Plant Structure

Major Plant Tissues

and Function
A. Meristematic Tissues
1. Has immature (embryonic) cells
located at the tips of roots and stems
2. Responsible for the growth
(elongation) and enlargement of roots
and stems
B. Permanent Tissues
1. Developed from new cells
produced by meristematic tissues
2. Protective covering of the plant's
exposed surface
B1. Surface Tissue
1. Consist of epidermis (protects the
part of plants: roots, stems, and
leaves; contain cuticle which protects
the tissues from water loss, attack of
microbes, and injury as well; also
contains stomata in leaves of the
plants where gases can move in and
out); contain trichomes for
absorption, nutrition, and protection
against herbivores.
1.1 Major Plant Tissues
2. Consist also of periderm (replaced
Vascular Plants are multicellular the epidermis when increased in size;
organisms. Internal structures of forms a tissue known as cork and the
these plants are more complex. walls are covered with suberin- for
Through these structures, plants can waterproofing)
be able to adjust to the changes in
their environment even though plants B2. Fundamental Tissue
are not capable of locomotion like (Ground Tissue)
animals do. These structures are very 1. Consists primarily of masses of thin-
important also for them to grow and walled cells for support in stems, roots,
develop, reproduce, and of course for and leaves; for photosynthesis; storage
the transport of food and water in all of water and carbohydrates.
parts of the body.
2. Consists of parenchyma tissues (made • A single leaf is considered as the
up of simple and specialized tissues: (a) outgrowth which has slender stalk or
chlorenchyma - contains chloroplasts for petiole attached to the node of a
photosynthesis; (b)aerenchyma - with stem.
intercellular spaces for exchange of
• It has also flat surface and blade with
gases; (c) transfer cells - for transport of
veins (vascular bundles of xylem and
solutes.
phloem tissues) which extend from
3. Consist also of collenchyma (with
presence of cellulose and pectin;
support growing regions of shoots,
petioles, and elongating stems)
4. Consists of sclerenchyma (have
thick secondary walls, which contain
roots to the leaves and veinlets.
lignin, and occur in matured or dead
part of plants; support and • A simple leaf has only one blade in a
strengthens non-extending regions of stalk or petiole. When the blade is
plants; has two kinds: (a) sclereids- divided into several sections
occur in walnut shells, bark, hulls of (leaflets), the leaf is said to be
peanuts, seed coats known as stone compound.
cells; (b) fibers - long or elongated
slender of cells that occur in strand or
bundles, strong and flexible. The arrangement of leaves in plants
is called phyllotaxy. The leaves may
B.3 Vascular Tissue be arranged as alternate – a leaf
1. Consists of more than one kind of attached to the node of the stem,
cells which specialize for longer opposite – two leaves attached to a
transport of water and dissolved solutes node arranged opposite each other,
(minerals and carbohydrates) and whorled – more than two leaves
2. Has two types: (1) xylem - transports
attached at the same node.
water and dissolved minerals absorbed
from the soil; (2) phloem - transports
food (organic materials) throughout the
plant has conducting cells: (a) tracheids-
the only water-conducting cells in
woody and non- flowering plants; (b)
vessel elements - transport water more
rapidly than tracheids and occur in
several groups of plants like The arrangement of the veins in the
angiosperms. blade of a leaf is its leaf venation.
Leaf venation is classified into two.
1.2 The Leaves When the veins are repeatedly
branching out then form a network on
the surface of the blade, a leaf has a upper epidermis with closely
netted venation or reticulated packed columnar cells; and the
venation. The veins run alongside spongy layer – located near the
from each other from the base of the lower epidermis with loosely
blade to the tip similar alongside each packed spherical cells. These
other and at the same angle to the mesophyll layers are packed with
midrib of the blade. the chloroplast.
There are also leaves which have

specialized
• The leaf’s internal structure is characteristics and functions. These are
consisted of several tissues for referred to as specialized or modified
different purposes. Earlier, you leaves.
have learned about the major
tissues of the plants.
• A leaf has cuticle (waxy
substance) that protects the lower
tissues from the
loss of water,
invasion of fungi,
and protection
Types of leaf
from injury. Tendrils
• A leaf has tiny openings, known 1. Aid in
as stomata, in which water vapor climbing
moves out and carbon dioxide and support of
enters; the closing and opening of vines to wrap
stomata it is regulated by the around or to hook a support.
guard cells.
Example: Garden peas
• Normally, a leaf is a mass of
ground tissue known as Spines
mesophyll which has two kinds:
the palisade layer – located in the
1. Have sharp and pointed leaves, Venus' s-flytrap
which have axillary bud above, for
protection from large herbivores. 1.3 The Stems
• The various structures of
2. Also provide shade in the intense
stems also help the plants to
light of deserts and promote
survive in a changing
moisture/condensation.
environment. A stem serves as
Example: Cacti the medium for the transport
of water, minerals, and food
Bracts (floral leaves) from roots to the leaves of the
1. Attract pollinators to protect plant plants by means of its tissues.
structures • It also supports the attachment
Example: Poinsettia of leaves and other
reproductive structures. Some
Reproductive leaves stems serve as for storage of
food. Literally, some stems of
1. Asexual plantlets produced on
the plants are edible for
leaves
consumption
Example: Kalanchoe, Walking fern • Leaves are attached to a node
which is part of the stem. The
Storage leaves space or distance between two
1. Have special leaves that hold extra nodes is the stem’s internode.
food that consist mainly of short, fat • Aside from leaves, buds are
storage leaves called bulb scales also found in the stem located
on the axil of the leaves. Buds
2. Store food underground during the are classified based on their
winter months
location or how they are
Example: Onion, Tulip bulbs, Garlic
position.
• A bud is said to be terminal or
apical if the bud is located at
the tip of the stem while a bud
is said to be lateral or axillary
Insect-capturing Leaves if the bud is located alongside
1. Carnivorous (meat-eating) plants) ethe stem

2. Can make food using sunlight

3. Attract, trap, and then digest
insects
Example: Pitcher plan, Sundew, and
 2. Vascular bundles are distributed
within the ground tissue containing both
xylem and phloem
• Normally, a stem is consisted of 3. Able to live for just a year
vascular bundles of tissues
embedded in the ground tissue. It has 4. Consist of primary tissues
the cortex which has outer layers of 5. Covered mostly with epidermis
ground tissues and the pith which are
the inner layers of ground tissue 6. Has little growth in diameter
stem.
7. Has naked buds
• Stem of vascular plants are classified
There are also stems which have
into two different types: woody
specialized characteristics and functions.
stems and herbaceous stems.
These are referred to as specialized or
modified stems.

Woody Stem
1. tough, stiff, and usually not green Types of Stem
2. Vascular bundles are arranged in
cylinders Stolons/Runners
3. The innermost cylinder is consisted of 1. Horizontal and above ground stem
xylem for the conduction of water, food
2. Creeping stems
and minerals
4. Able to live for many years 3. New plants developed at the nodes
touching the soil
5. Consists of secondary tissues
Function: 1. Spreading growth
6. Mostly covered by corky bark
2. Asexual reproduction
7. Able to grow in considerable diameter
Example: Strawberry
8. Scales covered the bud

Herbaceous Stem Tubers

1. Soft flexible and usually green
Enlarged underground stem
Function: Food storage 3. Some roots serve as storage of
food and is important medium for
Example: Potato, sweet potato
reproduction. Some plants can
Rhizomes also perform photosynthesis by
means of their roots.
1. Long and underground stem
4. The vascular bundles are the
2. Fleshy and parallel to the ground center of the root. This vascular
Function: Food storage tissue is surrounded by cortex
(which is also covered by the
Example: Ginger dermal tissue- epidermis).
Bulbs 5. The tip of the root which is near
the epidermal cells produce root
Thickened bases of leaves
hairs which greatly increase in
Function: Food storage in leafy scale surface area of the root for the
absorption of water and minerals.
Example: Onion, garlic
6. A young root has several sections:
Corms (1) root cap – protects the internal
Vertical, thick, and short tissues of the root; when removed,
underground stem new roots cap cells are formed;
(2) region of meristem – venue
Function: Food storage for new formed cells; (3) region
Example: Gabi or taro stem of elongation – cells are
undergoing enlargement in terms
Succulent of its length; (4) region of
Fleshy, often leafless stem maturation – where many
important tissues are found such
Function: Water storage as the xylem, phloem, cortex,
Example: Cactus epidermis, parenchyma, and
pericyle (which gives rise to
1.4 The Roots branch roots).
There are two main types of roots
1. The root system performs several system based on branching patterns.
important functions. Roots can
absorb water and dissolved
mineral from the soil and then
transport it upwards into stem,
and then to the leaves.
2. The anchorage of the plant to the
soil is the function also of the
roots for stability.
 3. Also known as tuberous roots

Taproot System Examples: Carrots, Sweet potatoes,

Cassava, Watermelon, Pumpkin
1. Has a large central root, grows
downward
2. Smaller root branch sideways Aerial Roots
along its length
1. Roots which are not covered by
3. Mostly found in dicots soil
4. Examples are carrots and radishes 2. Develop from the branches and
eventually reach the ground,
Fibrous Root System
providing additional support
1. Has may main roots (highly
3. Help the tree remain upright in
branched), similar in length and
shifting sand and water conditions
diameter as well
Examples: Orchid, Corn
2. Does not grow downward or does
not penetrate the soil deeply Adventitious Roots
3. Mostly found in monocots 1. Originate from plant organ (stem,
4. Examples are grasses leaves, & fruits)

• Maybe some of you have orchids 2. Grow from the nodes that penetrate
in your garden. Orchids have into the host tissue to get nutrients
adventitious roots which is one of Examples: English Ivy
the specialized roots that grow
above ground. Propagative Roots
• These roots provide support and 1. Roots that form from adventitious
absorb minerals and water. These buds and develop into above ground
are referred to as specialized or roots and shoots
modified roots. 2. Develop into suckers or aerial
roots
Types of Roots
Examples: Ailanthus tree
Storage Roots (food and
water) Contractile Roots
1. Grow underground as protection 1. Pulled further down into the soil to
from plant-eating animals continue growing

2. Specially modified for storage of 2. Usually broad, fleshy, vertical, and

starch and water wrinkled looking
Examples: Dandelion, Lily bulbs
 Photosynthetic Roots d) Kalanchoe stem and leaf cuttings – a
method wherein the cut stem and leaf
1. Roots that are flat and green (with are placed in loose, moist soil, the
chloroplasts) serving as cuttings readily grow adventitious
photosynthetic site roots and develop new shoots.
Examples: Leafless orchid e) Plantlets – tiny new plants which
develop in notches along the leaf
margins. When these tiny new plants
Pneumatophores drop from a leaf and fall to the
ground, it begins to grow but
1. Roots for breathing that grow in removing the potting is the fastest
wet areas such as swamps to get way to propagate new maternity
enough oxygen kalanchoe plant.
Examples: Mangrove trees
2. Tissue Culture – is a tool
Buttress Roots or technique for growing species of
living tissue in artificial media. It was
1. Wall-like extensions that keep the first demonstrated by the botanist F.
wind from hitting them and support C. Steward in 1958. It is commonly
2. Prevent the tree from falling over
while gathering nutrients
Examples: Tropical Fig tree
Plants can be propagated in any of
the following means of asexual
reproduction:
used now in propagating orchids.
1. Vegetative Propagation
a) Budding – methos wherein bud Plant processes that affect its growth:
outgrows from the parent organism • Photosynthesis
and detaches itself later to become a
new and same organism as the parent. • Respiration

b) Marcotting – method wherein roots • Absorption

are developed in the stem of a parent • Transpiration
plant for several days after putting
soil in it. • Reproduction

c) Grafting – is made possible when a 2. Reproduction and

scion (shoot of one plant) is inserted
into the stem of another plant (same Development of
species or closely related) Flowering Plants
2.1 Plant Reproduction leaves 5. Have no flowers and large
plants 6. Adapted for reproduction on
• Plants are eukaryotes that are dry land
many celled and most contain
green pigment chlorophyll. 7. Reproduce by means of sperm
developed within pollen grains that
• Plants can be non-vascular and are dispersed by the wind 8.
vascular. Non-vascular plants are Examples are pine trees
plants that have no vessels or no
internal system for conducting Angiosperms
water and nutrients. These plants
1. Means seed in a container
live either in water or within
moist habitats. Examples of these 2. Seed is enclosed inside a fruit
plants are mosses which are
3. Produce flowers and true seed-
bryophytes. These plants
bearing plants
reproduce by means of at least a
film of water because the sperm 4. Can be monocots or dicots
needs to swim to reach the egg.

• Vascular plants are plants that

have vessels or an internal system
for conducting water and
nutrients. Vascular plants have
roots, leaves, stems and even
flowers. They are called
tracheophytes. Trees, bushes, and Two Classes of Angiosperms
flowers are some examples of
these plants.
Reproduction in Plants
Vascular plants are divided into
Plants are living organisms. That means
different divisions. Some are vascular they need to reproduce in order to pass
seedless plants and some are vascular on their genes to future generations.
seed plants. Vascular seed plants can Plants can create offspring through
be categorized into two: either sexual or asexual reproduction.
gymnosperms and angiosperms.

Gymnosperms
1. Means naked seed
2. Produce seeds on the scales of
female cones
3. Seeds are not protected by a fruit Sexual Reproduction
4. With needle-like or scale-like
Sexual reproduction requires genetic 5. Stigma – sticky and feathery surface
material (DNA) from two parents. on which pollen grains land and
The parent plants have male and grow
female sex cells, called gametes. The 6. Style/stalk – slender tube that
genetic material from the male and connects the stigma to the ovary and
female gametes combines to produce where the pollen grains pass down
offspring. This process is the ovary
called fertilization. 7. Ovary – holds the ovules and later
Seeds produced through fertilization becomes the fruit
contain genetic material from both 8. Ovules - if fertilized, will eventually
parents. As a result, the offspring are become the seed
not genetically identical to either of
the parent plants. This genetic Accessory Part of a Flower
diversity can help them survive if the 1. Sepals – make up the outermost
environment changes. portion of the flower and sometimes
Flowers are the reproductive organs of colored and resembled petals
the plants which contain the male part
2. Calyx – all of the sepals together
(stamen) and the female part (pistil).
Flowers bring together eggs and sperm.
form this part, serves as protective
The gumamela is the best example of covering for the flower bud, helping
this flower having complete gametes. to protect it from insect damage, and
prevent it from drying out.
3. Petals – brightly colored and often
have perfume or nectar at their bases;
attract pollinators by forming a tube
or shape
4. Corolla – made up of a flower’s
petals and provides a surface for
Parts of a Flower insect pollinators to rest on while
feeding
1. Stamen – male part of a flower
2. Anther – small sac that produces
pollen grains which are immature
(male gametophyte)
3. Filament – tube-like structure that
supports the anther and the where
pollen grains pass throughout the
• Flowering plants reproduce sexually
anther.
through a process called pollination.
4. Pistil – female part of a flower The flowers contain male sex organs
called stamens and female sex
organs called pistils. The anther is
 the part of the stamen that contains places far from the plants that
pollen. This pollen needs to be produced them!
moved to a part of the pistil called
the stigma. Asexual Reproduction
• Plants can either self-pollinate or • Asexual reproduction only
cross-pollinate. Self-pollination hap requires DNA from one parent. It
pens when a plant’s own pollen creates offspring that are
fertilizes its own ovules. Cross- genetically identical to the parent.
pollination happens when the wind Genetically identical offspring are
or animals move pollen from one called clones. Clones lack genetic
plant to fertilize the ovules on a diversity. This makes them more
different plant. The advantage of
susceptible to disease. It also
cross-pollination is that it promotes
makes them less adaptable to
genetic diversity. Some plants have
features that prevent self-pollination, changes in the environment
such as pollen and ovules that • There are different methods of
develop at different times. asexual reproduction. They
• Pollinators are animals that carry include vegetative propagation
pollen between plants. Many and fragmentation.
pollinators are insects, like bees,
• Vegetative propagation does not
butterflies, moths and beetles. Some
birds, including hummingbirds, also require seeds or spores. Instead,
play a part. Likewise, certain offspring grow from a part of the
mammals, like bats and rodents, parent plant. In different plants,
move pollen between plants. The vegetative propagation happens in
colors and smells of flowers often different ways. Here are a few
attract pollinators. Pollen will stick examples.
to a pollinator’s body as it feeds on
the flower’s nectar. • Garlic, onions and tulip plants
all reproduce
• Fertilization is the next step after using true bulbs. These short
pollination. Once it reaches the pistil, underground stems are also
the pollen needs to fertilize an egg
called scaly bulbs. They have a
inside the stigma. This egg is called
basal plate that is usually
an ovule.
surrounded by modified leaves.
• Fertilization creates fruits that These leaves form a papery
contain seeds. Some fruits are fleshy, covering called a tunic. New
like oranges and watermelons. bulbs grow off of the parent
Others are dry, like acorns or
bulb’s basal plate.
walnuts. These fruits are an
attractive food for various animals. • Crocuses reproduce
After digesting fruit, animals expel using corms, which are similar
waste that contains seeds. This way, to true bulbs. However, a corm
seeds can take root and grow in doesn’t have as many layers.
 Corms are used up during the called propagating from
growing season and get replaced cuttings.
by one or more new corms.
Gas Exchange in Plants
• Potato plants reproduce
using tubers. These
underground growths produce
new plants from stems or
growing points called eyes.
• Ginger plants reproduce
using rhizomes. These stems Gas Exchange in Plants
that grow sideways along the In plants, gas exchange mainly occurs in
soil or just below the surface. the leaves. Photosynthesis and cellular
They branch apart to produce respiration are two biological processes
new points of growth. involved in the gas exchange in plants.
In photosynthesis, plants take in carbon
• Strawberry plants reproduce
dioxide from the air to make food
using stolons. They look like
branches growing along the During the process, oxygen is released
ground. Stolons anchor as a by-product. At the same time, plants
themselves to the ground and take in oxygen to be used in cellular
respiration, releasing energy and carbon
develop roots. And these roots
dioxide as by-products.
grow into new plants.
• Gas enter the leaves through
Fragmentation specialized pores called stromata
(singular: stoma). Each stomata
• Fragmentation is another form of
contains guard cells that control the
asexual reproduction. It involves opening and closing of the pores.
new plants growing from small
parts of the parent plant that fall • The stomata normally open when
to the ground. For example, light strikes the leaves in the
animals or the wind can break morning, and they close during the
night.
stems or leaves off plants. This is
one of the ways that plants like • The closing and opening of the guard
liverworts and mosses reproduce. cells allow the exchange of gases
between the leaves of the plant and
• Horticulturists are people who the environment.
study plants. They often use
asexual reproduction through • Roots and stems also contribute to
fragmentation to grow new plants. gas exchange but only with a
minimal effect. Woody stems and
They do this by cutting a leaf off
mature roots are covered with an
a plant and placing it in water or
outer bark composed of cork cells.
soil. This process is often
• Suberin – a waxy, waterproof this, plants trigger physiological
substance that does not allow gases and developmental responses to
and water to pass through. acquire nutrients.
• Lenticels – provide a pathway for • These responses alter the whole
the direct exchange of gases between plant morphology and
the internal tissue of the plant and metabolism.
the
• Some lead to an induced
expression of chemical
transporters and collection of
enzymes and compounds to
remobilize the sources present.
atmosphere.
Plant Feedback Mechanism
• Adaptive mechanisms are also
; utilized by plants to increase or
decrease growth in organs that
directly or indirectly involved in
nutrient acquisition.
• Proliferation of lateral
Plant roots for plants to
Nutrition increase nutrient uptake
from nitrogen, sulfur, or
• This refers to the supply and
phosphorus deficient
absorption of chemical compounds
soils. Such process
for the growth and metabolism of
demands energy and
plants. These chemical compounds
organic carbon so it can
for growth are known as plants
proceed to transportation
nutrients or essential elements.
and accumulation of
• In order for higher plants to sustain carbohydrates in organs
their metabolic processes, inorganic used for nutrient
nutrients are obtained from the acquisition.
environment via soil, air and water.
• In some cases, plants alter their
Plant Responses growth patterns based on stressed
conditions such as a decline in
• To achieve an ideal growth, plants nutrient availability.
need to have a constant level of
essential elements. • Some plants store anthocyanins
to fight against photoinhibition
• However, these nutrients are brought about by low nitrogen or
available as irregular patchy phosphorus.
distribution in soils. • Plants may also opt to change
• This leads to limited access of their metabolic pathways like
nutrients for plants. To cope with using other forms of glycolytic
enzymes to skip nucleotide
 phosphate or phosphorus- synthetic transcriptional
dependent glycolytic reactions. activators.
• At present, molecular
• Both are designed to fine tune
components within network-
gene expression. For example,
mediated nutrient signaling
using synthetic promoters, a
pathway have been identified to
photosensor may be developed to
reflect the network and the
detect pathogens.
responses they trigger.
• This is activated in plants by
Reproduction and Modern using a functional cis-regulatory
Biotechnological Application element combined with signal
transduction pathways.
• Biotechnology has advanced
significantly over the years that • The plant then releases a
breeding crops and mass fluorescent protein when
production are now aided by bacterial pathogens are present in
plant tissue culture and the environment as driven by the
molecular biology techniques. promoters and induced by signal
defense compounds.
• Genetic engineering in plants
was introduced in 1980s to create
transgenic crops that are of high
yield and pest-resistant.
• This technology utilizes
Agrobacterium tumefaciens to
randomly introduce heterologous
DNA into plants, thereby directly
manipulating the regulatory
elements or expression of
endogenous genes.

• This procedure is an effective

tool to increase herbicide
tolerance and insect resistance
but is not useful if multiple traits
are to be introduced.
• Thus, new genetic tools are
adapted to allow site specific
integration, multiple or
multigene transfer, and
regulation of gene expression.
• Here, we begin with the process
of regulating gene expression
through synthetic promoter and