Electrical Engineering 2020-2021/ Ravi Kumar Soni

COURSE FILE
PROGRAM: B.Tech. Engineering (common to all branches)
SEMESTER: Ist Sem
COURSE: Basic Electrical Engineering

CODE: 1FY3 -08/2FY3-08

SESSION: 2020 - 2021

NAME OF FACULTY: RAVI KUMAR SONI

DEPARTMENT: Electrical Engineering

1
Basic Electrical Engineering
Electrical Engineering 2020-2021/ Ravi Kumar Soni

Teaching Scheme

2
Basic Electrical Engineering
Electrical Engineering 2020-2021/ Ravi Kumar Soni

Syllabus

SN CONTENTS HOURS
1 DC Circuits: Electrical circuit elements (R, L and C), voltage and current sources, 05
Kirchhoff current and voltage laws, Series-Parallel circuits, Node voltage method,
Mesh current method, Superposition, Thevenin’s, Norton’s and Maximum power
transfer theorems.
2 AC Circuits: Representation of sinusoidal waveforms, peak and r.m.s values, 04
phasor representation, real power, reactive power, apparent power, power factor.
Analysis of single-phase AC circuits consisting of R, L, C, RL, RC and RLC
combinations (series and parallel), resonance. Three phase balanced circuits, voltage
and current relations in star and delta connections.
3 Transformers: Ideal and practical transformer, EMF equation, equivalent circuit, 04
losses in transformers, regulation and efficiency.
4 Electrical Machines: Generation of rotating magnetic fields, Construction and 07
working of a three-phase induction motor, Significance of torque-slip characteristic.
Starting and speed control of induction motor, single phase induction motor.
Construction, working, torque-speed characteristic and speed control of separately
excited DC motor. Construction and working of synchronous generators.
5 Power Converters: Semiconductor PN junction diode and transistor (BJT). 04
Characteristics of SCR, power transistor and IGBT. Basic circuits of single phase
rectifier with R load, Single phase Inverter, DC-DC converter.
6 Electrical Installations: Layout of LT switchgear: Switch fuse unit (SFU), MCB, 04
ELCB, MCCB, Type of earthing. Power measurement, elementary calculations for
energy consumption.
TOTAL 28

3
Basic Electrical Engineering
Electrical Engineering 2020-2021/ Ravi Kumar Soni

TIME TABLE

Sobhasaria Engineering College, Sikar

TIME-TABLE FOR SESSION 2018-2019 (EVEN SEMESTER)
RAVI KUMAR ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
DAY/TI 9:55- 10:50- 11:45- 12:40-
ME 9.00-9:55 10:50 11:45 12:40 1:20 1:20-2:15 2:15-3:10 3:10-4:00
UEP
MOND
EECA
AY VIII VI
UEP
DE
TUESD
AY R.SONI VIII
UEP
DE DE
WEDNE
SDAY VIII R.SONI R.SONI

EECA DE CBPS LAB

THURS
DAY VI R.SONI R.SONI
UEP
EECA M&S LAB

FRIDAY VIII VI R.SONI

EECA
SATUR
DAY VI

4
Basic Electrical Engineering
Electrical Engineering 2020-2021/ Ravi Kumar Soni

LESSON PLAN
Teacher: Ravi Kumar Soni Subject Name :- ELECTRICAL MACHINE DESIGN
POWER Subject Code: 5EE4-05 Class/Section: EE/ V Sem
Session: 2020-21 Dept. : Electrical Engineering

Lect. Ref. Topics to be covered

No(s) No.
1 0 Introduction: Objective, scope and outcome of the course.
UNIT 1: DC Circuits

2-3 1.1 Electrical circuit elements (R, L and C), voltage and current sources
4 1.2 Kirchhoff current and voltage laws
5 1.3 Series-Parallel circuits
6 1.4 Node voltage method, Mesh current method
7-8 1.5
Superposition, Thevenin’s, Norton’s and Maximum power transfer theorems.
UNIT 2 AC Circuits

9 2.1 Representation of sinusoidal waveforms

10 1.6 Peak and r.m.s values, phasor representation

11 1.7 Real power, reactive power, apparent power, power factor.

12 1.8 Analysis of single-phase AC circuits consisting of R, L, C, RL, RC and RLC

combinations (series and parallel),

13 2.4 Resonance.

14 2.5 Three phase balanced circuits

15-16 2.6 voltage and current relations in star and delta connections.

UNIT 3: Transformers, Electrical Machines

17 3.1 Ideal and practical transformer, EMF equation,

18 3.2 Equivalent circuit, losses in transformers,

19 3.3 regulation and efficiency.

20 3.4
Generation of rotating magnetic fields,
21-22 3.5
Construction and working of a three-phase induction motor, Significance of torque-slip
characteristic.
23-24 3.6 Starting and speed control of induction motor, single phase induction motor.
Construction and working of synchronous generators.
25-26 3.7 Construction, working, torque-speed characteristic and speed control of separately
excited DC motor.
UNIT 4 Power Converters

5
Basic Electrical Engineering
Electrical Engineering 2020-2021/ Ravi Kumar Soni

27 4.1 Semiconductor PN junction diode and transistor (BJT).

28 4.2 Characteristics of SCR

29 4.3 power transistor and IGBT.

30 4.4 Basic circuits of single phase rectifier with R load

31 4.5 Single phase Inverter.
32 4.6 DC-DC converter
UNIT 5- Electrical Installations:

33 4.7 Layout of LT switchgear:

34 4.8 Switch fuse unit (SFU), MCB, ELCB, MCCB,
35 4.9 Type of earthing.
36 5.1 Power measurement
37 5.2 elementary calculations for energy consumption

TEXT BOOKS
Basic Electrical Engineering” by C L Wadhwa
2. “Basic Electrical Engineering” by Mehta V K and Mehta Rohit
3. “Basic Electrical Engineering” by Nagrath, I and Kothari
REFERENCES
1. “Schaum’s Outline of Basic Electrical Engineering” by J Cathey
2. “Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering” by S K Bhattacharya

6
Basic Electrical Engineering
Electrical Engineering 2020-2021/ Ravi Kumar Soni

Unit: 1 (D.C Circuit )

Electrical circuit elements (R, L and C), voltage and current sources, Kirchhoff current and voltage
laws, Series-Parallel circuits, Node voltage method, Mesh current method, Superposition, Thevenin’s,
Norton’s and Maximum power transfer theorems.

What is an Electric Circuit?

An Electric Circuit is a closed path for transmitting an electric current through the medium of electrical
and magnetic fields. The flow of electrons across the loop constitutes the electric current. Electrons
enter the circuit through the ‘Source’ which can be a battery or a generator. The source provides energy
to the electrons, by setting up an electrical field which provides the electromotive force.
The electrons leave the circuit through the load, to the earth ground, thus completing a closed path. The
load or output can be any simple home appliance like television, lamp, refrigerator, or can be a complex
load such as that on a hydroelectric power generating station.
A simple electric circuit consists of a source (such as a battery), wires as conducting medium and a load
(such as a light bulb). The battery provides required energy for flow of electrons, to the light bulb.

Basic Definitions:
Current: the directed flow of electrons (charge) called current. It is denoted by I. units are Amps
Electrical potential: charged body capacity to do work is known as its electrical potential.
Potential difference: difference in potentials of two charged bodies is called Potential difference
Power: the rate at which an electrical work done in electrical work is called power. It is denoted by P.
units are Watt
Electrical work: Electrical work is said to be done when there is transfer of charge. It is denoted by W.
units are joules.
Energy: capacity to do work is called energy.
Electrical Network: A combination of various electric elements (Resistor, Inductor, Capacitor, Voltage
source, Current source) connected in any manner what so ever is called an electrical network

Electric Circuit Formula

Following are the list of formulas that are used in electric circuits are:

Quantity Formula Notations

 I is the current
Electric
I=Qt  Q is the charge flowing
current
 t is the time period

7
Basic Electrical Engineering
Electrical Engineering 2020-2021/ Ravi Kumar Soni

 R is the resistance
 ρ is the resistivity value of the wire
Resistance R=ρ.LA
 L is the length of the wire
 A is the cross-sectional area

Voltage ΔV=I.R  ΔV is the electric potential difference

 P is the power
Power P=ΔEt  ΔE is the energy gain or loss
 t is the time period

 Req is the total resistance of the resistors placed

Series circuit Req=R1+R2+R3+… in series
 R1, R2… are the resistors placed in series

 Req is the total resistance of the resistors placed

Parallel
1Req=1R1+1R2+1R3+… in parallel
circuit
 R1, R2… are the resistors placed in parallel

Ohms Law: At constant temperature potential difference across the conductor is directly proportional
to current flowing through the conductor is called ohms law.
V ∝I
V=IR
Where the constant of proportionality R is called the resistance or electrical resistance, measured in
ohms (Ω). Graphically, the V - Irelationship for a resistor according to Ohm‟slaw is depicted in Figure

Figure V -Irelationship for a resistor according to Ohm‟s law.

At any given point in the above graph, the ratio of voltage to current is always constant

Classification of element:
We may classify circuit elements in two categories, passive and active elements.
Passive Element: The element which receives energy (or absorbs energy) and then either converts it
into heat (R) or stored it in an electric (C) or magnetic (L) field is called passive element.
Active Element: The elements that supply energy to the circuit is called active element. Examples of
active elements include voltage and current sources, generators
Bilateral Element: Conduction of current in both directions in an element (example: Resistance;
Inductance; Capacitance) with same magnitude is termed as bilateral element
Unilateral Element: Conduction of current in one direction is termed as unilateral (example: Diode,
Transistor) element

8
Basic Electrical Engineering
Electrical Engineering 2020-2021/ Ravi Kumar Soni

Linear Circuit: Roughly speaking, a linear circuit is one whose parameters do not change with voltage
or current. More specifically, a linear system is one that satisfies (i) homogeneity property (ii) additive
property
Non-Linear Circuit: Roughly speaking, a non-linear system is that whose parameters change with
voltage or current. More specifically, non-linear circuit does not obey the homogeneity and additive
properties.

DC Sources
In general, there are two main types of DC sources
1. Independent (Voltage and Current) Sources
2. Dependent (Voltage and Current) Sources
An independent source produces its own voltage and current through some chemical reaction and does
not depend on any other voltage or current variable in the circuit. The output of a dependent source, on
the other hand, is subject to a certain parameter (voltage or current) change in a circuit element. Herein,
the discussion shall be confined to independent sources only.
DC Voltage Source This can be further subcategorised into ideal and non-ideal sources.
The Ideal Voltage Source An ideal voltage source, shown in Figure has a terminal voltage which is
independent of the variations in load. In other words, for an ideal voltage source, the sup- ply current
alters with changes in load but the terminal voltage, VL always remains constant. This characteristic is
depicted in Figure.

Figure: Schematic and characteristics of an ideal voltage source

Practical Voltage Source For a practical source, the terminal voltage falls off with an increase in load
current. This can be shown graphically in Figure. This behavior can be modeled by assigning an
internal resistance, Rs, in series with the source as shown in Figure

Where RL represents the load resistance. The characteristic equation of the practical voltage source can
be written as
VL =Vs –RsI
For an ideal source, Rs = 0 and therefore VL = Vs.

9
Basic Electrical Engineering
Electrical Engineering 2020-2021/ Ravi Kumar Soni

Kirchhoff’s laws
Kirchhoff’s laws mainly deal with voltage and current in the electrical circuits. These laws can be
understood as results of the Maxwell equations in the low frequency limit. They are perfect for DC and
AC circuits at frequencies where the electromagnetic radiation wavelengths are very large when we
compare with other circuits.

10
Basic Electrical Engineering
Electrical Engineering 2020-2021/ Ravi Kumar Soni

Kirchhoff Current Law

KCL or Kirchhoffs current law or Kirchhoffs first law states that the total current in a closed circuit, the
entering current at node is equal to the current leaving at the node or the algebraic sum of current at
node in an electronic circuit is equal to zero.

Kirchhoff’s Current Law

In the above diagram, the currents are denoted with a,b,c,d and e. According to the KCL law, the
entering currents are a,b,c,d and the leaving currents are e and f with negative value. The equation can
be written as
a+b+c+d= e + f
Generally in an electrical circuit, the term node refers to a junction or connection of multiple
components or elements or current carrying lanes like components and cables. In a closed circuit, the
current flow any in or out of a node lane must exist. This law is used to analyze parallel circuits.
Kirchhoff Voltage Law
KVL or Kirchhoff’s voltage law or Kirchhoffs second law states that, the algebraic sum of the voltage
in a closed circuit is equal to zero or the algebraic sum of the voltage at node is equal to zero.

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

This law deals with voltage. For instance, the above circuit is explained. A voltage source ‘a’ is
connected with five passive components, namely b, c, d, e, f having voltage differences across them.
Arithmetically, the voltage difference between these components add together because these
components are connected in series. According to the KVL law, the voltage across the passive
components in a circuit is always equal & opposite to the voltage source. Hence, the sum of the voltage
differences across all the elements in a circuit is always zero.
a+b+c+d+e+f=0

Common DC Circuit Theory Terms

The common DC circuit consists of various theory terms are
Circuit: A DC circuit is a closed loop conducting lane in which an electrical current flows
Path: A single lane is used to connect the sources or elements
Node: A node is a connection in a circuit where multiple elements are connected together, and it is
denoted with a dot.
Branch: a branch is a single or collection of elements which are connected between two nodes like
resistors or a source
Loop: A loop in a circuit is a closed path, where no circuit element or node is met more than once.

11
Basic Electrical Engineering
Electrical Engineering 2020-2021/ Ravi Kumar Soni

Mesh: A mesh doesn’t contain any closed path, but it is a single open loop, and it does not contain any
components inside a mesh.
Example of Kirchhoff’s Laws
By using this circuit, we can calculate the flowing current in the resistor 40Ω

Example Circuit for KVL and KCL

The above circuit consists of two nodes, namely A and B, three branches and two independent loops.
Apply KCL to the above circuit, then we can get the following equations.
At nodes A and B we can get the equations
I1+I2=I2 and I2 =I1+I2
Using KVL, the equations we can get the following equations
From loop1: 10=R1 X I1+R2 X I2= 10I1+40I2
From loop2: 20=R2 X I2+R2 X I3= 20I2+40I3
From loop3: 10-20=10I1-20 I2
The equation of I2 can rewrite as
Equation1= 10=10I1+40 (I1+ I2) = 50 I1+40 I2
Equation 2= 20=20I2 +40 (I1+ I2) = 40 I1+60 I2
Now we have two concurrent equations which can be reduced to give the values of I1 and I2
Replacement of I1 in terms of I2 gives the value of I1= -0.143 Amps
Replacement of I2 in terms of I1 gives the value of I2= +0.429 Amps
We know the equation of I3 = I1 + I2
The flow of current in resistor R3 is written as -0.143 + 0.429 = 0.286 Amps
The voltage across the resistor R3 is written as: 0.286 x 40 = 11.44 volts
The –ve sign for ‘I’ is the direction of the flow of current initially preferred was wrong, In fact, the 20
volt battery is charging the 10 volt battery.

12
Basic Electrical Engineering
Electrical Engineering 2020-2021/ Ravi Kumar Soni

13
Basic Electrical Engineering
Electrical Engineering 2020-2021/ Ravi Kumar Soni

14
Basic Electrical Engineering
Electrical Engineering 2020-2021/ Ravi Kumar Soni

15
Basic Electrical Engineering
Electrical Engineering 2020-2021/ Ravi Kumar Soni

Nodal analysis
In Nodal analysis, we will consider the node voltages with respect to Ground. Hence, Nodal analysis is
also called as Node-voltage method.
Procedure of Nodal Analysis
Follow these steps while solving any electrical network or circuit using Nodal analysis.
 Step 1 − Identify the principal nodes and choose one of them as reference node. We will treat
that reference node as the Ground.
 Step 2 − Label the node voltages with respect to Ground from all the principal nodes except the
reference node.
 Step 3 − Write nodal equations at all the principal nodes except the reference node. Nodal
equation is obtained by applying KCL first and then Ohm’s law.
 Step 4 − Solve the nodal equations obtained in Step 3 in order to get the node voltages.
Now, we can find the current flowing through any element and the voltage across any element that is
present in the given network by using node voltages.

16
Basic Electrical Engineering
Electrical Engineering 2020-2021/ Ravi Kumar Soni

Example
Find the current flowing through 20 Ω resistor of the following circuit using Nodal analysis.

Step 1 − There are three principle nodes in the above circuit. Those are labelled as 1, 2, and 3 in the
following figure.

In the above figure, consider node 3 as reference node (Ground).

Step 2 − The node voltages, V1 and V2, are labelled in the following figure.

In the above figure, V1 is the voltage from node 1 with respect to ground and V2 is the voltage from
node 2 with respect to ground.
Step 3 − In this case, we will get two nodal equations, since there are two principal nodes, 1 and 2, other
than Ground. When we write the nodal equations at a node, assume all the currents are leaving from the
node for which the direction of current is not mentioned and that node’s voltage as greater than other
node voltages in the circuit.
The nodal equation at node 1 is

17
Basic Electrical Engineering
Electrical Engineering 2020-2021/ Ravi Kumar Soni

Step 4 − Finding node voltages, V1 and V2 by solving Equation 1 and Equation 2.

Substitute Equation 1 in Equation 2.

So, we got the node voltages V1 and V2 as 20 V and 40 V respectively.

Step 5 − The voltage across 20 Ω resistor is nothing but the node voltage V2 and it is equal to 40 V.
Now, we can find the current flowing through 20 Ω resistor by using Ohm’s law.

Therefore, the current flowing through 20 Ω resistor of given circuit is 2 A.

Note − From the above example, we can conclude that we have to solve ‘n’ nodal equations, if the
electric circuit has ‘n’ principal nodes (except the reference node). Therefore, we can choose Nodal
analysis when the number of principal nodes (except reference node) is less than the number of meshes
of any electrical circuit.

Mesh Analysis
A branch is a path that joins two nodes and it contains a circuit element. If a branch belongs to only
one mesh, then the branch current will be equal to mesh current.
If a branch is common to two meshes, then the branch current will be equal to the sum (or difference) of
two mesh currents, when they are in same (or opposite) direction.
Procedure of Mesh Analysis
Follow these steps while solving any electrical network or circuit using Mesh analysis.
 Step 1 − Identify the meshes and label the mesh currents in either clockwise or anti-clockwise
direction.
 Step 2 − Observe the amount of current that flows through each element in terms of mesh
currents.
 Step 3 − Write mesh equations to all meshes. Mesh equation is obtained by applying KVL first
and then Ohm’s law.

18
Basic Electrical Engineering
Electrical Engineering 2020-2021/ Ravi Kumar Soni

 Step 4 − Solve the mesh equations obtained in Step 3 in order to get the mesh currents.
Now, we can find the current flowing through any element and the voltage across any element that is
present in the given network by using mesh currents.
Example
Find the voltage across 30 Ω resistor using Mesh analysis.

Step 1 − There are two meshes in the above circuit. The mesh currents I1 and I2 are considered in
clockwise direction. These mesh currents are shown in the following figure.

Step 2 − The mesh current I1 flows through 20 V voltage source and 5 Ω resistor. Similarly, the mesh
current I2 flows through 30 Ω resistor and -80 V voltage source. But, the difference of two mesh
currents, I1 and I2, flows through 10 Ω resistor, since it is the common branch of two meshes.
Step 3 − In this case, we will get two mesh equations since there are two meshes in the given circuit.
When we write the mesh equations, assume the mesh current of that particular mesh as greater than all
other mesh currents of the circuit.
The mesh equation of first mesh is
20−5I1−10(I1−I2)=0
⇒20−15I1+10I2=0
⇒10I2=15I1−20
Divide the above equation with 5.
2I2=3I1−4
Multiply the above equation with 2.
4I2=6I1−8 ………. Equation 1
The mesh equation of second mesh is
−10 (I2−I1) − 30I2+80=0
Divide the above equation with 10.
− (I2−I1) − 3I2 + 8=0
⇒ −4I2 + I1 + 8 = 0
4I2 = I1+ 8 ………….. Equation 2
Step 4 − Finding mesh currents I1 and I2 by solving Equation 1 and Equation 2.
The left-hand side terms of Equation 1 and Equation 2 are the same. Hence, equate the right-hand side
terms of Equation 1 and Equation 2 in order find the value of I1.

19
Basic Electrical Engineering
Electrical Engineering 2020-2021/ Ravi Kumar Soni

6I1−8 = I1 + 8
⇒ 5I1=16
⇒I1=16/5A
Substitute I1 value in Equation 2.
4I2=16/5+8

⇒4I2=56/5
⇒I2=14/5A
So, we got the mesh currents I1 and I2 as 16/5 A and 14/5A respectively.
Step 5 − The current flowing through 30 Ω resistor is nothing but the mesh current I2 and it is equal
to 14/5 A. Now, we can find the voltage across 30 Ω resistors by using Ohm’s law.
V30Ω=I2R
Substitute the values of I2 and R in the above equation.
V30Ω=⟮14/5⟯30
⇒V30Ω=84V
Therefore, the voltage across 30 Ω resistor of the given circuit is 84 V.
Note 1 − From the above example, we can conclude that we have to solve ‘m’ mesh equations, if the
electric circuit is having ‘m’ meshes. That’s why we can choose Mesh analysis when the number of
meshes is less than the number of principal nodes (except the reference node) of any electrical circuit.
Note 2 − We can choose either Nodal analysis or Mesh analysis, when the number of meshes is equal to
the number of principal nodes (except the reference node) in any electric circuit.

What will be the mesh current of the following circuit?

The above circuit network is slightly different than the previous example. In the previous example, the
circuit had a single voltage source V1, but for this circuit network, there is two different voltage
source is present, V1 and V2. There are two meshes in the circuitry.
For Mesh-1, V1, R1, and R3 are connected in series. So, the same current is flowing through the three
components which are i1.
By using the Ohms law, the voltage of each component is-
V1 = 5V
VR1 = i1 x 2 = 2i1
For the R3, two loop currents are flowing through it as this is a shared component between two meshes.
As there is two different voltage source for different meshes, the current through the resistor R3 is i1+i2.
So, the voltage at
VR3 = (i1+i2) x 5 = 5(i1+i2)
As per the Kirchhoff's law,
V1 = 2i1 + 5(i1+i2)
5 = 7i1 + 5i2……. (Equation:1)

20
Basic Electrical Engineering
Electrical Engineering 2020-2021/ Ravi Kumar Soni

Now in Mesh-2, V2, R2, and R3 are connected in series. So, the same current is flowing through the
three components which is i2.
By using the Ohms law, the voltage of each component are-
V1 = 25V
VR2 = i2 x 10 = 10i2
VR3 = (i1 + i2) x 5 =5(i1 + i2)
As per the Kirchhoff's law,
V2 = 10i2 + 5(i1+i2)
25 = 5i1+15i2
5 = i1+ 3i2….. (Equation: 2)
So, Here are the two equations, 5 = 7i1+ 5i2 and5 = i1+ 3i2.
By solving this two equation we get,
i1 = .625A
i2 = 1.875A
The circuit further simulated in spice tool to evaluate the result.

Let’s consider the below circuit network. By using Mesh analysis, we will calculate the three
currents in three meshes.

The above circuit network has three meshes. An additional current source is also available.
To solve the circuit network in the mesh analysis process, Mesh-1 is ignored as the i1, a ten Ampere
current source is outside of the circuit network.
In Mesh-2, V1, R1, and R2 are connected in series. So, the same current is flowing through the three
components which is i2.
By using the Ohms law, the voltage of each component are-
V1 = 10V
For R1 and R2, two loop currents are flowing through each Resistor. R1 is a shared component between
two meshes, 1 and 2. So the current flowing through the resistor R1 is i 2 – i2. Same as the R1, The
current through the resistor R2 is i2 – i3.
Therefore, the voltage across the resistor R1
VR1 = (i2 – i1) x 3 = 3 (i2 – i1)
And for the resistor R2
VR2 = 2 x (i2 – i3) = 2(i2 – i3)
As per the Kirchhoff's law,

21
Basic Electrical Engineering
Electrical Engineering 2020-2021/ Ravi Kumar Soni

3(i2 – i1) + 2(i2 – i3) + 10 = 0 or -3i1 + 5i2 = -10…. (Equation: 1)

So, the value of i1 is already known which is 10A.
By providing the i1 value, Equation:2 can be formed.
-3i1 + 5i2 – 2i3 = -10
-30 + 5i2 – 2i3 = -10
5i2 – 2i3 = 20…. (Equation: 2)
In Mesh-3, V1, R3, and R2 are connected in series. So, the same current is flowing through the three
components which is i3.
By using the Ohms law, the voltage of each component is-
V1 = 10V
VR2 = 2 (i3 – i2)
VR3 = 1 x i3 = i3
As per the Kirchhoff's law,
i3 + 2 (i3 – i2) = 10
or, -2i2 + 3i3 = 10….[Equation:3]
Therefore, Here are two equation, 5i2 – 2i3 = 20 and -2i2 + 3i3 = 10. By solving these two equations, i2 =
7.27A and i3 = 8.18A.
The Mesh analysis simulation in pspice showed the exact same result as calculated.

Superposition Theorem
Superposition theorem states that in any linear, active, bilateral network having more than one source,
the response across any element is the sum of the responses obtained from each source considered
separately and all other sources are replaced by their internal resistance. The superposition theorem is
used to solve the network where two or more sources are present and connected.
In other words, it can be stated as if a number of voltage or current sources are acting in a linear
network, the resulting current in any branch is the algebraic sum of all the currents that would be
produced in it when each source acts alone while all the other independent sources are replaced by their
internal resistances.
It is only applicable to the circuit which is valid for the ohm’s law (i.e., for the linear circuit).
Explanation of Superposition Theorem
Let us understand the superposition theorem with the help of an example. The circuit diagram is shown
below consists of two voltage sources V1 and V2.

First, take the source V1 alone and short circuit the V2 source as shown in the circuit diagram below:

22
Basic Electrical Engineering
Electrical Engineering 2020-2021/ Ravi Kumar Soni

Here, the value of current flowing in each branch, i.e. i1’, i2’ and i3’ is calculated by the following
equations.

The difference between the above two equations gives the value of the current i3’

Now, activating the voltage source V2 and deactivating the voltage source V1 by short-circuiting it, find
the various currents, i.e. i1’’, i2’’, i3’’ flowing in the circuit diagram shown below:

Here,

And the value of the current i3’’ will be calculated by the equation shown below:

As per the superposition theorem, the value of current i1, i2, i3 is now calculated as:

The direction of the current should be taken care of while finding the current in the various branches.

23
Basic Electrical Engineering
Electrical Engineering 2020-2021/ Ravi Kumar Soni

Steps for Solving network by Superposition Theorem

Considering the circuit diagram A, let us see the various steps to solve the superposition theorem:

Step 1 – Take only one independent source of voltage or current and deactivate the other sources.
Step 2 – In the circuit diagram B shown above, consider the source E1 and replace the other source
E2 by its internal resistance. If its internal resistance is not given, then it is taken as zero and the source
is short-circuited.
Step 3 – If there is a voltage source than short circuit it and if there is a current source then just open
circuit it.
Step 4 – Thus, by activating one source and deactivating the other source find the current in each
branch of the network. Taking the above example find the current I1’, I2’and I3’.
Step 5 – Now consider the other source E2 and replace the source E1 by its internal resistance r1 as
shown in the circuit diagram C.
Step 6 – Determine the current in various sections, I1’’, I2’’ and I3’’.
Step 7 – Now to determine the net branch current utilizing the superposition theorem, add the currents
obtained from each individual source for each branch.
Step 8 – If the current obtained by each branch is in the same direction then add them and if it is in the
opposite direction, subtract them to obtain the net current in each branch.
The actual flow of current in the circuit C will be given by the equations shown below:

24
Basic Electrical Engineering
Electrical Engineering 2020-2021/ Ravi Kumar Soni

Solved Example:

Since we have two sources of power in this circuit, we will have to calculate two sets
of values for voltage drops and/or currents, one for the circuit with only the 28-volt
battery in effect. . .

. . . and one for the circuit with only the 7-volt battery in effect:

other voltage sources are replaced by wires (shorts), and all current sources with
open circuits (breaks). Since we only have voltage sources (batteries) in our example
circuit, we will replace every inactive source during analysis with a wire.
Analyzing the circuit with only the 28-volt battery, we obtain the following values
for voltage and current:

Analyzing the circuit with only the 7-volt battery, we obtain another set of values for
voltage and current:

25
Basic Electrical Engineering
Electrical Engineering 2020-2021/ Ravi Kumar Soni

26
Basic Electrical Engineering
Electrical Engineering 2020-2021/ Ravi Kumar Soni

Thevenin’s Theorem.
Thevenin’s Theorem states that “Any linear circuit containing several voltages and resistances can be
replaced by just one single voltage in series with a single resistance connected across the load“. In
other words, it is possible to simplify any electrical circuit, no matter how complex, to an equivalent
two-terminal circuit with just a single constant voltage source in series with a resistance (or impedance)
connected to a load as shown below.
Thevenin’s Theorem is especially useful in the circuit analysis of power or battery systems and other
interconnected resistive circuits where it will have an effect on the adjoining part of the circuit.
Thevenin’s equivalent circuit

As far as the load resistor RL is concerned, any complex “one-port” network consisting of multiple
resistive circuit elements and energy sources can be replaced by one single equivalent resistance Rs and
one single equivalent voltage Vs. Rs is the source resistance value looking back into the circuit
and Vs is the open circuit voltage at the terminals.
For example, consider the circuit from the previous tutorials.

27
Basic Electrical Engineering
Electrical Engineering 2020-2021/ Ravi Kumar Soni

Firstly, to analyse the circuit we have to remove the centre 40Ω load resistor connected across the
terminals A-B, and remove any internal resistance associated with the voltage source(s). This is done by
shorting out all the voltage sources connected to the circuit, that is v = 0, or open circuit any connected
current sources making i = 0. The reason for this is that we want to have an ideal voltage source or an
ideal current source for the circuit analysis.
The value of the equivalent resistance, Rs is found by calculating the total resistance looking back from
the terminals A and B with all the voltage sources shorted. We then get the following circuit.

Find the Equivalent Resistance (Rs)

The voltage Vs is defined as the total voltage across the terminals A and B when there is an open circuit
between them. That is without the load resistor RL connected.
Find the Equivalent Voltage (Vs)

We now need to reconnect the two voltages back into the circuit, and as VS = VAB the current flowing
around the loop is calculated as:

28
Basic Electrical Engineering
Electrical Engineering 2020-2021/ Ravi Kumar Soni

This current of 0.33 amperes (330mA) is common to both resistors so the voltage drop across
the 20Ω resistor or the 10Ω resistor can be calculated as:

VAB = 20 – (20Ω x 0.33amps) = 13.33 volts.

or
VAB = 10 + (10Ω x 0.33amps) = 13.33 volts, the same.

Then the Thevenin’s Equivalent circuit would consist or a series resistance of 6.67Ω and a voltage
source of 13.33v. With the 40Ω resistor connected back into the circuit we get:

and from this the current flowing around the circuit is given as:

which again, is the same value of 0.286 amps, we found using Kirchhoff’s circuit law in the previous
circuit analysis tutorial.
Thevenin’s Theorem Summary
We have seen here that Thevenin’s theorem is another type of circuit analysis tool that can be used to
reduce any complicated electrical network into a simple circuit consisting of a single voltage
source, Vs in series with a single resistor, Rs.
When looking back from terminals A and B, this single circuit behaves in exactly the same way
electrically as the complex circuit it replaces. That is the i-v relationships at terminals A-B are identical.
The basic procedure for solving a circuit using Thevenin’s Theorem is as follows:
 1. Remove the load resistor RL or component concerned.
 2. Find RS by shorting all voltage sources or by open circuiting all the current sources.
 3. Find VS by the usual circuit analysis methods.
 4. Find the current flowing through the load resistor RL.

Nortons Theorem
Nortons Theorem states that “Any linear circuit containing several energy sources and resistances can
be replaced by a single Constant Current generator in parallel with a Single Resistor“.
As far as the load resistance, RL is concerned this single resistance, RS is the value of the resistance
looking back into the network with all the current sources open circuited and IS is the short circuit
current at the output terminals as shown below.
Nortons equivalent circuit

29
Basic Electrical Engineering
Electrical Engineering 2020-2021/ Ravi Kumar Soni

The value of this “constant current” is one which would flow if the two output terminals where shorted
together while the source resistance would be measured looking back into the terminals, (the same as
Thevenin).
For example, consider our now familiar circuit from the previous section.

To find the Nortons equivalent of the above circuit we firstly have to remove the centre 40Ω load
resistor and short out the terminals A and B to give us the following circuit.

When the terminals A and B are shorted together the two resistors are connected in parallel across their
two respective voltage sources and the currents flowing through each resistor as well as the total short
circuit current can now be calculated as:
with A-B Shorted Out

30
Basic Electrical Engineering
Electrical Engineering 2020-2021/ Ravi Kumar Soni

If we short-out the two voltage sources and open circuit terminals A and B, the two resistors are now
effectively connected together in parallel. The value of the internal resistor Rs is found by calculating
the total resistance at the terminals A and B giving us the following circuit.

Find the Equivalent Resistance (Rs)

Having found both the short circuit current, Is and equivalent internal resistance, Rs this then gives us
the following Nortons equivalent circuit.
Nortons equivalent circuit

Ok, so far so good, but we now have to solve with the original 40Ω load resistor connected across
terminals A and B as shown below.

Again, the two resistors are connected in parallel across the terminals A and B which gives us a total
resistance of:

The voltage across the terminals A and B with the load resistor connected is given as:

31
Basic Electrical Engineering
Electrical Engineering 2020-2021/ Ravi Kumar Soni

Then the current flowing in the 40Ω load resistor can be found as:

Once again and using Nortons theorem, the value of current for I3 is still calculated as 0.286 amps,
which we found using Kirchhoff´s circuit law in the previous tutorials.
Nortons Theorem Summary
The basic procedure for solving a circuit using Nortons Theorem is as follows:
 1. Remove the load resistor RL or component concerned.
 2. Find RS by shorting all voltage sources or by open circuiting all the current sources.
 3. Find IS by placing a shorting link on the output terminals A and B.
 4. Find the current flowing through the load resistor RL.

Maximum Power Transfer theorem:

The Maximum Power Transfer Theorem is another useful circuit analysis method to ensure that the
maximum amount of power will be dissipated in the load resistance when the value of the load
resistance is exactly equal to the resistance of the power source. The relationship between the load
impedance and the internal impedance of the energy source will
give the power in the load. Consider the circuit below.

In our Thevenin equivalent circuit above, the maximum power

transfer theorem states that “the maximum amount of power will
be dissipated in the load resistance if it is equal in value to the
Thevenin or Norton source resistance of the network supplying
the power“.
In other words, the load resistance resulting in greatest power dissipation must be equal in value to the
equivalent Thevenin source resistance, then RL = RS but if the load resistance is lower or higher in value
than the Thevenin source resistance of the network, its dissipated power will be less than maximum.
For example, find the value of the load resistance, RL that will give the maximum power transfer in the
following circuit.
Maximum Power Transfer Example No1

Where:
RS = 25Ω
RL is variable between 0 – 100Ω
VS = 100v

Then by using the following Ohm’s Law equations:

We can now complete the following table to determine the current and power in the circuit for different
values of load resistance.
Graph of Power against Load Resistance

32
Basic Electrical Engineering
Electrical Engineering 2020-2021/ Ravi Kumar Soni

From the above table and graph we can see that the Maximum Power Transfer occurs in the load
when the load resistance, RL is equal in value to the source resistance, RS that is: RS = RL = 25Ω. This is
called a “matched condition” and as a general rule, maximum power is transferred from an active
device such as a power supply or battery to an external device when the impedance of the external
device exactly matches the impedance of the source.
Transformer Impedance Matching

The maximum power transfer can be obtained even if the output impedance is not the same as the load
impedance. This can be done using a suitable “turns ratio” on the transformer with the corresponding
ratio of load impedance, ZLOAD to output impedance, ZOUT matches that of the ratio of the transformers
primary turns to secondary turns as a resistance on one side of the transformer becomes a different
value on the other.
If the load impedance, ZLOAD is purely resistive and the source impedance is purely resistive, ZOUT then
the equation for finding the maximum power transfer is given as:

Where: NP is the number of primary turns and NS the number of secondary turns on the transformer.
Then by varying the value of the transformers turns ratio the output impedance can be “matched” to the
source impedance to achieve maximum power transfer. For example,
Maximum Power Transfer Example No2

33
Basic Electrical Engineering
Electrical Engineering 2020-2021/ Ravi Kumar Soni

If an 8Ω loudspeaker is to be connected to an amplifier with an output impedance of 1000Ω, calculate

the turns ratio of the matching transformer required to provide maximum power transfer of the audio
signal. Assume the amplifier source impedance is Z1, the load impedance is Z2 with the turns ratio given
as N.

34
Basic Electrical Engineering