Chapter 15

Host defense mechanism – ways in which the body protects itself from pathogens

First line of defense – intact skin, intact mucous membranes, etc.

Second line of defense – inflammation, phagocytosis, etc.

Third line of defense – the immune system (delikado na ngin ma invade)

Antibodies – special proteins, usually produced by the body in response to the presence of foreign
substances

Antigens - foreign substances that stimulates the production of specific antibodies

Host defense mechanism: (2) under niya

Nonspecific host defense mechanism: (2)

A. First line of defense

B. second line of defense

Specific host defense mechanism: (1)

C. third line of defense

Intact skin and mucous membranes – nonspecific host defense mechanisms by serving as physical or
mechanical barriers to pathogens

Dryness, Acidity, and Temperature – inhibits the colonization and growth of pathogens

Dryness (most areas of the skin)

Acidity (pH 5.0)

Temperature (37°C)

Perspiration – serves as a nonspecific host defense mechanism by flushing organism from pores and the
surface of the skin

 Contains enzymes, lysozyme, which degrades peptidoglycan bacterial cell walls

Sticky mucous – serves as a nonspecific host defense mechanism by trapping pathogens

 Contains toxic substances such as lysozyme, lactoferrin, and lactoperoxidase

Lactoferrin – protein that binds iron, a mineral that is required by all pathogens

Lactoperoxidase- enzyme that produces superoxide radicals, highly reactive form of oxygen, which are
toxic to bacteria
Factors that protect the gastrointestinal tract from bacterial colonization: (3)

 Digestive enzymes
 Acidity of the stomach (pH 1.5)
 Alkalinity of the intestines

Bile – secreted from the liver to the intestines

Bacteria make up about 30% to 50% of feces

Peristalsis and urination – serve to remove pathogens from the GI tract and urinary tract

Benign prostatic hyperplasia – conditions that obstruct urine flow

- Also increase the chances of developing cystitis

Microbial antagonism – resident microbes of the indigenous microbiota prevent colonization by new
arrivals to a particular site

The inhibitory capability of the indigenous microbiota factors: (3)

 Competition for colonization sites

 Competition for nutrients
 Production of substances that kill other bacteria

Superinfection – overgrowth or population explosion of organisms

Candila albicans – yeast in the vagina may lead to the condition known as yeast vaginitis

Bacteriocins – bacteria produce proteins that kill other bacteria

Colicin and other bacteriocins - proteins produced by some bacteria that kill other bacteria

Pyogen - a pus-producing microbe

Pyrogen - a fever-producing substance

Fever augments the host’s defenses in the following ways: (3)

 By stimulating white blood cells to deploy and destroys invaders

 By reducing available free plasma iron, which limits the growth of pathogens that require iron for
replication and synthesis of toxins

 By inducing the production of IL-1, which causes the proliferation, maturation, and activation of
lymphocytes in the immunologic response

Parts of the second line of defense: (5)

 Transferrin - serves as the host defense mechanism by depriving pathogens of iron

 Fever - slows down the growth rate of certain pathogens and can even kill some especially
fastidious ones
 The compliment system - part of the body’s immune system that helps clean up damage cells and
helps your body to heal after an injury

 Inflammation - responds to any local injury, irritation, microbial invasion, or bacterial toxin by a
complex series of events

 Phagocytosis - process by which certain living cells called phagocytes ingest or engulf other cells or
particles

The major consequences of compliment activation are as follows (5):

 Initiation and amplification of inflammation

 Attraction of phagocytes to sites where they are needed

 Activation of leukocytes

 Lysis of bacteria and other foreign cells

 Increased phagocytosis by phagocytic cells

Opsonization - a process by which phagocytes is facilitated by the deposition of opsonins

Acute-phase proteins - plasma levels of molecules, increase rapidly in response to infection,

inflammation, and tissue injury

Cytokines - chemical mediators that are released from many different types of cells in the human body

Three major events in acute inflammation (3):

 Increase in the diameter of capillaries (vasodilation) which increases blood flow to the site

 Increased permeability of the capillaries, allowing the escape of plasma and plasma proteins

 Escape of leukocytes from the capillaries and their accumulation at the site of injury

Primary purposes of the inflammatory response: (4)

 Localized an infection

 Prevent the spread of microbial invaders

 Neutralize any toxins being produced at the site

 Aid in the repair of damaged tissue

Four cardinal signs and symptoms of inflammation: (4)

 Redness

 Heat

 Swelling
 Pain

Vasodilation - an increase in the diameter of capillaries that leads to redness, edema, and heat

Inflammatory exudate - accumulation of fluid, cells, and cellular debris at the inflammation site

Purulent exudate or pus - thick and greenish yellow, containing many live and dead leukocytes

Pseudomonas aeruginosa - the exudate is often bluish green in infection

Primary functions of the lymphatic system: (4)

 Draining and circulating intercellular fluids from tissues

 Transporting digested fats from the digestive system to the blood

 Removing foreign matter and microbes from the lymph

 Producing antibodies and other factors to aid in the destruction and detoxification of any invading
microbes

Three major categories of leukocytes found in the blood:

 Monocytes - type of white blood cell that reside in your blood and tissues to find and destroy
germs and eliminate infected cells

 Lymphocytes - type of white blood cell that plays an important role in your immune system because
it helps the body fights infection and diseases

 Granulocytes - a type of immune cell that has granules with small enzymes that are released during
infections, allergic reactions, and asthma

- includes basophils, eosinophils, and neutrophils

Two most important groups of phagocytes in the body (sometimes called professional phagocytes):
(2)

 Macrophages - serve as a “cleanup crew” to rid the body of unwanted and harmful substances

 Neutrophils - (AKA polymorphonuclear cells) are much more efficient at phagocytosis than
eosinophils

Eosinophilia - abnormally high number of eosinophils in the peripheral bloodstream

Basophils - a third type of granulocyte, are also involed in allergic and inflammatory reactions

Wandering macrophages - leave the bloodstream and migrate to infected areas

Fixed macrophages - remain within the tissues and organs and serve to traps foreign debris

Four steps in phagocytosis: (4)

 Chemotaxis - directed migration

 Attachment - attachment of the phagocytes to the object to be ingested

 Ingestion - phagocytes then surrounds the object with pseudopodia, which fuse together, and the
object is ingested

 Digestion - phagosomes next fuses with nearby lysosome to form a digestive vacuole
(phagolysosome), within which killing and digestion occur

Chemikines - agents that are produced by various cells of the human body

Chemotactic agents - the result of chemical attractants

G. Lamblia - flagellated protozoan parasite that causes a diarrheal disease known as giardiasis

Ehrlichia and anaplasma spp. - intraleukocytic bacteria, which are able to live and multiply within
leukocytes

Leukopenia - abnormally low number of circulating leukocytes

Neutropenia - abnormally low number of circulating neutrophils

Aulus Cornelius Celsus - a roman encyclopedist who lived and died before christ

- described the cardinal signs of inflammation:

Rubor - redness - increased blood flow

Calor - warmth - release of inflammatory mediators

Dolor - pain - stretching of pain receptors and nerves

Tumor - swelling - exudation of fluid

Functio laesa - loss of function - disruption of tissue structure