Asexual Reproduction

 Asexual reproduction does not involve sex cells or fertilisation.

 Only one parent is required so there is no fusion of gametes and no mixing of genetic
information.
 As a result, the offspring are genetically identical to the parent and to each other
(clones)
 Asexual reproduction is defined as a process resulting in genetically identical
offspring from one parent.

Examples of asexual
Bacteria produce exact genetic copies of themselves in a type of asexual reproduction called binary
fission:
 1. First it copies its DNA
2. Divides in half, forming two cells
3. Each cell gets an exact copy of DNA
4. The DNA is still identical to the first cell after several divisions

How potato reproduce asexually?

 Using stem tubers
 The tubers are harvested – to be used as food
 Some are saved to produce next year’s crop

Plants can reproduce asexually using bulbs and tubers; these are food storage organs from which
budding can occur, producing new plants which are genetically identical to the parent plant:

Some plants grow side shoots called runners that contain tiny plantlets on them.
example of this are strawberry plants.
These will grow roots and develop into separate plants, again being genetically identical to the parent
plant:

Specifically in crop plants, asexual reproduction can be advantageous as it means that a plant that has
good characteristics (high yield, disease-resistant, hardy) can be made to reproduce asexually and the
entire crop will show the same characteristics

Sexual Reproduction
A process involving the fusion of the nuclei of two gametes (sex cells) to form a zygote (fertilised egg
cell) and the production of offspring that are genetically different from each other.
Fertilisation is defined as the fusion of gamete nuclei, and as each gamete comes from a different
parent, there is variation in the offspring

Gametes
 A sex cells. (eggs and sperm), Animals: Sperm and ovum, Plants: pollen nucleus and ovum
 Gametes differ from normal cells as they contain half the number of chromosomes (haploid
nucleus)
 only contain one copy of each chromosome, rather than the two copies found in other body
cells.
 a normal body cell contains 46 chromosomes, but each gamete contains 23 chromosomes.
 zygote has a diploid nucleus, contains the full 46 chromosomes.
o Zygote – combination of both parent’s genes

Haploid & Diploid Cells

 The nuclei of gametes are haploid.
o They contain half the number of chromosomes of a normal body cell
o In humans, this is 23 chromosomes.
 The nucleus of a zygote is diploid.
o It contains the same number of chromosomes as a normal body cell
o In humans, this is 23 pairs (46 chromosomes).
o The zygote continues to stay diploid as it grows into a fetus and embryo during
pregnancy.

Most crop plants reproduce sexually, and this is an advantage as it means variation is increased and a
genetic variant may be produced which is better produces significantly higher yield.
The disadvantage is that the variation may lead to offspring that are less successful than the parent
plant at growing well or producing a good harvest.
  Gametes are made when cells in reproductive organs divide.
 Human sperm are made when cells in testis divide.
 Gametes inside pollen grains are made when cells in anthers divide.

Sexual Reproduction in Plants

Insect pollinated flower
 Flowers are the reproductive organ of the plant.
 They usually contain both male and female reproductive parts
 Plants produce pollen which contains a nucleus inside that is the male gamete(anthers)
 Pollen is not capable of locomotion (moving from one place to another)
 Each pollen grain is surrounded by a hard coat.
 A process is known as pollination and there are two main mechanisms by which it occurs:
transferred by insects (or other animals like birds) or transferred by wind.
 The structure of insect and wind-pollinated flowers are slightly different as each is adapted
for their specific function.

Carpel – Female, Stamen- Male Pollination – Transfer of pollen from anther to stigma
 Features of insect pollinated flowers

 Petals are large and brightly coloured.

 Petals of some flowers have guide lines to guide insects to nectary. Brushing past anthers
as it goes.
 Scent and nectar present.
 Moderate amount of pollen grains efficiently with a high chance of successful pollination.
 Pollen grains larger, sticky, or spiky to attach to insect.
 Anthers inside the flower
 Stigma inside flower

Wind pollinated flowers

Features
  Petals are small and dull.
 No scent and nectar, waste energy producing.
 Large amounts of pollen grains as most pollen grains are not transferred.
 Pollen grains are smooth, small and light to blow by wind easily.
 Anthers outside flower, loose on long filaments
 Stigma outside flower, feathery to catch drifting pollen grains.

Pollination and fertilisation

Pollination
Pollen grains can be transferred from an anther to a stigma.

Fertilisation
 when a pollen nucleus fuses with an ovum nucleus in the ovule.
 To reach the ‘female’ nucleus in the ovary it must grow a pollen tube.
o This only happens if the pollen grain has landed on the same species as the flower the
pollen came from.
 The nucleus inside the pollen grain slips down the tube as it grows down the style towards the
ovary.
 The ovary contains one or more ovules which each contain an ovum with a female nucleus
that a male pollen nucleus can fuse with.
 Once the nuclei have joined together, that ovule has been fertilised and a zygote has been
formed.
 The zygote will start to divide and eventually form a seed within the ovule.
 As different plants have different numbers of ovules, this explains why different fruits (which
develop from the ovary) have different numbers of seeds (which develop from the ovules)

Pollen grain
nucleus

Female nucleus

Factors Affecting Germination of Seeds

Germination is the start of growth in the seed
Three factors

 Water - allows the seed to swell up and the enzymes in the embryo to start working so that
growth can occur.
 Oxygen - so that energy can be released for germination. (Respiration)
 Warmth - germination improves as temperature rises (up to a maximum) as the reactions
which take place are controlled by enzymes.

Carbon dioxide is not needed, only when photosynthesis.

Self and cross pollination

Cross pollination
 when the pollen from one plant is transferred to the stigma of another plant of the same
species.
 This is the way most plants carry out pollination as it improves genetic variation.
Disadvantage: Cross-pollination relies completely on the presence of pollinators, and this can be a
problem if those pollinators are missing

Seld pollination
 pollen from a flower can land on its own stigma or on
the stigma of another flower on the same plant.
 reduces genetic variety of the offspring as all the
gametes come from the same parent (and are therefore
genetically identical)
Disadvantage: If environmental conditions change, as it is less
likely that any offspring will have adaptations that suit the new
conditions well

Sexual Reproduction in Humans

Male reproductive system
Structure and functions.
 Prostate glands – produce semen that provide sperm with nutrients.
 Sperm ducts – Where sperm passes through sperm duct to be mixed with semen before being
passed into urethra for ejaculation from testes.
 Urethra – Tube running down centre of penis that carry out semen or urine.
o (A ring of muscle prevents urine and semen from mixing)
 Ureter – Carries urine from kidney to bladder.
 Testis – contain scrotum and produces sperm (male gamete) when testes divide by meiosis
and testosterone(hormone).
 Scrotum – Sac supporting testes outside body to ensure sperm temperature kept lower than
body temperature.
 Penis – Passes urine out of body from bladder and allows semen to pass into vagina.

If egg is not fertilized by sperm within 8-24 hour ovulation, it dies.

Female reproductive system

Structure and functions.
 Oviduct (fallopian tube) – connects ovary to uterus and lined with ciliated cells to push the
released ovum down. Where fertilisation occurs
 Ovary – contains female gametes which will mature and develop when hormones released.
Where ovaries divide by meiosis and egg cells are made.
 Uterus – Muscular bag with soft lining where zygote is implanted to develop into foetus.
 Cervix – Ring of muscle at lower end of uterus to keep developing foetus in place.
 Vagina – muscular tube where semen are deposited near the cervix, top of vagina.

Gametes and fertilisation

Fertilisation is the fusion of the nuclei from a male gamete (sperm
cell) and a female gamete (egg cell) – OCCURS IN OVIDUCT
Gametes have adaptations to increase the chances of fertilisation and
successful development of an embryo.
Adaptations of gametes
Size – very small
Structure – Acrosome, flagellum (2 region)
Motility – Have locomotion.
Numbers – produce many everyday
Gamete Feature Reason
SPERM Flagellum To swim to egg cell
Acrosome (head region) Contain enzymes to digest
through jelly coat and cell
membrane. So that nuclei of
male and female gamete can
fuse.
Contains many mitochondria Provide energy for respiration
so flagellum can move
(locomotion)

Gamete Feature Reason

EGG Cytoplasm Provide/store of energy for
dividing zygote (mitosis) after
fertilisation
Jelly coating Forms impenetrable
barrier(hardens) after
fertilisation so no other sperm
cells can enter.
Size – Large (10 000 times larger)
Structure – Round cell covered in jelly like coating.
Motility – not capable of locomotion
Numbers – Thousands of immature eggs in ovary, but only one released every month.
Growth and development of Fetus
1. After fertilisation in the oviduct, the zygote travels towards the uterus
2. This takes about 3 days, during which time the zygote will divide several times to form a ball
of cells known as an embryo.
3. In the uterus, the embryo attacth itself in the soft lining of uterus (implantation) and continues
to grow and develop.
4. The gestation period for humans is 9 months
5. After 9 months contraction of muscles in uterus wall often cause amniotic sac to break.
6. Major development of organs takes place within the first 12 weeks, during which time the
embryo gets nutrients from the mother by diffusion through the uterus lining.
7. After this point the organs are all in place, the placenta has formed, and the embryo is now
called a fetus.
8. Placenta replaces the function of uterus lining
9. The remaining gestation time is used by the fetus to grow bigger in size.

Fetus surrounded by amniotic sac which contains amniotic fluid (made from mother’s blood plasma).
Which protects fetus from bumbs of mother’s abdomen.
Umbilical cord joins fetus blood supply to placenta for exchange of nutrients and removal of waste
product
Amniotic sac: Prevents entry of bacteria.
Amniotic fluid: Also to absorbs excretory materials from fetus.
Placenta & Umbilical cord (arteries & veins)
Placenta is an organ that connects growing fetus to mother, where
substances are exchanged between mother’s and embryo’s blood
 During the gestation period the fetus develops and grows by gaining the glucose, amino acids,
fats, water and oxygen it needs from the mother’s blood.
 The bloods run opposite each other, never mixing, in the placenta.
 The mother’s blood also absorbs the waste from the fetus’s blood in the placenta; substances
like carbon dioxide and urea are removed from the fetus’s blood so that they do not build up
to dangerous levels.
 Movement of all molecules across the placenta occurs by diffusion due to difference in
concentration gradients.
 The placenta is adapted for this diffusion by having a large surface area and a thin wall for
efficient diffusion.

Function
 The placenta acts as a barrier to prevent toxins and pathogens getting into the fetus’s blood
 Not all though, viruses that causes rubella can be pass through the placenta (depends on size
of molecule)
o Toxins such as alcohol, carbon monoxide and nicotine can also be passed through.
Advised not to smoke during pregnancy

Adaptations for diffusions

 Large surface area
 Villi (finger like projections that extend into uterus wall), which further increase surface area
of placenta.
 A good blood supply.

Labour and birth

1. Breaking amniotic sac
2. Contraction of muscles in uterus wall
3. Dilation of cervix
4. Delivery of baby through vagina
5. Tying and cutting of umbilical cord (won’t hurt as there is no nerves)
6. Tied off to prevent bleeding and shrivels up and falls off after a few days leaving the belly
button behind.
7. The placenta detaches from the uterus wall shortly after birth and is pushed out due to
contractions in the muscular wall of the uterus - known as the afterbirth.

Breastmilk Formula milk

Advantages  Perfectly matched to  Does not require mom
baby needs to provide.
 Contain antibodies to  Convenient.
prevent infections,
 sterile
Disadvantages  Nipples can become  Does not contain
painful. antibodies, risk of
 Some women find it infection.
hard to produce  Sterile and clean water
enough milk at first are needed.

Sexual hormones in Humans

Primary sexual characteristics – present during development in uterus and are differences in
reproductive organs between male and females.
Secondary sexual characteristics – changes that occur during puberty children -> adolescents.
 o Controlled by release of hormones.
o Oestrogen in girls, Testosterone in boys.

Female, effects of oestrogen Male, effects of testosterone

Breasts develop Growth of penis and testes (produce sperm)
Body hair grows Growth of facial hair and body hair
Menstrual cycle begins Muscle develops
Hips gets wider Voice deepens
Similarities:
 Increase mood swings and interest in sexual intercourse.
 Emotional changes due to levels of hormones
 growth of sexual organs and body hair

The menstrual cycle

 Starts in early adolescence in girls (around age 12) and is controlled by hormones.
 The average menstrual cycle is 28 days long.
 Ovulation (the release of an egg) occurs about halfway through the cycle (day 14) and the egg
then travels down the oviduct to the uterus.
 Failure to fertilise the egg causes menstruation (commonly called a period) to occur - this is
caused by the breakdown of the thickened lining of the uterus.
 Menstruation lasts around 5 - 7 days and signals the beginning of the next cycle.
 After menstruation finishes, the lining of the uterus starts to thicken again in preparation for
possible implantation in the next cycle.

Hormones of Menstrual Cycle

The menstrual cycle is controlled by hormones released from the ovary and the pituitary gland in the
brain.
LH causes ovulation to occur and also stimulates the ovary to produce progesterone.
The pituitary gland(in the brain) is stimulated to release luteinising hormone (LH) when oestrogen
levels have reached their peak

Roles of oestrogen and progesterone

 Oestrogen levels rise from day 1 to peak just before day 14
 This causes the uterine wall to start thickening and the egg to mature.
 The peak in oestrogen occurs just before the egg is released.
 Progesterone stays low from day 1 – 14 and starts to rise once ovulation has occurred.
 The increasing levels cause the uterine lining to thicken further.
 a fall in progesterone levels causes the uterine lining to break down (menstruation)
o oestrogen causes lining of uterus to become thicker and better supplied with blood.
o When follicle fully developed, production of LH increase causing OVULATION.
o Oestrogen falls when ovulation takes place.
SUMMARY
1. The pituitary gland produces FSH which stimulates the development of a follicle in the ovary.
2. An egg develops inside the follicle and the follicle produces the hormone oestrogen.
3. Oestrogen causes growth and repair of the lining of the uterus wall and inhibits production of
FSH.
4. When oestrogen rises to a high enough level it stimulates the release of LH from the pituitary
gland which causes ovulation (usually around day 14 of the cycle)
5. The follicle becomes the corpus luteum and starts producing progesterone.
6. Progesterone maintains the uterus lining (the thickness of the uterus wall) and spongy in
preparation to receive a fertilized egg.
7. If the ovum is not fertilised, the corpus luteum breaks down and progesterone levels drop.
8. This causes menstruation, where the uterus lining breaks down and is removed through the
vagina – (period)
9. If pregnancy does occur the corpus luteum continues to produce progesterone, preventing the
uterus lining from breaking down and aborting the pregnancy.
10. It does this until the placenta has developed, at which point it starts secreting progesterone
and continues to do so throughout the pregnancy.

Sexually transmitted infections

STIs are infection cause by bacteria or virus that can be passed from
one person to another during sexual contact.
o Unprotected sexual intercourse can lead to the transfer of pathogens via exchange of body
fluids.
o Virus that usually leads to the development of acquired immunodeficiency disease (AIDS)
o HIV can also be spread via sharing needles with an infected person, blood transfusions with
infected blood and from mother to fetus through the placenta and mother to baby via
breastfeeding.

How HIV affects the immune system

o Immediately after infection, people often suffer mild flu-like symptoms.
o It then passes and infected people might not know they’re infected.
o Virus infects a type of lymphocyte of body’s immune system.
o Lymphocytes – seeks out and destroys pathogens, produce antibodies to attach to
pathogens.
 o HIV avoids being destroyed by lymphocytes by repeatedly changing its protein coat.
o It uses a type of lymphocytes(T-cells) machinery to multiply.
o This reduces the number of lymphocytes and antibodies that can be made
o Decreases body ability to fight off infections.
o Leading to AIDS (Acquired immunodeficiency)

Treatment?
o No cure for HIV
o About 10 years after infection with HIV, likely to develop symptoms of AIDS.
o Vulnerable to infection such as pneumonia.
o Develop cancer.
 o Brain cells damaged.
o Antiretrovirals controls virus from multiplying.

Controlling spread of STIs

o Limiting the number of sexual partners an individual has
o Not having unprotected sex, but making sure to always use a condom.
o Getting tested if unprotected sex or sex with multiple partners has occurred.
o Raising awareness by education programmes