INTELLIGENT SYSTEMS UNIT-1
OVERVIEW OF AI PROBLEM:
P Class :
The P in the P class stands for Polynomial Time. It is the collection of decision
problems(problems with a “yes” or “no” answer) that can be solved by a
deterministic machine in polynomial time.
Features:
• The solution to P problems is easy to find.
• P is often a class of computational problems that are solvable and
tractable. Tractable means that the problems can be solved in theory
as well as in practice. But the problems that can be solved in theory
but not in practice are known as intractable.
NP Class
The NP in NP class stands for Non-deterministic Polynomial Time. It is the
collection of decision problems that can be solved by a non-deterministic
machine in polynomial time.
Features:
• The solutions of the NP class are hard to find since they are being
solved by a non-deterministic machine but the solutions are easy to
verify.
• Problems of NP can be verified by a Turing machine in polynomial
time.
• NP problems were a little harder for me to understand, but I
think this is what they are. In terms of solving a NP problem, the
run-time would not be polynomial. It would be something like
O(n!) or something much larger. However, this class of problems
can be given a specific solution, and checking the solution would
have a polynomial run-time. An example that helped me
understand this a little better was a Sudoku game.
Example:
In order to solve this entire puzzle, the algorithm would have to check
each 3x3 matrix to see which numbers are missing, then each row, then
each column, and then make sure there are no repetitions of any digit
from 0–9. This becomes more complex because the number of digits
that are missing is inconsistent in each row, column, and matrix (i.e.
top-left matrix is missing 4 digits while top-right matrix is missing 8
digits). Solving this problem would not have a polynomial run-time.
However, if you were to feed this puzzle with a possible solution, it
would be much less complex to check if there are any repetitions in the
rows, columns and matrices. This is a simple check which would have a
polynomial run-time.
In essence, NP class problems don’t have a polynomial run-time
to solve, but have a polynomial run-time to verify solutions (difficult to
solve, easy to check a given answer).
NP-Hard Problems:
An NP-hard problem is at least as hard as the hardest problem in NP and it is
a class of problems such that every problem in NP reduces to NP-hard.
Features:
• All NP-hard problems are not in NP.
• It takes a long time to check them. This means if a solution for an NP-
hard problem is given then it takes a long time to check whether it is
right or not.
• A problem A is in NP-hard if, for every problem L in NP, there exists a
polynomial-time reduction from L to A.
example of an NP-hard problem is the optimization problem of finding the
least-cost cyclic route through all nodes of a weighted graph. This is
commonly known as the traveling salesman problem.
EXAMPLE OF NP HARD PROBLEM:
Travelling Salesman Problem (TSP):
Given a set of cities and the distance between every pair of cities, the problem
is to find the shortest possible route that visits every city exactly once and
returns to the starting point.
Note the difference between Hamiltonian Cycle and TSP. The Hamiltonian
cycle problem is to find if there exists a tour that visits every city exactly once.
Here we know that Hamiltonian Tour exists (because the graph is complete)
and in fact, many such tours exist, the problem is to find a minimum weight
Hamiltonian Cycle.
For example, consider the graph shown in the figure on the right side. A TSP
tour in the graph is 1-2-4-3-1. The cost of the tour is 10+25+30+15 which is
80. The problem is a famous NP-hard problem. There is no polynomial-time
know solution for this problem. The following are different solutions for the
traveling salesman problem.
NP-complete:
NP-complete problems are a subset of the larger class of NP
(nondeterministic polynomial time) problems. NP problems are a class of
computational problems that can be solved in polynomial time by a non-
deterministic machine and can be verified in polynomial time by a deterministic
Machine. A problem L in NP is NP-complete if all other problems in NP can be
reduced to L in polynomial time. If any NP-complete problem can be solved in
polynomial time, then every problem in NP can be solved in polynomial
time. NP-complete problems are the hardest problems in the NP set.
A decision problem L is NP-complete if it follow the below two properties:
1. L is in NP (Any solution to NP-complete problems can be checked
quickly, but no efficient solution is known).
2. Every problem in NP is reducible to L in polynomial time (Reduction is
defined below).
A problem is NP-Hard if it obeys Property 2 above and need not obey
Property 1. Therefore, a problem is NP-complete if it is both NP and NP-hard.
Strong and weak AI:
1. Weak AI or Narrow AI:
o Narrow AI is a type of AI which is able to perform a dedicated task with
intelligence.The most common and currently available AI is Narrow AI in the world
of Artificial Intelligence.
o Narrow AI cannot perform beyond its field or limitations, as it is only trained for
one specific task. Hence it is also termed as weak AI. Narrow AI can fail in
unpredictable ways if it goes beyond its limits.
o Apple Siriis a good example of Narrow AI, but it operates with a limited pre-defined
range of functions.
o IBM's Watson supercomputer also comes under Narrow AI, as it uses an Expert
system approach combined with Machine learning and natural language
processing.
o Some Examples of Narrow AI are playing chess, purchasing suggestions on e-
commerce site, self-driving cars, speech recognition, and image recognition.
STRONG AI OR SUPER AI:
o Super AI is a level of Intelligence of Systems at which machines could surpass
human intelligence, and can perform any task better than human with cognitive
properties. It is an outcome of general AI.
o Some key characteristics of strong AI include capability include the ability to think,
to reason,solve the puzzle, make judgments, plan, learn, and communicate by its
own.
o Super AI is still a hypothetical concept of Artificial Intelligence. Development of
such systems in real is still world changing task.
SUB-symbolic AI
Non-symbolic AI systems do not manipulate
a symbolic representation to find solutions to problems. Instead, they
perform calculations according to some principles that have demonstrated
to be able to solve problems. Without exactly understanding how to arrive
at the solution. Examples of Non-symbolic AI include genetic algorithms,
neural networks and deep learning. The origins of non-symbolic AI come
from the attempt to mimic a human brain and its complex network of
interconnected neurons. Non-symbolic AI is also known as “Connectionist
AI” and the current applications are based on this approach – from
Google’s automatic transition system (that looks for patterns), IBM’s
Watson, Facebook’s face recognition algorithm to self-driving car
technology.
Symbolic AI
Symbolic Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a subfield of AI that focuses on the
processing and manipulation of symbols or concepts, rather than
numerical data. Symbolic Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a subfield of AI that
focuses on the processing and manipulation of symbols or concepts, rather
than numerical data. The goal of Symbolic AI is to build intelligent systems
that can reason and think like humans by representing and manipulating
knowledge and reasoning based on logical rules.
Examples of Real-World Symbolic AI Applications
Symbolic AI has been applied in various fields, including natural language processing,
expert systems, and robotics. Some specific examples include:
• Siri and other digital assistants use Symbolic AI to understand natural
language and provide responses.
• Medical diagnosis systems use Symbolic AI to provide recommendations to
doctors based on patient symptoms (as demonstrated earlier).
• Autonomous cars use Symbolic AI to make decisions based on the
environment, such as recognizing stop signs and traffic lights.
• Computer vision systems use Symbolic AI to recognize objects and
patterns in images.
Symbolic AI vs Non-symbolic AI
• Symbolic AI refers to the fact that all steps are based on symbolic
human readable representations of the problem that use logic and
search to solve problem.
• Key advantage of Symbolic AI is that the reasoning process can be
easily understood – a Symbolic AI program can easily explain why a
certain conclusion is reached and what the reasoning steps had
been.
• A key disadvantage of Non-symbolic AI is that it is difficult to
understand how the system came to a conclusion. This is particularly
important when applied to critical applications such as self-driving
cars, medical diagnosis among others.
• A key disadvantage of Symbolic AI is that for learning process – the
rules and knowledge has to be hand coded which is a hard problem.
• Non-symbolic systems such as DL-powered applications cannot
take high-risk decisions
• So far, symbolic AI has been confined to the academic world and
university labs with little research coming from industry giants.
knowledge-based system:
Knowledge-based systems (KBS) are computer programs that use a
centralized repository of data known as a knowledge base to provide a
method for problem-solving. Knowledge-based systems are a form of artificial
intelligence (AI) designed to capture the knowledge of human experts to
support decision-making. An expert system is an example of a knowledge-
based system because it relies on human expertise.
KBS can assist in decision-making, human learning and creating a
companywide knowledge-sharing platform, for example. KBS can be used as
a broad term, but these programs are generally distinguished by representing
knowledge as a reasoning system to derive new knowledge.
A basic KBS works using a knowledge base and an interface engine. The
knowledge base is a repository of data that contains a collection of information
in a given field -- such as medical data. The inference engine processes and
locates data based on requests, similar to a search engine. A reasoning
system is used to draw conclusions from data provided and make decisions
based on if-then rules, logic programming or constraint handling rules. Users
interact with the system through a user interface.
Data driven AI:
Data-driven AI is all about one thing: learning from data. It’s the practice of
developing AI models that make decisions, predictions, or
recommendations based on large volumes of data. Unlike traditional rule-
based systems, where algorithms are explicitly programmed, data-driven AI
excels at learning patterns, relationships, and behaviors from the data it
encounters.
Consider recommendation engines like Netflix’s, which leverage your past
viewing habits and the habits of other users to suggest your next binge-
worthy series. Behind the scenes, its algorithms analyze massive datasets to
understand your preferences, ultimately enhancing your streaming
experience.
Risks and Mitigations of Data-driven AI
The rapid rise of data-driven AI comes with a fair share of risks. As these
algorithms process vast datasets, privacy concerns loom large. Take social
media platforms, for instance, which often find themselves in hot water for
mishandling user data. Transparency and strong privacy measures are
critical to mitigate these risks.
Another challenge is data quality. AI models trained on incomplete or
biased data can perpetuate biases or generate inaccurate results. It’s
essential to ensure that data used for training AI systems is diverse,
representative, and regularly audited.
The ethical aspects of AI are increasingly important. Decisions made by AI
can have profound implications, from hiring processes to medical
diagnoses. Ensuring fairness and accountability in AI models is paramount.
Data-driven AI Examples:
AI is omnipresent today. In the healthcare industry, it’s transforming
disease diagnosis and drug discovery. In finance, AI algorithms analyze
stock market data for trading insights. Even in agriculture, AI-powered
precision farming optimizes crop yields based on weather, soil, and
historical data.
An example that resonates with many is voice recognition. Voice assistants
like Siri and Alexa understand and respond to your voice commands by
continuously analyzing the data generated by your interactions. These
assistants learn and adapt to better understand you over time, showcasing
the power of data-driven AI.
