Science and Technology Notes

Sample Notes
1. Achievements of Indian in Science and Technology………………

2. Indigenization of technology and developing new technology…………..…..

3. DNA and RNA……………………………………

4. Antigens and Antibodies……………………………………

5. Virus and Bacteria……………………………………

6. Vaccines & Types of Vaccines……………………………………

7. Biotechnology and its Applications……………………………………

8. Genetic Engineering……………………………………

9. Genome Sequencing & Human Genome Project (HGP) ……………………………………

10. Cloning, GMO, Three Parent Baby……………………………………

11. Decoding Blood Group Concepts……………………………………

12. Diabetes: Type 1 Diabetes & Type 2 Diabetes……………………………………

13. Vitamins and Minerals (Deficiency Diseases) ……………………………………

14. Diseases – Zoonotic, Hereditary, Protozoan, Viral & Bacterial……………………………………

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15. Hepatitis – Causes, Types & Treatment……………………………………

16. Nuclear Energy……………………………………

17. Types of Nuclear Power Reactor……………………………………

18. India’s Three Stage Nuclear Power Program……………………………………

19. Development of Nuclear energy in India……………………………………

20. India’s Nuclear Policy……………………………………

21. Civil Liability for Nuclear Damage Act 2010……………………………………

22. Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) ……………………………………

23. Multilateral Export Control Regimes……………………………………

24. Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) ……………………………………

25. Defence Research and Development Organisation……………………………………

26. Defence Technology – Missiles, Submarines, UAVs……………………………………

27. Anti-tank Guided Missile (ATGM) ……………………………………

28. Artillery Gun system of India……………………………………

29. Indian Military Aircrafts and Helicopters……………………………………

30. Military Exercises of India with Other Countries……………………………………

31. INS Vikrant: First Indigenous Aircraft Carrier……………………………………

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32. Indigenisation of Indian Defence Sector……………………………………

33. Major Milestones in Indian Space Programme……………………………………

34. Space Technology: Satellites and Orbits……………………………………

35. Satellite Launch Vehicles – SLV, ASLV, PSLV, GSLV, GSLV Mk-III……………………………………

36. Satellite Frequency Bands: L, S, C, X, Ku, Ka-band……………………………………

37. Important Missions of ISRO……………………………………

38. Important Missions of NASA……………………………………

39. Star Formation (Life Cycle of a Star) ……………………………………

40. Dark Energy and Dark Matter……………………………………

41. Everything About Nanotechnology……………………………………

42. Nanotechnology in India……………………………………

43. Awareness in the Fields of Robotics……………………………………

44. Information and Communication Technology & Computers……………………………………

45. Awareness in the field of IT and Computers……………………………………

46. Programmes, Policies, and Initiatives related to ICT……………………………………

47. Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) ……………………………………

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 Achievements of Indian in Science and
Technology – UPSC

byLotusAriseJanuary 11, 2022

3 Comments

• Science and technology have been an integral part of Indian civilization and
culture over the past several millennia. Indians have played an important role
in the field of science and technology.
• Few are aware that India was the fountainhead of important foundational
scientific developments and approaches. These cover many great scientific
discoveries and technological achievements in mathematics, astronomy,
architecture, chemistry, metallurgy, medicine, natural philosophy, and other
areas. A great deal of this traveled outwards from India.
• Equally, India also assimilated scientific ideas and techniques from elsewhere,
with open-mindedness and a rational attitude characteristic of a scientific ethos.
• The Indus Valley Civilization, Vedic age and later periods saw great
achievements by Indians in the field of Science and technology.
• In modern times many Indian scientists and mathematicians have done
phenomenal work and some of them even received awards like Nobel Prize for
their contributions to science in technology.
• India belongs to the select group of countries that have developed
indigenous nuclear technology. India is among the few countries which
have developed ballistic missiles. In the field of space science, India has the
capability to launch GSLV satellites.
• Some Indian scientists have left indelible imprints on the world S&T arena.

Achievements of Indians in Science and Technology in

Ancient and medieval India
Baudhayana (800 BCE)

• Baudhayana was a mathematician who lived in ancient India around 800

BCE. His major contributions include:
• He is considered the earliest author of Sulbasutras which was used for
the accurate construction of altars needed for Vedic sacrifices.
• He gave a near accurate value of Pi(π).
• He gave the theorem today known as “Pythagoras theorem” before
Pythagoras had developed it.

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 • He also gave a near accurate value of the square root of 2
(577/408) which is correct to 5 decimal places.
Kanada Sage

• Kanada, a philosopher estimated to have lived in India between the 6th century
to 2nd century BCE. His name Kanada means atom eater.
• He was the first person to give the atomic theory. He gave the idea
that Parmanu (Atom) was an indestructible particle of matter which
cannot be divided further. Later on, Dalton made similar observations
in Dalton’s atomic theory.
Charaka (300 BCE)

• Charaka is considered the “Father of Indian Medicine” who lived in around 300
BCE in India. His major contributions include:
• He was among the principal contributors to the ancient system of
medicine ‘Ayurveda’ and wrote his medical treatise the ‘Charak
Samhita’.
• He is known for his works on metabolism and the fundamentals of
genetics.
• He wrote about three doshas which the body contains i.e. Vata
(movement), Pitta (transformation) and Cough (lubrication and
stability). Diseases occur when the balance among these three doshas
gets disturbed.
Sushruta

• Sushruta was the author of “Sushruta Samhita” an ancient Sanskrit text on

medicine and surgery.
• Sushruta invented surgical instruments and worked on the dissection of
dead bodies.
• Sushruta was aware of cataract operations.
• He is also known as the “father of surgery” and “father of plastic surgery”.
Aryabhatta (476- 550 CE)

• Aryabhatta also was known as Aryabhatta 1 was the first major astronomer
and mathematician from the classical age of Indian astronomy and Indian
mathematics.
• His major works include Aryabhatiya and Arya-Siddhanta.
• He calculated the orbits of planets, and scientifically explained the Solar and
lunar eclipses.
• He calculated the distance between Earth and Moon. He proposed that Earth
rotates on its axis.

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• He gave the theory that the apparent motion of stars is due to the movement of
Earth.
• He calculated the circumference of the earth and proposed that the shape of
Earth is not flat.
• He worked on the place value system and zero as a symbol and concept.

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Varahamihira (505- 587 CE)

• Varahamihira was born in the Avanthi region during the Gupta rule.
• He wrote the Pancha-siddhantika which summarises 5 alias astronomical
treatises namely the Surya Siddhanta, Romaka Siddhanta, Paulisa Siddhanta,
Vashishtha Siddhant and Paitamaha Siddhanta.
• He gave trigonometric formulas and improved the accuracy of sine tables of
Aryabhatta.
• He explained the shifting of equinoxes and the nature of the scattering of
light.
• He was also the author of Brihat Samhita and Brihat Jataka.
• He gave theories on earthquakes and explained that how the termites may
indicate water underground.
Brahmagupta (598 – 670 CE)

• Brahmagupta was an Indian mathematician and astronomer. He was the

first person to give rules to compute with zero.
• He was the author of the “Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta”, a theoretical treatise on
mathematics and astronomy, and the “Khaṇḍakhādyaka”, which was a more
practical text.
• He worked on mathematics and astronomy and he is supposed to have invented
many astronomical instruments for his observations.
• He explained that the shape of the earth is spherical and worked on the
calculation of eclipses.
• He worked on methods for calculating the distance of the heavenly bodies.
Bhaskara 1 (600 – 680 CE)

• He was a mathematician who first wrote numbers in the Hindu decimal

system with a circle for zero.
• he was the follower of the Aryabhatta School of astronomy and was
the author of “Mahābhāskarīya” and the “Laghubhāskarīya”.
• He worked on many trigonometric formulas and give a rational approximation of
sine function.
Bhaskaracharya or Bhaskara II (1114- 1185)

• Bhaskaracharya was an Indian mathematician and astronomer born in

Bijapur in Karnataka.

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 • His main work includes “Siddhanta Shiromani” which has four sections
dealing with Arithmetics, Algebra, Mathematics of planets, and Spheres.
• He worked on differential calculus and algebra.

Nobel Laureates of India in Science

C.V. Raman:

• C.V. Raman was one of the most famous scientists in India. Raman’s academic
brilliance was established at a very young age. He had a pioneering work on
scattering of light, C.V. Raman won the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1930.
• He was the first Asian and first non-White to receive any Nobel Prize in the
sciences. Raman also worked on the acoustics of musical instruments. He was
the first to investigate the harmonic nature of the sound of the Indian drums such
as the tabla and the mridangam.
• He discovered that, when light traverses a transparent material, some of the
deflected light changes in wavelength. This phenomenon is now called the
Raman scattering and is the result of the Raman Effect.
Raman effect, change in the wavelength of light that occurs when a light beam is
deflected by molecules. When a beam of light traverses a dust-free, transparent
sample of a chemical compound, a small fraction of the light emerges in
directions other than that of the incident (incoming) beam. Most of this scattered
light is of unchanged wavelength. A small part, however, has wavelengths different from
that of the incident light; its presence is a result of the Raman effect.

Har Gobind Khorana:

• Har Gobind Khorana was an American molecular biologist of Indian origin.

He was awarded the Nobel Prize in the year 1968 for his work on the
interpretation of the genetic code and its function in protein synthesis.
• Dr. Khorana demonstrated how the genetic code determines all life
processes by directing the synthesis of all cell proteins finally unravelled
the secret of the DNA code of life.
• Dr. Khorana received numerous awards and honours such as the Novel Prize for
his achievement. Distinguished Service Award, Watumull Foundation, Honolulu,
Hawaii, American academy of achievement awards, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania,
Padma Vibhushan, Presidential Award, J C Bose Medal and Willard Gibbs medal
of the Chicago section of American Chemical Society.
• He was also elected a member of the National Academy of Sciences,
Washington, as well as a Fellow of the American Association for the
Advancement of Science.
• In 1971, he became a foreign member of the USSR Academy of Sciences and in
1974, an Honorary Fellow of the Indian Chemical Society.
In the 1960s Khorana confirmed Nirenberg’s findings that the way the four
different types of nucleotides are arranged on the spiral “staircase” of the DNA

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molecule determines the chemical composition and function of a new cell. The 64
possible combinations of the nucleotides are read off along a strand of DNA as
required to produce the desired amino acids, which are the building blocks of
proteins. Khorana added details about which serial combinations of nucleotides from
which specific amino acids. He also proved that the nucleotide code is always
transmitted to the cell in groups of three, called codons. Khorana also determined that
some of the codons prompt the cell to start or stop the manufacture of proteins.

Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar:

• He was one of the greatest scientists of the 20th century. He did commendable
work in astrophysics, physics and applied mathematics.
• Chandrasekhar has bestowed the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1983 Physics
for his mathematical theory of black holes. The Chandrasekhar limit is
named after him.
• He was the nephew of CV Raman. Chandra became a United States citizen in
1953. Chandra was a popular teacher who guided over fifty students to their PhD
including some who went on to win the Nobel Prize themselves.
• His research explored nearly all branches of theoretical astrophysics and he
published ten books, each covering a different topic, including one on the
relationship between art and science.
• His most famous work concerns the radiation of energy from stars,
particularly white dwarf stars, which are the dying fragments of stars.
By the early 1930s, scientists had concluded that, after converting all of their hydrogens
to helium, stars lose energy and contract under the influence of their own gravity. These
stars, known as white dwarf stars, contract to about the size of Earth, and the electrons
and nuclei of their constituent atoms are compressed to a state of extremely high
density. Chandrasekhar determined what is known as the Chandrasekhar limit—that a
star having a mass more than 1.44 times that of the Sun does not form a white dwarf but
instead continues to collapse, blows off its gaseous envelope in a supernova explosion,
and becomes a neutron star. An even more massive star continues to collapse and
becomes a black hole. These calculations contributed to the eventual understanding of
supernovas, neutron stars, and black holes. Chandrasekhar came up with the idea for a
limit on his voyage to England in 1930. However, his ideas met strong opposition,
particularly from English astronomer Arthur Eddington, and took years to be generally
accepted.

Venkataraman Ramakrishnan:

• Venkataraman, Indian born American is a senior scientist in the Structural

Division at the Medical Research Council Laboratory of Molecular Biology,
in Cambridge, England.
• He has worked in various fields of biology during the earlier part of his career. He
is internationally recognized for the determination of the atomic structure of
the 30s ribosomal subunit.

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 • Ramakrishnan received numerous awards such as he was elected a Member of
the European Molecular Biology Organization (EMBO) in 2002 and a Fellow of
the Royal Society (FRS) in 2003.
• He was chosen a Member of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences in 2004. In
2007, Ramakrishnan has bestowed the Louis-Jeantet Prize for Medicine and the
Datta Lectureship and Medal of the Federation of European Biochemical
Societies (FEBS).
• In 2008, he won the Heatley Medal of the British Biochemical Society. Since
2008, he is a Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge and a Foreign Fellow of the
Indian National Science Academy.
• In 2009, Ramakrishnan was honoured with the Nobel Prize in Chemistry
along with Thomas A. Steitz and Ada Yonath. He received India’s second-
highest civilian honour, the Padma Vibhushan, in 2010.
• Ramakrishnan was knighted in the 2012 New Year Honours for services to
Molecular Biology. In the same year, he was awarded the Sir Hans Krebs Medal
by the FEBS. In 2013, he won the Spanish Jiménez-Diáz Prize.
Awarded the 2009 Nobel Prize for Chemistry, along with American biophysicist and
biochemist Thomas Steitz and Israeli protein crystallographer Ada Yonath, for his
research into the atomic structure and function of cellular particles called
ribosomes. (Ribosomes are tiny particles made up of RNA and proteins that specialize
in protein synthesis and are found free or bound to the endoplasmic reticulum within
cells.)

Achievements of Indians in Science & Technology in the

Modern era
Prafulla Chandra Ray:

• He was a Famous academician and chemist, known for being the founder of
Bengal Chemicals & Pharmaceuticals, India’s first pharmaceutical
company.
• In 1889, Prafulla Chandra was chosen as an Assistant Professor of Chemistry in
the Presidency College, Kolkata.
• His publications on miraculous nitrite and its derivatives brought him recognition
from all over the world. His role as a teacher was significant as he inspired young
generation chemists in India to build up an Indian school of chemistry.
• Famous Indian scientists like Meghnad Saha and Shanti Swarup
Bhatnagar were among his students. Prafulla Chandra had contributed to
developing industries in India.
• He set up the first chemical factory in India, with very minimal resources,
working from his home. In 1901, this pioneering effort resulted in the formation of
Bengal Chemical and Pharmaceutical Works Ltd.
Sir Mokshagundam Visvesvaraya:

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 • He was a notable Indian engineer, scholar, statesman and the Diwan of
Mysore from 1912 to 1918.
• Sir M. Visvesvaraya was one of the most eminent engineers of India.
• He maintained high principles and discipline in his life. He was best known for
his contribution as the chief architect behind the construction of the
Krishna Raja Sagara dam in Mandya which helped to convert the surrounding
barren lands into fertile grounds for farming.
• Visvesvaraya was knighted as the Commander of the Order of the Indian Empire
(KCIE) by the British for his contributions to society in 1915.
• He was a recipient of the Indian Republic’s highest honour, the Bharat Ratna for
his persistent work in the fields of engineering and education. He was also
awarded several honorary doctoral degrees from eight universities in India.
• Sir M V suggested that India try to be at par with industrialized nations as he
believed that India can become developed through industries.
• He has the credit of inventing ‘automatic sluice gates’ and ‘block irrigation
systems’ which are still considered to be marvels in engineering. Each year, his
birthday 15 September is celebrated as Engineer’s Day in India.
Jagdish Chandra Bose:

• Jagdish Chandra Bose was an eminent scientist. He developed the use of

galena crystals for making receivers, both for short-wavelength radio
waves and for white and ultraviolet light.
• In 1895, two years before Marconi’s demonstration, Bose demonstrated wireless
communication using radio waves, using them to ring a bell remotely and to
explode some gunpowder.
• He invented many of the microwave components such as waveguides, horn
antennas, polarizers, dielectric lenses and prisms, and even semiconductor
detectors of electromagnetic radiation in the last decade of the nineteenth
century.
• He also proposed the existence of electromagnetic radiation from the Sun,
which was confirmed in 1944. After that Bose focused his attention on response
phenomena in plants.
• He presented that not only animal but vegetable tissues produce similar electric
responses under different kinds of stimuli – mechanical, thermal, electrical and
chemical.
Meghnad Saha:

• Meghnad Saha belonged to the District of Dacca, now in Bangladesh. In 1920,

Meghnad Saha had developed himself as renowned physicists of the time.
• Meghnad Saha has contributed in the arena of the thermal ionisation of
elements, and it led him to formulate what is known as the Saha Equation.
• This equation is one of the basic tools for the interpretation of the spectra of stars
in astrophysics. His theory of high-temperature ionization of elements and its

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 application to stellar atmospheres, as expressed by the Saha equation, is
fundamental to modern astrophysics; subsequent development of his ideas has
led to increased knowledge of the pressure and temperature distributions of
stellar atmospheres.
• By studying the spectra of various stars, one can find their temperature and that,
using Saha’s equation, determine the ionisation state of the various elements
making up the star. He also invented an instrument to measure the weight and
pressure of solar rays.
• He was also the chief architect of river planning in India. He prepared the original
plan for the Damodar Valley Project. He had a great role in the development of
scientific institutions throughout India as well as in national economic planning
involving technology.
Satyendra Nath Bose:

• Satyendra Nath Bose was an outstanding Indian physicist specialising in

quantum mechanics. He is of course most remembered for his excellent role
played in the class of particles ‘bosons‘, which were named after him by Paul
Dirac to commemorate his work in the field.
• Basically, he is known for his work in Quantum Physics. He is famous for “Bose-
Einstein Theory” and a kind of particle in an atom has been named after his name
Boson.
• Bose adapted a lecture at the University of Dhaka on the theory of radiation and
the ultraviolet catastrophe into a short article called “Planck’s Law and the
Hypothesis of Light Quanta” and sent it to Albert Einstein.
• Einstein agreed with him, translated Bose’s paper “Planck’s Law and Hypothesis
of Light Quanta” into German, and had it published in Zeitschrift für Physik under
Bose’s name, in 1924.
• This formed the basis of the Bose-Einstein Statistics. In 1937, Rabindranath
Tagore dedicated his only book on science, Visva–Parichay, to Satyendra Nath
Bose. The Government of India awarded him India’s second-highest civilian
award, the Padma Vibhushan in 1954.
Srinivasa Ramanujan:

• Srinivasa Ramanujan was a mathematician. He is extensively believed to be the

greatest mathematician of the 20th Century. Srinivasa Ramanujan made a
major contribution to the analytical theory of numbers and worked on
elliptic functions, continued fractions, and infinite series. His published and
unpublished works have kept some of the best mathematical brains in the world.
Vikram Sarabhai:

• Vikram Sarabhai was among the distinguished scientists of India. He is

considered the Father of the Indian space program. India’s first satellite
Aryabhata launched in 1975, was one of the many projects planned by him.
• Like Bhabha, Sarabhai wanted the practical application of science to reach the
common man. Therefore he saw a golden opportunity to harness space science

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 to the development of the country in the fields of communication, meteorology,
remote sensing and education.
• The Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE) launched in 1975-76,
brought education to five million people in 2,400 Indian villages.
• In 1965, he established the Community Science Centre in Ahmedabad to
popularise science among children. His profound cultural interests led him, along
with his wife Mrinalini Sarabhai, to establish Darpana Academy, an institution
devoted to performing arts and propagation of the ancient culture of India.
• Besides scientist, he had a combined quality as an innovator, industrialist and
visionary. He was awarded the Bhatnagar Memorial Award for Physics in 1962,
the Padma Bhushan in 1966, and was subsequently awarded the Padma
Vibhushan.
• He was the Chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission in 1966, Vice-President
and Chairman of the UN Conference on peaceful uses of outer space in 1968,
and President of the 14th General Conference of the International Atomic Energy
Agency.
• The International Astronomical Union named a crater in the moon (in the Sea of
Serenity) after him, in honour of his marvellous role in science.
Dr Homi Jehangir Bhabha:

• He is considered the originator of the Indian Nuclear Research Programme.

India accomplished nuclear capability due to the extreme efforts of Homi, thereby
avoiding certain conflicts simply through non-aggression treaties. This
contribution of Bhabha augments the status of India on the world stage.
• He had a brilliant persona with multi-faceted qualities. He was fond of music,
painting and writing. Some of his paintings are displayed in the British Art
Galleries and the TIFR art collection today is rated as one of the best collections
of contemporary Indian art in the country.
• He is the recipient of Adam’s Award, Padma Bhushan, an Honorary Fellow of the
American Academy of Arts and Sciences and Foreign Associate of the National
Academy of Sciences in the United States.
APJ Abdul Kalam:

• Dr APJ Abdul Kalam is remembered as a great scientist, an inspirational leader

and an extraordinary human being. As a scientist, Kalam made an effort to
develop the Polar SLV and SLV-III projects between the 1970s and 1990s.
Both of which proved to be a success.
• In the 1970s, Kalam also directed two projects, namely, Project Devil and
Project Valiant, which sought to develop ballistic missiles from the technology of
the successful SLV programme.
• Despite the disapproval of the Union Cabinet, Prime Minister Indira Gandhi
allotted secret funds for these aerospace projects through her discretionary
powers under Kalam’s directorship.

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 • Kalam played a vital role in convincing the Union Cabinet to conceal the true
nature of these classified aerospace projects. His research and educational
leadership brought him great laurels and prestige in the 1980s, which prompted
the government to initiate an advanced missile program under his directorship.
• Besides a distinguished scientist and engineer, Dr APJ Abdul Kalam served as
the 11th President of India from the period 2002 to 2007.
• After post-presidency, Kalam became a visiting professor at the Indian Institute of
Management Shillong, the Indian Institute of Management Ahmedabad, and the
Indian Institute of Management Indore; an honorary fellow of Indian Institute of
Science, Bangalore, chancellor of the Indian Institute of Space Science and
Technology Thiruvananthapuram; professor of Aerospace Engineering at Anna
University; and an adjunct at many other academic and research institutions
across India.
• He taught information technology at the International Institute of Information
Technology, Hyderabad, and technology at Banaras Hindu University and Anna
University.
• He played an intensive political and technological role when the Pokhran-II
nuclear tests were conducted. Kalam served as the Chief Project Coordinator,
along with R. Chidambaram during the testing phase. Photos and snapshots of
him taken by the media elevated Kalam as the country’s top nuclear scientist.
• He had a brilliant and dominant personality and he was a man of vision, who
always had novel ideas for the development of the country and is also popular as
the Missile Man of India.
Dr. Koti Harinarayana:

• He was a renowned genius scientist. It is recognized that the brain behind India’s
first indigenously built combat aircraft. Tejas, which was the name given to the
aircraft, saw its first flight in 2001.
• India’s first self-made light combat aircraft was built by HAL and developed by Dr
Koti.
• It was a result of the weakening value of the country’s soon to be obsolete Mig-21
fighter jets and, true to its name, made our defence sector’s future a lot more
healthy.
• Mangalyaan, or Mars-Craft, this program by its own space research organisation
has been praised as one of the most low cost but high functioning space
missions to date. With this scientific development, Indians can reach Mars orbit
on their first attempt.
• The brain behind the operation is actually credited to 14 scientists of ISRO.
• India’s first moon probe was efficaciously inserted into the lunar orbit in 2008 and
pushed India’s space program into the world map, putting India side by side with
NASA and the European Space Agency.
• Chandrayaan’s greatest achievement was the discovery of the extensive
presence of water molecules in the lunar soil.

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Venkatraman Radhakrishnan:

• Venkatraman belonged to a suburb of Chennai. He was a globally distinguished

space scientist and a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences.
• He was an internationally acclaimed Astrophysicist and also known for his
design and fabrication of ultralight aircraft and sailboats.
• His observations and theoretical insights helped the community in unravelling
many mysteries surrounding pulsars, interstellar clouds, galaxy structures and
various other celestial bodies.
Anil Kakodkar:

• Dr Anil Kakodkar is famous as a distinguished nuclear scientist in India.

• He holds the post of chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission of India
(AECI) as well as the Secretary to the Government of India, Department of
Atomic Energy. He received Padma Shri in 1998 and Padma Bhushan in 1999.
Abhas Mitra:

• He is a distinguished Indian astrophysicist and famous for his distinct views on

several front-line astrophysics concepts, particularly black holes and Big Bang
Cosmology.
• His research has received extensive attention, especially in India, which is
reflected by the fact that he is one of the most frequently mentioned Indian
physicists on the web.
• Mitra is associated with the `Himalayan Gamma-Ray Observatory’, being set
up at Han Leh jointly by Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Bhabha Atomic
Research Centre and Indian Institute of Astrophysics.
• He is also an Adjunct Prof. at Homi Bhabha National Science Institute since
2010.
• Dr Mitra is also a member of the International Astronomical Union.
Abhay Vasant Ashtekar:

• He is an Indian theoretical physicist. He is the Eberly Professor of Physics and

the Director of the Institute for Gravitational Physics and Geometry at
Pennsylvania State University. Ashtekar created variables and he is one of
the founders of loop quantum gravity and its subfield loop quantum
cosmology.
Aditi Pant:

• She is an eminent Indian oceanographer. She was a part of the Indian

expedition to Antarctica in 1983 and became the first Indian woman to visit
Antarctica (along with Sudipta Sengupta).
• Dr Aditi was bestowed the Antarctica award with Dr Jaya Naithani and Dr Kanwal
Vilku by the government of India for her excellent contributions to the Antarctic
program.

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Amal Kumar Raychaudhuri:

• He was a famous Indian physicist, well-known for his research in general

relativity and cosmology.
• His most noteworthy contribution is the eponymous Raychaudhuri
equation, which demonstrates that singularities arise inevitably in general
relativity and is a key ingredient in the proofs of the Penrose-Hawking singularity
theorems.
Arvind Bhatnagar:

• He made significant contributions to Solar Astronomy and founded several

planetaria across India. He was the founder-director of the Udaipur Solar
Observatory, and the founder-director of Nehru Planetarium of Bombay.
Arun N. Netravali:

• He is an Indian-American computer engineer accredited with

significant contributions in digital technology including HDTV. He conducted
seminal research in digital compression, signal processing and other fields.
• Netravali was the ninth President of Bell Laboratories and has served as Lucent’s
Chief Technology Officer and Chief Network Architect. Netravali was honoured
with numerous awards and honorary degrees such as the IEEE Jack S.
• Kilby Signal Processing Medal in 2001 (together with Thomas S. Huang), the
IEEE Frederik Philips Award in 2001, the U.S. National Medal of Technology, and
the Padma Bhushan from the Government of India.
Anna Mani:

• She was popular as an Indian physicist and meteorologist. She held the position
of the Deputy Director-General of the Indian Meteorological Department.
• She made great contributions in the field of meteorological
instrumentation. She conducted research and published numerous papers on
solar radiation, ozone and wind energy measurements.
Birbal Sahni:

• Birbal Sahni was a famous paleobotanist of India, who studied the fossils of
the Indian subcontinent. Sahni is accredited for establishing the Birbal Sahni
Institute of Palaeobotany at Lucknow in the state of Uttar Pradesh.
• He was a pioneer in palaeobotanical research in India and was also a geologist
who took an interest in archaeology. He received several awards.
• He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society of London (FRS) in 1936, the
highest British scientific honour, becoming the first Indian botanist to be accorded
this honour.
• He also received the Barclay Medal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal the
same year. He was honoured with the Nelson Wright Medal of the Numismatic
Society of India in 1945 and Sir C. R. Reddy National Prize in 1947.

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Dr. Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar:

• Dr Shanti Swaroop Bhatnagar was a notable Indian scientist. He had an interest

in science and engineering during his early years of life. Shanti Swarup
Bhatnagar had a great contribution along with Homi Bhabha, Prasanta Chandra
Mahalanobis, Vikram Sarabhai and others to build post-independence Science &
Technology infrastructure and in the formulation of India’s science policies.
Komaravolu Chandrasekharan:

• He belonged to Andhra Pradesh. He attained his M.A. in Mathematics from the

Presidency College, Chennai and was a Research Scholar in the Department of
Mathematics of the University of Madras during 1940-1943. In 1949, he was
invited by Homi Bhabha to join the School of Mathematics of the Tata Institute of
Fundamental Research.
• With his brilliant quality as an organiser and administrator of science, he
transformed the fledgling School of Mathematics of TIFR into a centre of
excellence respected the world over.
• He initiated a very successful programme of recruitment and training of Research
Scholars at TIFR.
• The programme continues to the present day along with the same principle that
he set down. He put to outstanding use his contacts with the leading
mathematicians of the world, encouraging many of them to visit TIFR and deliver
courses of lectures over periods of two months and more.
• The lecture notes prepared out of these lectures and published by TIFR has a
great reputation in the world mathematics community to the present day. He
worked in the fields of number theory and summability.
• His mathematical achievements are of a high standard, but his contribution to
Indian mathematics has been even greater.
Raja Ramanna:

• Dr Raja Ramanna was a renowned physicist and nuclear scientist in India. He

had a multifaceted personality and played the roles of a technologist, nuclear
physicist, administrator, leader, musician, Sanskrit literature scholar, and
philosophy researcher.
• His interest was in Nuclear Physics and particularly attention to Atomic Research
and he became the head of the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre at Trombay,
Bombay.
• Dr Ramanna held several important positions in the course of his scientific
career. These included the roles of Director in Babha Atomic Research Centre,
Director-General in the Defence Research and Development Program, Chairman
in the Atomic Energy Commission, Vice President in Indian National Science
Academy, and Director in the National Institute of Advanced Studies.
• He also played a major role in setting up the Centre for Advanced Technology at
Indore and Variable Energy Cyclotron Centre at Kolkata. He was often referred to
as the ‘Father of India’s nuclear program.

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 • Raja Ramanna received the Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar Prize for Science and
Technology in 1963, Padma Vibhushan in 1975, Padma Shri in 1968 and Padma
Bhushan in 1973. He was also appointed as the Union Minister of Defence in
1990. People will remember him for his incredible contribution to nuclear physics.
Ganapathi Thanikaimoni:

• Ganapathi Thanikaimoni was a successful botanist in his time. He is

remembered to date for his extensive contribution to the field of palynology. His
researches and projects not only helped India to make its presence felt on the
world stage of botany but also promoted public relations between countries.
• Dr Ganapathi Thanikaimoni was not only involved in the study of pollen but also
made efforts to contribute to the wellbeing of society.
• Thani tried his best to educate government authorities to take proper care of
coastlines and to rehabilitate arid areas across India.
• It is well known that mangroves play a very important role in balancing the
ecosystem; therefore Thani took steps to educate society and the government on
the necessity of mangroves.
• He was also one of the instigators in the UNESCO developed ‘Asia and Pacific
Mangrove Project’. Ganapathi Thanikaimoni’s contribution to the field of pollen
studies is immense and all his contribution is recorded in the book ‘Palynology
Manual’ that was printed after his death.
Harish-Chandra:

• Harish Chandra was a renowned Indian American mathematician and

physicist who contributed fundamental work in representation theory,
especially harmonic analysis on semisimple Lie groups.
• He was an eminent figure in the mathematics of the twentieth century.
• His prestigious work related to algebra, analysis, geometry, and group theory in a
fundamental and epoch-making manner consequently became the foundation on
which modern work in various fields, ranging from differential geometry and
mathematical physics to number theory, is being performed.
• He was a member of the National Academy of Sciences of the U.S. and a Fellow
of the Royal Society.
• Harish Chandra received many prestigious awards. He was honoured with the
Cole Prize of the American Mathematical Society, in 1954.
• The Indian National Science Academy awarded him the Srinivasa Ramanujan
Medal in 1974. In 1981, he received an honorary degree from Yale University.
• The Indian Government named the Harish-Chandra Research Institute, an
institute devoted to Theoretical Physics and Mathematics.
G. N. Ramachandran:

• Gopalasamudram Narayana Iyer Ramachandran is known as the best scientist of

the 20th century in India. The eminent work of G. N. Ramachandran is the

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 Ramachandran plot, which the scientist had conceived along with
Viswanathan Sasisekharan, to understand the structure of peptides.
• Ramachandran can be accredited for bringing together into the one field of
molecular biophysics the then disparate fields of X-ray crystallography, peptide
synthesis, NMR and other optical studies, and Physico-chemical experimentation.
• In 1970, he founded the Molecular Biophysics Unit at the Indian Institute of
Science which was later known as the Centre of Advanced Study in Biophysics.
• Ramachandran was highly honoured in India and abroad for his work. In
recognising his work, most agencies in India privileged themselves and conferred
a new lustre on the awards they instituted.
Prasanta Chandra Mahalanobis:

• He was a renowned Indian scientist and applied statistician. He is best recalled

for the Mahalanobis distance, a statistical measure. He made ground-
breaking studies in anthropometry in India.
• He founded the Indian Statistical Institute and contributed to the design of
large-scale sample surveys.
• He developed Economic census, population census, agricultural surveys and
various other large scale and in-depth samples and surveys that have been
esteemed around the globe.
• He received numerous prestigious awards that include Weldon Medal from
Oxford University (1944), Fellow of the Royal Society, London (1945), President
of Indian Science Congress (1950), Fellow of the Econometric Society, U.S.A.
(1951), Fellow of the Pakistan Statistical Association (1952), Honorary Fellow of
the Royal Statistical Society, U.K. (1954), Sir Deviprasad Sarvadhikari Gold
Medal (1957), Foreign Member of the Soviet Academy of Sciences (1958),
Honorary Fellow of King’s College, Cambridge (1959), Fellow of the American
Statistical Association (1961), Durgaprasad Khaitan Gold Medal (1961), Padma
Vibhushan (1968), Srinivasa Ramanujam Gold Medal (1968).
• Mahalanobis became the Honorary President of the International Statistical
Institute in 1957 and was elected a Fellow of the American Statistical Association
in 1961.
Kotcherlakota Rangadhama Rao:

• Kotcherlakota Rangadhama Rao was a popular physicist of the 20th century in

India. His work in spectroscopy led to the development of Nuclear
Quadrupole Resonance in Physics.
• Kotcherlakota Rangadhama Rao is also famous for his long association with the
Andhra University in which he served as professor of Physics.
• Prof. Rangadhama Rao was one of the foundation members for the AP Akademi
of Sciences, nominated by the Government of Andhra Pradesh in 1963.
• The Indian National Science Academy frequently conducts a Memorial Lecture
Award in honour of Prof. Kotcherlakota Rangadhama Rao since its inception in
1979.

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Salim Ali:

• Dr Salim Ali had a passion to study birds in detail. He was popular as an Indian
ornithologist and naturalist. He was referred to as “Birdman of India.
• He became the eminent figure behind the Bombay Natural History Society after
1947 and used his personal influence to reap government support for the
organisation and to create the Bharatpur bird sanctuary (Keoladeo National Park)
and avert the destruction of the Silent Valley National Park.
• He published a research paper discussing the nature and activities of the weaver
bird in 1930. The piece made him famous and established his name in the field of
ornithology.
Yellapragada Subbarao:

• He was one of the greatest biologists of all time. He discovered the function of
adenosine triphosphate as an energy source in the cell and developed
methotrexate for the treatment of cancer.
• Most of his career was spent in the United States. Despite A famous proverb
quoted by American author, Doron K. Antrim, Yellapragada Subbarao was one of
those rare people who made several significant contributions.
• Subbarao is also credited with the first synthesis of the chemical compounds folic
acid and methotrexate. Though SubbaRow could not be awarded Nobel Prize,
his discoveries entitled him to be called the father of targeted cancer
chemotherapy.
Sam Pitroda:

• Satyanarayan Gangaram Pitroda generally popular as Sam Pitroda is an eminent

figure. He is best known as a telecom engineer, inventor, entrepreneur and
policymaker.
• Pitroda founded the National Innovation Council (2010), and served as the
Advisor to the Prime Minister with the rank of a cabinet minister on Public
Information Infrastructure and Innovation, to help democratize information.
• Pitroda had played an immense role in developing India’s foreign and
domestic telecommunications policies. He is considered a well-known
technical professional for the telecommunication revolution in India and
specifically, the ubiquitous, yellow-signed public call offices (PCO) that quickly
brought cheap and easy domestic and international public telephones all over the
country.
Suneet Singh Tuli:

• He is another great scientist of India who made an extraordinary contribution to

enhancing the position of India. Suneet Singh became popular with his innovative
product that has created a history.
• Suneet Singh Tuli as the CEO of the company launched the Aakash tablet
computer which has been labelled as the world’s cheapest ever tablet computer.

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 • This tablet computer has been developed by a Canadian company named
Datawind. He empowered students with the Aakash Tablet. With this
achievement, millions of Indians are empowered with tablets to study and access
the internet.
• It is the low-cost Aakash tablet that comes pre-loaded with huge amounts of
educational material. It is being distributed to students all over the country at
highly subsidised rates so as to give everyone an equal opportunity.
Vijay P. Bhatkar:

• Vijay Bhatkar is one of the most admired scientists and IT leaders of India. He
conceptualised India’s first supercomputer known as the PARAM 800 and
unveiled it in 1991.
• PARAM stood for the parallel machine. Living up to its nomenclature of
‘supreme’, this machine, built indigenously by the Centre for Development of
Advanced Computing and ranked India second after the USA in the arena of
supercomputing.
• He is credited with the creation of several national institutions, notably amongst
them being C-DAC, ER&DC, IIITM-K, I2IT, ETH Research Lab, MKCL and India
International Multiversity. Vijay Bhatkar is a recipient of the Padma Shri and
Padma Bhushan awards.
• He was also honoured with the Ramanuja Trust Award (2007), FICCI Award
(1983), Petersburg Prize (2004), Priyadarshni Award (2000), National Research
Development Corporation (NRDC) Award (1984–85), Gold Medal Award of Indian
Geotechnical Society (1976) and Electronics Man of the Year (1992).
U.R. Rao:

• U. R. Rao is acclaimed as a space scientist. He was a former chairman of the

Indian Space Research Organisation. He has developed the first satellite
launched by India, Aryabhatta.
• It is the name given to the satellite which was an indigenously designed space-
worthy satellite that set up tracking and transmitting systems in the orbital sphere.
U.R. Rao, the chairman of ISRO at the time was the man behind the launch in
1975 that put India on the world map in terms of space research.
Subhash Mukhopadhyay:

• He is a renowned scientist born in Calcutta, India. He made a remarkable

discovery in medical science.
• He gave life to India’s first and the world’s second IVF baby. The 3rd of
October 1978 saw Subhash performing India’s first In vitro fertilisation which
resulted in the birth of baby Durga.
• Tragically, Subhash was only given a posthumous recognition of his
achievements in 1986 as the West Bengal Government refused to support his
‘unethical’ methods.
Calyampudi Radhakrishna Rao:

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 • Calyampudi Radhakrishna Rao is an Indian-born, naturalized American,
mathematician and statistician. Dr Rao is a Fellow of the Royal Society of
London, and a Member of the National Academy of Sciences, U.S.A. He was
awarded the Padma Vibhushan in 2001.
• The C.R. Rao Award for Statistics was instituted in his honour, to be given once
in two years. In 2002, he was awarded the National Medal of Science of the
U.S.A.
• He also received the Sardar Patel Lifetime Achievement Award (Sardar Ratna) of
the Sardar Patel Foundation India (2015), Guy Medal in Gold (2011) of the Royal
Statistical Society
Narinder Singh Kapany:

• He is credited for his contribution to science and acclaimed as a great

scientist. He had invented Fibre optics.
• The process to transfer information freely and almost promptly was made
possible by the original work of Narinder Kapany.
• His research and inventions have encompassed fibre-optics communications,
lasers, biomedical instrumentation, solar energy and pollution monitoring.
• Fibre optics have transformed the way people communicate, offering high-speed
data transfers as well as helping in medical procedures such as endoscopy and
laser surgeries.
• He has a multifaceted personality.
• He also played a significant role as an entrepreneur and business executive. Dr
Kapany has specialized in the processes of innovation and the management of
technology and technology transfer.
• Kapany received numerous awards for his pioneering contribution in science that
includes ‘The Excellence 2000 Award’ from the USA Pan-Asian American
Chamber of Commerce in 1998 and the prestigious Pravasi Bharatiya Samman,
which was bestowed by the Indian government and presented by former Prime
Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee in 2004.
• In addition, Kapany holds over 100 patents and was a member of the National
Inventors Council.
Dr. A. Sivathanu Pillai:

• Sivathanu Pillai is an eminent Indian scientist. He supervised the conception of

indigenously developed missile systems. India’s self-sustaining missile
developing programme is called BrahMOS.
• Dr Pillai developed the concept of the joint venture BrahMOS, which makes India
one of the few countries to develop its own ballistic missiles as well as produce
and supply missiles in other key areas of the world. The start of BrahMOS led to
the negation of the absolute power held by Western countries.

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Achievements of Indian Scientists in Recent time

• Manjul Bhargava:
• Manjul Bhargava is the recent addition to the growing list of modern Indian
scientists who are making great contributions in the field of Mathematics.
Bhargava was recently awarded the Fields medal for his contribution to
number theory. In 2015, Manjul Bhargava won the Padma Bhushan, the
third-highest civilian award in India.
• Shiva Ayyadurai:
• VA Shiva Ayyadurai invented the Email in 1979 as a high school student
for the interoffice mail system. Later on, he also came out with EMS,
which included email and other programs.
• Ashoke Sen
• Ashoke Sen is one of the few elite scientists in the world who have made
original contributions to the subject of String Theory. He won the
Fundamental Prize in Physics in 2012 with total prize money of $3 Million.
He was later awarded the Padma Bhushan for his work in 2013.
• Abhas Mitra
• Abhas Mitra is considered the foremost authority in India on subjects
of Big bang and black holes. He is also one of the most cited Indian
scientists in the world.

Conclusions

• To summarize, Indian scientists have contributed astonishingly to the growth of

India. They have augmented the status of India with their scientific achievements
and many of the Indian scientists have also received some prestigious
international awards as well.
• The discoveries of Indian scientists have been appreciated all over the world.
After independence, India has accomplished several great scientific
achievements. Indian scientists have shown their courage at a global level and
have made India one of the scientific centres of the world. There are many
names like Bhabha, A. Sivathanu Pillai, Narinder Singh Kapany, and many more
who made a prime position in the scientific field.

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Indigenization of technology and developing new
technology

The phrase Indigenisation denotes to substituting an imported item with one that
is manufactured within the country. This does not indicate that the item manufactured
within the country is a replica of the imported item. It could be functionally the same but
could have more modern, energy-efficient, compact, and reliable parts and sub-
assemblies, that could themselves be either imported or indigenous.

To increase its technological capability in the area of homeland security, the

government is considering to establishing a centre for focused research on the
latest electronic equipment, which can be indigenously manufactured.

Indigenization of technology in the Indian context:

After independence in 1947, India had introduced policies and programmes for the
development of indigenous capacities in Science and Technology as an integral
part to develop as a modern nation-state.

A five-year planning approach was implemented for economic and industrial growth.
The Indian experience of strengthening the Science and Technology capacities in the
context of industrialisation as it has evolved over the various plan periods from 1947 to
2001 has been scrutinized.

Consolidation of Science and Technology capacities is regarded as a process of

establishing innovation networks interconnecting science, innovation and
industrial activities. Therefore, policies and programmes of the nation for both Science
and for Industry and the interrelationship between the two have been scanned.

Nevertheless, an indigenously manufactured electronic equipment using imported

components would still be desirable not only from the perspective of price but also the
availability of low-cost repair and maintenance over many years of operation.

In the viewpoint of defence and military applications, the value of indigenisation gets
multiplied manifold in terms of the strategic reliability of ready and direct access to a
local manufacturer and his support base.

Furthermore, an indigenous manufacturer also has the ability to increase his

product periodically using upgraded technology that could even be developed in-
house.

It is well documented in studies that indigenisation of technology goes beyond just

manufacturing the item based on drawings and materials supplied by a foreign
manufacturer (OEM). Here, the local manufacturer is anticipated to understand the
technology underlying the product or part, so as to be able to change, modify, improve
or re-design the item as and when he likes. Most of the ‘technology transfer’ that

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happens in the Indian defence and aerospace sector, only relates to the manufacture of
the item within the country and therefore concerns only the technology involved in
manufacturing. The foreign manufacturers hardly provide any insight into the technology
for design or modifications of the part.

It is presented that the Indian policies and programmes have developed through
five phases of development. To strengthen Science and Technology capacities, the
phases have been categorised as;

• Phase I: Infrastructure building

• Phase II: Reorientation
• Phase III: Promotion of indigenous technologies
• Phase IV: Moving towards economic liberalisation
• Phase V: Science and Technology in a liberalised economy
India’s developments in the last decade are visualized as the success of service
sector and increasing outsourcing industries. Indians were identified for being
the global winners of IT-enabled services. It includes the airlines, healthcare,
mobile phone, IT services etc.

India is among the world’s largest importers. It represents that India lacks in
meeting the demand of defence forces. Our indigenous efforts have shown results but
there is a lot of cost escalation and breach of time-limit one after another. This is
apparent from the facts:

1. Tejas aircraft had taken more than two decades in crore rupees. Even after the
completion, armed forces were not ready to induct these aircraft but as a result of
negotiation between forces, DRDO and government the aircraft is given 1st level
clearance now. DRDO is not able to develop its indigenous Kaveri engine due to
limited access to advanced defence technology by countries such as the USA,
and JAPAN.
2. Arjun Tank project was sanctioned in the late 1970s but was rolled out for trial in
just few years back. Even after all these years, it is said to be too weighty to use
in actual war operations. Now DRDO is working on using composites to decrease
the weight.
3. First indigenous nuclear submarine was developed in collaboration with BARC by
DRDO. But it has inadequate fuel inventor. As a result, it cannot go for long
deployment and further enhancements are required.
4. India has a BrahMos missile in collaboration with Russia. It is one of the best in
its class and air, land and water variants are under development.
5. AGNI V has given India the status of ICBM holder country in 2013 though the
project on integrated guided missile development was started in 1983. This along
with Dhanush, Nirbhaya, Prithvi, and Akash missiles has improved our
deterrence.
6. India’s first indigenous Aircraft carrier INS Vikrant is under sea trials.

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One of the major efforts toward indigenization has been the F-INSAS project which is
intended to equip the Infantry with state-of-the-art equipment. F-INSAS means
Futuristic Infantry Soldier as a System. The objective of this is to convert an
infantryman into a fully-networked all-terrain, all-weather, and weapons platform
with enhanced lethality, survivability, sustainability, mobility and situational
awareness for the digitised battlefield of the future. Most of the equipment are being
developed by DRDO.

Recently, the Indian government has proposed a new program, Make in India, to
promote the manufacturing sector which provides greater employment
opportunities by implementing a responsive policy environment.

Reports signify that the Indian Prime Minister, Mr. Narendra Modi, pledged to strengthen
the country’s military which took a swipe at the defence department’s research and
development agency. India, the largest importer of weapons in the world, has been
struggling to build an indigenous defence industry. To boost the effort, Mr. Modi’s
cabinet recently tried to open the defence manufacturing industry in India to more
foreign investment, approving increasing to 49% the amount of foreign direct
investment allowed in military equipment manufacturers.

In the Information technology sector, India got success in developing an

indigenous domestic computer industry capable of producing hardware for its
huge market base and software for export. Such remarkable successes have been
attained at considerable cost to other sectors of the economy, to subsectors of the IT
industry, and to the long-term viability of the domestic IT industry.

India has promoted IT Use: Numerous projects have been started to promote IT use in
the private and public sectors and to mobilize a favourable bias towards IT to use.

It is observed that great efforts were also made to increase public awareness of IT.
Computers have been introduced in locations visible to the public. These include the
computerized Railway Reservation System, airline reservation systems, electricity
billing, and retirement benefits accounting.

Regardless of these considerable efforts to promote IT use, there has been visible lack
of incentives, such as tax breaks or accelerated depreciation rules, to encourage private
sector use. Most importantly, the high barriers to imports have acted as strong
disincentives to the use of IT.

In developing new technologies, India also leads in research and development and
technology transfer. India’s industrialization has depended on imported technology,
much of which was acquired through technology licensing and technical collaboration
agreements.

Research and development by Indian companies have been basically oriented toward
acclimatizing imported technologies to domestic requirements, and in some cases have
helped Indian companies to develop their own technology. Interestingly, joint ventures
spend more on R & D than Indian-owned enterprises, and among Indian enterprises,
those who license technology do more R & D than those who do not. This advocates
that technology transfer inspires instead of replaces, domestic R & D, a finding which

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denies prevailing development theories. India’s R & D expenditures are well in advance
as compared to other developing countries in the world.

It is generally considered that India is growing at a speedy rate and has good repute
among Asian countries. Currently, India has far easier access to COTS and MOTS
systems, but dependency on foreign suppliers has produced helplessness like the high
cost of maintenance and inventories, and the danger of deficit of spares later in the life
cycle due to the closure of overseas production lines.

Additionally, it is difficult to optimise a platform’s design with a high percentage of COTS

and MOTS sub-systems and systems, because “systems engineering” demands that
sub-systems and systems be specifically engineered and optimised for the platform.
Only then can the effectiveness of the platform be more than the sum of its parts.

Indigenization of military hardware is a mindful effort on the part of the defence

establishment to develop products which suit Indian needs, circumstances and
demands. It is well-established that no nation can become hopeful to attain a great
power status without being practically self-reliant in defence production.

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 DNA and RNA

DNA and RNA

• DNA is a deoxyribonucleic acid and is a hereditary material whereas RNA is ribonucleic acid
present in all living cells. The only difference between ribose and deoxyribose is that ribose
has one more -OH group than deoxyribose, which has -H attached to the second (2′) carbon
in the ring.
• Both DNA and RNA is important, if either one of these polymers fails or disappear then life
would cease to exist. Without these elements protein will not be able to generate which is
important for life to exist and to produce energy.
• DNA is a double-stranded molecule while RNA is a single-stranded molecule.
• DNA is stable under alkaline conditions while RNA is not stable.
• DNA and RNA perform different functions in humans. DNA is responsible for storing and
transferring genetic information while RNA directly codes for amino acids and as acts as a
messenger between DNA and ribosomes to make proteins.
• DNA and RNA base pairing is slightly different since DNA uses the bases adenine, thymine,
cytosine, and guanine; RNA uses adenine, uracil, cytosine, and guanine. Uracil differs from
thymine in that it lacks a methyl group on its ring.

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Comparison of DNA and RNA

S.No. DNA RNA

1. Deoxyribonucleic acid Ribonucleic acid

It occurs inside the nucleus of cell and some

It is found in cytoplasm of the cell but
2. cell organelles but it plants it is present in
very little is found inside the nucleus.
mitochondria and plant cell.

It is a double-stranded molecule consisting of It is single-strand helix having shorter

3.
a long chain of nucleotides. chains of nucleotides.

It is used to transfer genetic code from

It stores and transfers genetic information to nucleus to the ribosomes to make
4.
generate new cells and organisms. proteins and carries DNA blueprint’s
guidelines.

It has two nucleotide strands consisting of It is single stranded consisting of

5. phosphate group, five carbon sugar (stable phosphate group, five carbon sugar (less
deoxyribose 2) and four nitrogen bases. stable ribose) and four nitrogen base.

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 Nitrogen base pairs are Adenine links to Here nitrogen base pairs are Adenine
6. Thymine (A-T) and Cytosine links to Guanine links to Uracil (A-U) and Cytosine links to
(C-G) Guanine (C-G).

7. DNA is self replicating It is synthesised from DNA when needed.

The DNA helix geometry is in the form of B The RNA helix geometry is in the form of
8. and can be damaged by exposure of ultra- A. It is more resistant to damage by
violet rays. ultra-violet rays.

9. It is a long polymer chain. It is shorter polymer.

It produces secondary helix or pseudo

DNA produces regular helix i.e. it is a spirally
10. helix as its stranded may get folded at
twisted.
places.

It occurs in the form of chromosomes or It occurs in ribosomes or forms

11.
chromatin fibres. association with ribosomes.

12. Quantity of DNA is fixed for cell. The quantity of RNA for a cell is variable.

It is of two types: intra nuclear and extra It is of four types: m-RNA, t-RNA and r-
13.
nuclear. RNA.

Its life is short. Some RNA’s have very

14. Life of DNA is long. shorter life but some have longer but in
all its life is short.

15. After melting its renaturation is slow. Fast

Biological Functions of Nucleic Acids – DNA and RNA

• DNA is the chemical basis of heredity and may be regarded as the reserve of genetic
information.
• DNA is exclusively responsible for maintaining the identity of different species of
organisms over millions of years.
• A DNA molecule is capable of self-duplication during cell division and identical DNA strands
are transferred to daughter cells.

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 • Another important function of nucleic acids is the protein synthesis in the cell. Actually, the
proteins are synthesized by various RNA molecules in the cell but the message for the
synthesis of a particular protein is present in DNA.

DNA Fingerprinting

• It is known that every individual has unique fingerprints. These occur at the tips of the
fingers and have been used for identification for a long time but these can be altered by
surgery.
• A sequence of bases on DNA is also unique for a person and information regarding this is
called DNA fingerprinting. It is the same for every cell and cannot be altered by any known
treatment.
• DNA fingerprinting is now used–
• in forensic laboratories for the identification of criminals.
• to determine the paternity of an individual.
• to identify the dead bodies in any accident by comparing the DNA’s of parents or
children.
• to identify racial groups to rewrite biological evolution.

Recombinant DNA

• In 1953, scientists discovered the structure of DNA, and in 1972, researchers developed
a method for cutting and splicing DNA. That method became known as recombinant DNA
or rDNA.
• Recombinant DNA (rDNA) molecules are DNA molecules formed by laboratory methods of
genetic recombination (such as molecular cloning) to bring together genetic material
from multiple sources, creating sequences that would not otherwise be found in the
genome.
• Recombinant DNA is possible because DNA molecules from all organisms share
the same chemical structure. They differ only in the nucleotide sequence within that
identical overall structure.
• In most cases, organisms containing recombinant DNA have apparently normal
phenotypes(observable physical properties of an organism), That is, their appearance,
behavior, and metabolism are usually unchanged.

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The basic steps involved in Recombinant DNA Technology:

• Isolation of a DNA fragment containing a gene of interest that needs to be cloned (called as
insert).
• Generation of a recombinant DNA (rDNA) molecule by insertion of the DNA fragment into a
carrier DNA molecule called vector (e.g. plasmid) that can self-replicate within a host cell.
• Transfer of the rDNA into an E. coli host cell (a process called transformation).
• Selection of only those host cells carrying the rDNA and allowing them to multiply thereby
multiplying the rDNA molecules.
• The whole process thus can generate either a large amount of rDNA (gene cloning) or a
large amount of protein expressed by the insert.
• The first rDNA molecules to be generated using these procedures were established by the
combined efforts in 1973 by the molecular biologists’ Paul Berg, Herbert Boyer, Annie
Chang, and Stanley Cohen.
• The next step after a recombinant molecule has been generated is to introduce it into a
suitable host.
• There are many methods to introduce recombinant vectors and these are
dependent on several factors such as the vector type and host cell.
Some commonly used procedures are:

• Transformation
• Transfection
• Electroporation
• Microinjection: In the procedure of microinjection, foreign DNA is directly injected into
recipient cells using a fine microsyringe under a phase-contrast microscope to aid vision.

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 • Biolistics: A remarkable method that has been developed to introduce foreign DNA into
mainly plant cells is by using a gene or particle gun. Microscopic particles of gold or tungsten
are coated with the DNA of interest and bombarded onto cells with a device much like a
particle gun. Hence the term biolistics is used.
Applications of recombinant DNA technology

• Recombinant DNA is widely used in biotechnology, medicine, and research.

• Recombinant DNA is used to identify, map, and sequence genes, and to determine their
function.
Recombinant DNA is used to produce

• Human Insulin: Recombinant insulin is cheaper and easier when compared to insulin
obtained from animal sources.
• Human growth hormone: For patients with pituitary glands generating an insufficient
quantity of hormone for normal growth, this was a boon
• Blood clotting factor VIII: To help patients suffering from haemophilia.
• Herbicide and Insect-resistant crops: Commercial varieties like soya, sorghum, cotton have
been developed. Such varieties integrate a recombinant gene that causes the resistance to
herbicide glyph sate application
• Bacillus Thuringeinsis: is the name of the bacterium that naturally produces a protein with
insecticidal properties

DNA Profiling

• DNA profiling is the process of determining an individual’s DNA characteristics.

• Modern-day DNA profiling is also called STR analysis and relies on microsatellites rather
than the minisatellites used in DNA fingerprinting.
• Microsatellites, or short tandem repeats (STRs), are the shorter relatives of minisatellites
usually two to five base pairs long. Like minisatellites, they are repeated many times
throughout the human genome.

DNA Sequencing

• DNA sequencing is the process of determining the nucleic acid sequence – the order of
nucleotides in DNA.
• In this era of genomics wherein, whole genomes of species are being sequenced and
compared to get a vision into the fundamental nature of DNA, the blueprint of life, the ease
with which DNA is sequenced has played a major role.
• The first methods for sequencing DNA were developed in the middle 1970s by Fred Sanger,
and by Walter Gilbert and Allan Maxam.

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 • Subsequently, Sanger developed a new method that forms the basis of most DNA
sequencing today.
• Sequencing DNA means determining the order of the four chemical building blocks – called
“bases” – that make up the DNA molecule.
• The sequence tells scientists the kind of genetic information that is carried in a particular
DNA segment.
Benefits of DNA Sequencing:

• Forensics: To identify a particular individual because every individual has a unique

sequence of DNA.
• Determine the Paternity of the child
• Medicine: Used to detect the genes which are associated with some heredity or acquired
diseases. As almost all organisms have some kind of genetic material we can understand the
causes of all human diseases.
• Agriculture: Specific genes of bacteria have been used to make crops resistant against
insects and pests. It is also useful in the production of livestock with improved quality of
meat and milk.

DNA Barcoding

• DNA barcoding is a method of species identification using a short section of DNA from a
specific gene or genes.
• DNA barcoding is a system for fast and accurate species identification that makes the
ecological systems more accessible by using short DNA sequences instead of whole-genome
and is used for eukaryotes.
• The short DNA sequence is generated from the standard region of the genome known as a
marker.
• Application
• Identification of plant leaves even in absence of fruit
• Identification of insect larvae
• Identification of products in commerce
• Criticism
• Lack of reliable information above the species level
• Gross oversimplification of the science of taxonomy.

Difference between Antigens and Antibodies

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In this article, You will read Difference between Antigens and Antibodies – for UPSC
IAS.

Antigens and Antibodies

Antigens and antibodies play vital but distinct roles in illness and disease. One tries to
wreak havoc on our health while the other fights to protect it.

Simply put, antigens can make you sick, and antibodies are how your body defends
itself against antigens.

An antibody is a glycoprotein which is produced in response to and counteracts a

particular antigen. On the other hand, an antigen is a foreign substance (usually
harmful) that induces an immune response, thereby stimulating the production of
antibodies.

Antigen
Antigens, or immunogens, are substances or toxins in your blood that trigger your
body to fight them.

Antigens are usually bacteria or viruses, but they can be other substances from
outside your body that threaten your health. This battle is called an immune response.

The presence of antigens rouses your body’s illness-fighting white blood cells,
called lymphocytes. This presence of antigens causes white blood cells to make cells
called antibodies to fight against the antigens.

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There are two main types of antigens, heteroantigens and autoantigens:

• Heteroantigens are substances that are foreign to your body and involve
substances made by or found within:
• viruses
• bacteria
• protozoa
• blood and red blood cells from other people
• snake venom
• allergens such as pollen
• certain proteins in foods
• Autoantigens, or self-antigens, are made by your body to fight your cells and
are usually a sign of an illness such as an autoimmune condition.

Antibody
Antibodies are also called immunoglobulins or Ig. They are Y-shaped
proteins made by your immune system’s B lymphocytes or B cells.

B cells attack and eliminate viruses and other toxins outside the cell. They do this
by making specific antibodies for a single type of antigen.

These tailored antibodies lock on to their specific antigens and tag them for attack.
Antibodies also block these antigens, keeping them away from your healthy cells.
Ultimately, antibodies kill these antigens, stopping infection.

The main types of antibodies (immunoglobulins) include:

• IgG. These are the most abundant types of antibodies in your plasma. They
detoxify harmful substances and provide long-term protection.
• IgM. These are the first antibodies made by B cells in response to antigens.
• IgA. These antibodies collect antigens and remove them from your body in
your mucus or other body fluids.
• IgE. These antibodies trigger allergies and protect against parasites. Small
amounts are in your skin, lungs, and mucosal membranes.
• IgD. These antibodies bind to B cells and signal them to release IgM
antibodies.
Each antibody guards against its target antigen and many types of antibodies are
found throughout your body. They play a vital role in your body’s defense against illness
and disease.

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Difference between Antigens and Antibodies
Antigen Antibodies

Also called Also called Immunogens Also called Immunoglobulins

Antigens are usually lipids. However,

Molecular
they can also be proteins, All antibodies are proteins
Type
carbohydrates, and nucleic acids

Protects against the effects of the

Antigens cause allergic reactions or
Effect antigen either by lysis or immobilization
even illnesses
of the particle

Specific Epitopes are regions of the antigen Paratopes are variable regions of an
Binding Site where interacts with the antibodies antibody that binds to an epitope.

Antibodies always originate within the

Origins Antigens have origins outside the body
body

Difference between mRNA Vaccine and Traditional

Vaccines

• Vaccines work by training the body to recognise and respond to the proteins
produced by disease-causing organisms, such as a virus or bacteria.
• Traditional vaccines are made up of small or inactivated doses of the whole
disease-causing organism, or the proteins that it produces, which are
introduced into the body to provoke the immune system into mounting a
response.
• mRNA vaccines tricks the body into producing some of the viral proteins
itself.
• They work by using mRNA, or messenger RNA, which is the molecule
that essentially puts DNA instructions into action. Inside a cell, mRNA is
used as a template to build a protein.
Functioning of mRNA Vaccines:

• To produce a mRNA vaccine, scientists produce a synthetic version of the mRNA

that a virus uses to build its infectious proteins.

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 • This mRNA is delivered into the human body, whose cells read it as instructions
to build that viral protein, and therefore create some of the virus’s molecules
themselves.
• These proteins are solitary, so they do not assemble to form a virus.
• The immune system then detects these viral proteins and starts to produce a
defensive response to them.
Advantages of Using mRNA based Vaccines:

• mRNA vaccines are considered safe as mRNA is non-infectious, non-integrating

in nature, and degraded by standard cellular mechanisms.
• They are highly efficacious because of their inherent capability of being
translatable into the protein structure inside the cell cytoplasm.
• Additionally, mRNA vaccines are fully synthetic and do not require a host for
growth, e.g., eggs or bacteria. Therefore, they can be quickly manufactured
inexpensively to ensure their “availability” and “accessibility” for mass vaccination
on a sustainable basis.

Difference between Virus and Bacteria

Virus and Bacteria

Bacteria are tiny microorganisms that are made up of a single cell. They’re very
diverse and can have a large variety of shapes and structural features.

Bacteria can live in almost every conceivable environment, including in or on the

human body.

Only a handful of bacteria cause infections in humans. These bacteria are referred to as
pathogenic bacteria.

Viruses are another type of tiny microorganism, although they’re even smaller
than bacteria. Like bacteria, they’re very diverse and have a variety of shapes and
features.

Viruses are parasitic. That means they require living cells or tissue in which to
grow.

Viruses can invade the cells of your body, using the components of your cells to grow
and multiply. Some viruses even kill host cells as part of their life cycle.

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Viruses

• Viruses did not find a place in classification since they are not truly ‘living’, if
we understand living as those organisms that have a cell structure.
• The viruses are non-cellular organisms that are characterized by having
an inert crystalline structure outside the living cell.
• Viruses are obligate parasites. Once they infect a cell, they take over the
machinery of the host cell to replicate themselves, killing the host.
• The name virus that means venom or poisonous fluid was given by Pasteur.
• In addition to proteins, viruses also contain genetic material, that could be
either RNA or DNA.
• No virus contains both RNA & DNA.
• In general,
• viruses that infect plants have single-stranded RNA &
• viruses that infect animals have either single or double-stranded
RNA or double-stranded DNA
• bacteriophages (viruses that infect bacteria) are usually double-
stranded DNA viruses.
• The protein coat called capsid made of small subunits
called capsomeres protects the nucleic acid.
• These capsomeres are arranged in helical or polyhedral geometric forms.

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Some examples of viral infections include:

• influenza
• common cold
• viral gastroenteritis
• chickenpox
• measles
• viral meningitis
• warts
• human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
• viral hepatitis
• Zika virus
• West Nile virus
• COVID-19 is another illness caused by a virus. This virus commonly causes:
• shortness of breath
• fever
• dry cough

Bacteria

• Bacteria are single-cell, living organisms that can survive without a host.
• They can live on surfaces, in soil, in water, & in the air.

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 • You can kill them by messing with their ability to do cellular respiration or their
ability to grow.
• Antibiotics are used to treat bacterial infections because antibiotics kill
bacteria.
• Hence Antibiotics are useless against viruses.
• There are some antiviral drugs that help protect you from a viral infection.
• Antivirals either make it harder for the virus to get into the cell or they
prevent the virus from reproducing once they are inside of your cells.
• Most bacteria reproduce by simply dividing into two.
• Bacteria can cause diseases such as pneumonia & food poisoning.
• However, not all bacteria are bad. In fact, some friendly types actually help
protect us from the disease.
Some examples of bacterial infections include:

• strep throat
• urinary tract infection (UTI)
• bacterial food poisoning
• gonorrhea
• tuberculosis
• bacterial meningitis
• cellulitis
• Lyme disease
• tetanus

Difference between Virus and Bacteria

Virus Bacteria

They are very Small They are larger in size as compared to virus

Non-Cellular Single-Celled

Cell wall is absent but a capsid is present in Cell wall of bacteria is made up of
them. lipopolysaccharide or peptidoglycan.

Have no metabolism of their own Have metabolism of their own

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Take no food by any method Take food by absorption

Grow in size & divide to produce more bacteria

Do not grow & do not divide
(by Cell-Division)

Command the host cell to produce a virus i.e. They can reproduce by their own i.e. They can
They cannot survive without a host. survive without a host.

Can be crystallised Cannot be crystallised

Bacterias are both pathogenic and parasitic in

They are only parasitic in nature.
nature.

Some are harmless, some useful & some are

All produce diseases in man, animals & plants
disease-causing

Contains various cells subunits or organelles

Contains only genetic material & protective
such as cytoplasm & cell wall which all perform
coating
specific functions

They have simpler DNA (if their genetic

They have more complex DNA
material is DNA)

Multiply faster than bacteria Multiply slower than Viruses

Viruses are present in both living and nonliving

Bacteria are totally living in nature
form

Vaccines prevent the spread & antiviral

medicines help to slow reproduction but They can be treated with Antibiotics
cannot stop it completely

Example– Strep Throat, Tuberculosis,

Example– Common Cold, Flu & Sore Throat
Whooping Cough

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Viroids

• Viroids are infectious agents that are smaller than viruses.

• A viroid is a free RNA, it lacks the protein coat that is found in viruses, hence
the name viroid.
• The RNA of the viroid was of low molecular weight.
• Viroids cause potato spindle tuber disease.

Virus Viroid

It is a nucleoprotein particle. It is an RNA Particle.

Nucleic Acid can be DNA or RNA. Viroid is formed of only RNA.

A protein covering of coat is present. A protein coat is absent.

Virus has a larger size. Viroid has a smaller size.

Virus infects all types of organisms. Viroid infects only plants.

Difference Between DNA & RNA Viruses

• A virus can self-replicate inside a host cell.

• The infected cells may produce thousands of new copies of the original virus at
an extraordinary rate.
• The genetic material of a virus can be either DNA or RNA.

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 • The viruses that contain DNA as their genetic material are called the DNA
viruses.
• RNA viruses, on the other hand, contain RNA as their genetic material.
• DNA viruses are mostly double-stranded while RNA viruses are single-
stranded.
• RNA mutation rate is higher than the DNA mutation rate.
• DNA replication takes place in the nucleus while RNA replication takes
place in the cytoplasm.
• DNA viruses are stable while RNA viruses are unstable.
• Antigens: A substance which the body recognizes as alien & which induces
an immune response.
• Antibodies: A blood protein produced by the body in response to &
counteracting an antigen.

Difference between DNA vs RNA

DNA RNA

Deoxyribonucleic Acid Ribonucleic Acid

Double-Stranded Single Stranded

Deoxyribose Sugar Ribose Sugar

Can’t Self-ReplicateIt is synthesized from

Self Replicate
DNA when required

Occurs inside the nucleus & of cell & some cell It is found in the cytoplasm of the
organelles (mitochondria) but in plants, it is cell but very little is found inside the
present in mitochondria & plant cell nucleus.

DNA is the genetic material in all living

RNA is the genetic material in some viruses
organisms

Long Polymer Chain Shorter Polymer Chain

Life of DNA is longer Its life is short

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 3 types of RNA are present in an organism:
DNA occurs only in one form in any organism
– mRNA, rRNA, tRNA

RNA is functional is the transmission of the

DNA is functional in the transmission of genetic
genetic code that is necessary for the
informationIt forms as a media for long-term
protein creation from the nucleus to the
storage
ribosome

Bases present are Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, & Bases present are Adenine, Guanine,
Thymine Cytosine & Uracil

Difference between Gene & Genome

Gene Genome

A gene is a part of DNA Molecule. The genome is total DNA in a cell.

The hereditary element of genetic

All set of nuclear DNAs.
information.

Encodes both proteins & regulatory elements for

Encodes protein synthesis.
protein synthesis.

Length of the genome of a higher organism is

Length is about a few hundreds of bases.
about billion base pairs.

A higher organism has about thousands of

Each organism has only one genome.
genes.

Variations of the gene named alleles can be Horizontal gene transfer & duplication cause large
naturally selected. variations in the genome.

Which infections are treated with antibiotics?

Antibiotics are medications used to treat bacterial infections.

There are many types of antibiotics, but they all work to keep bacteria from effectively
growing and dividing. They’re not effective against viral infections.

Despite the fact that you should only take antibiotics for a bacterial infection, antibiotics
are often requested for viral infections. This is dangerous because over-prescribing
antibiotics can lead to antibiotic resistance.

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