Engineering Materials

4.1 Engineering Materials: Types and

applications of Ferrous & Nonferrous
Metals, silica, ceramics, glass, graphite,
diamond and polymer, Shape Memory
Alloys.
Fig. Classification of Engineering Materials
 Evolution of Materials
• The evolution of materials is a fascinating and crucial aspect
of human history, as it has played a vital role in shaping the
way we live, work, and communicate today.
• From the earliest days of human civilization, our species has
been using materials to create tools and technologies that have
made our lives easier and more efficient.
• The earliest materials used by humans were simple and easily
accessible, such as stone, wood, and clay.
• These materials were used to make tools, weapons, and
basic structures, and they served our ancestors well for many
thousands of years.
• However, as human societies became more complex and our technological
capabilities improved, we began to seek out new and more advanced
materials to help us achieve our goals.
• One of the most important materials in human history is metal.
• The discovery and use of metal changed the course of human civilization,
and it had a profound impact on the development of technology and industry.
• The discovery of iron, for example, allowed us to create much stronger and
more durable tools and weapons than had been possible before, and it also
enabled us to build more sophisticated structures, such as bridges and
buildings.
• In the 19th and 20th centuries, a new era of materials development began
with the discovery of synthetic materials.
• These materials, such as plastics, were created through chemical processes
and offered a new level of versatility and flexibility that was previously
impossible with natural materials.
• Synthetic materials soon found a wide range of uses in various industries, from
packaging and consumer goods to transportation and construction.
• In recent years, materials science and engineering have experienced rapid growth,
leading to the development of new and exciting materials with remarkable properties.
• For example, advanced composites, made from a combination of materials, are now
widely used in the aerospace and automotive industries due to their light weight and
high strength.
• Graphene, a two-dimensional material made from carbon atoms, has been dubbed a
"miracle material" due to its unique combination of strength, flexibility, and
conductivity.
• Another recent development in materials science is the rise of smart materials, which
are materials that can respond to their environment in a controlled and predictable
way.
• For example, smart materials can change shape in response to changes in
temperature, light, or other stimuli, and they have potential applications in areas such
as robotics, medicine, and architecture.
 Metals
• Metals are the most commonly used class of engineering material.
• Metal alloys are especially common, and they are formed by
combining a metal with one or more other metallic and/or non-metallic
materials.
• The combination usually occurs through a process of melting, mixing,
and cooling.
• The goal of alloying is to improve the properties of the base material
in some desirable way.
• Metal alloy compositions are described in terms of the percentages of
the various elements in the alloy, where the percentages are
measured by weight.
 Alloys

Random Ordered
Interstitial
Substitutional Substitutional
 Ferrous Alloys
• Ferrous alloys have iron as the base element. These alloys
include steels and cast irons.
• Ferrous alloys are the most common metal alloys in use due to
the abundance of iron, ease of production, and high versatility
of the material.
• The biggest disadvantage of many ferrous alloys is low
corrosion resistance.
• Carbon is an important alloying element in all ferrous alloys.
• In general, higher levels of carbon increase strength and
hardness, and decrease ductility and weldability.
Stainless Steel

• Stainless steels have good corrosion resistance, mostly due to the addition

of chromium as an alloying ingredient.

• Stainless steels have a chromium composition of at least 11%.

Tool Steel

• Tool steels are primarily used to make tooling for use in manufacturing, for

example cutting tools, drill bits, punches, dies, and chisels.

• Alloying elements are typically chosen to optimize hardness, wear

resistance, and toughness.

High Speed Steel (HSS)

• High carbon and low alloy steels

• Complicated tool geometries, such as drills, taps, milling cutters, and

broaches

• Typical alloying ingredients:

• Tungsten and/or Molybdenum

• Chromium and Vanadium

• Carbon

• Cobalt in some grades

• Typical composition:

• 18% W, 4% Cr, 1% V, and 0.9% C

• Pearlite: lamellar (or layered) structure composed of alternating layers of ferrite

(87.5 wt%) and cementite (12.5 wt%) that occurs in some steels and cast irons.

• Cementite: 6.67% carbon and 93.3% iron: orthorhombic ( stretching a cubic

lattice)

• Ferrite: Carbon + Iron: body-centred cubic crystal structure

Ferrite

Pearlite
 Non-Ferrous Metals

Aluminum Alloys
• Pure aluminum is soft and weak, but it can be alloyed to increase strength

• Pure aluminum has good corrosion resistance due to an oxide coating that

forms over the material and prevents oxidation.

• Alloying the aluminum tends to reduce its corrosion resistance.

• Aluminum is a widely used material, particularly in the aerospace industry,

due to its light weight and corrosion resistance.

• Despite the fact that aluminum alloys are generally not as strong as steels,

they nevertheless have a good strength-to-weight ratio.

Photomicrograph showing the microstructure of a lead–tin alloy of eutectic composition.
This microstructure consists of alternating layers of a lead rich -phase solid solution (dark
layers), and a tin-rich -phase solid solution (light layers). 375x Magnification
Ceramics
Ceramics:
A wide-ranging group of materials whose ingredients are clays,
sand and feldspar.

Clay:

Contain some of the following:

– Silicon & Aluminium as silicates

– Potassium compounds

– Magnesium compounds

– Calcium compounds

Sand contains Silica and Feldspar (a group of rock-forming

tectosilicate minerals that make up about 40% of the Earth's
continental crust)
Classification of Ceramics
Types of Ceramics

• Whitewares

• Refractories

• Glasses

• Abrasives

• Cements
Metals Ceramics
 Amorphous Ceramics
(Glass)

• Main ingredient is Silica (SiO2)

• If cooled very slowly will form crystalline structure.

• If cooled more quickly will form amorphous structure consisting of

disordered and linked chains of Silicon and Oxygen atoms.

• This accounts for its transparency as it is the crystal boundaries that

scatter the light, causing reflection.

• Glass can be tempered to increase its toughness and resistance to

cracking.
 Glass Types

Three common types of glass:

• Soda-lime glass - 95% of all glass, windows containers etc.

• Lead glass - contains lead oxide to improve refractive index

• Borosilicate - contains Boron oxide, known as Pyrex.

 Glasses

• Flat glass (windows)

• Container glass (bottles)

• Pressed and blown glass (dinnerware)

• Glass fibres (home insulation)

• Advanced/specialty glass (optical fibres)

Pressed Glass Processing
Glass Blow Moulding
Plate Glass Drawing
 Crystalline Ceramics

Good electrical insulators and refractories.

• Magnesium Oxide is used as insulation material in heating elements

and cables.

• Aluminium Oxide

• Beryllium Oxides

• Boron Carbide

• Tungsten Carbide.

• Used as abrasives and cutting tool tips.

Plastics
Plastics

Synthetic materials made from a wide range of organic

polymers such as polyethylene, PVC, nylon, etc., that can be

moulded into shape while soft, and then set into a rigid or

slightly elastic form.

Usually called the most versatile materials on earth

Polymer
A polymer (Greek poly-, "many" + -mer, "parts") is a large molecule, or

macromolecule, composed of many repeated subunits called monomers.

Polymer Preparation (e.g: Aramids)

Aramids are generally prepared by the reaction between an
amine group and a carboxylic acid halide group.

nNH2-Ar-COCl → - (NH-Ar-CO)n- + nHCl

This compound is then extruded through a single screw extruder so that

the required fibres can be produced.
 Plastics Compared to Metals and Ceramics
Characteristics Advantages Disadvantages

Low melting point Ease of processing Lower useful thermal range

High elongation Low brittleness High creep

Low density Lightweight products Low structural strength

Low thermal conductivity Good thermal insulation Low heat dissipation

Electrical resistance Good electric insulation Poor conductivity

Optical clarity (some) Utility as clear material UV degradation

Easily colored Use without painting Hard to color match

Solvent sensitivity Can be dissolved Affected by solvents

Flammable Waste can be burned Fire hazard

 Classification

Thermoplastics vs Thermosetting

polymers

Biodegradability

Natural vs Synthetic

Crystalline vs Amorphous
 Thermoplastics
Pros
 Highly recyclable
 Aesthetically-superior finishes
 High-impact resistance
 Remolding/reshaping capabilities
 Chemical resistant
 Hard crystalline or rubbery surface options
 Eco-friendly manufacturing
Cons
 Generally more expensive than thermoset
 Can melt if heated
 Thermoset Plastics

Pros
 More resistant to high temperatures than thermoplastics
 Highly flexible design
 Thick to thin wall capabilities
 Excellent aesthetic appearance
 High levels of dimensional stability
 Cost-effective
Cons
 Cannot be recycled
 More difficult to surface finish
 Cannot be remolded or reshaped
Biodegradability
 Decomposed by bacteria or other living organisms
 Bio-plastics, whose components are derived from
renewable raw materials
 Plastics made from petrochemicals with biodegradable
additives which enhance bio-degradation.
Natural vs Synthetic

 Most plastics are produced from petro-chemicals.

 Motivated by the finiteness of petrochemical reserves and threat

of global warming

 Bio-plastics are made substantially from renewable plant

materials such as cellulose and starch.

 In comparison to the global consumption of all flexible packaging,

estimated at 12.3 million tonnes/year, estimates put global

production capacity at 327,000 tonnes/year for related bio-

derived materials
 ABS –Acrylo-nitrile-butadiene styrene

 Amorphous
 Melting: 105 °C
 −20 To 80°C
 Injection Molded& Extruded

Musical Instruments, Recorders, Plastic Clarinets, And Piano Movements, Golf

Club Heads Medical Devices For Blood Access, Enclosures For Electrical And
Electronic Assemblies, Protective Headgear, Whitewater Canoes, Buffer Edging
For Furniture And Joinery Panels, Luggage And Protective Carrying Cases, Small
Kitchen Appliances, And Toys, Household And Consumer Goods
 Polyamide -NyLon

 Du Pont
 Melting: 225 –265 C
 Extremely popular and versatile tires,
tents, ropes, ponchos, and other military
supplies Musical Instruments, Strings,
Parachutes, currency, clothing, etc..
 Polyethylene

 Melting Point: 105 -180

 80 million tonnes
 plastic bag, plastic films
 Most Widely Used!!!

Ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene(UHMWPE)
Ultra-low-molecular-weight polyethylene(ULMWPE or PE-WAX)
High-molecular-weight polyethylene(HMWPE)
High-density polyethylene(HDPE)
High-density cross-linked polyethylene(HDXLPE)
Medium-density polyethylene(MDPE)
Low-density polyethylene(LDPE)
Very-low-density polyethylene(VLDPE)
 Polyvinylchloride

 Melting Point: 140 –160 C

 Poor Heat Stability –decomposes @ 140
 low cost, biological,
 chemical resistance, workability
 Not as insulating as PP & PE
 Pipes, Insulation tapes,
 Sheeting, clothing, flooring etc…
Polycarbonate
 Melting Point: 145C
 Generally replaces glass
 excellent toughness,
 thermal stability
 very good dimensional stability
 Polypropylene

 Semi-rigid Automotive components, sailing dinghies,

 Translucent fibres carpets, bailing twine, clothing, tape

 Good chemical resistance replaced jute film, low density packging

 Tough
 Good fatigue resistance
 Integral hinge property
 Good heat resistance
 Polyurethane

 Elastic,
 abrasion and chemical
resistant,
 impervious to gases,
 can be produced in a wide
range of hardness.
 Printing rollers, solid tyres,
wheels, shoe heels, car
bumpers,
 Polyethylene terephthalate/ Polyester

 Strong and Impact-resistant

 Lightweight
 Good Barrier To Gases, Water,
Alcohol
 Very Good Heat And Heat
Ageing Resistance.
 Very Low Creep
 Very Good Colour Stability.
 Excellent Wear Properties
• High Strength & Toughness
• Operating range: -285OC to 325OC
Teflon (PTFE)
Composite Materials
Composite Materials

• Two or more chemically different constituents combined

macroscopically to yield a useful material is known as

composite.

• A combination of two or more materials to form a new

material system with enhanced material properties.

Definition

A composite material (also called a composition material or shortened

to composite, which is the common name) is a material made from two or more constituent

materials with significantly different physical or chemical properties that, when combined,

produce a material with characteristics different from the individual components.

The individual components remain separate and distinct within the finished

structure. The new material may be preferred for many reasons: common examples include

materials which are stronger, lighter, or less expensive when compared to traditional

materials
Typical engineered composite materials include:
• Concrete
• Reinforced plastics, such as fibre-reinforced polymer
• Metal composites
• Ceramic composites
 Classification of Composites
on the Basis of Reinforcement
Particle reinforced –Concrete

• Cermets – Made up of ceramics and metal matrix –

Oxides & carbides of Cobalt, Nickel, Chromium nickel.

• In cermets, which are ceramic‐metal composites, the

aim is to have high surface hardness so that the material

can be used to cut materials at high speeds, or is able to

resist wear.
Fibre-Reinforced Composites

• Technologically, the most important composites are

those in which the dispersed phase is in the form of a

fibre.

• Design goals of fibre-reinforced composites often

include high strength and/or stiffness on a weight basis.

• Length and Orientation plays a major role in fibres.

Laminate (or Ply):

It is a single layer (plane or curved) of unidirectional or woven

fabric in a matrix.

• Laminate: Two or more unidirectional laminae or a ply stacked

together at various orientations is called Laminate.

When multidirectional stresses are imposed within a single plane,

aligned layers that are fastened together one on top of another at
different orientations are frequently utilized. These are called laminar
composites.

• These are generally designed to provide high strength and low cost at
a lighter weight.

• Example: Plywood, Glass, Stack of papers etc

Sandwich Structures:

 A structure made of two strong outer sheets or faces, separated by a

layer of core (Low strength and stiffness) with the help of adhesives.

 The faces bear most of load acting on the material. Usually made up

of aluminium, fibre reinforced plastic, steel, plywood.

 The core due to elastic property resists deformation perpendicular

to the face plane. Usually made up of synthetic rubber, foamed

polymers etc.
 Types of Matrix Materials
1. Polymer – Matrix Composites (PMC)

2. Ceramic– Matrix Composites (CMC)

3. Metal – Matrix Composites (MMC)

 Polymer – Matrix Composites (PMC)
• These materials consist of a polymer resin (here resin denote a
high-molecular weight reinforcing plastic) as the matrix, with
fibres as the reinforcement medium.

• In light of their room-temperature properties, ease of fabrication,

and cost, these PMCs are used in the greatest diversity of
composite applications.
a. Glass Fibre-Reinforced Polymer (GFRP) Composites

b. Carbon Fibre-Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) Composites

c. Aramid Fibre-Reinforced Polymer Composites

a. Glass Fibre-Reinforced Polymer (GFRP) Composites:

• Fiberglass is a composite consisting of glass fibres, which may

be continuous or discontinuous.

• These are commonly produced in ‘E’ glass, because it draws

well and has good strength and stiffness.

• A typical composition would be SiO2, CaO2, Al2 O3, Ba O3 with

some oxides of Mg, Na and K, and molten glass is gravity fed
into a series of platinum bushings each of which has several
hundred holes in its base.
Carbon Fibre-Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) Composites
• The atoms in the basal planes are held together by very
strong covalent bonds.

• To obtain high modulus and high strength the layer

planes of the graphite have to the aligned parallel to the
axis of the fibre.

• Modulus of carbon fibres depends on the degree of

perfection of alignment of atom planes.
• Carbon fibres have the highest specific modulus and specific
strength of all reinforcing fibre materials.

• Carbon fibres retain their high tensile modulus and high

strength at elevated temperatures.

• Carbon fibres are not affected by moisture or a wide variety of

solvents, acids and bases at room temperature.

• Carbon-reinforced polymer composites are extensively used in

sports and recreational equipment (fishing rods, golf clubs),
pressure vessel and aircraft structural components — both
military and commercial, fixed wing and helicopters.
Smart Materials
 Smart Materials
Smart materials, also called intelligent or responsive materials, are designed

materials that have one or more properties that can be significantly changed in a

controlled fashion by external stimuli, such as stress, moisture, electric or magnetic

fields, light, temperature, pH, or chemical compounds.

• Piezoelectric • Magnetorheological

• Photovoltaic • Electrorheological

• Shape Memory Alloys • Thermochromic

• Piezoelectric
 • Shape Memory Alloys

A shape-memory alloy (SMA) is an alloy that can be deformed when cold but
returns to its pre-deformed ("remembered") shape when heated. It may also be
called memory metal, memory alloy, smart metal, smart alloy, or muscle wire

Shape-memory alloy is in its cold state, the metal can be bent or The material remembers two different shapes: one at
stretched and will hold those shapes until heated above the low temperatures, and one at the high temperature. A
transition temperature. Upon heating, the shape changes to its material that shows a shape-memory effect during both
original. When the metal cools again, it will retain the shape, until heating and cooling is said to have two-way shape
deformed again memory.
• Thermochromic
• Magnetorheological/Electrorheological