Topic: Evolution

Instructor: Ms. Marium Imtiaz

The Evolution of the Concept of Evolution
Introduction
• Curiosity about Origins:
• Humans have always been curious about how, when, and
where life originated.
• Various theories have been proposed, including special
creation, spontaneous generation, cosmozoan, and
biochemical evolution.
• Aristotle (384-322 B.C.)
• Scala Naturae:
• Aristotle categorized all living things in an orderly scheme
called the Scala Naturae (Ladder of Nature).
• This ladder depicted a progression from simple to complex
life forms, from fungi to humans.
Creationism
• Fixed Species Concept:
• Creationism posits that each species was created individually
by God and remains unchanged.
• This idea remained unchallenged for nearly 2000 years.
Early Naturalists
• Discoveries in Africa, Asia, and America:
• European naturalists found a greater diversity of life forms than
previously known.
• Some species closely resembled each other, suggesting possible
changes over time.
Fossil Evidence
• Fossil Records:
• Fossils found in deeper, older rock layers were simpler than those in
newer, shallower layers.
• This suggested a progression of life forms over time.
George Cuvier (1769-1832)
• Catastrophism:
• Cuvier proposed that species were created in the beginning and were
later destroyed by catastrophes.
• New species appeared in successive creation events.
Modern Interpretations
• Scientific Advances:
• Modern scientific research provides evidence for the theory of
evolution through genetic studies, fossil records, and observations of
natural selection.
• CuLouis Agassiz (1807-1873):
• Proposed new creation after each catastrophe.
• Modern species resulted from the most recent creation event.
Uniformitarianism
• James Hutton (1726-1797) and Charles Lyell (1797-1875):
• Proposed that the forces of wind, water, earthquakes, and
volcanism shaped Earth's features.
• Argued that these forces work over long periods (millions of
years).
• This concept is called uniformitarianism.
Geological Evidence
• Layered Rocks:
• Evidence of ordinary natural processes repeating over time.
• The idea that slow natural processes could create significant
geological features.
Time Frame for Evolution
• Hutton and Lyell:
• Concluded Earth must be ancient.
• Famous quote: “No vestige of a beginning, no prospect of an end”.
Lamarck's Theory
• Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (1744-1829):
• Proposed the inheritance of acquired characteristics.
• Hypothesized that organisms evolve by acquiring
traits and passing them on to offspring.
• Suggested an innate drive for perfection and
progression up the "ladder of nature".
Mid-1800s Realizations:
• Biologists began to understand similarities between
fossil forms and modern species.
• Realized current species could have evolved from pre-
existing forms.
Darwin and Wallace
• Mechanism for Evolution:
• 1858: Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace
independently provided evidence and mechanisms
for evolution through natural selection.
Evolution of Eukaryotes from Prokaryotes
Fossil Evidence
• Time Frame:
• Eukaryotes evolved from prokaryotes between 1.5 to 2
billion years ago.
Proposed Pathways
• Invasion by Prokaryotes:
• Two main pathways suggest the invasion of prokaryotic
cells by two smaller prokaryotic cells.
• These smaller cells became part of a larger cell,
enhancing its functions and capabilities.
• Processes Involved in Eukaryotic Evolution
1. Endosymbiosis
2. Membrane Infolding
Evolution of Eukaryotes from Prokaryotes
Endosymbiosis
• Lynn Margulis' Research:
• Hypothesized that beneficial invasions of prokaryotic cells led to the
formation of mitochondria and chloroplasts.
• These organelles in modern eukaryotic cells perform crucial functions like
cellular respiration and energy production.
Mechanisms of Invasion
• Direct Invasion:
• Smaller cells became part of larger cells as internal parasites or food
sources.
• Second Invasion:
• A second event brought ancestral chloroplasts, believed to be small,
photosynthetic cyanobacteria.
Supporting Evidence for Endosymbiosis
• Modern Evidence:
• Mitochondria and chloroplasts have their own genes, circular DNA and RNA.
• They reproduce by binary fission, independent of the host cell's cycle.
• These features make them more similar to prokaryotes than eukaryotes.
Lamarckism
Introduction
• Jean Baptiste de Lamarck (1744-1829):
• French naturalist who proposed the theory
of organic evolution based on the
inheritance of acquired characters.
• Published "Philosophic Zoologique" in 1809.
Key Concepts
• Acquired Characteristics:
• Structural changes induced in an organism's
lifetime due to environmental changes or
use/disuse of organs.
• These changes are inherited by offspring.
Lamarckism
Examples Provided by Lamarck
1. Evolution of Giraffes:
• Ancestors of giraffes lived in environments with scarce
ground vegetation.
• They stretched their necks to browse leaves from taller
trees.
• Over generations, this led to the elongation of their
necks and forelimbs, which was then inherited by their
offspring.
2. Loss of Limbs in Snakes:
• Ancestral snakes had limbs.
• As they adapted to burrowing and a concealing lifestyle,
limbs became unnecessary.
• Gradual reduction and eventual loss of limbs occurred
over generations.
Lamarckism
Limitations
• Modern Understanding:
• Bodily modifications from use or disuse
or environmental changes cannot lead
to new species unless inherited.
• The principle of inheritance of acquired
characters is incorrect based on
modern genetics.
Darwinisim
Darwin's Voyage of HMS Beagle and His
Observations
• Charles Darwin (1809-1882):
• English naturalist.
• Pioneered the theory of evolution by natural
selection.
• Published "On the Origin of Species."
The Voyage of the HMS Beagle
• 1831-1836:
• Darwin was appointed as a naturalist on the
HMS Beagle.
• The ship embarked on a five-year journey to
map navigation charts for the British Navy.
Darwinisim
Route and Key Locations
• England to South America:
• Started from England, traveled to the coast of South America.
• Galápagos Islands:
• Crucial observations made on the unique species of these
islands.
• Across the Pacific to Australia:
• Continued the journey across the Pacific Ocean to Australia.
• Indian Ocean and South Africa:
• Traveled through the Indian Ocean and around the southern
tip of Africa.
• Return to England:
• Completed the journey back to England.
Significance
• Observations and Data Collection:
• Darwin's observations of diverse species and geological
formations during the voyage were critical in developing his
theory of natural selection.
Darwin's Theory of Evolution
Darwin's Initial Beliefs:
• Initially believed in the fixity of species and special
creation.
• Focused on collecting and studying thousands of animal
and plant specimens during the voyage.
Observations on the Galápagos Islands
• Diversity of Species:
• Noticed the diversity of giant tortoises and finches (13
types) on the Galápagos Islands.
• Fauna and flora of South America were distinct from
those in Europe.
• Impressed by the geographical distribution and
interrelationship among species.
Key Insights
• Gradual Accumulation of Adaptations:
• Observations led to the idea that new species originate
from ancestral forms through gradual adaptations.
• Publication of "On the Origin of Species" (1859):
• Delayed publication, catalyzed by Alfred Wallace, who
independently developed a similar theory.
Darwin's Theory of Evolution
Salient Features of Darwin-Wallace Theory
1. Overproduction:
1. Each population has the potential to produce large numbers of
offspring.
2. Environmental resources (food, space, mates, etc.) are limited,
leading to competition for resources.
2. Struggle for Existence:
1. Organisms compete for limited resources necessary for
survival.
3. Variation:
1. Individual organisms within a species exhibit variation in traits.
4. Natural Selection or Survival of the Fittest:
1. Organisms with favorable traits are more likely to survive and
reproduce.
2. These favorable traits are passed on to future generations.
5. Speciation or Origin of New Species:
1. Over time, accumulation of favorable adaptations leads to the
formation of new species.
Neo-Darwinism and the Modern Synthesis
• Since natural selection was proposed,
advances in genetics, biochemistry,
ecology, and paleontology have enabled
scientists to identify mutation, genetic
drift, and gene flow as other natural
forces of evolutionary change.
• The pioneering work of Cheverikov, Mayr,
Simpson, and many others led to what
became known as the modern synthesis.
• Neo-Darwinism, which emphasizes the
role of genetics in explaining how
evolution works, has led to the
acceptance of five major causes of
evolution by modern theory:
• Gene and Chromosomal Mutation
• Both gene and chromosomal mutations can
bring about variations, leading to evolution.
Neo-Darwinism and the Modern Synthesis
• Genetic Recombination
• Reshuffling of genes during sexual
reproduction.
• Meiosis causes random assortment of genes
during synapsis and rearrangement of
paternal and maternal chromosomes in both
types of gametes.
• This reassortment and crossing over of genes
during meiosis lead to new combinations of
characteristics, adding to genetic variability.
• Natural Selection
• Utilizes variations and mutations as raw
materials for better survival.
• Natural selection due to environmental
influences molds species to fit their changed
environment.
Genetic Drift
•Mutation is either lost or fixed.
•When a species moves to a new area, individuals are not fully
suited to the new environment.
•They are exposed to mutations with their gene pool markedly
different from the parent population.
•When a species expands continuously, populations invade new
areas and become more genetically diverse.
•This results in the modification of these populations into new
species, determining evolution through genetic drift.

Reproductive Isolation
•Regarded as one of the most important factors of evolution.
•Prevents interbreeding among individuals of different species.
•Helps in the splitting of species and the establishment of new
species, driving evolution.
Evidences of Evolution
• New species are evolved by descent with modification from a
common ancestor. Many facts and evidences from various
subdivisions of biological science prove that evolution has
occurred. Some of these evidences are as follows:
• Evidence from Comparative Anatomy
• Studies in comparative anatomy provide many evidences of evolution.
• Homologous structures: Structures that have the same general
arrangement of parts and similar mode of development but different
functions, indicating a common ancestor. This condition is known as
homology.
• Examples include:
• Human hand (grasping)
• Bat's wing (flying)
• Cat's paw and horse front leg (running)
• Front flipper of a whale (swimming)
• These structures consist of the same number of bones, muscles,
nerves, and blood vessels arranged in the same pattern but with
different uses.
• Conclusion: Groups of organisms have diverged sufficiently from an
ancestral type to constitute new species.
Evidence from Vestigial Organs
• Some of the examples of vestigial
organs in human beings are nictitating
membranes of eye, appendix, coccyx or
tail bone and mammary glands of male.
• Vestigial organs are not confined to
man only. Whale has vestiges of hind
limbs buried in the flesh, when; its tail
begins.
• Python (a snakes) has tiny bony
structures beneath the skin, which are
the remains of its ancestral hind limb.
Evidence from Biochemistry
• Protoplasm
• The DNA and RNA show
remarkable similarity in structure
and function.
• The process of protein synthesis is
essentially identical in all living
beings.
• The occurrence of ATP as the
reservoir of energy emphasizes
the aspect of common origin.
Evidence form Molecular Biology
• The modem molecular biology indicates there
is a biochemical similarity in all living things.
• For example, the same mechanisms for
trapping and transforming energy and for
building proteins from amino acids are nearly
identical in almost all living systems.
• DNA and RNA are the mechanisms for
inheritance and gene activity in all living
organisms. The structure of the genetic code is
almost identical in all living things.
• This uniformity in biochemical organization
underlies the diversity of living things and
points to evolutionary relationships .
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