MINING

Mining- the extraction of minerals from underground

 The rock type in an area influences the mineral that can be found in that area since some
minerals are found in certain types of rocks
 Most of Botswana’s mineral resources are found in the Eastern part in areas of old
basement rock (ancient igneous and metamorphic rocks)
 Diamonds are found in kimberlite pipes and in Jwaneng they are found under Sand and
calcretes rock types.
 Coal is found under young sedimentary rocks.
 Soda ash is found in pans under salt deposits rock type.
 Copper and nickel are found in basement rocks.

MAP OF BOTSWANA SHOWING THE DISTRIBUTION OF MAJOR ROCK

TYPES

(b) MAP OF BOTSWANA SHOWING THE DISTRIBUTION OF SIGNIFICANT

MINERAL DEPOSITS

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FACTORS INFLUENCING MINING/ THE EXPLOITATION OF MINERALS
 Quality or value of mineral
 Quantity of mineral
 Geological occurrence of mineral
 Market/ price at market/value
 Availability of Water
 Availability of Power/ electricity
 Availability of skilled Labour or technology
 Accessibility to roads and railway lines
 Government policy
 Capital

WHY SOME MINERALS ARE NOT EXPLOITED IN BOTSWANA

 Low deposits/ low mineral ore/small quantities
 Difficult geological position/ too deep/ below water table/ along faults
 Lack of market/ low demand
 Remote locations/ inaccessible mineral ore
 Government policy
 Low quality/ Not profitable

MINING METHODS

(a) SHAFT MINING METHOD

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 - Used when the mineral is deep underground e.g copper nickel mine in Selibe Phikwe
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FORMATION/ OCCURRENCE OF COPPER
 Occur in Basement rocks/ancient igneous rocks
 Has 1% mineral content
 Combined with nickel and cobalt

DESCRIPTION OF HOW COPPER IS MINED

- A vertical shaft is dug using heavy machinery (highly mechanized eg, drill bits, lifts,
cranes etc.)
- Horizontal tunnels/ galleries are made to the ore body
- Drilling
- Blasting with explosives

DANGERS ASSOCIATED WITH SHAFT MINING

- Rocks may fall
- Gas explosion/ pollution/ fire outbreaks
- Floods
- High temperatures
- Poor ventilation/suffocation
- Subsidence/ mine collapsing

(b) OPEN PIT METHOD

Used when the mineral is close to the surface e.g Jwaneng and Orapa/ Letlhakane diamond mines
HOW ARE DIAMONDS FORMED/ GEOLOGICAL OCCURRENCE
 Occur in Kimberlite/ igneous rocks
 Volcanic eruptions
 Occur in old volcanic Pipe/ vent
 Crystallised carbon

HOW DIAMONDS ARE MINED

- The process is highly mechanized
- Heavy machinery is used for drilling

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 - Explosives are then used to blast mineral ore
- Blasted material transported by heavy trucks to the surface

(c) ADIT
This method is used to mine minerals on the side of the hill. The mineral deposits are reached by
digging tunnels known as adits from the valleys into the hill sides.

(d) PANNING
This method of mining is used to extract minerals found by the river beds. All the miner needs is
a shovel, an old dishpan, a magnifying glass, a pair of tweezers and asmall plastic vial in which to
place the mineral.

IMPORTANCE OF MINING TO THE COUNTRY’S ECONOMY

- Generates foreign exchange through exports

- Employment creation to the locals/ source of income
- Stimulates the growth of other industries
- Leads to development of infrastructure e.g roads and railway lines
- Government revenue through taxes
- Training/skills development
- Diversifies the economy
- Prestige from diamonds
- Promotes self sufficiency/ reduces imports
- Provides raw materials for manufacturing industries

IMPACT/ EFFECTS OF MINING ON THE ENVIRONMENT

- Excavation pits/holes/trenches
- Deforestation/loss of vegetation
- Pollution
- Mine dumps/waste heaps/artificial hills
- Slime dams
- subsidence
- Reservoirs/dams/railway and roads/power lines
- Settlement creation/ buildings

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POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS TO ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS FROM MINING
- Reconstruction of mined area into game and recreational parks
- Refill pits
- Level waste heaps
- Convert mine pits into waste dumping sites/ landfill
- Re-afforestation / Afforestation

MINERAL LED ECONOMIES

 Mineral led economies are economies that are completely dependent upon the
exploitation/extraction of minerals i.e not engaging in other sectors of the economy such
as agriculture, tourism and manufacturing.

PROBLEMS OF A MINERAL LED ECONOMY

- Can lead to closure of businesses
- Loss of jobs upon closure of mines as minerals are non-renewable
- Can lead to depopulation of a town
- Can lead to an increase in poverty upon closure of a mine
- The closure on mines may turn mining towns into ghost towns
- Investors may pull out
- Decline in government revenue when mine closes down
- Loss of skilled labour since trained people may migrate upon closure of mine

FACTORS THAT COULD LEAD TO THE CLOSING OF MINES

- Inaccessible mineral ore eg. Too deep, folded/ faulted, below water table/flooding
- Small quantities/ depletion of mineral
- Government policy/politics
- Lack of market/ low demand/ economic recession
- Political instability in the area
- Mineral not being profitable/ low prices/ price fluctuations
- Lack of capital to sustain the mine/ bankruptcy
- Alternative products

PROBLEMS LIKELY TO OCCUR WHEN A MINE CLOSES

 Loss of jobs/ lack of income

 Poverty
 Lack of GNP/ government revenue
 Closure of some businesses
 Rise in inflation
 Development of ghost towns/ out- migration/ depopulation of towns
 Illegal mining

STRATEGIC MINERALS

 These are minerals that have other importance besides wealth.

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EXAMPLES

(a) COAL – for the production of cheap thermal energy and promoting industrialisation.

(b) OIL – for fuel production. This has affected the world’s politics e.g Middle East in the case of
the Gulf war when Iraq invaded Kuwait which supplied most of Europe and America with cheap
oil.
There has been a rapid increase in oil consumption because of:
 Increased industrial development
 Increased population
 Improved lifestyles/ increased vehicles
 Technological advancement
 Increased mobility

(c) URANIUM – for the production nuclear energy and weapons. Nuclear energy is
least used because:
 It occurs in very few areas
 Expensive/ difficult to develop
 Highly toxic/ dangerous
 It is not easy to dispose its waste
 International restrictions by U.N.

(d) GOLD – bases of the world’s money economy and jewellery.

(e) IRON ORE – Essential raw material for making steel products.
Many industries depend on steel and so it can lead to rapid industrialisation.

(d) DIAMOND – for wealth, jewellery, making cutting tools and development.