CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. History of water wheel powered reciprocating pump and spiral pump

Historians are not sure when water wheels were first used, but it is known that
they were in use in ancient Greece several centuries BC (Before Christ). They were
also widely used in the Roman Empire, including for the pumping of water from
mines. It is also thought that water wheels were developed separately in ancient
China, where they are known from the first century AD.

Water wheels were used throughout Europe during the middle Ages, where
they were the main source of power for driving large machines. Water wheels drove
the mills that ground grain into flour, and were also used in metal foundries and to
drive air blowers for the smelting of iron, for the crushing of rock, and for the
hammering of flax leaves to make paper.

The use of water wheels was limited to sites where there were suitable water
supplies and slopes. This was not always where the power was needed, such as in the
population centers or the mines and quarries. The use of water wheels to power large
machines was replaced during the Industrial Revolution the new technology of steam
power, which did not have the same limitations.

The Romans used water wheels extensively in mining projects. They were
reverse overshot water wheel designed for dewatering deep underground mines.
Several such devices were described by Vitruvius. The one found during modern
mining at the copper mines at Rio Tinto in Spain involved 16 such wheels stacked
above one another so as to lift water about 80 feet (24m) from the mine sump. Part of
a similar wheel dated to about 90 AD, was found in the 1930s, at Dolaucothi, a
Roman gold mine in South Wales.

The water wheel principle has been revived in more recent times as water
powered turbines that use the energy of water flowing down a slope to generate
hydroelectricity.
2.2. Types of water wheel powered plants

Waterwheels played a crucial role in various applications. Let’s explore some of

their uses:

1. Grinding Grain
2. Hammermills
3. Saw Mills
4. Pumping Water

2.2.1. Grinding Grain

Water mills were commonly used for grinding grain. They produced flour for
bread, malt for beer, and coarse meal for porridge.

Figure 2.1 Grinding Grain

2.2.2. Hammermills

Waterwheels powered hammermills, which were used for tasks like crushing
and pulverizing materials.

Figure 2.2 Hammermill

2.2.3. Saw Mill

Sawmills were also commonly used to cut marble. These sawmills were also
used to cut various other types of stones.

Figure 2.3 Saw Mill

2.2.4. Pumping Water

Power required to drive pump is obtained from water wheel. There are two types of
water wheel powered pump.

1. Reciprocating pump
2. Spiral Pump

2.3. Classification of Water Wheel

Figure 2.4 Reciprocating and spiral pump
2.3.1.

Water wheel powered reciprocating pump

 A water wheel powered reciprocating pump is a type of pump that uses a
water wheel to drive a piston that moves water in a cylinder. The water wheel is
rotated by the flow of water in a stream or river. The piston is connected to the water
wheel by a crankshaft and a rod. The piston alternately draws water from a lower
source and pushes it to a higher destination through valves. A water wheel powered
reciprocating pump can be classified by the type of water wheel (undershot, overshot,
breastshot ,etc.),the number of pistons (single or double acting ), and the arrangement
of the cylinders (horizontal or vertical).

2.3.2. Water wheel powered spiral pump

A spiral pump is a type of pump that uses a spiral tube wrapped around a
horizontal axis to pump water. The spiral tube has one end open and immersed in
water, and the other end closed and connected to a pipe. The spiral tube is rotated by a
water wheel that is also driven by the water flow. As the spiral tube rotates, it fills
with water and air alternately. The air is compressed by the rotation and pushes the
water out of the pipe. A spiral pump can be classified by the diameter and length of
the spiral tube, the number of turns and the angle of inclination.

2.4. Working principle of water wheel powered reciprocating pump and spiral
pump

A waterwheel is a simple turbine—a device with buckets, paddles or blades

that is rotated by moving water, converting the kinetic energy of water into
mechanical energy. A water wheel is a machine for converting the energy of flowing
or falling water into useful forms of power. Waterwheel, mechanical device for
tapping the energy of running or falling water by means of a set of paddles mounted
around a wheel. The force of the moving water is exerted against the paddles, and the
consequent rotation of the wheel is transmitted to machinery via the shaft of the
wheel. The waterwheel was perhaps the earliest source of mechanical energy to
replace that of humans and animals, and it was first exploited for such tasks as raising
water, fulling cloth, and grinding grain.
 A reciprocating pump utilizes a crankshaft-connecting rod mechanism
identical to internal combustion engines. The crankshaft-connecting rod mechanism
converts the rotary movement of the crankshaft to a reciprocating linear movement of
plungers or pistons. The plunger/piston movement creates volume changes. As a
cavity opens when a plunger/piston retracts, the fluid is admitted through an inlet
check valve.
When the plunger/piston reverses, the inlet check plunger/piston extends. The
outlet check valve opens and the fluid is forced out by the plunger/piston. The
discharge volume is fixed for each crankshaft revolution, regardless of the fluid being
pumped. Pressure is determined by the system flow resistance and pump construction
speed reduction is needed for decreasing high speed from the driver to low pump shaft
speed.
Several water columns are generated inside the spiral tube, separated from
each other by columns of compressed air trapped between the water columns. These
columns of compressed air push against the water columns, so that at the outlet (the
center of the wheel) the water achieves energy and velocity.

2.5. Advantages of Water Wheel powered Reciprocating and Spiral Pump

Some advantages of water wheel powered reciprocating pump and spiral pump are:

1.They can pump water without electricity, using the energy of flowing water. This
makes them more economical and environmentally friendly than conventional or
renewable energy sources.
2.They can deliver water at a higher elevation or a longer distance than the water
wheel, which is useful for irrigation purposes.
3.They have simple installation and low maintenance costs, as they are fabricated
from PVC and wood.
4.They have a fixed volume of fluid displacement at a given speed, which allows
them to perform well in flow applications such as dispensing and metering.
5.They require no priming and can work in a wide pressure range.
2.6. Main component of water wheel powered reciprocating and spiral pump

1.Water wheel
2.Reciprocating pump
3.Spiral pump
4.Air vessel
5.Shaft and bearing
6.Pully and belt
7.Frame
8.Pipe and pipe fitting
9.Gear

Figure 2.5 Water Wheel Power Reciprocating Pump and Spiral Pump

2.7.1. Water wheel

A waterwheel is a type of device that takes advantage of flowing or falling
water to generate power by using a set of paddles mounted around a wheel. The
falling force of the water pushes the paddles, rotating a wheel. This rotation of a
wheel can be transmitted to a variety of machines through a shaft at the center of the
wheel. These wheels are generally large and composed of wood or metal with many
blades or buckets along the edge of the wheel to capture the power of the moving
water.
 Waterwheels are usually positioned vertically over a water source. This means
that the axle is positioned horizontally. This axle transfers the energy from the falling
water to a drive belt or a system of gears that then operates some sort of machine.
These wheels require some source of falling or flowing water, and these sources can
include streams or rivers. Sometimes special ponds known as mill ponds were created
by damming a flowing stream. This creates a special channel known as a mill race
from the pond to the waterwheel.

Although waterwheels are not used widely today, hydroelectric dams function
on the same basic principle of using the power of flowing water to move machines
known as turbines.

Figure 2.6 Water wheel

2.7.2. Reciprocating pump

A reciprocating pump is a class of positive-displacement pumps that includes
the piston pump, plunger pump, and diaphragm pump to move fluid in and out of a
cylinder. It converts mechanical energy into hydraulic energy by creating pressure
different between the inlet and outlet of the pump. It is often used for pumping small
amounts of liquid at high pressure, such as water, oil, or gas. The main components of
a reciprocating pump are cylinder, piston or plunger piston rod, crank and connecting
rod, suction pipe, delivery pipe, suction valve and delivery valve, strainer and air
vessel. There are different types of reciprocating pumps based on the number of
cylinders. They are single cylinder pump, double cylinder pump, triple cylinder pump,
single acting pump, double acting pump and simple hand-operated pump.
 Figure 2.7 Reciprocating Pump

2.7.3. Spiral pump

The spiral pump uses the mechanical action of an eccentric screw to suck in
and discharge the slurry. The rotation of the screw inside the stator then creates a
series of hermetic chambers that move along the suction/discharge axis. The
advantage of spiral pumps is that they only suck up until the liquid reaches their
height (not like vacuum models to the highest point in the tank). They then send it to
the tank or spreading implement. Sucking up and discharging thick slurry through
long suction pipes become then possible. Storage lagoons over 3.5 m deep are
emptied within a reasonable time. A 3-way valve allows, besides the filling and
emptying functions, the mixing in closed circuit and the transfer from one pit to
another one. All spiral pumps on JOSKIN vehicles are ergonomically and compactly
positioned at the lowest point of the machine for an easy access and maintenance. The
screw inside the pump is continuously immersed in the liquid to be transferred to
reduce the risk of cavitation.
 Figure 2.8 Spiral pump

2.7.4. Air vessel

Air vessels in the reciprocating pump are used to reduce acceleration to a minimum.
In a reciprocating pump, the air vessel is a closed chamber made of cast iron with a
base aperture. These are attached to the pump's suction and delivery pipes not far
from the cylinder.

Figure 2.9 Air Vessel

2.7.5. Shaft and bearing

A shaft is the component of a mechanical device that transmits rotational
motion and power. • It is integral to any mechanical system in which power is
transmitted from a prime mover, such as an electric motor or an engine, to other
rotating parts of the system. A bearing is a machine element that constrains relative
motion to only the desired motion and reduces friction between moving parts. The
design of the bearing may, for example, provide for free linear movement of the
moving part or for free rotation around a fixed axis; or, it may prevent a motion by
controlling the vectors of normal forces that bear on the moving parts. Most bearings
facilitate the desired motion by minimizing friction. Bearings are classified broadly
according to the type of operation, the motions allowed, or the directions of the loads
(forces) applied to the parts.

Figure 2.10 Shaft and Bearing

2.7.6. Belt and pulley

A belt is a loop of flexible material used to link two or more rotating shafts
mechanically, most often parallel. Belts may be used as a source of motion, to
transmit power efficiently or to track relative movement. Belts are looped over
pulleys and may have a twist between the pulleys, and the shafts need not be parallel.
A pulley is a wheel on an axle or shaft enabling a taut cable or belt passing over the
wheel to move and change direction, or transfer power between itself and a shaft. A
sheave or pulley wheel is a pulley using an axle supported by a frame or shell (block)
to guide a cable or exert force.
 Figure 2.11 Belt and Pulley

2.7.7. Frame
The water frame is a spinning frame that is powered by a water-wheel. Frame is rigid
structure. It maintains it’s shape with or without external loads. The frame of water
wheel can be classified into different types based on the position of the wheel and the
direction of the water flow. Some common types are horizonal, vertical, overshot,
undershot, breastshot, and backshot. Each type has its own advantages and
disadvantages depending on the available water source and the desired output.

Figure 2.12 Frame of Water Wheel

2.7.8. Pipe
A pipe is a tubular section or hollow cylinder, usually but not necessarily of
circular cross-section, used mainly to convey substances which can flow — liquids
and gases (fluids), slurries, powders and masses of small solids. A pipe of water
wheel is a part of a micro-hydro system that delivers water from a source (such as a
stream, river, lake, or pond) to a turbine. The pipe is also called a penstock and it is
usually made of metal or plastic. The pipe of water wheel is an essential component of
a micro-hydro system that can provide renewable and continuous energy for farms
and homes.

Figure 2.13 Pipes of Water Wheel

2.7.9. Gear
A gear is a rotating circular machine part having cut teeth or, in the case of a
cogwheel or gearwheel, inserted teeth (called cogs), which mesh with another
(compatible) toothed part to transmit rotational power. While doing so, they can
change the torque and rotational speed being transmitted (in inverse proportion) and
also change the rotational axis of the power being transmitted. The teeth on the two
meshing gears all have the same shape.

Figure 2.14 Gear of Water Wheel

2.8 Spiral Pump

The spiral pump (also known as water wheel pump) is a hydraulic machine that
pumps water without electricity. With the global efforts to reduce carbon emissions,
the increased focus on renewable energy is making the spiral pimp a viable option for
pumping water , especially in rural areas and developing countries . Simple
installation and low maintenance costs make the spiral pump a favorable,
environmentally-friendly alternative.
A spiral pump is constituted of a pipe wrapped around a horizontal axle, generating a
spiral tube that is fastened to a water wheel. The water wheel is in flowing water, so
that the water in the river provides the energy necessary for the rotation of the wheel.
Hence, the spiral tube also rotates. When the inlet surface of the tube (the tube’s
external extremity) passes into the river, water enters into the tube. This water volume
moves toward the outlet of the tube (the internal extremity), at the center of the wheel,
where a straight tube is connected to the end-user.
Several water columns are generated inside the spiral tube, separated from each other
by columns of compressed air trapped between the water columns. These columns of
compressed air push against the water columns, so that at the outlet (the center of the
wheel) the water achieves energy and velocity. In this way, it can be pumped at a
higher elevation or at a certain distance from the river.
Figure 2.15 The Spiral Pump; A High Lift Or Slow Turning Pump
Wirtz spiral pumps;

The first spiral pump was created by a pewterer of Zurich, H. A. Wirtz in

1736, the original purpose was to provide water to a factory near Zurich (Tailer,
1986). The spiral pump is a low lift pump which consists of a long piece of metal
plating. It is wrapped around a coil and sealed at the top. The outmost of the tube
serves as the inlet for capturing water, while the innermost side connects to a long
tube as the outlet. Moreover, the outlet pipe is fixed to an engine or animal which can
give power to rotate the whole pump rapidly (Tailer, 1986).

Figure 2.16 The diagram of Wirtz pump

The pump is constructed to scoop half the volume of the outer coil. As water move
towards the centre of the pump, pressure transmits through the air between water
columns turns by turns. Pressure heads are generated due to the height difference in
each turn. At the end of the spiral, the head is accumulated to the last turn and pushes
the last water column out of the pump. Ewbank reported that the Wirtz spiral pump
made a huge success in Florence and Arkhangelsk in the later 18th century (Tailer,
1986). The water was lifted to around seventy-four feet high through a seven-
hundred-sixty feet pipe. This was a huge achievement at a time when pumping
facilities were not common (Tailer, 1986). However, this pump still had one major
drawback, it was extremely heavy due to the material chosen. These slow turning
pumps were replaced with high speed steam engines later.

2.9 Water Lifting Devices

The demands for water lifting devices began in ancient Egypt, China, and India; these
devices were built where the water essential for rural expansion was readily accessible
(Zarkadoulas et al., 2008). The purpose was to make water available at elevations
above the water source. Water delivery over long distances was based on gravity.
Since fossil fuel and electrically operated machines were unknown, handmade tools
driven by human and animal sources were designed (Mays L. W. 2010). Though these
tools saved energy and time for lifting water for households, industrial, and farm uses,
there were still drawbacks. Humans and animals were not efficient throughout the
year. As a result, great care was taken to prevent this breakdown and make backups.
In recent times, diesel-operated pumps and electrically powered water pumping
systems have been used for lifting water in the field for household and irrigation
purposes. However, diesel or electrically operated pumps are often not the best
choices based on their cost, access to fuel, and the level of technical skills needed to
operate and maintain the equipment. In recent years, the need for optimum water and
energy utilization has become a severe issue. It will become more critical as energy
sources to power these machines are becoming scarce due to the steady reduction of
fossil fuels and the increasing fuel price in the global market. As a result, significant
attempts have been made to develop alternative energy exchange systems, such as
solar, wind, and water (Gopal et al., 2013). Small-scale renewable energy
technologies have been commonly adopted to pump or lift water for homes and
agricultural purposes (Khiareddine et al., 2015, Neagel, 1991). The depletion of
fossil-fuel sources, and the environmental effects of these fossil fuels, have generated
an interest in selecting water-lifting devices free of environmental pollution. These 5
water-lifting devices are solar water pumps, hydraulic ram pumps, wind-powered
water-lifting devices, spiral water wheel pumps, and others (Yannopoulos et al.,
2015). These water pumps are essential in areas where agricultural lands are spread
over vast and remote areas and where electrical or gas power is not easily accessible.
Large distances between agricultural fields and the low energy transmission from
power stations make electrical power economically impractical. Additionally,
transporting petroleum/gasoline to remote areas for petrol/diesel engines is not cost-
effective. The skills for maintenance of petrol/diesel engines may not be readily
accessible in remote areas. Under these conditions, the power for irrigation must come
from local energy sources (Chueco-Fernández and Bayod-Rújula (2010), and Odeh et
al. 2006).

2.10 Solar Water Pump

Solar water pumps use solar radiation as an energy source. Maximum solar radiation
is available in the dry seasons, usually a period when supplemental irrigation is
needed to meet crop water requirements (Khiareddine et al., 2015). Solar-powered
pumping systems were designed to meet various home and on-farm water use
demands. The amount of water that solar water pumps can convey is a function of
several factors; the height at which the water can be lifted, the distance it has to travel
through a delivery pipe, the size of the pipe, the cost of the pump, and the available
power in the system. With a solar water pump, it is challenging to irrigate early in the
morning or late evening as there likely would not be enough sunlight to power a solar
pump in the absence of expensive, short lived batteries. Additionally, programming
the panels for a specified time to optimize water or energy will require technical skills
for regular checks and maintenance (Abu-Aligah 2011). Finally, solar water pumps
are not locally made, making them cost-prohibitive, especially in remote areas.

Figure 2.17 Solar Water Pump

2.11 Hydraulic Ram Pump

The hydraulic ram pump is a simple and environmentally friendly device that does not use
external power to lift water (Inthachot et al., 2015). The pump uses only the potential
energy of the flowing stream caused by the gravitational force. The hydraulic ram
pump can be an excellent alternative for solar water pumps. In particular, the
hydraulic ram pump has two moving parts; the waste valve and the discharge valve,
which operate on the water pumping sequence's active movement (Bergant et al.
2006). Only a smaller portion of the water can be lifted at a higher head or a long
distance with the hydraulic ram pump. A large amount of the water gets leaked
through the waste valve, leading to a low discharge rate at the outlet. The waste valve
and the pressure chamber have a significant influence on the outlet flow of the pump.
"The maximum productivity changes slightly with different modifications of the
waste valve, except for enormously high-velocity standards in the drive pipe, at which
the effectiveness will somewhat be lower (Sarma et al., 2016). The setup of the
hydraulic ram pump system is very straightforward. The system is comprised of a
drive pipe, ram body, air chamber, impulse valve, delivery valve, and delivery pipe
(Bergant et al. 2006). The hydraulic ram pump uses the 'water hammer effects
principle.' The valve closes to pause the water flowing from a source to the higher
hydraulic head. This feature limits the promotion and use of the pump. Therefore, it is
unsuitable for lifting water from flat-flowing water sources. Also, with the hydraulic
ram pumps, there is always a need to address sedimentation issues, and it requires a
continuous change of filters, with the high installation cost (Binama et al., 2017, de
Carvalho et al., 2011).
 Figure 2.18 Hydraulic Ram Pump

2.12 Spiral Water Wheel Pump

The unpredictability of water resources is growing due to population growth,

climate change, and agricultural development. With the constraint on the availability
of electricity and other conventional energies in some regions, transporting water
from nearby water bodies to homes and agricultural fields requires considerable
human effort and resources. Wirtz invented the first manual spiral pump in 1746
(Tailer, 2005) to supply water to a higher head for dye work outside Zurich. A version
of this low-cost spiral water wheel pump, described by Morgan (1984), raised 3700L
of water per hour to 8 meters above the canal elevation. The spiral water wheel pump
was developed as an alternative solution because of its reliability and durability to
meet farmers' needs in the field and homes for lifting water at a low cost without
using electricity or any fuel to improve seasonal crop productivity. In fields where
irrigation requires a continuous water supply at high heads and long distances with
variation in the flow rate, solar water and hydraulic ram pumps may not be efficient.
Therefore, the spiral water wheel pump may be the most suitable choice (Díaz et al.,
2020). The spiral water wheel pump is best suited for lifting water for homes and
agricultural productivity among the many water-lifting devices. The spiral wheel
pump can save about 70-75% of the cost spent on fuel/gasoline in electrical machines.
Hence, the investment cost is minimal (Carrasco, 2017). There is also little
maintenance problem. The pump is the best option and replacement for present-day
water pumping devices as it can be used in rural areas where the frequent breakdown
of electricity occurs. The spiral wheel pump has a 24-hours operating potential, but
seasonal low stream velocity may limit its yearly performance. The seasonal
differences can be mitigated through water storage, which may be essential for the full
24-hour pumping potential of the device. The spiral water wheel pump is highly
practicable where favorable site conditions, 8 materials, and skills exist. However, its
limiting height generally restrains its irrigation applicability to relatively narrow
regions of cultivated spaces close to streams and rivers. The spiral water wheel is
reliable, easily manufactured, installed, and repaired within this limitation but is
subject to damage when heavy floods occur. The theoretical model behind this study
followed many standard prior works on spiral water wheel pumps. Tailer (2005),
Morgan (1984), and Mortimer and Annabel (1984) presented theoretical models to
understand the variables and equations in the design of the spiral water wheel pump.
Specifically, they show the efficiency and optimal use of the spiral water wheel
pumps under varying conditions, such as the present research context. These works
collectively provided a classic conceptualization of the spiral water wheel pump
design. Following this, Tailer (2005) and Mortimer and Annabel (1984) provided the
basic theoretical models on the operation of the spiral water wheel pump for the
discharge rate and the maximum head attained for every increase in the number of
rotating coil pipes.

Figure 2.19 Picture of a spiral water wheel pump

2.12.1 Advantages of Spiral Pump

The spiral pump also known as a water wheel pump, offers several advantages,
especially in scenarios where electricity is not readily available. Let’s explore its
benefits:

1. Energy Efficiency: Spiral pumps operate without fuel or electricity. They

harness the energy from flowing water, preferably at avelocity faster than
1m/s.
Unlike onventional pumps that rely on external power sources, spiral pumps
utilize the natural flow of water to drive their operation.
 2. Cost-Effectiveness: The spiral pump offers ignificant cost savings. It can save
up to 70% of overall lifetime costs compared to diesel-powe pumps.
Since it requires no ongoing operation costs, it becomes an eonomically viable
choice for water pumping.

3. Environmentally Friendly: The spiral pump’s reliance on water flow makes

it an environmentally conscious option.
Its contributes to resuing carbon emissions and aligns with global efforts to
promote renewable energy sources.

4. Simple design and Low Maintane: The spiral pump consists of a pipe
wrapped around a horizontal axle, forming a spiral tube connected to water
wheel.
Its installation is straightforward, and maintenance costs remain minimal.

2.12.2 Application of Spiral Pumps

 Irrigation: Spiral pumps are particularly useful for irrigation purposes. They
can pump water to a maimum height of a least 20 meters and achieve a flow
rate of at least 43.6m3/day.
 Developing Countries: In rural areas and developing nations, spiral pumps
provide an accessible solution for both drip irrigation and partially for
drinking water.
 Commercial Use: Companies like aQyta have developed cost-effective spiral
pumps as commercial produts, installing them in various countries worldwide.