UNIT 2

Chapter 2.1
Research Design
Unit-II:
•
Research design: Concept, Features of a good research design,
• Use of a good research design Qualitative and Quantitative research
approaches,
• Comparison – Pros and Cons of both approaches.
• Research Designs: Concept, types and uses.
• Concept of Cross-sectional and Longitudinal Research.
• Experimental Design: Concept of Cause, Causal relationships, Concept of
Independent & Dependent variables, extraneous variable, Treatment,
Control group.
Research Design: Definition
• A research design is a framework or blueprint for conducting the research
project. It details the procedures necessary for obtaining the information
needed to structure or solve research problems.
Research design: Concept

• The formidable problem that follows the task of defining the research problem is the
preparation of the design of the research project, popularly known as the “research
design”. Decisions regarding what, where, when, how much, by what means
concerning an inquiry or a research study constitute a research design.

• “A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of

data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with
economy in procedure.”

• In fact, the research design is the conceptual structure within which research is
conducted; it constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of
data.
• More explicitly, the design decisions happen to be in respect of:
(i) What is the study about?
(ii) Why is the study being made?
(iii) Where will the study be carried out?
(iv) What type of data is required?
(v) Where can the required data be found?
(vi) What periods of time will the study include?
(vii) What will be the sample design?
(viii) What techniques of data collection will be used?
(ix) How will the data be analysed?
(x) In what style will the report be prepared?
Why does a researcher need a research Design ?
Need for research design
• Research design is needed because it facilitates the smooth sailing of
the various research operations, thereby making research as efficient
as possible yielding maximal information with minimal expenditure
of effort, time and money.
• A research design or a plan in advance of data collection and analysis
for our research project.
• Research design stands for advance planning of the methods to be
adopted for collecting the relevant data and the techniques to be used in
their analysis, keeping in view the objective of the research and the
availability of staff, time and money.
• Appropriate design must be prepared before starting research operations.
Features of a good design
• A good design is often characterised by adjectives like flexible,
appropriate, efficient, and economical .
• Generally, the design which minimises bias and maximises the
reliability of the data collected and analysed is considered a good
design.
• The design which gives the smallest experimental error is supposed to
be the best design in many investigations.
• A design may be quite suitable in one case, but may be found wanting in
one respect or the other in the context of some other research problem.
• One single design cannot serve the purpose of all types of research
problems.
• The appropriateness of a research design for a particular research
problem usually depends on the following factors:

(i) the means of obtaining information;

(ii) the availability and skills of the researcher and his staff, if any;
(iii) the objective of the problem to be studied;
(iv) the nature of the problem to be studied; and
(v) the availability of time and money for the research work.
Important concepts relating to research design
• Dependent and independent variables:

• Extraneous variable

• Control

• Confounded relationship

• Research hypothesis

• Experimental and non-experimental hypothesis-testing research

• Experimental and control groups

• Treatments

• Experiment
Dependent and independent variables:
• A concept which can take on different quantitative values is called a variable. As such the concepts like
weight, height, income are all examples of variables.
• Qualitative phenomena (or the attributes) are also quantified on the basis of the presence or absence of the
concerning attribute(s). Phenomena which can take on quantitatively different values even in decimal points are
called ‘continuous variables’.* But all variables are not continuous.
• If they can only be expressed in integer values, they are non-continuous variables or in statistical language
‘discrete variables’.
• Age is an example of continuous variable, but the number of children is an example of non-continuous variable.

• If one variable depends upon or is a consequence of the other variable, it is termed as a dependent variable, and
the variable that is antecedent to the dependent variable is termed as an independent variable.
For instance, if we say that height depends upon age, then height is a dependent variable and age is an
independent variable. Further, if in addition to being dependent upon age, height also depends upon the
individual’s gender, then height is a dependent variable and age and sex are independent variables.
Similarly, readymade films and lectures are examples of independent variables, whereas behavioural changes,
occurring as a result of the environmental manipulations, are examples of dependent variables.
Extraneous variable:
Control

One important characteristic of a good research design is to minimise the influence

or effect of extraneous variable(s). The technical term ‘control’ is used when we
design the study minimising the effects of extraneous independent variables. In
experimental researches, the term ‘control’ is used to refer to restrain experimental
conditions.
Confounded relationship:
• When the dependent variable is not free from the influence of
extraneous variable(s), the relationship between the dependent and
independent variables is said to be confounded by an extraneous
variable(s)

• OPTION #1: Design potentially confounding variables out of the

experiment and
• OPTION #2: Include the potentially confounding variables within
your experimental design.
Research hypothesis:
• When a prediction or a hypothesised relationship is to be tested by scientific
methods, it is termed as research hypothesis. The research hypothesis is a
predictive statement that relates an independent variable to a dependent variable.

• Usually a research hypothesis must contain, at least, one independent and one
dependent variable.

• Predictive statements which are not to be objectively verified or the relationships

that are assumed but not to be tested, are not termed research hypotheses.
Experimental and non-experimental
hypothesis-testing research:
• When the purpose of research is to test a research hypothesis, it is termed as
hypothesis-testing research.

• It can be of the experimental design or of the non-experimental design.

• Research in which the independent variable is manipulated is termed
‘experimental hypothesis-testing research’ and a research in which an
independent variable is not manipulated is called ‘non-experimental
hypothesis-testing research’.
• For instance, suppose a researcher wants to study whether intelligence
affects reading ability for a group of students.
• He randomly selects 50 students and tests their intelligence and reading
ability by calculating the coefficient of correlation between the two sets of
scores.
• This is an example of non-experimental hypothesis-testing research because
herein the independent variable, intelligence, is not manipulated.
• If researcher randomly selects 50 students from a group of students who are
to take a course in statistics and then divides them into two groups by
randomly assigning 25 to Group A, the usual studies programme, and 25 to
Group B, the special studies programme.

• At the end of the course, he administers a test to each group in order to

judge the effectiveness of the training programme on the student’s
performance-level. This is an example of experimental hypothesis-testing
research because in this case the independent variable, viz., the type of
training programme, is manipulated.
• Experimental and control groups: In an experimental hypothesis-
testing research when a group is exposed to usual conditions, it is
termed a ‘control group’, but when the group is exposed to some novel
or special condition, it is termed an ‘experimental group’. In the above
illustration, the Group A can be called a control group and the Group
B an experimental group.

• If both groups A and B are exposed to special studies programmes,

then both groups would be termed ‘experimental groups.’ It is possible
to design studies which include only experimental groups or studies
which include both experimental and control groups.
• Treatments: The different conditions under which experimental and
control groups are put are usually referred to as ‘treatments’.

• The two treatments are the usual studies programme and the special
studies programme. Similarly, if we want to determine through an
experiment the comparative impact of three varieties of fertilizers on
the yield of wheat, in that case the three varieties of fertilizers will be
treated as three treatments.
• Experiment: The process of examining the truth of a statistical hypothesis,
relating to some research problem, is known as an experiment. For example, we
can conduct an experiment to examine the usefulness of a certain newly developed
drug.

• Experiments can be of two types viz., absolute experiment and comparative

experiment. If we want to determine the impact of a fertilizer on the yield of a
crop, it is a case of absolute experiment; but if we want to determine the impact of
one fertilizer as compared to the impact of some other fertilizer, our experiment
then will be termed as a comparative experiment. Often, we undertake
comparative experiments when we talk of designs of experiments.
• Experimental unit(s): The pre-determined plots or the blocks, where different
treatments are used, are known as experimental units. Such experimental units
must be selected (defined) very carefully.
Concept of Cause, Causal relationships
• Most social scientific studies attempt to provide some kind of causal
explanation. A study on an intervention to prevent child abuse is trying
to draw a connection between the intervention and changes in child
abuse.

• Causality refers to the idea that one event, behavior, or belief will
result in the occurrence of another, subsequent event, behavior, or
belief. In other words, it is about cause and effect. It seems simple,
but you may be surprised to learn there is more than one way to
explain how one thing causes another.
• In causality, that means that in order to try to understand what
caused what
• An independent variable is the cause, and a dependent variable is the
effect. Why are they called that? Dependent variables depend on
independent variables. If all of that gets confusing, just remember this
graphical relationship:
Causality example
• For example, there is a correlation between ice cream sales and the
temperature, as you can see in the chart below .
• A hypothesis is a statement describing a researcher’s expectation regarding
what (s)he anticipates finding. Hypotheses in quantitative research are a
nomothetic causal relationship that the researcher expects to demonstrate.

Human
Wellbeing
Correlation examples
• For example, if they are fully correlated this will imply that the value of first will
increase (or decrease) in the same amount (percentage) as the value of second.
• Correlation doesn’t only work for site content and SEO but can also be used for
statistics, acquiring scientific evidence, risk control, improving technology, health
industry and when performing various studies.

Causality
• The relation between something that happens and the thing that causes it . The
first thing that happens is the cause and the second thing is the effect .
• It is very important to know that correlation does not mean causality. While
correlation is a mutual connection between two or more things, causality is the
action of causing something.
Research Designs: Concept, types and
uses. Concept of Cross-sectional and
Longitudinal Research. Experimental
Design
A Classification of Research Designs

Research Design

Exploratory Conclusive
Research Design Research Design

Descriptive Causal
Research Research

Cross-Sectional Longitudinal
Design Design

Single Cross- Multiple Cross-

Sectional Design Sectional Design
Exploratory & Conclusive Research Differences

Table 3.1 Exploratory Conclusive

Objective: To provide insights and To test specific hypotheses and examine
understanding relationships

Character- Information needed is defined only Information needed is clearly defined.

istics: loosely. Research process is flexible Research process is formal and
and unstructured. Sample is small structured. Sample is large and
and non-representative. Analysis of representative. Data analysis is
primary data is qualitative quantitative

Tentative
Findings/ Conclusive
Results:
Generally followed by further
Outcome: exploratory or conclusive research Findings used as input into decision
making
A Comparison of Basic Research Designs

Table 3.2 Exploratory Descriptive Causal

Objective: Discovery of ideas Describe market Determine cause
and insights characteristics or and effect
functions relationships

Characteristics: Flexible, versatile Marked by the prior Manipulation of

formulation of specific independent
hypotheses variables, effect
on dependent
Often the front end Preplanned and variables
of total research structured design
design Control mediating
variables
Expert surveys Secondary data:
Methods: Pilot surveys quantitative analysis Experiments
Case studies Surveys
Secondary data: Panels
qualitative analysis Observation and other
qualitative research data
Uses of Exploratory Research
• Formulate a problem or define a problem more precisely
• Identify alternative courses of action
• Develop hypotheses
• Isolate key variables and relationships for further examination
• Gain insights for developing an approach to the problem
• Establish priorities for further research
Methods of Exploratory Research

• Survey of experts
• Pilot surveys
• Secondary data analyzed in a qualitative way
• Qualitative research
Use of Descriptive Research

• To describe the characteristics of relevant groups, such as consumers,

salespeople, organizations, or market areas
• To estimate the percentage of units in a specified population exhibiting a
certain behavior
• To determine the perceptions about the characteristics of a product
• To determine the degree to which marketing variables are associated
• To make specific predictions
Cross-Sectional Designs
• Involve the collection of information from any given sample of population
elements only once
• In single cross-sectional designs, there is only one sample of respondents
and information is obtained from this sample only once.
• In multiple cross-sectional designs, there are two or more samples of
respondents, and information from each sample is obtained only once.
Often, information from different samples is obtained at different times.

• Cohort analysis consists of a series of surveys conducted at appropriate

time intervals, where the cohort serves as the basic unit of analysis. A
cohort is a group of respondents who experience the same event within
the same time interval.
Research Problem - To evaluate the change in purchase preferences of
buyers from Delhi in five years

Age of sample elements across different years

Year 2022 Year 2023 Year 2024 Year 2025 Year 2026
Age of sample elements at 20 years 20 years 20 years 20 years 20 Years
the time of data collection
Age of sample elements in 20 years 19 years 18 years 17 years 16 years
2022

Age of sample elements across different years

Year 2022 Year 2023 Year 2024 Year 2025 Year 2026
Age of panel elements at the 20 years 21 years 22 years 23 years 24 Years
time of data collection
Age of sample elements in 20 years 19 years 18 years 17 years 16 years
2022
Longitudinal Designs

• A fixed sample (or samples) of population elements is

measured repeatedly on the same variables

• A longitudinal design differs from a cross- sectional design

in that the sample or samples remain the same over time
Cross-Sectional vs. Longitudinal
Single
Sample
Cross- Surveyed
Sectional at T1
Design
Multiple Sample
Sample
Surveyed
Cross- Surveyed
at T2
at T1
Sectional
Design
Sample Same Sample
Longitudinal Surveyed at also Surveyed
Design T1 at T2

Time T1 T2
Relative Advantages and Disadvantages of Longitudinal and Cross- Sectional Designs

Table 3.4

Evaluation Cross-Sectional Longitudinal

Criteria Design Design
Detecting Change - +
Large amount of data collection - +
Accuracy - +
Representative Sampling + -
Response bias + -

Note: A “+” indicates a relative advantage over the other design,

whereas a “-” indicates a relative disadvantage.
Cross-Sectional Data May Not Show Change

Brand Purchased Time Period

Period 1 Period 2
Survey Survey

Brand A 200 200

Brand B 300 300
Brand C 500 500
Total 1000 1000
Uses of Causal Research
• To understand which variables are the cause (independent variables) and
which variables are the effect (dependent variables) of a phenomenon
• To determine the nature of the relationship between the causal variables
and the effect to be predicted
• METHOD: Experiments
Research Designs for various type of research
• Exploratory research: Survey of literature; experience survey; analysis of
insightful & stimulating examples.
• Descriptive Research:
(a) Formulating the objective of the study (what the study is about and why is it being made?)
(b) Designing the methods of data collection (what techniques of gathering data will be adopted?)
(c) Selecting the sample (how much material will be needed?)
(d) Collecting the data (where can the required data be found and with what time period should the data be
related?)
(e) Processing and analysing the data.
(f) Reporting the findings.
• Hypothesis-testing research studies: Experimental designs
Types of Validity

• External Validity
• Do the results apply to the broader population?

• Internal Validity
• Are the received findings absolutely correct?
For example - Is the independent variable (truly) responsible for the
observed changes in the dependent variable?
Confounding Variables That Threaten Internal Validity
• History
• Changes due to an event that occurs during the study, which might have affects the
results

• Maturation
• Changes due to normal growth or predictable changes

• Instrumentation
• Any change in the calibration of the measuring instrument over the course of the study

• Regression to the Mean

• Tendency for participants selected because of extreme scores to be less extreme on a retest

• Selection
• Any factor that creates groups that are not equal at the start of the study
• Attrition
• Loss of participants during a study; are the participants who drop out different
from those who continue?

• Diffusion of treatment
• Changes in participants” behavior in one condition because of information they
obtained about the procedures in other conditions
Subject Effects
• Participants are not passive
• They try to understand the study to help them to know what they “should do”
• This behavior termed “subject effects”
• Participants respond to subtle cues about what is expected (termed “demand
characteristics”)

• Placebo effect: treatment effect that is due to expectations that the

treatment will work
Experimenter Effects
• Any preconceived idea of the researcher about how the experiment
should turn out

• Compensatory effects
Experimental Designs
• Principles of experimental designs:
• Replication

• Randomization

• Local control
Types of Experimental designs
Important experiment designs are as follows:
(a) Informal experimental designs:
i. Before-and-after without control design.
ii. After-only with control design.
iii. Before-and-after with control design.
(b) Formal experimental designs:
i. Completely randomized design (C.R. Design).
ii. Randomized block design (R.B. Design).
iii. Latin square design (L.S. Design).
iv. Factorial designs.
Informal experimental designs:
i) Before-and-after without control design:

• Drawback: The passage of time considerable extraneous variations

may be there in its treatment effect.
ii) After-only with control design.

Assumptions:
Behaviour towards the phenomenon considered. If this assumption is not true, there
is the possibility of extraneous variation entering into the treatment effect. However,
data can be collected in such a design without the introduction of problems with the
passage of time.
In this respect the design is superior to before-and-after without control design.
 iii) Before-and-after with control design:

It avoids extraneous variation resulting both from the passage of time and from non-
comparability of the test and control areas.
b) Formal experimental designs:

i) Completely randomized design (C.R. design):

• Involves only two principles viz., the principle Replication and the principle of
randomization of experimental designs
• The two forms of such a design as given:
• Two-group simple randomized design

• Random replications design

• Two-group simple randomized design

Limitation: The individual differences among those conducting the treatments are not eliminated
• Random replications design

 Trainers’ impact or influence been minimized.

It provides controls for the differential effects
of the extraneous independent variables.
 It randomizes any individual differences among
those conducting the treatments.
ii) Randomized block design (R.B. design)
In the R.B. design the principle of local
control can be applied along with the
other two principles of experimental
designs.

The number of subjects in a given block

would be equal to the number of
treatments and one subject in each block
would be randomly assigned to each
treatment.

Two-way analysis of variance (two-way

ANOVA)* technique.
iii) Latin square design (L.S. design)
Experimental design very frequently used in agricultural research.
Example - The effects of five different varieties of fertilizers on
the yield of a certain crop is to be judged

A—E: variety of fertilizers.

Extraneous variables: soil fertility, seed differences.
It is applicable in the matrix of 5*5 or 9*9…..

Limitation:
This design is that it requires number of rows, columns and treatments
to be equal.
iii) Factorial designs:
• The effects of varying more than one factor are to be determined.
• They are specially important in several economic and social
phenomena where usually a large number of factors affect a particular
problem.

• Factorial designs can be of two types:

(i) simple factorial designs and
(ii) complex factorial designs.
• Simple factorial designs:

• Consider the effects of varying two factors on the dependent variable.

• Simple factorial design is also termed as a ‘two-factor-factorial design’.

• Simple factorial design may either be a 2 × 2 simple factorial design, or it may be,

say, 3 × 4 or 5 × 3 or the like type of simple factorial design

• Simple factorial design (2*2 matrix)
• Control variable (Level 1&2)
• Treatments (A&B)
•Samples should be divided into 4 cells
randomly.
• Test the interaction effect between
Control treatment.
•It can be 4*3 or 3*4 matrix
depending upon the control and
treatments.
 Complex factorial designs:
• Applied on more than one factor.
• Two or more control variable with experiment
variable.
• It helps in determining the interaction effects of
various levels; first order interaction (EV ×
CV1), second order interaction (EV × CV1 ×
CV2).
• The overall task goes on becoming more and
more complicated with the inclusion of more
and more independent variables in design.

Interaction effect of EV and CV1

References

Kothari, C. R. (2004). Research methodology: Methods and techniques. New

Age International.

Malhotra Naresh, K., & Dash, S. (2015). Marketing Research, an Applied

Orientation, 7e. Pearson India.