International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 239 (2023) 124248

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

International Journal of Biological Macromolecules

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijbiomac

Review

Recent progress in pectin extraction, characterization, and pectin-based

films for active food packaging applications: A review
Swarup Roy a, *, Ruchir Priyadarshi b, Łukasz Łopusiewicz c, Deblina Biswas a, d, Vinay Chandel a,
Jong-Whan Rhim b, *
a
School of Bioengineering and Food Technology, Shoolini University, Solan 173229, India
b
Department of Food and Nutrition, BioNanocomposite Research Center, Kyung Hee University, 26 Kyungheedae-ro, Dongdaemun-gu, Seoul 02447, Republic of Korea
c
Center of Bioimmobilization and Innovative Packaging Materials, Faculty of Food Sciences and Fisheries, West Pomeranian University of Technology Szczecin,
Janickiego 35, 71-270 Szczecin, Poland
d
Department of Instrumentation and Control Engineering, Dr. B. R. Ambedkar National Institute of Technology Jalandhar, Jalandhar 144011, India

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Pectin is an abundant complex polysaccharide obtained from various plants. Safe, biodegradable, and edible
Pectin pectin has been extensively utilized in the food industry as a gelling agent, thickener, and colloid stabilizer.
Composite film Pectin can be extracted in a variety of ways, thus affecting its structure and properties. Pectin’s excellent
Edible coating
physicochemical properties make it suitable for many applications, including food packaging. Recently, pectin
Active packaging
Food industry
has been spotlighted as a promising biomaterial for manufacturing bio-based sustainable packaging films and
coatings. Functional pectin-based composite films and coatings are useful for active food packaging applications.
This review discusses pectin and its use in active food packaging applications. First, basic information and
characteristics of pectin, such as the source, extraction method, and structural characteristics, were described.
Then, various methods of pectin modification were discussed, and the following section briefly described pectin’s
physicochemical properties and applications in the food sector. Finally, the recent development of pectin-based
food packaging films and coatings and their use in food packaging were comprehensively discussed.

1. Introduction functional properties.

Pectin is a plant-derived heteropolysaccharide composed of β-(1-4)-
Sustainable alternative materials are urgently needed to solve the linked-D-galacturonic acid with galactose and rhamnose [6]. Pectins are
problems of environmental pollution and natural resource depletion a group of plant-derived complex carbohydrates composed of several
caused by petrochemical-based non-degradable non-renewable plastic hydrogalacturonic acid units. In the pectin structure, the carboxyl group
materials. Plastic packaging is widely used in food packaging, and of the sugar moiety may be partially esterified with a methyl group and
consumer demand for safer alternatives steadily increases. Synthetic partially or fully neutralized with one or more bases. Colloidal poly­
plastics produced from petrochemical resources are user-friendly for galacturonic acid with many methyl ester groups is known as pectinic
packaging, but a serious problem today is their non-biodegradable and acid. In contrast, the complete absence of methyl ester groups in
non-recyclable nature, resulting in the generation of huge amounts of colloidal polygalacturonic acid is known as pectic acid. Thus, pectin is
waste. According to recent studies, approximately 85 % of plastic waste the name given to water-soluble pectinic acids with varying degrees of
ultimately ends up in landfills and oceans, posing a serious threat to soil, neutralization and methyl ester content, capable of forming gels with
aquatic life, and biodiversity [1]. To this end, many bio-based polymers sugars and acids under appropriate conditions [7]. Pectin with a high
can be good alternatives to conventional plastics due to their excellent methoxyl content has a low ability to form a gel on its own and requires a
gas barrier, mechanical, and film-forming properties [2]. Many bio- relatively high sugar and acid content for gelation. On the other hand,
based polymers, such as polysaccharides, proteins, or combinations, pectin with a low methoxyl content can easily form a gel in the presence
have been used [3–5]. Among the various known biopolymers, pectin of certain metal ions without sugar [8]. Depending on the methoxyl
can be a good choice due to its abundance and excellent physical and content, pectins can be classified into low methoxyl pectin (<50 %

* Corresponding authors.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (S. Roy), [email protected] (J.-W. Rhim).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.124248
Received 13 December 2022; Received in revised form 24 March 2023; Accepted 26 March 2023
Available online 31 March 2023
0141-8130/© 2023 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
S. Roy et al. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 239 (2023) 124248

esterification) and high methoxyl pectin (>50 % esterification) [9]. and coatings is also being discussed. The resulting insights from this
Nevertheless, the commonly used pectin refers to high methoxyl pectin. review are expected to provide an up-to-date summary of pectin and its
Pectin is a useful biopolymer in the food industry as a gelling agent, applications in food packaging.
emulsifier, thickener, etc. [6]. Pectin can be applied directly to food or
used as an edible coating as a preformed film enclosing food [10]. Pectin 2. Sources of pectin
also shows some antioxidant activity, and adding functional bioactive
fillers to pectin-based films may impart antibacterial activity or enhance Pectin is a complex group of naturally occurring hetero­
its antioxidant properties [11–13]. In particular, pectin was found to polysaccharides in the cell walls and lamellae of all plants. Therefore, it
have reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenging activity, which depends can be isolated from various fruits and vegetables, including agricultural
on its structural features [14]. The presence of electron-donating moi­ by-products [25,26]. The pectin content differs based on plant species,
eties, such as carboxyl, hydroxyl, and methoxy groups (especially in and pectin extracted from different plant species has different physico­
galacturonic acid), is responsible for the antioxidant activity of pectin chemical properties [27,28]. The different application areas of pectin
[15]. There is also a correlation between the molecular weight of pectin are briefly indicated in Fig. 1.
and its radical scavenging activity. Low molecular weight pectin mate­ Pectin can be obtained from various natural sources. Most of these
rials such as cleaved derivatives or pectin-oligosaccharides (POS) can resources are fruit and vegetable peels, which can be considered a sus­
have more reducing ends to scavenge free radicals. [15–17]. Moreover, tainable source for extracting this biopolymer as they are usually dis­
the antioxidant activity of pectins is suggested to be enhanced by non­ carded as waste during processing. Commercial pectin is commonly
pectin contaminants (such as polyphenolics and proteins) that are co- derived from the peels of citrus fruits such as lemons, oranges, limes, and
extracted with them [14]. In addition, pectin-based films and coatings grapefruit. The citrus peel contains the highest amount of pectin.
are sustainable, biodegradable, and eco-friendly. Thus, manufacturing However, pectin extraction is reported from other agricultural wastes
pectin-based packaging films and coatings as promising food packaging such as apple dregs, sugar beet pulp, pumpkin, banana peel, and sisal
materials has recently received major research attention. waste [29]. Pectins obtained from different sources have different pro­
Many review papers have been published on pectin and its extraction portions of pectin polysaccharides. Therefore, the properties of the
methods or structural modifications [18–21]. However, few reports extracted pectin depend on the raw material [23].
have been published on food packaging films and coatings using pectin. Because of their accessibility and successful commercialization, cit­
Pectin-based films’ physical and antibacterial properties have been rus peel (lemon, orange, lime), apple peel, and beet pulp are major in­
previously studied [22]. Also, studies on pectin-based films produced dustrial pectin sources [30,31]. Citrus peel and apple pomace are
from agricultural waste have recently been published [6]. Researchers available in large quantities as by-products of juice, cider, and essential
have also reviewed pectin-based films and coatings integrated with oils production, and beet pulp is obtained from the sugar industry
plant extracts for active and intelligent packaging applications [23]. [23,26,27,32,33]. Although the substances mentioned above are the
Besides, recent advances in pectin’s health and medical applications main sources of commercial pectin, the growing demand and interest in
have also been comprehensively reviewed [24]. However, there is some exploiting various functional properties of pectin allow other byprod­
knowledge gap regarding the sources of pectin, their extraction pro­ ucts and wastes from food production and agricultural industries to be
cesses, and the properties of extracted pectin from the perspective of used for pectin extraction [20,34]. Therefore, non-conventional sources
food packaging and preservation. are considered for waste valorization due to their high availability and
Therefore, this review aims to introduce the properties of pectin, low cost, contributing to sustainable development and environmental
including its source, structure, extraction process, physical properties, protection, and are considered a major source of potential utilization in
and applications in the food sector. The application of pectin and pectin- the future production of pectin [21,28,33–35]. Some new sources such
based bioactive functional composites to active food packaging films as pomaces and peels (from banana, grapefruit, kiwifruit, grape, mango,

Fig. 1. Pectin and its applications.

2
S. Roy et al. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 239 (2023) 124248

pomegranate, passion fruit, olive, cashew, carrot, and tomato), sisal rhamnosyl residue of the backbone [45].
waste, husks, and hulls (from cocoa, soy, pea, pistachio), stalks (broccoli Rhamnogalacturonan II (RG-II): It accounts for only 10 % of the
and cauliflower), pulps (coffee and potato), watermelon rind, sunflower pectin structure and is the most complex form of the pectin type.
heads have been reported as promising sources of pectin Structurally, it is an HG backbone with 12 different sugar types in the
[20,23,28,29,35–37]. Studies show that pectin extraction from plant branched form at over 20 different linkages. Therefore, it is also called
materials is an economically viable and sustainable alternative to substituted HG. RG-II plays an important role in normal plant growth,
address environmental challenges [28]. In addition, there is a large and genomic mutations that cause mutations in the RG-II structure lead
amount of food waste in areas where the consumption of fruits, such as to severe growth defects such as dwarfism [41].
bananas and watermelons, is high [28]. Some sources also show that the Xylogalacturonan (XGA): It is a rarely expressed type of pectin,
pectin yield is low (<10 %) or, conversely, the isolated pectin has a low usually found only in the reproductive tissues of plants. It is another
galacturonic acid content (<65 % galacturonic acid), which does not substituted HG structure in which the β-linked xylose at the O-3 position
meet commercial requirements [28]. Cashew, grapefruit rind, mango is further substituted with another β-linked xylose at O-4 [46].
rind, passionfruit rind, and tomato waste are the most promising ma­ Apiogalacturonan (AP): It is another rarely expressed pectin type
terials to provide pectins with high galacturonic acid content that can be resulting from D-Apiofuraose substitution at O-2 or O-3 positions. It is
obtained in large quantities from logistically advantageous industries present in aquatic monocots such as Lemna sp. [41].
[28].
4. Pectin characteristics
3. Structure of pectin
More recently, Neckebroeck et al. (2021) conducted a study on four
Pectin is a plant-derived high molecular weight complex poly­ pectin sources: tomato, carrot, onion, and apple, to understand this
saccharide. It is ubiquitous in many plants as their cell wall components structure-function relationship in extracted pectin [47]. They observed a
comprise pectin as high as about 30 % of the total dry weight [38]. higher molar mass in tomato pectin than obtained from other sources,
Analogous to lignin, it acts as a binding agent for cellulose (Fig. 2) and attributed to its highly linear conformation. On the other hand, the
helps maintain cellular assembly [39]. These structural polysaccharides carrot pectin was extensively branched, which resulted in its lower
are usually formed in the early growth phase of the primary cell wall in molar mass. Further, the onion pectin exhibited the lowest value due to
the intercellular layer between adjacent cells. Pectin is abundantly its higher glucose and galactose and relatively lower Gal-A content.
present in rapidly growing young, fragile plant tissues because it aids in Besides depending on the Gal-A content, the viscosity of pectin also
water retention and movement through plants [40]. Previous reports depends on other factors, such as the degree of esterification (DE) and
suggest the presence of pectin covalently bound to hemicellulose in charge density. Higher DE leads to lower charge density in the pectin
plant tissues [38]. structure and lower electrostatic interaction. These chemical structures
Pectin is a biopolymer composed of covalently linked galacturonic and interactions have been extensively discussed by Moslemi (2021)
acid residues at O-1 and O-4 positions. The content of galacturonic acids [24]. The pectin with a higher charge density is more likely to form
in pectin is over 70 %, constituting the pectin chain structure [41]. complexes with divalent cations via electrostatic interactions, resulting
Pectins are of different types depending on the side chain in their in higher viscosity. Besides, the DE was also reported to affect the hy­
structure, as shown in Fig. 3. Hence, generally, the term “pectin” is a drophobicity of pectin due to the presence of hydrophobic groups such
collective term referring to biopolymers comprising different pectin as methyl esters. Such hydrophobic characteristics were observed in
components as discussed: watermelon pectin, with a higher DE value of ~61 %, than in com­
Homogalacturonan (HG): It is the most abundant of all pectin mercial citrus pectin, with a DE of ~55 % [48]. In addition, the pectin
types, comprising 65 % of the pectin polysaccharide [42]. It is a linear structure and its properties greatly depend on the extraction method.
homopolymer of α-1,4-linked galacturonic acid, generally partially Therefore, an extensive discussion of various extraction methods for
methyl-esterified at the C-6 carboxyl group or O-acetylated at O-2 or O-3 pectin is presented.
positions [43]. Generally, HG comprises galacturonic acid monomers in
long stretches with around 100 residues linked together [44]. 4.1. Methods for pectin extraction
Rhamnogalacturonan I (RG-I): It is the second most prevalent type
of pectin containing repeating units of disaccharide (-α-D-GalA-1,2-α-L- The extraction process for a particular material is a mass transfer
Rha-1-4-)n in the main-chain with side chains made up of various sugars, process between its source and the solvent in which extraction is carried
oligosaccharides, and branched-oligosaccharides linked to the out. The efficiency of the extraction process is assessed by the extraction

Fig. 2. Plant cell wall structure showing pectin and other components [9].

3
S. Roy et al. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 239 (2023) 124248

Fig. 3. Structure of pectin showing the four pectic polysaccharides, homogalacturonan (HG), xylogalacturonan (XGA), rhamnogalacturonan I (RG-I), and rham­
nogalacturonan II (RG-II), linked to each other. (Sugar code: L-Rhamnose-Rha, L-Apiose-Api, D-Xylose-Xyl, L-Fucose-Fuc, L-Arabinose-Ara, D-Galactose-Gal, D-Glu­
curonic acid-GlcA, D-Galacturonic acid-GalA).

material’s yield and quality. Moreover, studies are available regarding Moreover, this report also revealed that a greater molecular weight
the eco-friendly solid-liquid extraction of pectin using a mathematical and viscosity could be obtained by employing mild organic acid. The
model [49]. treatment with 0.1 M citric acid resulted in pectin with a higher mo­
The acid-mediated hot extraction method is the conventionally used lecular weight of 5.3 × 10− 5 g/mol (530 kDa) than the HCl extracted
method for pectin extraction. However, this method has various envi­ pectin with a lower molecular weight of 4.8 × 10− 5 g/mol (480 kDa).
ronmental implications and is replaced by relatively greener and eco- The former was also highly methoxylated, having a DE value of 65.2 %.
friendly methods such as ultrasound-mediated, microwave-assisted, The study indicated a lower pectin degradation by the action of organic
and enzyme-assisted extraction. The following sections briefly describe acids than inorganic acids due to their lower dissociation constants
various pectin extraction methods (Fig. 4). resulting in the production of lesser H+ ions to hydrolyze pectin and
form lower molecular weight polymers [52].
4.1.1. Acid-mediated hot extraction method Another factor that affects the quality of extracted pectin is the
This method generally involves low pH (1.5–3.0) and high temper­ extraction temperature. Higher temperatures favor pectin depolymer­
ature (75–100 ◦ C) treatment of pectin source for up to 3 h. Apart from ization, producing low methoxyl pectin and polygalacturonic acid
the pH and temperature, the solid-liquid ratio, extraction time, and fragments. However, heat enhances the pectin yield by allowing solu­
particle size also govern the quality of the extracted pectin [50]. The bilization [53]. Higher temperature also facilitates cell wall disruption
acidic pH is maintained using strong and highly corrosive inorganic and assists the solvent diffusion into the plant matrix, easing pectin
acids such as sulfuric acid, hydrochloric acid, and nitric acid [9]. extraction. Despite the positive effects of temperature, it is also reported
However, their use increases the extraction cost and invites several that temperatures above a certain limit subsequently lead to decreased
environmental issues. Relatively mild food-grade organic acids such as yield due to a higher degree of depolymerization, which results in the
acetic and citric acids have also addressed this problem. Although these formation of short-chain molecules that are not precipitated by ethanol
mild acids are known to have lower hydrolyzing abilities, their use is [54]. On the other hand, extraction at room temperature only solubilizes
aligned with the development of “clean label” compounds for food- the pectin loosely bound to the plant cell wall [55], giving a yield as low
related applications. Interestingly, a recent study reported 6.2 %, 5.4 as 0.83 %. These studies highlight the importance of elevated temper­
%, and 5.3 % pectin yield by dry weight from apple peel when treated atures in pectin extraction. The optimum extraction temperature for
with tartaric, malic, and citric acids, respectively, compared to 6.4 % pectin depends on the source. However, most studies have reported
obtained via 0.1 M hydrochloric acid treatment [51]. These results 80–90 ◦ C as the optimum temperature range for high-yield extraction
recognized that food-grade organic acids are an environmentally [54,56–58].
friendly alternative to caustic inorganic acids for pectin extraction, as
the difference in pectin yield obtained from organic acid treatment is not 4.1.2. Ultrasound-assisted extraction
significantly lower than that obtained from the hydrochloric acid Ultrasonic vibrations or sound waves between 20 kHz to 100 kHz
treatment. cause pressure fluctuations in the solvent to form microbubbles that act

4
S. Roy et al. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 239 (2023) 124248

Fig. 4. Various pectin extraction methods.

as microjets [59]. These microjets facilitate the disruption of cell walls, by 1 cm2 of the emitter surface” and is reported as W/cm2, the ultra­
thereby improving solvent penetration and mass transfer kinetics [60]. sound power density is “the amount of power distributed in 1 mL of a
Therefore, this method involves less solvent and energy requirements, given solution” and is reported as W/L. Nevertheless, the optimization of
resulting in higher yields at lower extraction times. These properties both factors is required to obtain the best results [66].
make this method an environmentally friendly alternative to traditional
extraction methods. This method has been used to recover pectin from 4.1.3. Microwave-assisted extraction
various fruit wastes and by-products. While the conventional extraction Microwave-assisted extraction methods involve heat generation
method resulted in a 5.4 % pectin yield from mango peels in 30 min, the when the dielectric material is exposed to a microwave field. This
ultrasound-assisted extraction method resulted in 8.1 % pectin in just 10 heating effect is caused either by ionic conduction, which involves the
min at 85 ◦ C [61]. Abou-Elseoud et al. (2021) recently reported the migration of charged ions in the direction of oppositely charged fields,
ultrasound pretreatment and enzymatic treatment assisted extraction of or by the rotation of dipoles, where the alternative displacement of polar
pectin from sugar beet pulp [62]. It has been reported that ultrasonic molecules causes dipole rotation [67,68].
pretreatment notably improved the yield at a quicker enzymatic treat­ Pectin was extracted from lime peel using a microwave heating
ment time. Pectin was extracted from lemon, mandarin, and kiwi peels process, and the results were compared with those of the conventional
using ultrasound and a microwave-assisted approach [63]. The authors heating method [69]. It has been shown that the microwave heating
observed that the pectin extracted using the microwave method showed method is more efficient as it has a higher molecular weight and degree
a higher yield than the ultrasound counterpart, which suggests the mi­ of esterification of pectin compared to the conventional heating method.
crowave method is an effective and rapid technique for extracting pectin In another work, cocoa husks were used to produce pectin using mi­
from the peels. crowave treatment aided by a microwave oven for 15 min at a power of
The intensity of the ultrasound waves plays a paramount role in the 750 W [70]. The authors stated that the maximum yield of pectin was
extraction process. The higher intensity waves show better efficiency in observed after one hour of extraction at pH 2.5.
disrupting plant cells, thereby increasing the pectin extraction. This Water is a highly symmetric polar molecule and releases heat in
mechanism is reported to create a more vigorous cavitation bubble response to microwave radiations, unlike asymmetrically charged non-
collapse at higher intensities [64]. However, some reports also discuss polar molecules that exhibit a relatively weaker response [71]. Heat­
the reduction in cavitation activity due to the formation of high bubble ing the solvent-sample mixture facilitates the extraction process by
concentrations which causes the opposite effect and decreases yield. enhancing the diffusion of materials between the sample and the sol­
Many cavitation bubbles around the probe tip cause reduced energy vent; hence it plays a paramount role in the microwave extraction
transmission to the reaction medium [65]. However, it should be noted process. The heating rate is directly proportional to the microwave
that the intensity and power of the ultrasonic probe are two different power, generally measured in watts (W), which is an important deter­
factors. While intensity is defined as “the amount of power distributed minant for the extraction process [72]. Since heat generation also

5
S. Roy et al. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 239 (2023) 124248

depends on the solvent and sample dielectric properties, these properties this method results in the partial degradation of side chains without any
affect the extraction rate and quality of the extracted compounds. effect on the primary structure of the extracted pectin [81]. This method
Hence, the sample-solvent mixtures with decent dielectric properties is also safer and faster and requires simple equipment [80].
can be suitably extracted.
4.2. Effect of extraction method on pectin structure
4.1.4. Enzyme-mediated extraction
The enzyme-assisted extraction process has been increasingly pop­ The extraction methods significantly affect the structure, composi­
ular recently due to its eco-friendliness, high selectivity, and target tion, and properties of the extracted structurally complex biopolymers,
specificity. This process uses enzymes that degrade plant cell walls, such as pectin. Byproducts of the agriculture and food processing in­
facilitating the release of pectin and thus reducing the extraction time dustries, such as citrus peels, apple pomace, sugarbeet pulp, etc., are
[73]. Several enzymes are used for pectin extraction, each having its important commercial sources for pectin extraction [81]. In most in­
unique mode of action [74,75]. The most commonly used enzymes dustries, the commercial extraction of pectin is undertaken via con­
include protopectinases, cellulases, proteases, hemicellulases, and ventional methods that include harsh conditions such as strong
xylanases. The effect of the enzyme Celluclast 1.5 L at different con­ inorganic acids, low pH (1.5–3.0), and elevated temperatures
centrations on the physicochemical characterization of gold kiwifruit (60–100 ◦ C), and involve a longer exposure time of several hours [81].
pectin was assessed, and the highest yield and viscosity were docu­ Although these are established methods, they possess several draw­
mented at the enzyme concentration of 1.05 mL/kg of Celluclast 1.5 L backs. Firstly, precise control over the reaction conditions is required to
[76]. In another report, pectin was extracted using Viscozyme® L maintain the quality of the extracted pectin. Secondly, these methods
(Novozymes), and the yield was reported to be 65.9 ± 2.1 mg/100 mg have negative environmental implications, especially due to the use of
[77]. corrosive chemicals [80]. To address these issues, researchers have tried
The exquisiteness of this method is the requirement of low temper­ to develop more efficient enzymatic extraction methods, but such so­
ature, leading to reduced energy consumption. Besides, it also helps phisticated methods are expensive and difficult to upscale to an indus­
avoid harmful and corrosive chemicals such as acids. Still, this method is trial level [81]. Hence, as discussed earlier in this section, other
highly specific, resulting in a high yield and better product quality [78]. innovative methods for pectin extraction were developed. These
However, the efficiency of this method is highly dependent on specific methods did not involve harsh chemicals and relied on indirect heating
temperature and pH conditions which should be strictly maintained to aided by ultrasound waves, microwaves, pressure variation, etc. These
allow optimum enzyme action. Buffers are used in this process to methods proved more efficient, enabling shorter extraction periods and
maintain pH conditions. Besides, the cost of the enzyme remains a major lower solvent requirements for a relatively higher pectin yield [80,81].
drawback of enzyme-assisted extraction. Another drawback of this However, the pectin extracted using each method has different
process is the presence of secondary metabolites such as phenolic structural characteristics, which must be highlighted. Various studies
compounds, flavonoids, and alkaloids in plant materials that might were performed to define relationships between extraction methods and
interfere with enzymes during pectin extraction reducing their activity pectin structure. The molecular weights of pectins extracted via
[79]. ultrasound-assisted, microwave-assisted, and conventional acid extrac­
tion were 386 kDa, 264 kDa, and 263 kDa, respectively [20]. The study
4.1.5. Subcritical water extraction indicated that harsh conditions during microwave-assisted and acid-
Subcritical water refers to hot water having a temperature between mediated extraction methods resulted in the degradation of the pectin
its boiling point (i.e., 100 ◦ C) and critical point (i.e., 374 ◦ C) but still chain, which did not happen under milder conditions of the ultrasound-
maintained in its liquid state by subjecting it to a critical pressure [80]. assisted extraction method. However, the pectin extracted by the con­
Recently, this subcritical water has been increasingly used to extract ventional method had a higher DE (84 %) compared to those extracted
pectin as it is environmentally friendly, economical, and safer than other from microwave-assisted (74 %) and ultrasound-assisted (77 %)
commercially used methods, such as conventional acid extraction. methods. This difference was due to the high probability of ester hy­
Subcritical water has a characteristically weaker hydrogen bonding drolysis under microwave irradiation and ultrasonic cavitation. Another
between the water molecules due to high temperatures [81]. Further, at study reported that pectin extracted under alkaline conditions displayed
temperatures above 270 ◦ C, the ion product constant of water (Kw) a low molecular weight (51 kDa) compared to that extracted enzymat­
considerably increases, making it effective for extracting both polar and ically using cellulase enzyme (95 kDa) [84]. The alkaline treatment
non-polar components, including pectin [81]. Moreover, the equipment resulted in the splitting of glycosidic linkages adjacent to methoxylated
required for this method is also less expensive and consumes lower en­ GalA units (β-elimination reaction). However, when both alkaline and
ergy compared to ultrasonic and microwave-assisted methods [82]. enzymatic treatments were applied together, they displayed a syner­
However, due to the utilization of high temperatures, this method may gistic effect resulting in a high pectin yield with a higher molecular
lead to the degradation of heat-sensitive components in the pectin weight of 112 kDa. Also, the pectin extracted by this method displayed a
structure. The pectin extracted from citrus peels using this method was higher RG-I content (61.80 %). In addition, the pectin obtained by alkali
reported to have a lower molecular weight [83]. Nevertheless, the gal­ + cellulase treatment had a lower degree of methyl esterification.
acturonic acid content and biofunctional activities were higher than However, using acidic conditions instead of alkaline with or without
conventionally extracted pectin. cellulase produces highly methoxylated pectin. The results indicated the
demethylation of polygalacturonic chains by the action of alkali [20].
4.1.6. High-pressure extraction Hence, a large variation in the structural characteristics of pectin is
This method makes use of high pressure for the extraction of pectin. observed depending on the extraction method, suggesting significant
The process is carried out in three stages: (i) immediate increase in variation in their functional properties and application potential.
pressure, (ii) holding of high pressure, and (iii) sudden pressure release
[80]. The plant substrates are subjected to fluid pressure (100–1000 5. Physicochemical properties of pectin
MPa) at room temperature. The increase in pressure takes place within a
few seconds resulting in a pressure shock to the cells. Due to this shock, The structure of pectin determines its physicochemical and biolog­
the cell walls are disintegrated, leading to solvent permeation to the cell ical properties [18,26]. Differences in the molecular weight of pectin,
interior [25]. The ultrahigh-pressure is maintained for a certain period acylation pattern, degree of esterification, type and distribution of
to improve the recovery yield before it is suddenly released and allowed neutral sugars, glycosidic bonds, and extraction conditions have a
to drop back to reach atmospheric pressure. The high pressure used in decisive influence on the pectin properties of different plants

6
S. Roy et al. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 239 (2023) 124248

[20,21,26,85]. Other chemical characteristics of pectins, such as the stabilized by ionic crosslinking through polyvalent ionic (e.g., calcium)
heterogeneity of the branching chains and the presence of proteins bridges between two interchain carboxyl groups, known as the egg-box
covalently bound to the side chains, also significantly influence pectin model [26,27]. LMP gelation can occur in mild pH conditions (2.0 to
properties [23]. Therefore, their macromolecular and microstructural 6.0) without sugar [26]. When comparing commercial pectins from
properties form the basis of their application [21,25]. The unique different sources, apple pectins produce a more elastic-viscous gel, while
structure of pectins is due to the presence of various hydroxyl and citrus pectins produce a more elastic-brittle gel. In contrast, sugar beet
carboxyl groups along their backbone [25]. The carboxylic groups of pectin is less effective as a gelling agent [27].
galacturonic acid are usually methyl-esterified, and this modification
alters pectin’s physicochemical properties, determining their degree of 6. Pectin-based food packaging
methoxylation (DM) [27]. The DM determines the pectin molecule’s net
charge, i.e., the lower DM, the more un-methylated carboxyl groups are Usually, the food packaging sector thrives on advancement in the
available, and the higher the net charge [30]. Pectins with >50 % food processing industry. The food packaging industry has evolved from
methylated galacturonic acid are called high-methoxyl pectin (HMP), mere container and packaging utensils to active/functional packaging
and <50 % are referred to as low-methoxyl pectin (LMP) [22,30]. Pectin materials that can prevent microbial attacks and oxidation, enhancing
molecules show the highest stability in an acidic environment; pectins food shelf life and retaining food quality. In this context, pectin is a
are rapidly de-esterified at alkaline pH and degraded even at room viable option for bio-based polymer packaging material due to its high
temperature [32]. water-solubility, outstanding film-forming capability, high flexibility,
Pectins are widely used as thickeners in the food industry to increase and several other important properties (e.g., moisture, oil, and aroma
the viscosity of various foodstuffs [30] due to their ability to form net­ barrier), which could diminish respiration rate and food oxidation to a
works to trap water and form gels, even at low concentrations (<1 %) great extent, eventually leading to the protracted shelf life of food
[27]. The gel-forming properties of pectin are subject to many factors, products. These unique properties make pectin a potential polymeric
like structure, sugar content, pH, temperature, and crosslinker [86]. The matrix for edible films or coating materials for food packaging appli­
bonding abilities of high methoxyl pectin are used to a great extent in cations that could retain the nutritional properties, prevent unwanted
the development of products such as candy which have long-term sta­ alterations (like enzymatic browning, off-flavor formation, aroma loss,
bility, even in high-temperature environments. This is mostly due to retardation of lipid migration) of unpreserved food, and promptly,
hydrogen bonding and hydrophobic forces that play a noteworthy role prevent pathogen attack while storage [88–90].
in gel construction [86]. Pectin is a lucrative biopolymer for making bio-based edible food
Pectin exhibits Newtonian behavior at low shear rates and pseu­ packaging films due to its biocompatibility, gelling ability, and antiox­
doelastic behavior when shear rates are increased [27]. Dilute pectin idant properties [91]. Even though pectin elucidated some antioxidant
solutions contain homogeneously dispersed pectin molecules that are activity that prevents the oxidation of food, additional functional
too far apart to interact, so there is only a slight increase in viscosity due properties are essential for active packaging applications [92,93]. These
to distortion of the liquid velocity distribution by the increased pro­ functional properties of the pectin film can be amended by incorporating
portion of hydrated molecules [27]. It has been reported that the mo­ functional components like plasticizers (to improve mechanical perfor­
lecular weight and apparent viscosity of pectin extracted with citric acid mance), emulsifiers (to increase stability and adhesion), and functional
are higher than those treated with other organic acids (malic acid, tar­ bioactive agents (to improve functionality) [23,36,94,95].
taric acid, etc.) [87]. Based on studies on the degree of methyl esterifi­ The pectin-based films can be fabricated using the solution casting
cation, pectin extracted with organic acids was observed to be highly technique [96]. Other manufacturing techniques, such as extrusion,
methoxylated. spray, and knife coating, are also used for preparing pectin-based edible
One of the most important properties of pectins is their gelling films/coatings [23]. Among all the methods, the solution casting
ability. The gelation process is affected by internal and external factors, approach is most frequently used for pectin-based food packaging film.
including the number and distribution of free carboxyl groups, type of The solution casting method is mostly used as it is the easiest form of
pectin, pectin concentration, ionic concentration, pH, ionic strength, film formation on a laboratory scale. The key benefit of the casting
and temperature [26,27]. Molecular weight is also an important factor method of film production is the ease with which it may be manufac­
affecting the solubility of pectins and, thus, their gelling properties. tured without specialized tools. Since most food-processing materials
Compared to low molecular-weight pectins, high molecular-weight cannot be molded at higher temperatures without causing permanent
pectin molecules have longer molecular chains and more reactive structural changes, the lower temperature during processing is another
sites. Generally, percolating network structures formed between pectin advantage. However, this process can only form sheets, so it takes a long
molecules and multivalent metal ions have improved rheological prop­ time to dry and is difficult to mass-produce.
erties such as viscosity and elastic modulus. To obtain pectin gel with On the other hand, the extrusion method is advantageous for film
high mechanical strength, rupture strength, and viscosity, the molecular manufacturing due to its high performance and mass production effi­
weight of pectin needs to be above 300 kDa. ciency. No solvent is required in the extrusion method, and high-
On the other hand, low molecular weight pectin (below 10 kDa) did viscosity polymers can be used. The extrusion method offers a more
not form any gel due to minimal reaction sites [26]. However, noticeable structured film and allows better dispersion of the polymers and fillers.
differences are observed in the gelling power of pectins from batch to Although it is preferred for commercial applications, limited studies
batch due to variations in the raw materials [28]. The solution is to have been conducted on the extrusion process for biopolymer-based film
blend and standardize commercial pectin from individual batches to fabrication.
provide a product with consistent properties [35]. Different gelling Even though pectin-based films are promising for food packaging,
patterns characterize HMP and LMP. HMP with high soluble solids thanks to the good barrier against oxygen, high water vapor perme­
contents, at least 55 %, forms a gel network in a concentrated acidic ability, and some antioxidant activity, the films are still brittle and
medium in the presence of abundant sugar [26,27]. A high sugar con­ require the addition of plasticizers for flexibility. Pectin-based pack­
centration reduces the water activity necessary to promote chain in­ aging film has been mostly developed by incorporating glycerol as a
teractions. HMP gels are stabilized by intermolecular hydrogen bonds plasticizer. Several reports show that mainly 20–40 wt% of glycerol was
and hydrophobic bonding between methyl esters [27]. The gelation of used as plasticizers for fabricating pectin-based packaging film [97].
HMP is also highly dependent on temperature, and the structure of HMP- Apart from glycerol, sorbitol, sucrose, polyethylene glycol (PEG),
sugar gels is reported to be irreversible on heating [26,27]. mannitol, etc., are other plasticizers used to increase the polymer chain
In contrast, LMP gelling follows a different mechanism. LMP gels are flexibility by reducing the deformities, hardness, viscous nature, density,

7
S. Roy et al. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 239 (2023) 124248

and an electrostatic charge of the polymer [97]. Furthermore, to add Table 1

functionality to the pectin-based film and make it a value-added pack­ Some recent reports on pectin-based active packaging films.
aging material, various bioactive ingredients, plant extract, nanofillers, Source of Reinforced materials Improved film properties References
etc., can be introduced into the packaging system. Active food packaging pectin
is a sustainable and environmentally friendly method to extend the shelf Citrus pectin Origanum majorana Water vapor barrier [99]
life of food and can be used as an alternative to chemical additives for essential oil property, antioxidant
preserving packed food. Two types of active packaging materials are activity
used: chemically active and biologically active, the latter being suitable Citrus pectin Copaiba oil Antimicrobial activity [101]
Citrus pectin Nanocrystalline Water vapor barrier and [103]
due to their non-toxic, biodegradable, biocompatible, and sustainable cellulose mechanical property
properties [36,98]. Natural compounds, plant extracts, nanofillers, Citrus pectin Clove bud essential Water vapor barrier [117]
essential oils, etc., can be used as active biological ingredients. Including oil property, hydrophobicity,
active ingredients in the packaging aid in extending the food shelf life antioxidant activity,
antimicrobial activity
through scavenging/removing gases (oxygen, ethylene, carbon dioxide),
Citrus pectin γ-aminobutyric acid Water vapor barrier [104]
moisture control, and releasing antibacterial and antioxidant substances property, Antioxidant
[21]. Active packaging is a frequently known packaging type comprising activity
active ingredients in the packaging system or employing functionally Citrus pectin Silver nanoparticles Antibacterial activity [106]
active polymers. Due to the high compatibility of pectin with other bio- Citrus pectin Pullulan Water vapor barrier [108]
property, compactness,
based polymers like proteins (gelatin), polysaccharides (agar, carra­ and mechanical properties
geenan, pullulan, chitosan, etc.), or synthetic biopolymers (polylactic Citrus pectin Agar, melanin Mechanical properties, [94]
acid, polyvinyl alcohol, etc.), pectin-based composite film or coating nanoparticles, and hydrophobicity,
solution can be developed easily [22,99,100]. Moreover, incorporating grapefruit seed antibacterial activity, and
extract antioxidant activity
various functional materials such as nanofillers and natural bioactive
Citrus pectin Zinc sulfide Mechanical properties, [110]
compounds enhanced the antioxidant activity and conferred antimi­ hydrophobicity, and
crobial properties of the pectin films against foodborne pathogens. Thus antibacterial activity
pectin-based packaging film or coating solution has received substantial Citrus pectin Gelatin and carbon UV-light barrier, [109]
interest owing to its interesting properties, such as being an excellent dots antibacterial and
antioxidant properties
food-grade emulsifier, stabilizer, and thickening/gelling agent.
Citrus pectin Chitosan and silver Mechanical properties and [140]
Pectin is commonly known as a gelling agent in terms of food nanoparticles antibacterial activity
composition. Moreover, pectin somewhat mimics the effects of gelatin, Citrus pectin Chitosan and Opuntia- Antioxidant activity [112]
but unlike gelatin, which originated from an animal source, pectin is a ficus indica waste
Citrus pectin Pine rosin Water resistance property [141]
fully plant-based material. So, pectin can be a good substitute for
Citrus pectin ZnO and CaCl2 Mechanical properties, [111]
gelatin. Pectin is preferable over other food hydrocolloids used in food UV-light barrier and
packaging due to its good physicochemical properties, film-formability, Antibacterial activity
and high abundance. It is seen that the addition of reinforcing materials Lemon-waste Nano-titania Mechanical, water vapor [142]
in the pectin-based film shows improvement in film properties. The pectin barrier, water resistance &
UV-light barrier
reinforced materials improve the polymer film’s mechanical and phys­
properties
icochemical properties. The recent works published in this field are Low methoxy Cornhusk fiber Mechanical properties, [105]
summarized in Table 1, and some of them are briefly discussed in the pectin hydrophobicity, and
following section. antioxidant activity
Low methoxy Stearic acid and Hydrophobic property [143]
Almasi et al. (2020) recently investigated the effect of different
pectin chitosan
concentrations of Origanum majorana essential oil nanoemulsion and High methoxy Natural deep eutectic [144]
Pickering emulsion on the citrus pectin-based film [99]. Oil nano­ pectin solvent
emulsion is a stable emulsion with added surfactants, and Pickering High methoxy Starch and lignin Thermal stability, [113]
emulsion is stabilized by solid particles such as nanocellulose using pectin microparticles mechanical properties,
and UV-light blocking
physical force. This study reported an enhancement in the film’s barrier
Watermelon Water and gas vapor [102]
properties due to the inclusion of the encapsulated essential oil. How­ peel barrier properties
ever, the mechanical properties of the pectin-based film were not Apple Low oxygen permeability [145]
improved with the incorporation of the encapsulated essential oil. pomace
Red pomelo Casein and egg Mechanical and thermal [116]
Moreover, the essential oil-induced bioactive pectin-based film illus­
peel albumin properties
trated decent antioxidant activity. The nanoemulsion exhibited higher Food grade Red cabbage and Color indicator property [115]
activity compared to the Pickering emulsion. The same study also re­ pectin beetroot
ported a significantly high release of essential oil in fatty food stimulants Food grade PVA – [146]
(95 % ethanol) by nanoemulsion-based film compared to the Pickering pectin

emulsion-based film.
A study on copaiba oil nanoemulsions fused pectin-based active unaffected even after the incorporation of the nanoemulsion.
packaging film was conducted where the films were developed utilizing The effect of external stimulants, e.g., ultrasound, on various prop­
a continuous casting technique (Fig. 5) [101]. Compared to the neat erties of watermelon peel-extracted pectin-based films was investigated
pectin film, the nanoemulsion incorporated composite film elucidated a earlier [102]. This study reports the substantial impact of ultrasound
prompt improvement in the water vapor barrier property and hydro­ treatment on watermelon pectin-based film solution, including reduced
phobicity. The fusion of nanoemulsion in the pectin film also boosted the viscosity, smaller particle size, and improved oxygen and water vapor
antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli. barrier property. The results indicate a considerable improvement in
The physical property of the film, e.g., film extensibility, was signifi­ watermelon peel pectin film’s physical properties due to controlled ul­
cantly augmented due to the incorporation of nanoemulsion in pectin trasonic treatment. Chaichi et al. (2017) investigated the effect of
film. However, this study also reported the reduction of stiffness and crystalline nanocellulose (CNC) incorporation in the pectin-based film.
strength in the nanoemulsion-added pectin-based film compared to the They reported remarkable enhancement in the physical property of the
control. Interestingly, the biodegradability of the film remains

8
S. Roy et al. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 239 (2023) 124248

Fig. 5. Preparation of copaiba oil nanoemulsions-incorporated pectin-based active packaging film [101].

pectin film due to the incorporation of CNC [103]. Especially, a note­ with melanin nanoparticles naturally extracted from cuttlefish ink was
worthy improvement of the tensile strength (84 %) and water vapor developed. Adding nature-derived nanoparticles to pectin improved the
barrier property (40 %) was attained by integrating 5 wt% of the CNC mechanical properties, thermal stability, and barrier properties of the
into the pectin film. The effect of another functional material, γ-ami­ control films. In addition, this film showed strong antibacterial activity
nobutyric acid (GABA), on citrus pectin-based film was also investigated against Listeria monocytogenes.
by Meerasri & Sothornvit (2020). The authors reported improved water Very recently, Priyadarshi, Kim, et al. (2021) reported significant
vapor barrier properties, reduced water solubility, and enhanced anti­ improvement in different physical properties (water vapor barrier
oxidant capacity of the GABA-infused pectin-based film [104]. However, properties, hydrophobicity, mechanical properties, and hardness) of the
the mechanical property of the film deteriorated due to the infusion of pectin film due to the incorporation of pullulan in a 1:1 ratio [108].
GABA. Interestingly, the pullulan blend pectin film delineated less water and oil
On the contrary, Bernhardt et al. (2017) reported improved me­ absorption, an essential feature of edible coating material. Then agar
chanical properties of the pectin film by incorporating corn husk fiber blended pectin film (1:1) reinforced with multiple functional materials,
content (0, 1, 3, 5, and 8 wt%) [105]. In addition to the mechanical e.g., melanin nanoparticles (MNP) and grapefruit seed extract (GSE),
property, incorporating corn husk fiber remarkably enhanced the film’s was developed by Roy & Rhim (2021a) recently [94] (Fig. 6). Authors
water vapor barrier properties, hydrophobicity, and antioxidant action. reported that the incorporation of agar improved the water resistance
Shankar et al. (2016) also biosynthesized silver nanoparticles- and hydrophobicity of the pectin-based edible film. Interestingly, a
incorporated pectin-based film. This composite film’s physical (UV- synergistic effect of MNP and GSE contributed to the remarkable
light barrier, mechanical, water vapor barrier, and thermal) properties enhancement of the antioxidant and antimicrobial activity alongside the
were significantly improved due to the addition of silver nanoparticles film’s physical properties. Therefore, it can be concluded that GSE and
[106]. Furthermore, the silver nanoparticle-infused pectin-based film MNP can be potential bioactive fillers for developing pectin-based
elucidated outstanding antimicrobial activity against foodborne patho­ functional packaging films.
gens, Escherichia coli, and Listeria monocytogenes. The strong antimicro­ Ezati et al. (2021) also studied the effect of sulfur-modified carbon
bial activity was owed to the embedded silver nanoparticles in the pectin dots in pectin/gelatin (1:1) edible packaging film [109]. They have
polymer matrix [107]. In a recent study, a pectin-based functional film shown that adding turmeric-derived carbon quantum dots significantly

Fig. 6. Schematics of pectin/agar-based active functional packaging film [94].

9
S. Roy et al. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 239 (2023) 124248

improved the functional properties, such as UV-light barrier properties Table 2

and antioxidant and antimicrobial function of the films. Moreover, the Application of pectin-based packaging films in food preservation.
film showed biocompatibility without cytotoxicity against mouse Composition used for film and Packaging applications References
fibroblast L929 cells. Roy & Rhim (2021c) also studied the reinforce­ coatings
ment of zinc sulfide nanomaterials on the pectin/agar (1:1) based films Lime peel, coconut water, and Pectin-based functional film [118]
[110]. They found the pectin/agar-based film’s physical properties, such lime peel extract retarded the oxidation of
as UV-light barrier and mechanical performance, were significantly soyabean oil during one month of
enhanced in the presence of nanofillers. The addition of zinc sulfide also storage
Orange peel and fish gelatin The pectin-based film enhances [119]
improved the antibacterial activity against food-borne pathogens. the microbial stability of cheese
Hari et al. (2021) also studied the effect of zinc oxide nanoparticles during preservation for one week
on the pectin-based edible film [111]. They observed that the film Apple peel and potato starch, The functional pectin-based film [121]
exhibited strong UV-barrier properties due to zinc oxide nanomaterials ZrO2 nanoparticles, Zataria containing 0.5 % essential oil and
multiflora essential oil 0.03 % ZrO2 showed the highest
and could completely inhibit E. coli and S. aureus growth. In another
increment in shelf-life of packed
report, the effect of adding prickly pear (Opuntia-ficus indica) waste on quail meat during storage for 12
the pectin/chitosan-based edible packaging film was tested by Kurek days
et al. (2021) [112]. The addition of prickly pear waste did not make any Watermelon peel and beetroot The beetroot extract added pectin- [102]
profound changes in the physico-chemical properties of the pectin/ extract based color indicator film showed
clear color changes from pink to
chitosan film, but it immensely enhanced the film’s antioxidant per­ brown beef during storage for 8
formance. Begali et al. (2021) reported an interesting work on pectin days. The pectin-based intelligent
and thermoplastic starch-based extrusion film, adding lignin micropar­ film is useful for monitoring the
ticles as a functional material [113]. They have observed that blending freshness of meat
Citrus pectin and whey protein The pectin-made coating solution [125]
lignin particles improved the thermal stability and mechanical proper­
isolate effectively improved the shelf life
ties of the pectin/starch-based films. Moreover, adding lignin helps of fruit and vegetables (apple,
reduce the film’s oxygen permeability and increase antioxidant activity. potato, and carrot)
Thus, the film has good potential in active food packaging applications. Citrus pectin, oregano and The pectin-based coating solution [138]
A recent study reported adding Morinda citrifolia fruit extract to the rosemary essential oil combined with oregano and
rosemary essential oil was
pectin and pectin/chitosan-based film [114]. The researchers showed
effective in improving the shelf
that adding the fruit extract improved the tensile strength and opacity of life of broccoli
the films while the thermal stability was reduced. Moreover, the pectin Citrus pectin and oregano The pectin-based functional [139]
and pectin/chitosan-based films’ antioxidant and antibacterial activities essential oil coating solution was effective in
Shrimp storage by reducing the
were significantly improved in the presence of the fruit extract. There­
growth of yeasts, molds, and total
fore, fruit extracts can also improve pectin-based films’ physical and coliforms
functional properties. Pectin and chitosan, Mentha The pectin-based functional [131]
González et al. (2021) studied the effect of red cabbage and beetroot piperita and lemon essential coating formulation doubled the
extract on pectin-based films [115]. They have added the natural oil shelf life of rainbow trout fillet
Citrus pectin, curcumin and The pectin-based functional and [11]
colorant in the pectin-based film to make color indicator films. The
sulfur nanoparticles color indicator film can be useful
developed films showed good color stability for one month and better for monitoring the freshness of
hydrophobicity, which can be used for intelligent food packaging. In shrimp during packaging
another report, Sood & Saini (2022) reported the fabrication of red Food grade pectin and The nanoemulsion integrated [120]
nanoemulsion pectin-based coating composite
pomelo peel-extracted pectin-based composite film [116]. As an added
showed two weeks extension of
filler, they incorporated casein and egg albumin. The composite films chicken fillet during packaging
showed better properties, such as thermal stability, mechanical prop­ Citrus pectin, pullulan, and The bioactive pectin-based film, [128]
erties, water resistance, and vapor barrier properties, compared to their grape seed extract when used for peanut coating,
neat counterparts. Nisar et al. (2018) recently developed clove bud extend the shelf life of peanut by
limiting the lipid peroxidation
essential oil-infused citrus pectin bioactive, functional packaging film
Low methoxy pectin and carrot The pectin-based film showed [124]
[117]. They showed enhanced physical (water vapor barrier properties, pectin-enriched fraction significant improvement in the
hydrophobicity) and mechanical properties of the clove essential oil shelf life of vegan cashew-ripened
emulsion-infused pectin film. In addition, the film’s antioxidant and cheese
Pectin and gelatin, virgin oil, The oil-incorporated pectin-based [125]
antimicrobial activities were remarkably improved due to the incorpo­
and grape seed oil film exhibited a significantly low
ration of clove essential oil into the pectin film. The studies so far total viable count in chicken
indicate that the physical properties of the pectin-based films are not during the packaging test for 12
robust, but were effectively improved by the addition of bioactive ma­ days. Also, the film-packed
terials and plasticizers. chicken showed a reduction in the
volatile nitrogen, peroxide values,
and thiobarbituric acid reactive
6.1. Applications of pectin-based films and coatings in foods substances compared to its
counterparts
Pectin-based food packaging films and coatings have been used in Watermelon (Citrullus lanatus) The pectin-based functional film, [126]
rind and kiwifruit (Actinidia when wrapped with chicken thigh
many applications. Some recent details are documented in Table 2 and
chinensis) peel extract for 9 days, showed lipid
briefly discussed in the following sections. First, various applications of retardation, which was verified by
pectin-based films are described, then the pectin-based coatings are lowering of peroxides and
briefly discussed. thiobarbituric acid reactive
substances
Food-grade pectin and The essential oil functionalized [129]
6.1.1. Application of pectin-based films lemongrass (Cymbopogon pectin-based film was used for the
The pectin-based films have been extensively used as bio-based Raspberries coating test, and the
wrapping material for packaging food items. The functional pectin (continued on next page)
films have been employed to improve the shelf-life of soyabean oil,

10
S. Roy et al. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 239 (2023) 124248

Table 2 (continued ) A recent report by Ezati & Rhim (2020) investigated the effect of
Composition used for film and Packaging applications References curcumin and sulfur nanoparticles on pectin-based composite film [11].
coatings This study amalgamates two functional materials (curcumin and sulfur
citrates L.) essential results showed coating reduced
nanoparticles), which provide various advantages and multiple appli­
oil and chitosan the molds and yeast growth and cations of the pectin film. For instance, curcumin imparted high anti­
consequently improved the shelf oxidant activity, while the sulfur nanoparticles induced antibacterial
life from 4 to 8 days. activity in the film. The edible composite film was also used as an
Pectin, alginate, and essential The fabricated film, when used for [130]
intelligent functional film for shrimp packaging as a color indicator for
oil components (citral and Raspberries coating, showed
eugenol) improvement in shelflife monitoring pH change due to the presence of curcumin. However, apart
from UV-light barrier properties and hydrophobicity, the other physical
properties, such as mechanical, water barrier, thermal, etc., were not
cheese, meat, and fish. Moreover, the pectin-based color indicator films significantly improved due to the inclusion of functional fillers. In
have also been used as a freshness indicator for meat and fish. Rod­ another recent study, a pectin-based smart packaging film was produced
samran and Sothornvit have developed a pectin-based functional film by by adding betacyanin derived from pitaya peel waste [122]. The authors
incorporating bioactive functional materials such as coconut water and observed that adding color indicators to the pectin film matrix reduced
lime peel extract [118]. Including these bioactive materials significantly the film’s thermal stability, water barrier, and mechanical properties but
improved the film barrier properties and antioxidant activity. This improved its UV protection and antioxidant properties. The color indi­
improved antioxidant activity effectively delayed soyabean oil oxidation cator film showed high sensitivity to volatile ammonia, and this prop­
during a month’s storage period. In addition, the coconut water resulted erty was used as an indicator of shrimp freshness. It has been reported
in a natural plasticizing effect on the film and enhanced its flexibility. that the indicator film color changed from reddish to reddish-brown and
Blood orange-derived pectin and the fish gelatin-based bioactive blend finally to brown, with the change in shrimp quality from fresh to spoiled.
films were developed by Jridi et al. (2020) and employed for cheese Callejas-Quijada et al. (2023) recently reported a pectin/gellan blend
packaging [119]. Their finding discovered that blood orange peel film functionalized with natamycin and clove essential oil for corn
pectin/gelatin composite film showed better physical properties than tortilla packaging applications [123]. The authors showed that the
neat gelatin films. This study investigated the different combinations of functional film effectively inhibited the growth of S. aureus and
gelatin and pectin for blended film fabrication. A significantly improved C. parapsilosis in film-wrapped tortilla samples. There was also a sig­
barrier and mechanical properties were found for the 50:50 ratio of nificant reduction in total aerobic bacteria and yeast growth (2 and 3
gelatin and pectin. In addition, strong antioxidant activity and some Log CFU/g). Therefore, functional bio-based films can be used instead of
antimicrobial activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacte­ synthetic plastics as packaging materials for tortilla packaging to
rial strains were illustrated by this pectin/gelatin-based film. While improve shelf life.
using this film for cheese wrapping, authors reported significantly The effect of the carrot pectin-enriched fraction (CPEF) on the
improved quality of the packaged cheese compared to the control in commercial low methoxy pectin film was investigated by Encalada et al.
chilled storage. These results certainly support the claim of the authors (2021) [124]. They observed a significant improvement in the water-
that the pectin/gelatin-based edible film very effectively inhibits mi­ resistance properties and antioxidant activity of the CPEF-induced
crobial growth. pectin-based film, along with enhanced physical properties (water
Sani et al. (2021) fabricated pectin and starch-based composite film vapor permeability, hydrophobicity, and elongation at break). This
reinforced with ZrO2 nanoparticles and microencapsulated Zataria composite film was further employed for vegan cashew-ripened cheese
multiflora essential oil [120]. They reported remarkable improvement in packaging, which was exceedingly effective in extending the shelf life of
the various physical (water vapor barrier, mechanical) and functional the cheese for a couple of months at 7 ◦ C. In another report, Khah et al.
(antioxidant and antimicrobial) properties of the composite film due to (2021) used pectin, gelatin, virgin oil, and grape seed oil to fabricate
the incorporation of the active substances. Consequently, the authors antimicrobial pectin-gelatin-based film [125]. The authors showed that
utilized the active composite film for quail meat packaging application. the functional film showed distinctive antimicrobial activity toward
They reported extended shelf life of meat due to active packaging by the foodborne pathogens. The functional film was used in chicken pack­
composite film. This study investigated three primary factors, i.e., pH, aging as a wrapping material for chicken breast fillets. Their finding
oxidation via thiobarbituric acid reactive substance (TBARS) assay, and showed the reduction in total viable count and growth of selected mi­
total volatile base nitrogen (TVBN), to evaluate the meat quality. crobes, and this conclusion was supported by the substantial decrease in
Including the fillers in pectin-starch film significantly restricted the in­ peroxide value (PV), TBARS, and TVBN of chicken fillet samples. Han &
crease in value of these factors, leading to the extended shelf life of the Song (2021) also studied chicken thigh packaging utilizing watermelon-
meat. In a recent study, Guo et al. (2021) exemplified a new application extracted pectin-based film functionalized with kiwifruit peel extract
of pectin-based film as a freshness indicator of meat [102]. This study [126]. The film was used to wrap chicken thigh, and the authors found
details the integration of color indicator (beetroot extract) with water­ that the high antioxidant activity of kiwifruit peel extract helps reduce
melon peel pectin-based film, which elucidated improved physical lipid oxidation in chicken thigh meat. Moreover, the PV and TBARS
(oxygen, water vapor barrier, light barrier, thermal and mechanical) values were significantly lower in wrapped chicken compared with the
properties of the film. The color indicator incorporated pectin film unwrapped counterpart. Therefore, recent controversial reports on the
illustrated brilliant pH-dependent color change from pink (pH 3) to application of pectin-based functional packaging films indicate their
yellow (pH 10). Consequently, this color indicator film was employed as potential to improve the shelf life of various food items.
a freshness indicator of chilled beef. The authors reported an excellent
change in color from pink to yellowish-brown during the storage time 6.1.2. Application of pectin-based coating
(one week). Similarly, in the current study, a pectin/chitosan-based Pectin-based functional formulations have also been used as coating
color-indicating film with added anthocyanins from black rice was materials on food products to improve their shelf life. To this end, the
developed and used as a freshness indicator for meat [121]. It has been surfaces of meat, fish, fruits, vegetables, and nuts were coated with a
reported that the color of the blend film changed from red to blue with pectin-based solution and stored at room temperature. There are several
an increasing degree of meat spoilage, suggesting a symbolic effect of recent reports on applying pectin-based coatings to food packaging
meat spoilage. Therefore, it can be inferred that bio-based packaging systems, some of which are discussed in this section. Pectin and whey
films have good potential to serve as packaging labels for freshness protein isolate-based edible formulation crosslinked with trans­
indication. glutaminase was employed for fruit and vegetable coating [127]. This

11
S. Roy et al. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 239 (2023) 124248

study illustrated the applicability of whey protein/pectin/trans­ report showed that the infectivity of Murine Norovirus (MNV) and
glutaminase edible coating to prevent decay of fresh-cut fruits (apple) Hepatitis A virus (HAV) on fresh blueberries was significantly and
and vegetables (potato, carrot) through ten-day storage. This extended effectively reduced after using the coating treatment compared to the
shelf life of the fruits and vegetables was feasible due to crosslinked control group. Therefore, it can be concluded that persimmon waste can
transglutaminase coating, which substantially averted microbial be used as an inexpensive source of food-grade antiviral coatings. In
growth, antioxidant activity, and weight loss. Apart from the extended another report, Alvarez et al. (2014) showed the efficiency of a pectin-
shelf life, the protein/pectin/transglutaminase-coated apple, potato, based coatings solution functionalized with oregano essential oil for
and carrot explicated remarkable hardness and chewiness (determined shrimp packaging [138]. They used immersion coating in shrimps, and
by texture analysis) compared to the uncoated counterpart. In another the sample was stored for two weeks at 4 ◦ C, and the growth of microbes
report, Priyadarshi et al. (2022) studied the effect of grape seed extract, such as yeasts, molds, and total coliforms was significantly decreased
including pectin/pullulan blend coating solution, on peanut storage due to coating.
[128]. The peanuts were coated with the developed formulation and Similarly, a pectin-based coating solution functionalized with rose­
stored for one month. They found the rancidity of the peanuts was mary and oregano essential oil was recently used for broccoli coating
reduced, and the grape seed extract’s high antioxidant activity helped [139]. The researchers found that the pectin and essential oil combi­
decrease lipid oxidation significantly (~75 %) over 30 days. nation effectively reduced the growth of coliforms, yeasts, and molds in
Jovanović et al. (2021) studied the antimicrobial pectin/gelatin- broccoli. Interestingly, the combination of rosemary and oregano
based films for raspberry coating [129]. They used lemongrass essen­ essential oil is effective, but individually, the essential oil did not show
tial oil and zinc oxide as antimicrobial materials. The fabricated coating any impact in the reduction of microbial growth in broccoli. Therefore,
formulation was effective against foodborne pathogenic bacteria and it is clear from the report mentioned above that pectin-based functional
controlled the growth of E. coli, S. aureus, and Bacillus subtilis. The coatings are very effective in improving the shelf life of food/grocery
functional formulation was used as a coating on raspberry fruit stored products by retarding the growth of unwanted foodborne pathogens.
under refrigerated conditions for a week, and it was reported that the
coating extended the shelf life of the fruit. Similarly, Guerreiro et al. 7. Conclusions and future perspectives
(2016) also studied the raspberry freshness in the refrigerator for one
week using a coating solution made of pectin, alginate, and essential oil In conclusion, pectin is a useful heteropolysaccharide with undefined
components such as citral and eugenol [130]. They reported that the molecular weight attributed to sugar moieties and methyl esterification.
strong antimicrobial activity of citral and eugenol helped enhance the The extraction process of pectin is well documented, and the poly­
shelf-life of raspberry fruits. Recently, Moradi et al. (2020) also studied saccharide can be obtained by many techniques such as ultrasound,
the effect of essential oil-incorporated pectin/chitosan-based coating on microwave, enzymatic treatment, etc. The extraction process ultimately
the quality changes of rainbow trout fillets [131]. They studied the affects the properties by controlling the pectin structure, i.e., the pres­
parameters like protein, lipid, moisture, and ash assessment of the fish ence of side chains, the degree of methyl esterification, molecular
fillets. This study showed that the fish fillet coated with pectin-chitosan weight, etc. Methods such as acid-mediated extraction that involve
solution showed double shelf life in color, odor, and texture than un­ harsh conditions result in lower molecular weight but high DE pectins,
coated control samples. while milder extraction methods, such as ultrasonic extraction, result in
Abdou et al. (2018) investigated the effect of curcumin and essential pectins with higher molecular weight but low DE. Hence, the extraction
oil nanoemulsions in pectin-based composites for coating applications method and resulting pectin properties are defined depending on the
[132]. A coating mixture was prepared by injecting a curcumin-based final application. The properties of pectins can also be tuned using
nanoemulsion using various essential oils (cinnamon, garlic, and sun­ modification methods such as demethoxylation, alkylation, amidation,
flower oil) into a pectin solution. This solution was used to coat chicken etc. The application of pectin is promising in the food sector due to its
fillets. The presence of essential oils in the coating solution reduced the high abundance, presence of functional ingredients, and excellent
TVBN and TBA values, indicating good antibacterial activity, which biocompatibility. Pectin is mainly used in the food industry as a thick­
reduced the texture degradation of chicken fillets and extended their ener, emulsifier, gelling agent, stabilizer, etc. Pectin has a bright future
shelf life (up to 12 days). Recently, pequi mesocarp extracted pectin- as it will likely replace gelatin as a low-calorie food. One of the uses of
based film, added with nano zinc oxide, was used as a coating solution pectin in the food sector is to make active packaging films. As the de­
to preserve and improve the shelf life of mangoes [133]. It has been mand for safe packaged foods increases, expectations for edible and
reported that applying the pectin-based functional coating solution biodegradable packaging films using pectin are rising. Much research
helps reduce mango ripening. An antibacterial coating made from epi­ has been published on preparing pectin-based films for active packaging
gallocatechin gallate grafted pectin was recently applied to improve the and coating applications. Bioactive compounds and nanofillers in
shelf life of grapes [134]. Antibacterial and antioxidant activities are pectin-based films induce antibacterial and antioxidant activity to
effectively enhanced by incorporating functional bioactive components develop functional films. Edible and functional pectin-based films have
into the pectin matrix. Pectin-based coating formulations improved already been utilized for packaging vegetables, fruits, dairy products,
grape longevity by reducing weight loss, phenol content, and activity of and meat. This review is expected to raise awareness of pectin and its
polyphenol oxidases. Candra et al. (2023) studied the pectin and gelatin- potential as a food packaging material, which may increase the appli­
based film added with titanium oxide nanoparticles and curcumin and cability of pectin-based films and coatings in active food packaging.
used the formulation for coating salmon fillets [135]. The authors re­ Although pectin-based edible functional composite films have shown
ported that the shelf life of salmon fillets was extended to 6 days after the promising results, a further in-depth research is needed to ascertain the
application of functional coatings due to the decrease in the total viable efficacy and robustness of pectin-based food packaging materials on a
and psychrotrophic bacteria and the decrease in pH of the fillets. commercial scale.
Lately, pectin-based formulations have been used for peach coating
[136]. P-coumaric acid-modified cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) were Funding declaration
infused into a pectin solution and used as a coating and barrier material
for fresh-cut peaches. The authors reported that coatings with modified This work was supported by the National Research Foundation of
CNCs induced a higher inhibitory effect on the browning process within Korea (NRF) grant funded by the Korean government (MSIT)
8 h than their uncoated counterparts. Pectin, extracted from persimmon (2022R1A2B5B02001422) and the Brain Pool Program funded by the
fruits rich in polyphenols, has been used to make packaging films and Ministry of Science, ICT, and Future Planning through the NRF
applied as a coating solution for preserving blueberries [137]. This (2019H1D3A1A01070715).

12
S. Roy et al. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 239 (2023) 124248

Declaration of competing interest products, Food Hydrocoll. 118 (2021), 106799, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
foodhyd.2021.106799.
[22] P.J.P. Espitia, W.X. Du, T.H. McHugh, R.de J. Avena-Bustillos, N.de F.F. Soares,
The authors declare there is no conflict of interest. Edible films from pectin: Physical-mechanical and antimicrobial properties - a
review, Food Hydrocoll. 35 (2014) 287–296, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Data availability statement foodhyd.2013.06.005.
[23] J. Huang, Z. Hu, L. Hu, G. Li, Q. Yao, Y. Hu, Pectin-based active packaging: a
critical review on preparation, physical properties and novel application in food
Not applicable. preservation, Trends Food Sci. Technol. 118 (2021) 167–178, https://doi.org/
10.1016/J.TIFS.2021.09.026.
[24] M. Moslemi, Reviewing the recent advances in application of pectin for technical
References and health promotion purposes: from laboratory to market, Carbohydr. Polym.
254 (2021), 117324, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CARBPOL.2020.117324.
[1] E. Shlush, M. Davidovich-Pinhas, Bioplastics for food packaging, Trends Food Sci. [25] M. Kumar, M. Tomar, V. Saurabh, T. Mahajan, S. Punia, S.G. Rudra, C. Kaur, J.
Technol. (2022), https://doi.org/10.1016/J.TIFS.2022.04.026. F. Kennedy, M.del M. Contreras, Emerging trends in pectin extraction and its anti-
[2] S. Roy, R. Priyadarshi, P. Ezati, J.W. Rhim, Curcumin and its uses in active and microbial functionalization using natural bioactives for application in food
smart food packaging applications - a comprehensive review, Food Chem. 375 packaging, Trends Food Sci. Technol. 105 (2020) 223–237, https://doi.org/
(2022), 131885, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.FOODCHEM.2021.131885. 10.1016/j.tifs.2020.09.009.
[3] H.-J. Kim, S. Roy, J.-W. Rhim, Gelatin/agar-based color-indicator film integrated [26] D. Qiang Li, J. Li, H. Lin Dong, X. Li, J. Qi Zhang, S. Ramaswamy, F. Xu, Pectin in
with Clitoria ternatea flower anthocyanin and zinc oxide nanoparticles for biomedical and drug delivery applications: a review, Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 185
monitoring freshness of shrimp, Food Hydrocoll. 124 (2022), 107294, https:// (2021) 49–65, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2021.06.088.
doi.org/10.1016/J.FOODHYD.2021.107294. [27] S.Y. Chan, W.S. Choo, D.J. Young, X.J. Loh, Pectin as a rheology modifier: origin,
[4] S. Roy, J.-W. Rhim, Gelatin/cellulose nanofiber-based functional films added structure, commercial production and rheology, Carbohydr. Polym. 161 (2017)
with mushroom-mediated sulfur nanoparticles for active packaging applications, 118–139, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2016.12.033.
J. Nanostruct. Chem. 2022 (2022) 1–12, https://doi.org/10.1007/S40097-022- [28] L.H. Reichembach, C. Lúcia de Oliveira Petkowicz, Pectins from alternative
00484-3. sources and uses beyond sweets and jellies: an overview, Food Hydrocoll. 118
[5] S. Roy, J.-W. Rhim, Effect of chitosan modified halloysite on the physical and (2021), 106824, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2021.106824.
functional properties of pullulan/chitosan biofilm integrated with rutin, Appl. [29] A. Rehman, T. Ahmad, R.M. Aadil, M.J. Spotti, A.M. Bakry, I.M. Khan, L. Zhao,
Clay Sci. 211 (2021), 106205, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CLAY.2021.106205. T. Riaz, Q. Tong, Pectin polymers as wall materials for the nano-encapsulation of
[6] C. Mellinas, M. Ramos, A. Jiménez, M.C. Garrigós, Recent trends in the use of bioactive compounds, Trends Food Sci. Technol. 90 (2019) 35–46, https://doi.
pectin from agro-waste residues as a natural-based biopolymer for food org/10.1016/J.TIFS.2019.05.015.
packaging applications, Materials (Basel) 13 (2020) 673, https://doi.org/ [30] U. Einhorn-Stoll, A. Archut, M. Eichhorn, H. Kastner, Pectin - plant protein
10.3390/ma13030673. systems and their application, Food Hydrocoll. 118 (2021), 106783, https://doi.
[7] S. Vidović, A.Tepić Horecki, J. Vladić, Z. Šumić, A. Gavarić, A. Vakula, Apple, in: org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2021.106783.
Valorization Fruit Process. By-Products, Academic Press, 2020, pp. 17–42, [31] X. Yang, K. Yuan, F.B.A. Descallar, A. Li, X. Yang, H. Yang, Gelation behaviors of
https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-817106-6.00002-2. some special plant-sourced pectins: a review inspired by examples from
[8] T. Sakai, T. Sakamoto, J. Hallaert, E.J. Vandamme, Pectin, pectinase, and traditional gel foods in China, Trends Food Sci. Technol. 126 (2022) 26–40,
protopectinase: production, properties, and applications, Adv. Appl. Microbiol. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.TIFS.2022.06.012.
39 (1993) 213–294, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2164(08)70597-5. [32] A. Noreen, Z.I.H. Nazli, J. Akram, I. Rasul, A. Mansha, N. Yaqoob, R. Iqbal,
[9] F. Dranca, M. Oroian, Extraction, purification and characterization of pectin from S. Tabasum, M. Zuber, K.M. Zia, Pectins functionalized biomaterials; a new viable
alternative sources with potential technological applications, Food Res. Int. 113 approach for biomedical applications: a review, Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 101
(2018) 327–350, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2018.06.065. (2017) 254–272, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2017.03.029.
[10] R. Suhag, N. Kumar, A.T. Petkoska, A. Upadhyay, Film formation and deposition [33] N. El Fihry, K. El Mabrouk, M. Eeckhout, H.A. Schols, Y. Filali-Zegzouti, H. Hajjaj,
methods of edible coating on food products: a review, Food Res. Int. 136 (2020), Physicochemical and functional characterization of pectin extracted from
109582, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.FOODRES.2020.109582. Moroccan citrus peels, LWT - Food Sci Technol. 162 (2022), 113508, https://doi.
[11] P. Ezati, J.-W. Rhim, pH-responsive pectin-based multifunctional films org/10.1016/J.LWT.2022.113508.
incorporated with curcumin and sulfur nanoparticles, Carbohydr. Polym. 230 [34] F. Naqash, F.A. Masoodi, S.A. Rather, S.M. Wani, A. Gani, Emerging concepts in
(2020), 115638, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2019.115638. the nutraceutical and functional properties of pectin - a review, Carbohydr.
[12] S. Panahirad, M. Dadpour, S.H. Peighambardoust, M. Soltanzadeh, B. Gullón, Polym. 168 (2017) 227–239, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2017.03.058.
K. Alirezalu, J.M. Lorenzo, Applications of carboxymethyl cellulose- and pectin- [35] L.H. Reichembach, C.L.de O. Petkowicz, New findings on acid-extractable pectins
based active edible coatings in preservation of fruits and vegetables: a review, from soy hull, Carbohydr. Polym. 294 (2022) 119831, https://doi.org/10.1016/
Trends Food Sci. Technol. 110 (2021) 663–673, https://doi.org/10.1016/J. J.CARBPOL.2022.119831.
TIFS.2021.02.025. [36] J.R. Nastasi, V. Kontogiorgos, V.D. Daygon, M.A. Fitzgerald, Pectin-based films
[13] F. Xu, S. Zhang, G.I.N. Waterhouse, T. Zhou, Y. Du, D. Sun-Waterhouse, P. Wu, and coatings with plant extracts as natural preservatives: a systematic review,
Yeast fermentation of apple and grape pomaces affects subsequent aqueous pectin Trends Food Sci. Technol. 120 (2022) 193–211, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.
extraction: composition, structure, functional and antioxidant properties of TIFS.2022.01.014.
pectins, Food Hydrocoll. 133 (2022), 107945, https://doi.org/10.1016/J. [37] R.P. Singh, J.M.R. Tingirikari, Agro waste derived pectin poly and
FOODHYD.2022.107945. oligosaccharides: synthesis and functional characterization, Biocatal. Agric.
[14] V.V. Smirnov, V.V. Golovchenko, F.V. Vityazev, O.A. Patova, N.Y. Selivanov, O. Biotechnol. 31 (2021), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bcab.2021.101910.
G. Selivanova, S.V. Popov, The antioxidant properties of pectin fractions isolated [38] B.R. Thakur, R.K. Singh, A.K. Handa, D.M.A. Rao, Chemistry and uses of pectin - a
from vegetables using a simulated gastric fluid, J. Chem. 2017 (2017) 5898594, review, Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 37 (1997) 47–73, https://doi.org/10.1080/
https://doi.org/10.1155/2017/5898594. 10408399709527767.
[15] A.H. Abari, H.A. Rourani, S.M. Ghasemi, H. Kim, Y.G. Kim, Investigation of [39] K.M.M. Koriem, M.S. Arbid, K.R. Emam, Therapeutic effect of pectin on
antioxidant and anticancer activities of unsaturated oligo-galacturonic acids octylphenol induced kidney dysfunction, oxidative stress and apoptosis in rats,
produced by pectinase of streptomyces hydrogenans YAM1, Sci. Rep. 11 (2021) Environ. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 38 (2014) 14–23, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
1–9, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-87804-9. etap.2014.04.029.
[16] R. Chen, C. Jin, Z. Tong, J. Lu, L. Tan, L. Tian, Q. Chang, Optimization extraction, [40] M. Glicksman, Gum Technology in the Food Industry, 1969.
characterization and antioxidant activities of pectic polysaccharide from [41] D. Mohnen, Pectin structure and biosynthesis, Curr. Opin. Plant Biol. 11 (2008)
tangerine peels, Carbohydr. Polym. 136 (2016) 187–197, https://doi.org/ 266–277, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pbi.2008.03.006.
10.1016/J.CARBPOL.2015.09.036. [42] B. Pasandide, F. Khodaiyan, Z. Mousavi, S.S. Hosseini, Pectin extraction from
[17] F.O. Ogutu, T.H. Mu, Ultrasonic degradation of sweet potato pectin and its citron peel: optimization by box-behnken response surface design, Food Sci.
antioxidant activity, Ultrason. Sonochem. 38 (2017) 726–734, https://doi.org/ Biotechnol. 27 (2018) 997–1005, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10068-018-0365-6.
10.1016/J.ULTSONCH.2016.08.014. [43] M. O’Neill, P. Albersheim, A. Darvill, The pectic polysaccharides of primary cell
[18] S. Basak, U.S. Annapure, Trends in “green” and novel methods of pectin walls, in: Methods Plant Biochem, Academic Press, 1990, pp. 415–441, https://
modification - a review, Carbohydr. Polym. 278 (2022), 118967, https://doi.org/ doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-461012-5.50018-5.
10.1016/j.carbpol.2021.118967. [44] B.M. Yapo, P. Lerouge, J.F. Thibault, M.C. Ralet, Pectins from citrus peel cell
[19] S. Christiaens, S. Van Buggenhout, K. Houben, Z. Jamsazzadeh Kermani, K.R. walls contain homogalacturonans homogenous with respect to molar mass,
N. Moelants, E.D. Ngouémazong, A. Van Loey, M.E.G. Hendrickx, rhamnogalacturonan I and rhamnogalacturonan II, Carbohydr. Polym. 69 (2007)
Process–Structure–Function relations of pectin in food, Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. 426–435, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CARBPOL.2006.12.024.
56 (2016) 1021–1042, https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2012.753029. [45] W.G.T. Willats, L. McCartney, W. Mackie, J.P. Knox, in: N.C. Carpita,
[20] J. Cui, C. Zhao, L. Feng, Y. Han, H. Du, H. Xiao, J. Zheng, Pectins from fruits: M. Campbell, M. Tierney (Eds.), Pectin: Cell Biology and Prospects for Functional
relationships between extraction methods, structural characteristics, and Analysis, Plant Cell Walls, Springer, Netherlands, Dordrecht, 2001, pp. 9–27,
functional properties, Trends Food Sci. Technol. 110 (2021) 39–54, https://doi. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-010-0668-2_2.
org/10.1016/j.tifs.2021.01.077. [46] J. Zandleven, G. Beldman, M. Bosveld, H.A. Schols, A.G.J. Voragen, Enzymatic
[21] L.N. Gerschenson, E.N. Fissore, A.M. Rojas, A.M. Idrovo Encalada, E.F. Zukowski, degradation studies of xylogalacturonans from apple and potato, using
R.A. Higuera Coelho, Pectins obtained by ultrasound from agroindustrial by-

13
S. Roy et al. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 239 (2023) 124248

xylogalacturonan hydrolase, Carbohydr. Polym. 65 (2006) 495–503, https://doi. method, Food Chem. 278 (2019) 364–372, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2006.02.015. foodchem.2018.11.067.
[47] B. Neckebroeck, S.H.E. Verkempinck, J. Van Audenhove, T. Bernaerts, H. de [70] C. Mollea, F. Chiampo, R. Conti, Extraction and characterization of pectins from
Wilde d’Estmael, M.E. Hendrickx, A.M. Van Loey, Structural and emulsion cocoa husks: a preliminary study, Food Chem. 107 (3) (2008) 1353–1356,
stabilizing properties of pectin rich extracts obtained from different botanical https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2007.09.006.
sources, Food Res. Int. 141 (2021), 110087, https://doi.org/10.1016/J. [71] M. Mehdizadeh, The impact of fields on materials at RF/microwave frequencies,
FOODRES.2020.110087. in: Microwave/RF Appl. Probes Mater. Heating, Sensing, Plasma Gener, 2010,
[48] D.A. Mendez, M.J. Fabra, A. Martínez-Abad, M. Мartínez-Sanz, A.López- pp. 1–34.
Rubio Gorria, Understanding the different emulsification mechanisms of pectin: [72] A. Kute, D. Mohapatra, B. Babu, B.P. Sawant, Optimization of microwave assisted
comparison between watermelon rind and two commercial pectin sources, Food extraction of pectin from orange peel using response surface methodology,
Hydrocoll. 120 (2021), 106957, https://doi.org/10.1016/J. J. Food Res. Technol. 3 (2015) 62–70.
FOODHYD.2021.106957. [73] Y. Yang, Z. Wang, D. Hu, K. Xiao, J.-Y. Wu, Efficient extraction of pectin from
[49] I. Das, A. Arora, Kinetics and mechanistic models of solid-liquid extraction of sisal waste by combined enzymatic and ultrasonic process, Food Hydrocoll. 79
pectin using advance green techniques-a review, Food Hydrocoll. 120 (2021), (2018) 189–196, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2017.11.051.
106931, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2021.106931. [74] T. Sakamoto, R.A. Hours, T. Sakai, Enzymic pectin extraction from protopectins
[50] M.C.N. Picot-Allain, B. Ramaswamy, M.N. Emmambux, Extraction, using microbial protopectinases, Process Biochem. 30 (1995) 403–409, https://
characterisation, and application of pectin from tropical and sub-tropical fruits: a doi.org/10.1016/0032-9592(94)00027-1.
review, Food Rev. Int. 38 (2022) 282–312, https://doi.org/10.1080/ [75] X. Liu, C. Kokare, Microbial enzymes of use in industry, Biotechnol. Microb.
87559129.2020.1733008. Enzym. Prod. Biocatal. Ind. Appl. (2017) 267–298, https://doi.org/10.1016/
[51] E.H. Cho, H.T. Jung, B.H. Lee, H.S. Kim, J.K. Rhee, S.H. Yoo, Green process B978-0-12-803725-6.00011-X.
development for apple-peel pectin production by organic acid extraction, [76] O. Yuliarti, L. Matia-Merino, K.T. Goh, J. Mawson, C. Brennan, Characterization
Carbohydr. Polym. 204 (2019) 97–103, https://doi.org/10.1016/J. of gold kiwifruit pectin isolated by enzymatic treatment, Int. J. Food Sci. Technol.
CARBPOL.2018.09.086. 47 (3) (2012) 633–639, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2621.2011.02887.x.
[52] K.K. Woo, Y.Y. Chong, S.K. Li Hiong, P.Y. Tang, Pectin extraction and [77] C. Sabater, A. Blanco-Doval, A. Montilla, N. Corzo, Optimization of an enzymatic
characterization from red dragon fruit (Hylocereus polyrhizus): a preliminary method to obtain modified artichoke pectin and pectic oligosaccharides using
study, J. Biol. Sci. 10 (2010) 631–636, https://doi.org/10.3923/ artificial neural network tools. In silico and in vitro assessment of the antioxidant
jbs.2010.631.636. activity, Food Hydrocoll. 110 (2021) 106161, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
[53] M.Y. Sayah, R. Chabir, H. Benyahia, Y. Rodi Kandri, F. Ouazzani Chahdi, foodhyd.2020.106161.
H. Touzani, F. Errachidi, Yield, Esterification degree and molecular weight [78] M. Marić, A.N. Grassino, Z. Zhu, F.J. Barba, M. Brnčić, S. Rimac Brnčić, An
evaluation of pectins isolated from orange and grapefruit peels under different overview of the traditional and innovative approaches for pectin extraction from
conditions, PLoS One 11 (2016) 1–16, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal. plant food wastes and by-products: ultrasound-, microwaves-, and enzyme-
pone.0161751. assisted extraction, Trends Food Sci. Technol. 76 (2018) 28–37, https://doi.org/
[54] N.H. Hamidon, D.N. Zaidel, Effect of extraction conditions on pectin yield 10.1016/J.TIFS.2018.03.022.
extracted from sweet potato peels residues using hydrochloric acid, Chem. Eng. [79] E. Ximenes, Y. Kim, N. Mosier, B. Dien, M. Ladisch, Deactivation of cellulases by
Trans. 56 (2017) 979–984, https://doi.org/10.3303/CET1756164. phenols, Enzym. Microb. Technol. 48 (2011) 54–60, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
[55] M.F. Basanta, N.M.A. Ponce, A.M. Rojas, C.A. Stortz, Effect of extraction time and enzmictec.2010.09.006.
temperature on the characteristics of loosely bound pectins from japanese plum, [80] A. Zoghi, S. Vedadi, Z.H. Esfahani, H.A. Gavlighi, K. Khosravi-Darani, A review on
Carbohydr. Polym. 89 (2012) 230–235, https://doi.org/10.1016/j. pectin extraction methods using lignocellulosic wastes, Biomass Convers.
carbpol.2012.03.001. Biorefinery 1 (2021) 1–13, https://doi.org/10.1007/S13399-021-02062-Z.
[56] S.H. Peighambardoust, M. Jafarzadeh-Moghaddam, M. Pateiro, J.M. Lorenzo, [81] G. Mao, D. Wu, C. Wei, W. Tao, X. Ye, R.J. Linhardt, C. Orfila, S. Chen,
R. Domínguez, Physicochemical, thermal and rheological properties of pectin Reconsidering conventional and innovative methods for pectin extraction from
extracted from sugar beet pulp using subcritical water extraction process, fruit and vegetable waste: targeting rhamnogalacturonan I, Trends Food Sci.
Molecules 26 (2021) 1413, https://doi.org/10.3390/MOLECULES26051413. Technol. 94 (2019) 65–78, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.TIFS.2019.11.001.
[57] A. Chawafambira, Extraction and characterization of pectin from snot apple [82] M.V. Nova, L. Nothnagel, M. Thurn, P.B. Travassos, L.S. Herculano, P.R.
(Azanza garckeana) fruits with potential use in Zimbabwe, Int. J. Fruit Sci. 21 S. Bittencourt, C.R. Novello, R.B. Bazotte, M.G. Wacker, M.L. Bruschi,
(2021) 791–803, https://doi.org/10.1080/15538362.2021.1932693. Development study of pectin/Surelease® solid microparticles for the delivery of
[58] W.E. Devi, R.N. Shukla, K.L. Bala, A. Kumar, A.A. Mishra, K.C. Yadav, Extraction L-alanyl-L-glutamine dipeptide, Food Hydrocoll. 89 (2019) 921–932, https://doi.
of pectin from citrus fruit peel and its utilization in preparation of jelly, Int. J. org/10.1016/J.FOODHYD.2018.11.038.
Eng. Res. Technol. 3 (2014), 051885, https://doi.org/10.17577/ [83] J. Chen, C. Zhang, Q. Xia, D. Liu, X. Tan, Y. Li, Y. Cao, Treatment with subcritical
IJERTV3IS051885. water-hydrolyzed citrus pectin ameliorated cyclophosphamide-induced
[59] Y. Picó, Ultrasound-assisted extraction for food and environmental samples, immunosuppression and modulated gut microbiota composition in ICR mice,
TrACTrends Anal. Chem. 43 (2013) 84–99, https://doi.org/10.1016/j. Molecules 25 (2020) 1302, https://doi.org/10.3390/MOLECULES25061302.
trac.2012.12.005. [84] J. Cui, C. Zhao, S. Zhao, G. Tian, F. Wang, C. Li, F. Wang, J. Zheng, Alkali +
[60] A. Ilghami, S. Ghanbarzadeh, H. Hamishehkar, Optimization of the ultrasonic- cellulase-extracted citrus pectins exhibit compact conformation and good
assisted extraction of phenolic compounds, ferric reducing activity and fermentation properties, Food Hydrocoll. 108 (2020), 106079, https://doi.org/
antioxidant activity of the Beta vulgaris using response surface methodology, 10.1016/J.FOODHYD.2020.106079.
Pharm. Sci. 21 (2015) 46–50, https://doi.org/10.15171/PS.2015.16. [85] E.G. Maxwell, N.J. Belshaw, K.W. Waldron, V.J. Morris, Pectin - an emerging new
[61] B.B.V. Guandalini, N.P. Rodrigues, L.D.F. Marczak, Sequential extraction of bioactive food polysaccharide, Trends Food Sci. Technol. 24 (2012) 64–73,
phenolics and pectin from mango peel assisted by ultrasound, Food Res. Int. 119 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2011.11.002.
(2019) 455–461, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2018.12.011. [86] W.G. Willats, J.P. Knox, J.D. Mikkelsen, Pectin: new insights into an old polymer
[62] W.S. Abou-Elseoud, E.A. Hassan, M.L. Hassan, Extraction of pectin from sugar are starting to gel, Trends Food Sci. Technol. 17 (3) (2006) 97–104, https://doi.
beet pulp by enzymatic and ultrasound-assisted treatments, Carbohydr. Polym. org/10.1016/j.tifs.2005.10.008.
Technol. Appl. 2 (2021), 100042. [87] E.H. Cho, H.T. Jung, B.H. Lee, H.S. Kim, J.K. Rhee, S.H. Yoo, Green process
[63] P. Karbuz, N. Tugrul, Microwave and ultrasound assisted extraction of pectin development for apple-peel pectin production by organic acid extraction,
from various fruits peel, J. Food Sci. Technol. 58 (2) (2021) 641–650, https://doi. Carbohydr. Polym. 204 (2019) 97–103, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
org/10.1007/s13197-020-04578-0. carbpol.2018.09.086.
[64] W. Wang, X. Ma, Y. Xu, Y. Cao, Z. Jiang, T. Ding, X. Ye, D. Liu, Ultrasound- [88] T. Vanitha, M. Khan, Role of pectin in food processing and food packaging, in:
assisted heating extraction of pectin from grapefruit peel: optimization and Pectins - Extr. Purification, Charact. Appl, IntechOpen, 2020, https://doi.org/
comparison with the conventional method, Food Chem. 178 (2015) 106–114, 10.5772/intechopen.83677.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.01.080. [89] Y. Zhou, W. Wu, L. Wang, G. Goksen, P. Shao, Multifunctional pectin films based
[65] Y. Xu, L. Zhang, Y. Bailina, Z. Ge, T. Ding, X. Ye, D. Liu, Effects of ultrasound and/ on mussel-inspired modified 2D ag nanosheets for long-lasting antibacterial and
or heating on the extraction of pectin from grapefruit peel, J. Food Eng. 126 enhanced barrier properties, Food Hydrocoll. 137 (2023), 108331, https://doi.
(2014) 72–81, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JFOODENG.2013.11.004. org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2022.108331.
[66] M. Sivakumar, A.B. Pandit, Ultrasound enhanced degradation of rhodamine B: [90] W. Wu, Y. Wu, Y. Lin, P. Shao, Facile fabrication of multifunctional citrus pectin
optimization with power density, Ultrason. Sonochem. 8 (2001) 233–240, airgel fortified with cellulose nanofiber as controlled packaging of edible fungi,
https://doi.org/10.1016/S1350-4177(01)00082-7. Food Chem. 374 (2022), 131763, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
[67] W. Hu, Y. Zhao, Y. Yang, H. Zhang, C. Ding, C. Hu, L. Zhou, Z. Zhang, S. Yuan, foodchem.2021.131763.
Y. Chen, M. Yuan, Microwave-assisted extraction, physicochemical [91] S.T. Minzanova, V.F. Mironov, D.M. Arkhipova, A.V. Khabibullina, L.
characterization and bioactivity of polysaccharides from Camptotheca acuminata G. Mironova, Y.M. Zakirova, V.A. Milyukov, Biological activity and
fruits, Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 133 (2019) 127–136, https://doi.org/10.1016/J. pharmacological application of pectic polysaccharides: a review, Polymers (Basel)
IJBIOMAC.2019.04.086. 10 (2018) 1407, https://doi.org/10.3390/polym10121407.
[68] J. Baker-Jarvis, S. Kim, The interaction of radio-frequency fields with dielectric [92] C.M.P. Freitas, J.S.R. Coimbra, V.G.L. Souza, R.C.S. Sousa, Structure and
materials at macroscopic to mesoscopic scales, J. Res. Natl. Inst. Stand. Technol. applications of pectin in food, biomedical, and pharmaceutical industry: a review,
117 (2012) 1–60, https://doi.org/10.6028/jres.117.001. Coatings 11 (2021) 922, https://doi.org/10.3390/COATINGS11080922.
[69] P. Rodsamran, R. Sothornvit, Microwave heating extraction of pectin from lime [93] M. Kumar, J. Potkule, M. Tomar, S. Punia, S. Singh, S. Patil, S. Singh, T. Ilakiya,
peel: characterization and properties compared with the conventional heating C. Kaur, J.F. Kennedy, Jackfruit seed slimy sheath, a novel source of pectin:

14
S. Roy et al. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 239 (2023) 124248

studies on antioxidant activity, functional group, and structural morphology, [116] A. Sood, C.S. Saini, Red pomelo peel pectin based edible composite films: effect of
Carbohydr. Polym. Technol. Appl. 2 (2021), 100054, https://doi.org/10.1016/J. pectin incorporation on mechanical, structural, morphological and thermal
CARPTA.2021.100054. properties of composite films, Food Hydrocoll. 123 (2022), 107135, https://doi.
[94] S. Roy, J.-W. Rhim, Fabrication of pectin/agar blended functional film: effect of org/10.1016/J.FOODHYD.2021.107135.
reinforcement of melanin nanoparticles and grapefruit seed extract, Food [117] T. Nisar, Z.C. Wang, X. Yang, Y. Tian, M. Iqbal, Y. Guo, Characterization of citrus
Hydrocoll. 118 (2021), 106823, https://doi.org/10.1016/j. pectin films integrated with clove bud essential oil: physical, thermal, barrier,
foodhyd.2021.106823. antioxidant and antibacterial properties, Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 106 (2018)
[95] A. Lazaridou, C.G. Biliaderis, Edible films and coatings with pectin, pectin 670–680, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2017.08.068.
technol, Physiol. Prop. (2020) 99–123, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030- [118] P. Rodsamran, R. Sothornvit, Lime peel pectin integrated with coconut water and
53421-9_6. lime peel extract as a new bioactive film sachet to retard soybean oil oxidation,
[96] J.F. Mendes, J.T. Martins, A. Manrich, A.R. Sena Neto, A.C.M. Pinheiro, L.H. Food Hydrocoll. 97 (2019), 105173, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.
C. Mattoso, M.A. Martins, Development and physical-chemical properties of FOODHYD.2019.105173.
pectin film reinforced with spent coffee grounds by continuous casting, [119] M. Jridi, O. Abdelhedi, A. Salem, H. Kechaou, M. Nasri, Y. Menchari,
Carbohydr. Polym. 210 (2019) 92–99, https://doi.org/10.1016/J. Physicochemical, antioxidant and antibacterial properties of fish gelatin-based
CARBPOL.2019.01.058. edible films enriched with orange peel pectin: wrapping application, Food
[97] V. Chandel, D. Biswas, S. Roy, D. Vaidya, A. Verma, A. Gupta, Current Hydrocoll. 103 (2020), 105688, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
advancements in pectin: extraction, properties and multifunctional applications, foodhyd.2020.105688.
Foods 11 (17) (2022) 2683, https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11172683. [120] I.K. Sani, S.P. Geshlaghi, S. Pirsa, A. Asdagh, Composite film based on potato
[98] R. Priyadarshi, S. Roy, T. Ghosh, D. Biswas, J.-W. Rhim, Antimicrobial nanofillers starch/apple peel pectin/ZrO2 nanoparticles/ microencapsulated zataria
reinforced biopolymer composite films for active food packaging applications - a multiflora essential oil; investigation of physicochemical properties and use in
review, Sustain. Mater. Technol. (2021), e00353, https://doi.org/10.1016/J. quail meat packaging, Food Hydrocoll. 117 (2021), 106719, https://doi.org/
SUSMAT.2021.E00353. 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2021.106719.
[99] H. Almasi, S. Azizi, S. Amjadi, Development and characterization of pectin films [121] F. Zeng, Y. Ye, J. Liu, P. Fei, Intelligent pH indicator composite film based on
activated by nanoemulsion and Pickering emulsion stabilized marjoram pectin/chitosan incorporated with black rice anthocyanins for meat freshness
(Origanum majorana L.) essential oil, Food Hydrocoll. 99 (2020), 105338, monitoring, Food Chem. X 17 (2023), 100531, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
https://doi.org/10.1016/J.FOODHYD.2019.105338. fochx.2022.100531.
[100] P. Nisha, P. Ishwarya, SSR, Advances and prospects in the food applications of [122] H. Jiang, W. Zhang, Y. Pu, L. Chen, J. Cao, W. Jiang, Development and
pectin hydrogels, Crit. Rev. Food Sci. Nutr. (2021), https://doi.org/10.1080/ characterization of a novel active and intelligent film based on pectin and
10408398.2021.1875394. betacyanins from peel waste of pitaya (Hylocereus undatus), Food Chem. 404
[101] L.B. Norcino, J.F. Mendes, C.V.L. Natarelli, A. Manrich, J.E. Oliveira, L.H. (2023), 134444, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2022.134444.
C. Mattoso, Pectin films loaded with copaiba oil nanoemulsions for potential use [123] G. Callejas-Quijada, N. Chavarría-Hernández, M.D.R. López-Cuellar, A. Zepeda-
as bio-based active packaging, Food Hydrocoll. 106 (2020), 105862, https://doi. Bastida, A.I. Rodríguez-Hernández, Films of biopolymers, pectin, and gellan
org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2020.105862. enriched with natamycin and clove essential oils for the packaging of corn tortilla:
[102] Z. Guo, X. Ge, W. Li, L. Yang, L. Han, Q. Yu, Active-intelligent film based on pectin protection against Staphylococcus aureus and Candida parapsilosis, Food
from watermelon peel containing beetroot extract to monitor the freshness of Microbiol. 110 (2023), 104156, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fm.2022.104156.
packaged chilled beef, Food Hydrocoll. 119 (2021), 106751, https://doi.org/ [124] A.M.Idrovo Encalada, M.D. De’Nobili, A.N.M. Ponce, C.A. Stortz, E.N. Fissore, A.
10.1016/j.foodhyd.2021.106751. M. Rojas, Antioxidant edible film based on a carrot pectin-enriched fraction as an
[103] M. Chaichi, M. Hashemi, F. Badii, A. Mohammadi, Preparation and active packaging of a vegan cashew ripened cheese, Int. J. Food Sci. Technol.
characterization of a novel bionanocomposite edible film based on pectin and (2021), https://doi.org/10.1111/ijfs.14988.
crystalline nanocellulose, Carbohydr. Polym. 157 (2017) 167–175, https://doi. [125] M.D. Khah, B. Ghanbarzadeh, L. Roufegarinejad Nezhad, A. Ostadrahimi, Effects
org/10.1016/j.carbpol.2016.09.062. of virgin olive oil and grape seed oil on physicochemical and antimicrobial
[104] J. Meerasri, R. Sothornvit, Characterization of bioactive film from pectin properties of pectin-gelatin blend emulsified films, Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 171
incorporated with gamma-aminobutyric acid, Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 147 (2020) (2021) 262–274, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.IJBIOMAC.2021.01.020.
1285–1293, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2019.10.094. [126] H.-S. Han, K. Bin Song, Antioxidant properties of watermelon (Citrullus lanatus)
[105] D.C. Bernhardt, C.D. Pérez, E.N. Fissore, M.D. De’Nobili, A.M. Rojas, Pectin-based rind pectin films containing kiwifruit (Actinidia chinensis) peel extract and their
composite film: Effect of corn husk fiber concentration on their properties, application as chicken thigh packaging, food packag. ShelfLife 28 (2021),
Carbohydr. Polym. 164 (2017) 13–22, https://doi.org/10.1016/j. 100636, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fpsl.2021.100636.
carbpol.2017.01.031. [127] G. Rossi Marquez, P. Di Pierro, L. Mariniello, M. Esposito, C.V.L. Giosafatto,
[106] S. Shankar, N. Tanomrod, S. Rawdkuen, J.-W. Rhim, Preparation of pectin/silver R. Porta, Fresh-cut fruit and vegetable coatings by transglutaminase-crosslinked
nanoparticles composite films with UV-light barrier and properties, Int. J. Biol. whey protein/pectin edible films, LWT - Food Sci. Technol. 75 (2017) 124–130,
Macromol. 92 (2016) 842–849, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2016.07. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2016.08.017.
[107] Y. Liang, Y. Zhao, H. Sun, J. Dan, Y. Kang, Q. Zhang, W. Zhang, Natural melanin [128] R. Priyadarshi, Z. Riahi, J.-W. Rhim, Antioxidant pectin/pullulan edible coating
nanoparticle-based photothermal film for edible antibacterial food packaging, incorporated with Vitis vinifera grape seed extract for extending the shelf life of
Food Chem. 401 (2023), 134117, https://doi.org/10.1016/j. peanuts, Postharvest Biol. Technol. 183 (2022), 111740, https://doi.org/
foodchem.2022.134117. 10.1016/J.POSTHARVBIO.2021.111740.
[108] R. Priyadarshi, S.M. Kim, J.W. Rhim, Pectin/pullulan blend films for food [129] J. Jovanović, J. Ćirković, A. Radojković, D. Mutavdžić, G. Tanasijević,
packaging: effect of blending ratio, Food Chem. 347 (2021), 129022, https://doi. K. Joksimović, G. Bakić, G. Branković, Z. Branković, Chitosan and pectin-based
org/10.1016/J.FOODCHEM.2021.129022. films and coatings with active components for application in antimicrobial food
[109] P. Ezati, S. Roy, J.-W. Rhim, Pectin/gelatin-based bioactive composite films packaging, Prog. Org. Coatings. 158 (2021), 106349, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.
reinforced with sulfur functionalized carbon dots, colloids surfaces a PORGCOAT.2021.106349.
physicochem, Eng. Asp. (2021), 128123, https://doi.org/10.1016/j. [130] A.C. Guerreiro, C.M.L. Gago, M.G.C. Miguel, M.L. Faleiro, M.D.C. Antunes, The
colsurfa.2021.128123. influence of edible coatings enriched with citral and eugenol on the raspberry
[110] S. Roy, J.-W. Rhim, Preparation of pectin/agar-based functional films integrated storage ability, nutritional and sensory quality, food packag. Shelf, Life. 9 (2016)
with zinc sulfide nano petals for active packaging applications, Colloids Surf. B 20–28, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.FPSL.2016.05.004.
Biointerfaces. 207 (2021), 111999, https://doi.org/10.1016/J. [131] L. Tabatabaei Moradi, A. Sharifan, K. Larijani, The effect of multilayered
COLSURFB.2021.111999. chitosan–pectin–Mentha piperita and lemon essential oil on oxidation effects and
[111] K.D. Hari, C.V. Garcia, G.H. Shin, J.T. Kim, Improvement of the UV barrier and quality of rainbow trout fillet (Oncorhynchus mykiss) during refrigeration at 4
antibacterial properties of crosslinked pectin/zinc oxide bionanocomposite films, ±1◦ C storage, Iran. J. Fish. Sci. 19 (2020) 2544–2559, https://doi.org/10.22092/
Polymers 13 (2021) 2403, https://doi.org/10.3390/POLYM13152403. IJFS.2020.119759.0.
[112] M. Kurek, N. Benbettaieb, M. Ščetar, E. Chaudy, I. Elez-Garofulić, M. Repajić, [132] E.S. Abdou, G.F. Galhoum, E.N. Mohamed, Curcumin loaded nanoemulsions/
D. Klepac, S. Valić, F. Debeaufort, K. Galić, Novel functional chitosan and pectin pectin coatings for refrigerated chicken fillets, Food Hydrocoll. 83 (2018)
bio-based packaging films with encapsulated Opuntia-ficus indica waste, Food 445–453, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2018.05.026.
Biosci. 41 (2021), 100980, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.FBIO.2021.100980. [133] I.C. Guerra, T.L. de Sousa, P.M. de Farias, L.P. Cappato, B.S.M. de Freitas, V.
[113] D. de Oliveira Begali, L.F. Ferreira, A.C.S. de Oliveira, S.V. Borges, A.R. de Sena P. Romani, G.R. Plácido, Films and coatings from Pequi mesocarp incorporated
Neto, C.R. de Oliveira, M.I. Yoshida, C.I.G.L. Sarantopoulos, Effect of the with nano-ZnO: properties and capacity to increase mango shelf life, Ind. Crop.
incorporation of lignin microparticles on the properties of the thermoplastic Prod. 195 (2023), 116414, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2023.116414.
starch/pectin blend obtained by extrusion, Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 180 (2021) [134] X. Huang, M. Hong, L. Wang, Q. Meng, Q. Ke, X. Kou, Bioadhesive and
262–271, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.IJBIOMAC.2021.03.076. antibacterial edible coating of EGCG-grafted pectin for improving the quality of
[114] X. Lin, S. Chen, R. Wang, C. Li, L. Wang, L. Fabrication, Characterization, and grapes during storage, Food Hydrocoll. 136 (2023), 108255, https://doi.org/
biological properties of pectin and/or chitosan-based films incorporated with 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2022.108255.
noni (Morinda citrifolia) fruit extract, Food Hydrocoll. 134 (2023), 108025, [135] A. Candra, H.C. Tsai, I.R. Saragi, C.C. Hu, W.T. Yu, R. Krishnamoorthi, J.Y. Lai,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2022.108025. Fabrication and characterization of hybrid eco-friendly high methoxyl pectin/
[115] C.M.Otálora González, M.D. De’Nobili, A.M. Rojas, M.F. Basanta, L. gelatin/TiO2/curcumin (PGTC) nanocomposite biofilms for salmon fillet
N. Gerschenson, Development of functional pectin edible films with fillers packaging, Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 232 (2023), 123423, https://doi.org/10.1016/
obtained from red cabbage and beetroot, Int. J. Food Sci. Technol. 56 (2021) j.ijbiomac.2023.123423.
3662–3669, https://doi.org/10.1111/IJFS.14886.

15
S. Roy et al. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 239 (2023) 124248

[136] Y. Wu, W. Wu, M.A. Farag, P. Shao, Functionalized cellulose nanocrystal [142] K.K. Dash, N.A. Ali, D. Das, D. Mohanta, Thorough evaluation of sweet potato
embedded into citrus pectin coating improves its barrier, antioxidant properties, starch and lemon-waste pectin based-edible films with nano-titania inclusions for
and potential application in food, Food Chem. 401 (2023), 134079, https://doi. food packaging applications, Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 139 (2019) 449–458, https://
org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2022.134079. doi.org/10.1016/J.IJBIOMAC.2019.07.193.
[137] D.A. Méndez, I. Falcó, A. Martínez-Abad, G. Sánchez, A. López-Rubio, M.J. Fabra, [143] P. Wang, P. Fei, C. Zhou, P. Hong, Stearic acid esterified pectin: preparation,
Sustainable Bioactive Pectin-based Films to Improve Fruit Safety via a Circular characterization, and application in edible hydrophobic pectin/chitosan
Economy Approach 137, 2023, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2022.108327. composite films, Int. J. Biol. Macromol. 186 (2021) 528–534, https://doi.org/
[138] M.V. Alvarez, L.A. Ortega-Ramirez, M.M. Gutierrez-Pacheco, A.T. Bernal- 10.1016/J.IJBIOMAC.2021.06.030.
Mercado, I. Rodriguez-Garcia, G.A. Gonzalez-Aguilar, A. Ponce, S.I. Roura, J. [144] T.I.A. Gouveia, K. Biernacki, M.C.R. Castro, M.P. Gonçalves, H.K.S. Souza, A new
F. Ayala-Zavala, M.del R. Moreira, Oregano essential oil-pectin edible films as approach to develop biodegradable films based on thermoplastic pectin, Food
anti-quorum sensing and food antimicrobial agents, Front. Microbiol. 5 (2014) Hydrocoll. 97 (2019), 105175, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.
699, https://doi.org/10.3389/FMICB.2014.00699/BIBTEX. FOODHYD.2019.105175.
[139] M.V. Alvarez, L.A. Ortega-Ramirez, B.A. Silva-Espinoza, G.A. Gonzalez-Aguilar, J. [145] F. Dranca, M. Vargas, M. Oroian, Physicochemical properties of pectin from Malus
F. Ayala-Zavala, Antimicrobial, antioxidant, and sensorial impacts of oregano and domestica ‘Fălticeni’ apple pomace as affected by non-conventional extraction
rosemary essential oils over broccoli florets, J. Food Process. Preserv. 43 (2019), techniques, Food Hydrocoll. 100 (2020), 105383, https://doi.org/10.1016/J.
e13889, https://doi.org/10.1111/JFPP.13889. FOODHYD.2019.105383.
[140] G.O. Akalin, O. Oztuna Taner, T. Taner, The preparation, characterization and [146] A. Kraskouski, K. Hileuskaya, V. Kulikouskaya, V. Kabanava, V. Agabekov,
antibacterial properties of chitosan/pectin silver nanoparticle films, Polym. Bull. S. Pinchuk, I. Vasilevich, I. Volotovski, T. Kuznetsova, V. Lapitskaya, Polyvinyl
79 (2022) 3495–3512, https://doi.org/10.1007/S00289-021-03667-0/FIGURES/ alcohol and pectin blended films: preparation, characterization, and
10. mesenchymal stem cells attachment, J. Biomed. Mater. Res. Part A. 109 (2021)
[141] E.E. Oliva-Moreno, A. Encinas, Addition of pine rosin to pectin bioplastic films for 1379–1392, https://doi.org/10.1002/JBM.A.37130.
improved water resistance, Mater. Lett. 290 (2021), 129488, https://doi.org/
10.1016/J.MATLET.2021.129488.

16