOCOMOTION AND MOVEMENT IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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18. The portion of the myofibril between two successive ‘Z’ lines is called a sarcomere. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
It considered as the functional unit of contraction. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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19. In a resting state, the edges of thin filaments on either side of the thick filaments IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
partially overlap the free ends of the thick filaments. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
However the central part of the thick filaments is not overlapped by thin filaments. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
20. This central part of thick filament is called the ‘H’ zone IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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] Muscle fibre is covered by a layer of connective tissue which is called Endomysium. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
] Many muscle fibres are combined to form a group which is called fasciculi. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
] Each fascicle is covered by a layer of connective tissue which is called Perimysium IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
(fascia). IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
] Many fasciculi combined to form a muscle. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
] Muscle is a so covered by a layer of connective tissue which is called as Epimysium. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
] The muscle fibres attached to a tough cord of connective tissue called tendon & Tendon IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
is further attached with a bone IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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] Sarcomare - functional unit of contraction.
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] Sarcomere = 1A band + two ½ I band IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
] Length of sarcomere = 2.5 mm IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
] Each Myosin filament is surrounded by 6 Actin filaments and actin filament surrounded IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
by 3 myosin IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
] Z line is madeup of actinin protein IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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STRUCTURE OF CONTRACTILE PROTEINS IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
01. Each actin (thin) filament is made of two ‘F’ (filamentous) actins helically wound to IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
each other. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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02 Each ‘F’ actin is a polymer of monomeric ‘G’ (Globular) actins. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
03. Two filaments of another protein, tropomyosin also run close to the ‘F’ actins throughout IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
its length. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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LOCOMOTION AND MOVEMENT
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IIB IIB IIB IIB 04. A complex protein Troponin is distributed at regular intervals on the tropomyosin.
IIB IIB IIB IIB 05. In the resting state a subunit of troponin masks the active binding sites for myosin on
IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB the actin filaments.
IIB IIB IIB IIB 06. Each myosin (thick) filament is also a polymerised protein.
IIB IIB IIB IIB 07. Many monomeric proteins called Meromyosins constitute one thick filament (Myosin).
IIB IIB IIB IIB 08. Each meromyosin has two important parts, a globular head with a short arm and a tail
IIB IIB IIB IIB 09. The former being called the heavy meromyosin (HMM).
IIB IIB IIB IIB 10. The latter, the light meromyosin (LMM).
IIB IIB IIB IIB 11. The HMM component, i.e. the head and short arm projects outwards at regular distance
IIB IIB IIB IIB and angle from each other from the surface of a myosin filament and is known as cross arm.
IIB IIB IIB IIB 12. The globular head is an active ATPase enzyme and has binding sites for ATP and active
IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB sites for actin.
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IIB IIB IIB IIB ] Actin is a globular protein, which has a low molecular weight.
IIB IIB IIB IIB ] The G-actin polymerises to form the F-actin in the presence of magnesium ion.
IIB IIB IIB IIB
] Tropomyosin is a fibrous molecule.
IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB ] At resting state it separates the actin and myosin by binding to the myosin binding
IIB IIB IIB IIB site on actin filament and hence prevents the formation of cross bridges which in turn
IIB IIB IIB IIB prevents the contraction of muscle fibre.
IIB IIB IIB IIB ] At regular intervals of tropomyosin, a complex protein called troponin is present.
IIB IIB IIB IIB ] A troponin is a trimeric protein i.e., it has three units which acts as the binding sites for
IIB IIB IIB IIB three different components.
IIB IIB IIB IIB ] The three units of troponin are :
IIB IIB IIB IIB i) Troponin I : It inhibits actin-myosin interaction and binds to other components
IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB of
IIB IIB IIB IIB ii) Troponin T : It is the binding site for tropomyosin
IIB IIB IIB IIB iii)Troponin C : It is thing site for calcium.
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LOCOMOTION AND MOVEMENT IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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Distinguish between A band and I band myosin and actin filaments IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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A-Band (Anisotropic band) I- Band (Isotropic band) IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Zone It has wide H-zone. It has thin Z-line. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
It gives dark appearance and It gives light appearance hence
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Appearance IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
hence also called dark band. also called light band. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
It contains myosin filaments and It contains part of actin filaments IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Filaments
parts of actin filaments. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Its length remains unchanged Shortens during muscle contrac- IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Change in length IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
during muscle contraction. tion.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
] Motor unit : IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
u It is the functional unit of a muscle and is formed of all the muscle fibres being IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
supplied by the branches of a single axon of a motor neuron. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
u On an average, there are 100 muscles fibres in a motor unit. But the number of IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
muscle fibres in a motor unit may be as less as only one and two to three, it may IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
be as high as 1900 muscle fibres per motor unit. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
u All the muscle fibres of a motor unit contract or relax simultaneously. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
MECHANISM OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
01. Mechanism of muscle contraction is best explained by the sliding filament theory
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
02. It states that contraction of a muscle fibre takes place by the sliding of the thin filaments IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
over the thick filaments. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
03. Muscle contraction is initiated by a signal sent by the central nervous system (CNS) IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
via a motor neuron. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
04. A motor neuron along with the muscle fibres connected to it constitute a motor unit. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
05. The junction between a motor neuron and the sarcolemma of the muscle fibre is called IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
the neuromuscular junction or motor-end plate. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
06. A neural signal reaching this junction releases a neurotransmitter (Acetyl choline) IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
which generates an action potential in the sarcolemma.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
07. This spreads through the muscle fibre and causes the release of calcium ions into the IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
sarcoplasm. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
08. Increase in Ca++ level leads to the binding of calcium with a subunit of troponin on IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
actin filaments and thereby remove the masking of active sites for myosin. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
09. Utilising the energy from ATP hydrolysis, the myosin head now binds to the exposed IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
active sites on actin to form a cross bridge. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
10. This pulls the attached actin filaments towards the centre of ‘A’ band. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
11. The ‘Z’ line attached to these actins are also pulled inwards thereby causing a shortening IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
of the sarcomere, i.e., contraction. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
12. It is clear from the above steps, that during shortening of the muscle, i.e., contraction, IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
the ‘I’ bands get reduced, whereas the ‘A’ bands retain the length. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
13. The myosin, releasing the ADP and Pi goes back to its relaxed state. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
14. A new ATP binds and the cross-bridge is broken . IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
15. The ATP is again hydrolysed by the myosin head and the cycle of cross bridge formation IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
and breakage is repeated causing further sliding. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB
LOCOMOTION AND MOVEMENT
IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB 16. The process continues till the Ca++ ions are pumped back to the sarcoplasmic cisternae
IIB IIB IIB IIB in the masking of actin filament.
IIB IIB IIB IIB 17. This causes the return of ‘Z’ lines back to their original position, i.e., relaxation.
IIB IIB IIB IIB 18. The reaction time of the fibres can vary in different muscles.
IIB IIB IIB IIB 19. Repeated activation of the muscles can lead to the accumulation of lactic acid due to
IIB IIB IIB IIB
anaerobic breakdown of glycogen in them, causing fatigue.
IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB
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IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB
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IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB ] The sarcomere shortens, but the lengths of thin and thick myofilaments do not change.
IIB IIB IIB IIB ] The ‘H’ zone narrows and even disappears when the thin myofilaments meet at the
IIB IIB IIB IIB centre of the sarcomere.
IIB IIB IIB IIB
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IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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LOCOMOTION AND MOVEMENT IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
] Thus the length of the sarcomere decreases during contraction. Size of I band also IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
decreases. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
] Role of ATP in muscle contraction IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
u Energy for movement of myosin head. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
u Detachment of myosin head from the actin
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
] In a resting muscle fibre, the outside of sarcolemma is positively charged with respect IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
to the inside. This potential difference across a membrane is called resting(membrane) IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
potential. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
] A membrane with a resting potential is said to be polarised state. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
] It is maintained by sodium and potassium ions. Sodium ions predominate on the IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
outside of the sarcolemma and potassium ions predominate on the inside. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
] Sodium ions are pumped out and potassium ions enter inside, both by active transport. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
The pump (ion channel) moving ions against concentration is called Sodium-potassium IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
ATPase pump
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
² Myoglobin : IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
01. Muscle contains a red coloured oxygen storing pigment (protein) called myoglobin. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
02. Myoglobin content is high in some of the muscles which gives a reddish appearance. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
03. Such muscles are called the Red fibres. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
04. These muscles also contain plenty of mitochondria which can utilise the large amount IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
of oxygen stored in them for ATP production. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
05. These muscles, therefore, can also be called aerobic muscles. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
06. Some of the muscles possess very less quantity of myoglobin and therefore, appear IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
pale or whitish. These are the White fibres. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
07. Number of mitochondria are also few in them, but the amount of sarcoplasmic reticulum IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
is high. They depend on anaerobic process for energy. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
] Differences between red muscle fibres and white muscle fibres IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Red Muscle Fibres White Muscle Fibres IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
These muscle fibres are These muscle fibres are lighter IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
dark red which is due to the in colour as they have very less IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Myoglobin IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
presence of red haemoprotein quantity myoglobin.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
called myoglobin IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Mitochondria are more in Mitochondria are less in IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Mitochondria
number. number. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Sarcoplasmic Reticu- Red muscles have less White muscles have more IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
lum sarcoplasmic reticulum. sarcoplasmic reticulum. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
They carry out considerable They depend mainly on IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
aerobic oxidation without ac- anaerobic oxidation (glycoly- IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Lactic acid cumulating much lactic acid. sis) for energy production and IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
accumulate lactic acid in large IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
amount during strenuous work. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Red muscle fibres can con- White muscle fibres soon get IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
Fatigue tract for a longer period fatigued. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
without fatigue. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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LOCOMOTION AND MOVEMENT
IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB These muscle fibres have These muscle fibres have a fast
IIB IIB IIB IIB Rate of contraction slow rate of contraction for rate of contraction for short
IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB long periods. periods.
IIB IIB IIB IIB Extensor muscles of the hu- Eye ball muscles.
Examples
IIB IIB IIB IIB man back
IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB ² Muscle Fatigue and oxygen debt :
IIB IIB IIB IIB u The reduction in the force of contraction of a muscle after prolonged stimulation
IIB IIB IIB IIB is called muscle fatigue.
IIB IIB IIB IIB u The repeated contraction of the skeletal muscle anaerobically leads to the
IIB IIB IIB IIB accumulation of lactic acid in the muscle.
IIB IIB IIB IIB u The glycogen present in the body breaks anaerobically to produce lactic acid
IIB IIB IIB IIB
whose accumulation causes pain and fatigue.
IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB u The lactic acid accumulated in myocytes then diffuses into blood and transport to liver.
IIB IIB IIB IIB u During strenuous exercise, the muscle does not get sufficient oxygen to meet its
IIB IIB IIB IIB energy needs immediately.
IIB IIB IIB IIB u So it contracts anaerobically and accumulates lactic acid produced by anaerobic
IIB IIB IIB IIB glycolysis.
IIB IIB IIB IIB u During recovery, the oxygen consumption of muscle exceeds.
IIB IIB IIB IIB u The extra oxygen consumed during recovery is called oxygen debt of the muscle.
IIB IIB IIB IIB u It is used in oxidising the accumulated lactic acid aerobically and in restoring
IIB IIB IIB IIB
the depleted creatine phosphate and ATP in the muscle fibre.
IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB u A small part of oxygen debt also goes to myoglobin which binds and stores
IIB IIB IIB IIB oxygen for future use.
IIB IIB IIB IIB u For extra oxygen, deep and rapid breathing occurs carrying more oxygen into
IIB IIB IIB IIB the lungs and eventually to the tissues.
IIB IIB IIB IIB ] Rigor mortis :
IIB IIB IIB IIB
u The rigidity of muscles that occurs after death is called rigor-mortis. It is due to
IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB complete depletion of ATP and Phosphocreatine as Cellular metabolism stop.
IIB IIB IIB IIB u Rigor mortis disappears some fifteen to twenty five hours after death as proteins
IIB IIB IIB IIB are degraded.
IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB ² Types of skeletal muscles :
IIB IIB IIB IIB On the basis of movements striated muscles are of three types:
IIB IIB IIB IIB i) Prime movers (agonist) - Bring initial movement of part, e.g. Biceps.
IIB IIB IIB IIB ii) Antagonists - Bring the action opposite to that of prime movers, e.g. Triceps.
IIB IIB IIB IIB iii) Synergists - Assist prime movers e.g., Brachialis assist Biceps.
IIB IIB IIB IIB Some important antagonistic muscles are
IIB IIB IIB IIB
u Flexor : This muscle brings one part of a limb towards another at a joint,
IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB e.g., biceps. It brings the fore arm towards the upper arm.
IIB IIB IIB IIB u Extensor : This muscle extends or straightens a limb, e.g., triceps. It extends the
IIB IIB IIB IIB fore arm.
IIB IIB IIB IIB u Abductor : This muscle pulls a limb away from the mid-line of the body, e.g.,
IIB IIB IIB IIB deltoid. It draws the entire arm to the side.
IIB IIB IIB IIB u Adductor: This muscle brings a limb towards the mid line of the body, e.g.,
IIB IIB IIB IIB
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LOCOMOTION AND MOVEMENT IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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latissimus dorsi. It presses the entire arm against the side. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
u Pronator : This muscle turns the palm downward,or to the posterior, e.g., IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
pronator teres. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
u Supinator : This muscle turns the palm upward or to the anterior, e.g., Supinator.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
u Elevator : This muscle raises a part of the body, e.g., masseter, It lifts up the
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
lower jaw to close the mouth. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
u Depressor : This muscle lowers a part of the body, e.g., depressor mandibulae. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
It lowers down the lower jaw to open the mouth. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
u Sphincter : This muscle decreases the size of an opening, e.g., pyloric Sphincter IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
between stomach and duodenum. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
u Dilator: This muscle enlarges the size of an opening. Dilator pupillae of iris IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
dilate pupil.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
u Rotator : This muscle rotates a part of the body, e.g., pyriformis. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
It raises and rotates the thigh. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
u Isotonic and isometric contraction : IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
u The force produced by a whole muscle when it contracts is termed muscle tension IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
and the force exerted on a muscle by a weight is called the load. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
u For example, when we pick up a stone, the stone is the load and the force
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
produced by the muscles in our arm is the tension. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
u Thus load and tension are opposing forces. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
u When the tension remains the same whereas the change occurs in the length of IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
the muscle fibres, it is called isotonic (same tension) contraction. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
u The muscle shortens during this type of contraction. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
u Example of isotonic contraction is the simple bending of arm. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
u When the length of muscle fibres remains the same and the tension is increased, IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
it is termed as isometric (same length) contraction. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
u The muscle does not shorten during this type of contraction.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
u Example of isometric contraction is pulling any heavy object. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
u Energy supply to muscles : IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
u Muscle fibres contain two organic phosphates, namely adenosine triphosphate IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
(ATP) and phospho-creatine. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
u They store energy in the muscles.
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
u Like other cells of the body, muscle cells synthesize ATP as follows : IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
ADP + Pi + E (energy) ATP IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
u Whenever required, ATP gives energy, IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
ATP ADP + Pi + E IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
² Creatine : IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
u Creatine is a nitrogenous organic acid that occur naturally in vertebrates and help IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
to supply energy to all cells in the body, primarily muscles. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
u Creatine is produced in the liver. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
u In a resting muscle, some of the ATP produced reacts with creatine to form IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
phosphocreatine and ADP. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
u When a muscle is active some of the energy from phosphocreatine is transferred IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
back to ATP where the energy can be used to power contraction. IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
IIB IIB IIB IIB IIB
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