Unit I Traditions of Pre-colonial Indian Political Thought

a) Brahmanic and Shramanic

b) Islamic and Syncretic

Brahmanic and Shramanic

•Ancient India has a rich history of political thought and philosophy, with diverse ideas emerging from
both Brahmanic (orthodox Vedic) and Shramanic (heterodox, non-Vedic) traditions.

•These ideas have had a profound influence on the development of Indian political philosophy and continue
to shape contemporary thought.

Brahmanic Tradition:

The Brahmanic tradition represents an ideology and a way of life, originating from the Vedas.

Key concepts and Ideas:

a. Dharma: Dharma is a central concept in Brahmanic thought, including Hinduism. It refers to the moral
and ethical duties and responsibilities that individuals must uphold in society. Dharma is often associated
with one's caste, age, and social position and is considered a key principle for maintaining social order.

b. Rajadharma: Rajadharma is the concept of duty and morality for rulers. It emphasizes that kings and
rulers must govern justly, following dharma, and ensuring the welfare of their subjects. It's closely related
to the idea of the "divine right of kings."

c. Arthashastra: The Arthashastra is an ancient Indian treatise on statecraft, economic policy, and military
strategy, attributed to the ancient scholar Kautilya (or Chanakya). It provides insights into governance,
diplomacy, taxation, and espionage.

d. Monarchy: Many ancient Indian states were ruled by monarchs, and the concept of kingship was
closely associated with divine authority. The king was often seen as a representative of the gods on Earth.

• The Brahmanic tradition has portrayed Vedas as the ultimate source of knowledge.

• The Brahmanic tradition regarded human nature as a remarkable combination of the body and the
soul, where man’s body signifies his physical powers, while the spirit or soul stands for his spiritual
powers.

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 • Here, the preference has been given not to the materialistic and physical aspects of life, but to the
meditative, absorptive and spiritual aspects.

• Accordingly, it was emphasized that man, being essentially divine, has the spark or ray of divinity
which is shrouded by the blinding power of ignorance. Once this mask or veil of ignorance is lifted,
the spirit in man shines in all its resplendence.

 In the Brahmanas, the Brahmins were identified with the Brahma power (spiritual) and the
Kshatriya with Kshatra power (physical). While the former could develop Kshatra power and the
latter could attain spiritual worth. As Rama and Krishna are credited with both the powers in the
Epics. Kautilya conceived the acceleration of the Kshatra power by the Brahmin group as leading to
the conquest of the unconquerable

Man (Vyakti)

• Brahmanic tradition highlights the sacred character of the individual human personality.

• The fundamental theme of Indian philosophical speculation is the spiritual nature of man.

• Man is regarded not only a social and political being, but, above all, essentially divine, the living
being who has the spark of God.

• Almighty (Parmatma) in the form of his soul (Atma), who is also conscious of this sacred faculty
and is, therefore, able to act accordingly to improve the quality not only of his own life, but also of
those who come into contact with him.

• And, since man is essentially divine (partaking of the characteristics and qualities of God Himself),
he is also basically good and benevolent.

. Artha:

• Preaching a philosophy of balance and harmonious integration, Kautilya has argued that the king
may enjoy in an equal degree the three pursuits of life – charity, wealth and aesthetic desire, which
are independent upon each other and indulgence in either of these three in extreme degree would be
injurious.

• In the context of all-Indian monarchical power, Kautilya accepted the notion of maximization of
wealth and territory.

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 • Artha has also been defined as Vritti or means of livelihood of mankind.

• Kautilyan economic determinism advocates the casual role of the economic factor both in human
motivation and in social and historical eventuation.

3. Kāma:

• Realizing the necessity of worldly pleasures and aesthetic desires, considered as third aspirations of
an individual, Kautilya offered the first systematic and balanced attempt to construct philosophy
exalting Artha and territory.

• In Upanishads, the desire for wealth, progeny and fame have to be shunned by an aspirant after
realization of ultimate truth.

• But Kautilya preached a philosophy of balance and harmonious integration. Not violating
righteousness and economy, Kautilya expected the king to enjoy his desires, appreciate in an equal
degree, the three pursuits of life, charity, wealth and desire, which are interdependent upon each
other.

4. Moksha:

• Indian tradition looks at the individual as a living being who is an intrinsic part of the society and
who, as such, is constantly striving to attain ‘Moksha’, salvation or liberation from the cycle of
rebirth by involving himself in the day-to-day social and economic activities.

• He is striving to attain perfection for himself, to the extent it is attainable, in common with others.

• Man is the maker of his ‘destiny’ and that, therefore, it is natural for him to dedicate himself wholly
to the attainment of this objective.

• The individual, thus, becomes a part and parcel of such a social fabric.

Varna

• The term 'Varna’ indicates the division of society into four major functional classes.

• According to G.H. Mees, social, cultural, professional or occupational symbolic and occult, these
five conceptions have been the basis of Varna system.

• The Brāhmans were concerned with knowledge.

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 • The Kshtriyas with courage and valour to provide protection to the weak

• The Vaishyas with the satisfaction of necessities of life, viz. agriculture, crafts and trade; and

• The Shudras with service to the other classes.

• The Brāhmanic scriptures proclaimed the supremacy of the Brahmans.

• A struggle for the supremacy between two varnas, the Brāhmans and the Kshatriyas was reflected
in the Upanishads.

• Kautilya’s Arthaśhāstra, expected the king to protect, preserve and conserve this societal varna

system and provided for a system of law, danda and bala (armed forces) on the b Duties & Rights

• Brāhamanic thought accords the place of primacy; to duties vis-a-vis the rights.

• As an individual is not only a member of the society and the State, but also of a number of
voluntary associations.

• He has, therefore, to perform a variety of functions in relation to these associations of which he has
chosen to be a member, expected to fulfill a confluence of duties.

• Danda

• Danda of the king symbolizes the authority.

• In Manusmriti, danda signifies the kingly power, implying penal sanctions as a guarantee of the
maintenance of peace and order.

• In a broader sense, Kautilya used danda with the totality of means for the acquisition, preservation,
growth and distribution of resources, reflecting the totality of social and political interactions and
relationships.

• Thus, danda or force is never to be intended for the support of interests of the stronger, but is a
necessary adjunct in the realization of co-operative and organic social existence guided by the
monarchasis of Varna.

Origin of Kingship

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 • The entire ancient Indian Brāhmanic literature testifies to the quasi-divine and quasi-contractual
origin of both the society and the state.

• The Śāntiparva of the Mahābhārata, under ‘Manu tradition’ illustrates a kind of social contract,
where on peoples’ request to save them from Mātsyanyāya, Brahma himself sent Manu to govern
the State.

• In Arthaśhāstra, people have been shown requesting Manu, the Vaivasvat to be their king to rule
out Mātsyanyāya and committed to spare a share as royal dues.

Objectives of State

• The king was supposed to act as the trustee and the servant of his people.

• Addition to or furtherance of, and not the depletion of, all resources and well utilization of
resources in all human pursuits was the objective of the state.

• Kautilya’s concept of welfare treated family as a basic unit and enjoined upon the family to look
after its members in times of difficulty and crisis.

• Kautilya envisaged a policy of limited-state-welfare, while leaving the individual to maximum of

self help.

Law and Jurisprudence

• Manusmriti or The Law Book of Manu refers to a Legal Expert as a judicial advisor to the king;
layered judicial structure; instead of leaving judicial administration to rationale of the king, defined
the System of Jury, Oath, evidence, punishment, etc.

• Kautilya was of the considered view that in case of conflict of interpretation, the king should
himself decide the dispute and his interpretation is to be upheld as final.

• Arthaśhāstra elaborated civil laws dealing with agreements, legal disputes, marriage, inheritance,
debts, rules concerning slaves and labourers, cooperatives, purchase and sale, gifts, ownership,
robbery, defamation, assault, gambling, betting, and other miscellaneous topics.

Administration

• Brāhmanic political thinkers tried to protect the interests of the people by recommending and
bringing about decentralized administrative machinery.

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 • Several types of states like republics, oligarchies, diarchies and monarchies were prevailing in India
in ancient times, but eventually monarchy became the order of the day owing to various factors and
causes.

• The classical theory of Indian kingship, however, illustrated the role of the king as an administrator
and the promulgator of law.

• Since the king was not able to discharge the functions of the state single headedly, for the

development and welfare of the state, he had to depend and rely on his competent m Principles of
Taxation

• The taxation was usually determined by the local customs and traditions.

• In the later times, however, when the Samiti disappeared from the scene, governments would often
impose high and arbitrary taxes.

• The trade and industry were to be taxed not on gross earnings, but on net profits.

• An article was not to be taxed twice and the rise in taxation, when inevitable was to be gradual.

• The grounds on which remissions were sanctioned and exemptions granted were also, as a rule,
sound.

• It is surprising to find that the state in ancient India should have interested itself in a number of
ministrant activities of the nation-building type, which are being undertaken by the modern
governments only in relatively recent times.

• Private agencies, trade guilds and state departments worked side by side to promote national
welfare without mutual jealousies.

• inisters and the departmental heads.

Inter-state Relations

• The foreign affairs or the system of developing and preserving contacts between states - was fairly
advanced in Brāhmanic literature.

• Their views on the issues of war and peace, relevance of diplomacy, qualifications, duties, types
and immunities of diplomats reflect a sound principle of realism.

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 • Indian scholars gave a serious thought on decay, stabilization and progress of state, essence of
collaboration, nature of coordination between major powers and minor powers, pacts made by
minor powers, diplomatic maneuvering, rule of war, strategy of peace, strategy of vulnerable states,
acquisition of allies or resources’ pact for colonization, pacts for construction and development,
strategy for a rear enemy, restoration of lost balance of power, pacts with powerful enemies, pacts
and breaches of pacts, buffer states, neutral states and confederation of states.

• Their realism had a great bearing on domestic policy, which formed a significant part in their
scheme of statecraft.

Shramanic Traditions:

a. Ahimsa: Ahimsa, or non-violence, is a central idea in Shramanic traditions like Jainism and
Buddhism. It advocates for non-violence in thought, speech, and action, promoting peaceful
coexistence and compassion.

b. Anitya (Impermanence): Shramanic philosophies emphasize the impermanence of all things. This
idea has political implications, suggesting that rulers and societies should not become attached to
power or material possessions.

c. Distributed Governance: Some Shramanic traditions advocated for more decentralized and
participatory forms of governance, challenging the hierarchical structures of the Brahmanic order.
Buddhism, for example, encouraged the Sangha, or monastic community, to make decisions
collectively.

. Social Equality: Shramanic traditions often challenged the caste system and emphasized the importance of
social equality. Both Jainism and Buddhism rejected caste-based discrimination and promoted the idea that
anyone could achieve spiritual liberation.

e. Secularism: Shramanic traditions tended to be more secular in nature, focusing on individual salvation
and ethics rather than divine authority and rituals.

• It's important to note that these ideas were not static, and there was significant interaction and cross-
pollination between Brahmanic and Shramanic traditions. Over time, they influenced and shaped
each other, resulting in a complex and diverse landscape of political thought in ancient India.

• These ancient Indian political ideas continue to be relevant and have contributed to the development
of modern Indian political thought and the country's diverse political and philosophical traditions.

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Islamic and Syncretic

• The intricate interplay of diverse philosophical, religious, and political concepts that arose over the
period roughly extending from the sixth to the eighteenth century.

• Different dynasties, empires, and cultural influences coexisted during this time period, which was
one of its defining characteristics.

• The interconnections of many religious, cultural, and political factors in medieval India resulted in
the formation of a political ideology that was both diverse and dynamic.

• During this time period, a number of different traditions coexisted, each of which contributed
another thread to the intricately woven fabric that is India’s political and intellectual history.

Islamic Medieval Indian Political Thought

• The term “Islamic medieval Indian Political Thought” pertains to the political concepts and theories
that arose in the Indian subcontinent during the medieval era, influenced by Islamic thinking and
administration.

• The historical era under consideration, approximately spanning from the 12th to the 18th century,
witnessed the consolidation of Islamic governance in several regions of India, notably with the
emergence of the Delhi Sultanate and subsequently the Mughal Empire.

• The political thinking of medieval India in the Islamic period had a rich diversity, underwent
continuous evolution, and was significantly influenced by the interplay of numerous cultural,
religious, and regional factors.

• The political thought of medieval India within the Islamic tradition exhibited a dynamic nature and
demonstrated an ability to adapt to the various political and cultural circumstances prevalent in the
subcontinent.

Key features of Islamic Medieval Indian Political Thought

• Sharia Law: Islamic political thought emphasizes the application of Sharia, or Islamic law, as the
basis for governance. This includes legal, ethical, and moral principles derived from the Quran and
the Hadith (sayings and actions of Prophet Muhammad). Rulers were expected to govern in
accordance with Islamic jurisprudence, ensuring justice and fairness based on Quranic principles.

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• Caliphate and Sultanate: The establishment of the Delhi Sultanate marked the beginning of
Islamic rule in northern India. The establishment of the Delhi Sultanate in the late 12th century
marked the beginning of Islamic rule in India. The concept of the caliphate, representing the
political and religious leadership of the Islamic community, was significant. Subsequent dynasties,
such as the Mughals, continued this tradition. Governance was characterized by a combination of
centralized authority and delegation of power to regional administrators.

• Integration of Religious and Political Authority: Islamic medieval Indian political thought
emphasized the integration of religious and political authority. Rulers were often expected to
uphold and propagate Islamic principles in their governance.

• Jizya and Dhimmi Status: Non-Muslims living under Islamic rule were required to pay a tax
called jizya. However, they were granted protection (dhimmi status) and allowed to practice their
religions with certain restrictions.

• Mughal Political Thought: The Mughal Empire, founded by Babur in 1526, embraced a syncretic
form of Islamic political thought. Akbar, in particular, is known for his policy of Sulh-i-Kul (peace
with all) and efforts to integrate different religious and cultural traditions.

• Ijma and Qiyas: The principles of ijma (consensus) and qiyas (analogical reasoning) were
important in Islamic legal and political thought. Scholars and jurists would use these methods to
derive rulings on issues not explicitly addressed in the Quran or Hadith.

• Majlis-i-Shura and Consultative Governance: The concept of Majlis-i-Shura, a consultative

council, was often employed to advise rulers on matters of governance. This reflected the idea of
collective decision-making in Islamic political thought.

• Islamic Mysticism (Sufism): While not explicitly political, Sufi mystics influenced the cultural
and ethical aspects of society, promoting values such as love, tolerance, and spiritual unity.

• Integration of Islamic and Local Traditions: Islamic rulers sought to integrate Islamic principles
with local customs and traditions, creating a unique synthesis. This integration was particularly
notable in areas such as administration, art, architecture, and language.

• Religious Tolerance and Interaction: Some Islamic rulers, notably Akbar, adopted policies of
religious tolerance and sought to foster interactions between different religious and cultural

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 communities. Akbar’s Din-i-Ilahi, an attempt to synthesize elements of various religions, reflects
this pluralistic approach.

• Concept of Kingship: The Islamic concept of kingship emphasized the ruler’s responsibility to
uphold justice and ensure the welfare of the people. Rulers were seen as vice-regents of God on
Earth, accountable for their actions in the afterlife.

• Trade and Economic Policies: Islamic rulers were often patrons of trade and commerce,
contributing to the economic prosperity of their realms.

• Educational and Cultural Patronage: Islamic rulers played a significant role in the patronage of
education, leading to the establishment of madrasas and centers of learning. The Mughal courts, in
particular, were centers of cultural exchange and artistic development.

• Military Strategies and Administration: Islamic rulers implemented military strategies rooted in
Islamic traditions, often relying on the advice of military scholars. Administrative systems were
organized to ensure effective governance and the implementation of Islamic legal principles.

• Concept of Jihad: The concept of Jihad, often understood as a struggle for justice and
righteousness, played a role in Islamic medieval Indian Political Thought. However, interpretations
of Jihad varied, and its application was not always limited to military endeavors.

• Legacy of Architectural and Artistic Achievements: Islamic rulers left a lasting legacy in terms
of architectural marvels, including mosques, forts, and palaces. Artistic achievements, such as
miniature paintings, reflected a synthesis of Islamic and indigenous artistic traditions.

• Syncretic Indian Political Thought

• The term "syncretic" refers to the blending or fusion of different cultural or religious traditions into
a new amalgamation. In the context of pre-colonial Indian political thought, syncretism refers to the
integration of Islamic and indigenous Indian traditions, resulting in a hybrid culture and governance
approach

Key features of syncretic traditions

• Cultural Integration: Syncretism involved the blending of Islamic, Persian, and Arabic cultural
elements with indigenous Indian traditions. This integration occurred in various aspects of life
including art, architecture, language, music, and literature.

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 • Religious Synthesis: Syncretism in religious beliefs and practices resulted from interactions
between different religious communities, particularly between Islam and Hinduism. This led to the
development of Sufi mysticism, bhakti movements, and a tolerance for diverse religious practices.

• Indo-Islamic Architecture: A prominent example of syncretism is seen in architectural styles,

where Islamic elements such as domes and minarets were fused with Indian architectural features
like intricate carvings, local materials, and decorative motifs.

• Literary and Linguistic Fusion: The interaction of Persian and Arabic languages with local Indian
languages gave rise to languages like Urdu, which became a medium for expressing syncretic
cultural ideas in poetry, literature, and scholarly works.

• Political Policies: Some rulers, such as Akbar the Great, implemented policies of religious
tolerance (sulh-e-kul) and cultural pluralism. These policies aimed to integrate diverse religious and
cultural communities within the empire, fostering a sense of unity and stability.

• Sufi Influence: Sufi saints played a crucial role in promoting syncretic ideas through their mystical
teachings and practices. They emphasized the unity of all religions and sought spiritual
enlightenment through love and devotion rather than strict adherence to religious dogma.

• Artistic Expression: Syncretism influenced artistic expressions such as music (qawwali), painting,
and dance forms, which combined elements from different cultural traditions to create unique forms
of artistic expression.

Unit II

Political Lessons from the

Mahabharat
a) Ved Vvasa (Shantiparva): Rajadharma

Ved Vyasa (Shantiparva): Rajadharma

• The "Mahabharata," one of India's greatest epic narratives, offers profound insights into governance
and political philosophy.

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• The Shantiparva, or the "Book of Peace," is a significant section where Ved Vyasa, the sage who
composed the epic, imparts wisdom on Rajadharma, or the duties of a king. This part of the epic is
rich with lessons on leadership and statecraft.

 Key political lessons from the Shantiparva on Rajadharma:

• The Role of Righteousness: Rajadharma emphasizes that a ruler must govern with righteousness
(dharma) at the core. This means that justice, ethical behavior, and adherence to moral principles
are fundamental to effective leadership. A king's duty is to ensure that his subjects live in harmony
and that justice prevails.

• The Importance of Law and Order: Maintaining law and order is crucial for a stable state. A king
must ensure that laws are fair, that they are applied uniformly, and that the legal system functions
efficiently. This involves protecting the rights of individuals and maintaining societal harmony.

• The Concept of the Welfare State: The Shantiparva stresses the importance of the ruler's role in
ensuring the welfare of all citizens. This involves not only providing for the basic needs of the
people but also fostering an environment where they can flourish. The king must be mindful of the
well-being of his subjects and act in their best interest.

• Balancing Power and Responsibility: Leadership is not just about wielding power but also about
accepting the responsibilities that come with it. A wise ruler must balance authority with
accountability, making decisions that are not only beneficial to the state but also align with ethical
standards.

• The Value of Counsel and Wisdom: The Shantiparva highlights the importance of seeking wise
counsel and listening to advisors. A ruler should surround himself with knowledgeable and honest
advisors who can provide valuable insights and guidance.

• The Duty to Protect and Defend: A king has the duty to protect his kingdom from internal and
external threats. This includes maintaining a strong defense and ensuring that the state is secure
against invasions and uprisings.

• The Consequences of Unjust Rule: The text warns against the perils of ruling unjustly. An unjust
ruler undermines the stability of the state and invites discord and suffering. The consequences of
such leadership can be severe, leading to the downfall of the ruler and the destabilization of the
kingdom.

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 • The Importance of Personal Integrity: Personal integrity and ethical behavior are crucial for a
ruler. The king's conduct should set an example for his subjects. A ruler who is honest,
compassionate, and self-disciplined inspires trust and respect.

• The Concept of Moral Leadership: True leadership, according to the Shantiparva, is grounded in
moral values. A ruler should strive to lead by example, embodying the virtues of truthfulness,
humility, and fairness.

• The Role of Sacrifice and Selflessness: A king should be willing to make personal sacrifices for
the greater good of the state and its people. Selflessness and dedication to the welfare of the
kingdom are crucial attributes of a great leader.

• Non-Aggression: The "Shantiparva" promotes the idea of avoiding wars and conflicts whenever
possible. It suggests that a king should seek peaceful resolutions to disputes and resort to military
action only when all other means have been exhausted.

• Alliance and Diplomacy: The text advises rulers to establish alliances and engage in diplomacy as
means of strengthening their kingdoms and maintaining peace.

 Protection of the Environment: The "Shantiparva" acknowledges the importance of preserving

the environment and natural resources for the well-being of future generations. A king is advised to
protect forests, wildlife, and the environment

Unit III

Political Lessons from the Arthashastra and the Difha Nikaya of Buddhist Scriptures
a) Kautilya: Theory of State, Foreign Policy
b) Aggannasutta (Digha Nikaya): Theory of Kingship

Kautilya
• Kautilya, also known as Chanakya, was an ancient Indian scholar, teacher, and advisor to the
Mauryan Emperor Chandragupta Maurya.
• He is best known for his work, the "Arthashastra," an ancient Indian treatise on statecraft,
economics, and political science.
• The Arthashastra is divided into 15 chapters.

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 • Kautilya's political thought is multifaceted, and it includes several key concepts, such as the
Saptanga Theory of State, the Mandala Theory, and Diplomacy.
Saptanga Theory of State
• The Saptanga Theory of State, also known as the Seven Limbs of the State, is a foundational
concept in Kautilya's political thought. It outlines the various components or aspects that together
constitute the functioning of a state.
• Kautilya’s state is a state organised in people with the king or the ruler exercising full authority
over his subjects but subject, above him, only to the divine power.
• It is a kingdom in which all lead a disciplined life.
1. Swami (King): The king is the central authority in the state. Kautilya believed that the king's
primary duty is to protect the kingdom and ensure the well-being of his subjects. He should rule
with wisdom and righteousness.
2. Amatya (Ministers): The ministers advise the king and assist in the administration of the state.
They are expected to be wise, loyal, and well-versed in statecraft.
3. Janapada (Territory): The territory, comprising the land and the people, is the foundation of the
state's strength. It is the source of revenue and resources.
4. Durga (Fortification): Kautilya emphasized the importance of fortifications and military strength
for the defense of the state. He believed that a well-defended kingdom is less vulnerable to external
threats.

5. 5. Kosha (Treasury): The treasury is crucial for financing the administration, defense, and public
welfare. Kautilya provided detailed instructions on economic management and resource allocation.

6. 6. Danda (Military): The military is essential for protecting the state and maintaining order.
Kautilya stressed the need for a well-trained and disciplined army.

7. 7. Mitra (Alliances): Building alliances with neighboring states is a strategic imperative. Kautilya
advocated diplomatic efforts to create alliances that would enhance the security and interests of the
state.

Nature of the State

• The king is the keystone of the political arch. All authority revolves around the king.
• The king’s powers, though are absolute, are held within the proper limits of the Dharma.
• The Dharma guides all activities of the king. The king himself is bound by the dictates of the
Dharma.
• The king functions through his subordinate officials, a disciplined lot with duties performed in full
loyalty. The king rules to enable him safeguard and protect his subjects. The king governs in the
interest of the subjects, the welfare of the subjects is his welfare, their happiness, his happiness.
• The protection of the subjects at home and the expansion of the territory of the state supported with
all diplomatic avenues abroad constitute the very objectives of the Kautilyan state.

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