MESSAGES
In memory of Floyd Horowitz
MESSAGES
An Introduction to Communication
Arthur Asa Berger
He's out to change the way you
see the world, one page at a time
Capitalist
pig.
First published 2015 by Left Coast Press, Inc.
Published 2016 by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017, USA
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
Copyright © 2015 Taylor & Francis
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Notice:
Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered
trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation
without intent to infringe.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data on file.
ISBN 978-1-61132-900-1 paperback
CONTENTS
Acknowledgments 9
Introduction:
Changing the Way You See the World, One Page at a Time 10
Applications 15
Chapter 1: Theories of Communication 16
Defining Communication 18
Models of the Communication Process 20
Aristotle’s Model of the Persuasion Process 21
The Jakobson Model 23
One page
The Toulmin Model 24 at a time…
The Lasswell Formula 26
The Focal Points Model 27
Levels of Communication 29
Intrapersonal Communication 29
Interpersonal Communication 30
Small Group Communication 31
Mass Communication 31
Summary 33
Applications 33
Chapter 2: Language and Texts 34
Peter Farb on Words 37
Mikhail Bakhtin on Dialogism 39
Codes in Conversations 41
The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis 42
Basil Bernstein on Language Codes 44
Summary 46
Applications 47
Chapter 3: Rhetorical Methods for Analyzing Texts 48
Semiotic Analysis 50
Ferdinand de Saussure and Semiology 51
C. S. Peirce and Semiotics 54
Umberto Eco on Lying with Signs 55
A Synopsis of Dr. No 57
A Paradigmatic Analysis of Dr. No 60
Sociological Analysis 61
Sociological Analysis of Uses and Gratifications 62
Some Important Uses and Gratifications 64
Uses and Gratifications and Dr. No 65
Psychoanalytic Criticism 66
Freud on the Unconscious 68
The Id, Ego, and Superego 69
The Oedipus Complex and James Bond 71
Symbols in Psychoanalytic Theory 74
The Defense Mechanisms 75
Marxist Ideological Analysis 77
Alienation 78
Dialectical Materialism 79
Class Conflict 82
False Consciousness 83
Applying Marxist Theory to Dr. No 84
Applied Analysis: Interpreting a Text 86
Applications 87
Chapter 4: Communication, Identity, and Culture 88
Clotaire Rapaille on the Culture Code 91
Arthur Asa Berger on Culture Codes 93
One Hundred Percent American 94
What Do You Do For a Living? 96
The Collective Search for Identity 97
Applications 99
Chapter 5: Interpersonal Communication 100
Purpose of Communication 105
The Structure of Conversation 105
Topics of Conversation 106
Demographics 108
Context 109
Roles 109
Interpersonal Relationships: Friendships 109
Interpersonal Relationships: Romantic Love 110
Interpersonal Relationships: The Family 112
Cultural Codes and Cultural Backgrounds 113
Conversational Skills 113
Selective Attention, Inattention, and Disclosure 113
Personality Factors 114
Channel or Mode of Communication 114
Summary 116
Applications 117
Chapter 6: Communicating in Groups 118
Defining Groups 120
Groupthink and Postmodernism 121
Grid-Group Theory 123
Groups and Cultural Choices 126
Roles Played by Members of Small Groups 127
Organizational Structure of Small Groups 130
Organizational Communication 131
Political Parties 133
Summary 134
Applications 135
Chapter 7: Mass Media 136
Timeline for the Development of Media 138
Media Usage in the United States 139
Time Spent Per Day with Media by Adults and Teenagers 140
Media and Kinds of Violence 142
Ethics and the Media 145
Theories of Mass Communication 146
Marshall McLuhan or The Medium is the Message 147
William Stephenson’s Play Theory 150
George Gerbner’s Cultivation Theory 151
Elizabeth Noelle-Neumann’s “Spiral of Silence” Theory 152
Paul Lazarsfeld and Elihu Katz’s “Two-Step Flow” Theory 154
Agenda-Setting Theory 155
Tony Schwartz’s “Responsive Chord” Theory 156
Applications 157
Chapter 8: Social Media 158
Statistics on Social Media 160
Social Media as Connection Rather Than Information 162
Are Social Media Anti-Social? 163
Language Use on Social Media 164
Are Social Media Replacing or Augmenting Mass Media? 166
A Psychoanalytic Perspective on Social Media
and Smartphones 167
Summary 169
Applications 169
Chapter 9: Nonverbal and Visual Communication 170
Hair Styles 173
Facial Expression 174
Gestures 175
Body Language 176
Fashion 177
Haptics and Optics 178
Proxemics 180
Seeing 181
Images 184
Understanding the Meaning of an Image 185
Sigmund Freud on Images in Dreams 187
Elements of Images 188
The Functions of Images 191
Advertising 191
Religion 192
Politics 193
Personal Identity 193
Visual Culture 194
Applications 196
Chapter 10: Public Speaking 198
Public Speaking as a Performance 200
Aristotle’s Rhetoric and Public Speaking 202
Television Commercials and the Craft of Public Speaking 203
The Power of Preparation 205
The Need to Focus 206
The Art of Being Relevant 206
The Audience Shapes the Speech 209
Speaking at Different Levels on the
Ladder of Communication 210
Five Tips for Giving Interesting Speeches 211
Description 212
Exemplification 212
Explanation 212
Figurative Language: Metaphor and Metonymy 213
Summaries and Conclusions 214
Now Go and Do It! 214
Applications 215
Coda 217
Glossary 221
References 231
Index 235 Jump up
and do it!
About the Author 239
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to thank Mitch Allen for suggesting I write this book,
for his suggestions about how the book might be organized,
and his comments, all through the drafts, about enhancements
to the discussions that might be considered. I also want to thank
all the communication scholars and theorists whose work I
have used in the book. I also owe a debt of gratitude to my pro-
duction editor Ryan Harris, copy editor Michael Jennings, my
book designer Hannah Jennings, and everyone else involved
in the production of this book. It takes a number of people to
produce a book, and I appreciate the efforts of everyone who
worked on it. I’ve used a number of my own drawings and oth-
er images to make the book more visually interesting and have
drawn upon my previous writings in updated versions at vari-
ous places in this book.
Introduction
Changing the Way You See the
World, One Page at a Time
The medium
Is the
message.
Messages: An Introduction to Communication by Arthur Asa Berger, 10–15.
10 © 2014 Left Coast Press, Inc. All rights reserved.
Rhetoric does certain things; it has certain functions. In its
broadest sense, rhetoric refers to the ways in which signs
influence people; and through that influence, rhetoric makes
things happen. When people speak, when they make tele-
vision advertisements, when they write essays, they are
attempting to carry out some function. What that function
specifically is, whether it is good or bad, will vary with one’s
definition. The Sophists would say that the function of rhet-
oric is to persuade others while participating in a democratic
society, while Plato would say that the function of rhetoric is
to flatter or mislead people.
Barry Brummett, Rhetoric in Popular Culture, 3rd Edition
At this moment he wished to be a man without qualities. But
this is probably not so different from what other people some-
times feel too. After all, by the time they have reached the
middle of their life’s journey few people remember how they
have managed to arrive at themselves, at their amusements,
their point of view, their wife, character, occupation and suc-
cesses, but they cannot help feeling that not much is likely to
change any more. It might even be asserted that they have
been cheated, for one can nowhere discover any sufficient
reason for everything’s having come about as it has. It might
just as well have turned out differently. The events of people’s
lives have, after all, only to the least degree originated in them,
having generally depended on all sorts of circumstances such
as the moods, the life or death of quite different people, and
have, as it were, only at the given point of time come hurry-
ing towards them. Something has had its way with them like
a flypaper with a fly; it has caught them fast, here catching a
little hair, there hampering their movements, and has gradu-
ally enveloped them, until they lie, buried under a thick coating
that has only the remotest resemblance to their original shape.
Robert Musil, The Man Without Qualities 11
12 Messages: An Introduction to Communication
Like all authors, I’d like to think that this book will change the
way you think about its subject—in this case, communication.
And I hope it will also change the way you see the world and may-
be even change, to some degree, how you think about yourself.
Inside every fat book there is a thin book struggling to
escape. This book is a thin book that has escaped from being a
fat book by focusing upon what I believe to be the key concepts
or most important elements in the communication process,
such as words, conversation, rhetoric, codes, language, meth-
ods of analysis, textual criticism, and visual communication.
A number of years ago an editor asked me to write an intro-
duction to communication. “Write one for me and you’ll be
able to take your wife to Europe every summer,” he said. As we
spoke, the image of a big, fat book formed in my mind, and I
declined his offer. You have to understand that it is very difficult
for a writer to decline an offer to publish a book by an editor,
because the idea of being able to take one’s wife to Europe every
summer is powerful. I declined because I realized that I wasn’t
the kind of person to write one of those gigantic introductions
to communication, as most editors envision such books.
I used a football metaphor to explain why I didn’t want to
write the book. “You want a fullback kind of writer,” I said, “a
big, strong bruiser of a writer who can easily crank out a thou-
sand or fifteen hundred pages of manuscript. I am more like a
wide receiver, and like all wide receivers, I am guided by my
own passions. I write short books on topics that interest me.”
That was twenty years ago.
So, when Mitch Allen and I were having a nice dim sum
lunch at the House of Banquet Restaurant on Clement Street
Introduction: Changing the Way You See the World 13
in San Francisco and he suggested I write an introduction
to communication, I accepted his offer because I realized
that he would let me write a different kind of introduction
to communication than the usual ones. And because having
been rejected so many times by Allen, who I call “The Great
Rejecter,” the idea of not accepting his request that I write a
book didn’t enter my mind. He also wanted a book of about
50,000 words—a relatively moderate sized book as introduc-
tions to communication books go.
I decided to focus upon messages and the various ways in
which we generate messages and others interpret them. I argue
that we are always sending messages, even though we may not
be conscious of doing so; we are always receiving messages
from others who may not realize they are sending them, and we
all try to control the messages we send to others and interpret
the messages we receive from them to the best of our ability.
The term “communication” covers a lot of territory. We find
communication in conversations, in debates, in courses on
rhetoric and argumentation, in fashion, in advertising, in mass
mediated texts, in facial expressions, in body language, in texts
we read, in television programs we watch, in films we see, and in
all kinds of things we gaze at on our smartphones and tablets.
Even when we say or do nothing—especially when a response is
expected—we are communicating. My point is—we are always
communicating; we are always sending and receiving messages.
Contemporary communication departments didn’t exist
in universities three decades ago. They have been constructed
from a variety of other departments in the university—rhet-
oric and public speaking, speech therapy, mass media, social
psychology, broadcasting, journalism, advertising, and others.
So, now when you take the basic course in communication, you
get a slice of many of these topics to explore the dimensions of
the field. This book is no exception, a brief introduction to the
many pieces of the field of communication.
Because he is so familiar to filmgoers, I use the fictional
character James Bond, created by novelist Ian Fleming and
many different movie producers, as a subject for analysis and
discussion throughout this book—and, in particular, I focus
upon Fleming’s Dr. No, his fifth novel and the first of his novels
to be made into a film, in 1962.
14 Messages: An Introduction to Communication
It is my practice to make extensive use of quotations from
important thinkers, so you can see not only what they said but
also how they expressed themselves. Thus, if you think some
concept is hard to accept, such as Freud’s Oedipus complex,
you might change your mind after reading what Freud himself
had to say about it. The Oedipus complex—broadly speaking,
a powerful attachment that young children have to the parent
of the opposite sex and jealousy of the parent of the same sex,
which can lead to psychological problems if not resolved—will
be discussed in more detail later in the book.
To help the learning process, I
have added a number of my draw-
ings and other images to make the
book more visually engaging. I also
offer “applications” at the end of
each chapter that will make you
think about what you’ve read and
help you apply some of the concepts
you have learned. In these applica-
tions I suggest topics for research,
provide quotations to be discussed,
and do a number of other things
to help you move from learning about a theory and its con-
cepts—for example, psychoanalytic theory and the Oedipus
complex—to getting a better idea of their role in the communi-
cation process and how they function in society.
After reading this book you will have learned a great deal
about the communication process and what thinkers, such as
Aristotle, Sigmund Freud, Karl Marx, Ferdinand de Saussure,
Charles S. Peirce, Vladimir Propp, Bruno Bettelheim, Claude
Lévi-Strauss, Basil Bernstein, Roman Jakobson, Marshall
McLuhan and Clotaire Rapaille (most of these names may
not be familiar to you), had to say about various aspects of
communication. You will learn methods that you can apply to
communication and media and to your life that will help you
see the world differently.
A few years ago, I was shopping in a supermarket and a
woman came up to me. “Dr. Berger,” she said. “Good to see
you again. Do you remember me? I took your course on media
criticism twenty years ago. What I learned about semiotics
Introduction: Changing the Way You See the World 15
and other theories,” she said, “do you know—they are still with
me.” I would like to hope that what you learn from this book
will be with you for a long time and will help you understand
better the role communication plays in society and in your
life. That’s because while Messages is about communication as
a subject to be studied, it is also about the role communication
plays in your life.
Applications
1. Investigate scholarly studies of the James Bond phenome-
non. What do reviewers say about his books and the James
Bond films? What differences do you find between scholarly
articles on Bond and the Bond films and articles and reviews
of the Bond films in popular newspapers and magazines?
How do writers explain Bond’s popularity?
2. Read what Freud wrote about the Oedipus Complex ( www.
cla.purdue.edu/.../Oedipus ). Then, do some research on what
more contemporary psychologists have written on this topic.
Is the Oedipus Complex universal—as Freudians claim?
3. What do you think about Musil’s ideas, expressed in the
quotation at the beginning of the chapter? Was he a pessi-
mist or a realist?
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