UNIT 3 PHYSICAL EDUCATION

SUMMARY NOTES FOR THE VCAA EXAMS

WRITTEN BY A STUDENT WHO OBTAINED A

NEAR PERFECT STUDY SCORE
 UNIT 3: MOVEMENT SKILLS AND ENERGY
FOR PHYSICAL ACTIVITY

AREA OF STUDY 1: HOW ARE MOVEMENT

SKILLS IMPROVED?
KEY KNOWLEDGE

• Classification of movement skills including fundamental movement skills, sport

specific skills, open and closed skills, gross and fine skills, and discrete, serial and
continuous motor skills.

• Influences on movement including individual, task and environmental constraints on

motor skill development.

• The link between motor skill development and participation and performance.

• Qualitative movement analysis principles (preparation, observation, evaluation and

error correction).

• Biomechanical principles for analysis of human movement including:

• Angular and linear kinetic concepts of human movement: Newton’s three laws
of motion, inertia, mass, force, momentum and impulse.

• Angular and linear kinematic concepts of human movement: distance,

displacement, speed, velocity, acceleration and projectile motion (height, angle
and speed of release).

• Equilibrium and human movement: levers (force, axis, resistance and the
mechanical advantage of anatomical levers), stability and balance (centre of
gravity, base of support and line of gravity).

• Direct and constraints based approaches to coaching and instruction.

• Sociocultural factors that have an affect on skill development, and the characteristics
of the three stages of learning (cognitive, associative and autonomous).

• Practice strategies to improve movement skills including amount, distribution

(massed and distributed) and variability (blocked and random).

• Feedback including type (intrinsic, augmented, knowledge of results and knowledge

of performance) and frequency.

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 1
 MOVEMENT SKILLS
Classification of movement skills including fundamental movement skills, sport
specific skills, open and closed skills, gross and fine skills, and discrete, serial and
continuous motor skills.

- Skills are the ability to do something well. They are activities or tasks requiring
voluntary head, body, and/or limb movement to achieve a goal.

- We need to classify skills to understand the particular demands of a movement to

best prepare for improving this movement.

- Fundamental Movement Skills (FMS) are foundation skills that provide the basis of
all movements in sport. They are also formed for the development of more sport-
specific skills, especially for children. FMS can be classified as either:

- Stability skills that involve balance and control of the body, such as static or
dynamic balancing, rolling, stopping, landing, stretching, bending and climbing.

- Locomotor skills that enable us to move through space, such as running,

swimming, walking and jumping.

- Manipulative skills that involve the control of an object, including catching, throwing,
striking, dribbling and kicking.

- Sport specific skills often utilise a range of FMS in a sequence of movement. For
example, rebounding a basketball combines multiple FMS (bending, jumping,
reaching for the ball, grabbing the ball, landing) to be completed.

Three categories to classify skills, include:

Movement Precision

- Fine motor skills require precise movements, involving the use of small muscle
groups and a balance of touch and control. Eg. darts throw, archery shot, golf put,
table tennis serve.

- Gross motor skills involve the use of large muscle groups to result in a coordinated
movement, where there is generally little precision involved. This usually produces a
forceful or powerful movement. Eg. kicking a football, performing a somersault,
swimming backstroke, triple jump.

Type of Movement

- Discrete skills are a single movement with a distinct start and finish. Eg. olympic
shooting, a single basketball dribble, a chest pass, kicking a ball, hockey pass.

- Serial skills are a series of discrete skills put together. Eg. gymnastic routine,
dodging an opponent in football, basketball layup.

- Continuous skills are ones that flow, and have no definite beginning or end. (length
of the event is irrelevant) Eg. running, pedalling a bike, swimming.

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 2
- These skills are generally harder to identify, but endurance events such as
marathons are usually formed by continuous skills

Predictability of the Environment

- Closed motor skills have a constant, predictable, self-paced environment. Eg.

basketball free throw, darts throw, stationary softball on a T-stand, pool game.

- Open motor skills have a constantly changing, unpredictable, externally-paced

environment. Eg. changing proximity of an opponent in a basketball game, changing
height and speed of a wave you're surfing, changing speed of a hockey ball coming
towards you.

- All movement skills can be placed on an open - closed continuum based on the
predictability of the environment.

Influences on movement including individual, task and environmental constraints on

motor skill development

- Influences on Movement. There are different influences that can explain the
individual differences in movement patterns and skill development.

- Any factor that influences an individual’s ability to learn and perform a skill is called a
constraint.

- Constraints are not always negative things.

Three types of constraints:

- Individual constraints can be structural or functional.

- Structural constraints relate to the body structure of the individual. Eg. body size,
body composition, flexibility, physiological capacity to perform tasks, endurance,
motor skills.

- Functional constraints relate to behaviours or cognitive ability. Eg. skill learning,

attention span, decision making skills, information processing skills, motivation,
tactical knowledge.

- An adult with a slower reaction time is an example of a functional constraint.

- Task constraints are “what the coach puts on you”. They are factors closely related
to performance, such as rules of the sport, equipment available, team size and player
numbers, instructions and field/pitch/court dimensions.

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 3
- A cricket coach who chooses to use a tennis ball rather than a cricket ball for primary
school children is demonstrating awareness of task constraints on movement.

- Environmental constraints are either physical or sociocultural.

- Physical constraints include locality in which players were raise (parks, backyards
etc), noise level, gravity, natural light, terrain, weather, wind.

- Sociocultural constraints include cultural norms, family support, peers, societal

expectations (eg. Victoria plays AFL, NSW plays rugby league) and coaching.

- A psychologist who is working with an AFL player to improve his goal kicking in
games in front of large crowds is attempting to overcome environmental constraints.

- Individual constraints can lead to modification of task related factors.

- A coach may have an athlete with an unorthodox technique, and they may realise
that their body structure is the reason for this. Instead of forcing the athlete into a
more traditional technique, they can work with the uniqueness of the athlete.

- A P.E teacher teaching softball to a group of inexperienced students may choose to

use a tee instead of a pitcher and reduce the boundaries of the fields.

The link between motor skill development and participation and performance

- Motor skills, participation and performance are all directly interrelated.

- The more developed a person’s motor skills are, the more likely they are to
participate in more activities, thus improving their performance in those activities.

- As motor skills develop, so do performance levels

- Motor skills can be an enabler or barrier to movement. People are more likely to
enjoy an activity and perform well if they have the skills required for it. A person
lacking the skills may lack the confidence to participate.
Motor skills development

Participation/performance levels

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 4
Qualitative movement analysis principles (preparation, observation, evaluation and
error correction)

- Qualitative analysis is the “systematic observation of the quality of human

movement for the purpose of providing the most appropriate intervention to improve
performance”.

- Can also means worded feedback.

- Qualitative analysis provides fitness professionals with a structured approach to the

analysis and improvement of movement.

- The main purpose of qualitative analysis is to improve skills.

- Qualitative analysis can:

- Identify strengths and weaknesses of players and teams

- Obtain a final result or rank in a competition

- Aid talent identification or team selection

- Predict future performance results

There are four stages to Qualitative Analysis:

- Preparation is where the analyst gathers information about:

- The critical features of the skill

- Information about the performer(s) physiologically and psychologically

- Details about the observation stage

- What constitutes effective instruction

- What the purpose of observation is

- How will the skill be observed

- Critical features of a high jump would be vertical angle at take-off, angle of approach
and velocity at take off.

- The aim is to develop an observation strategy.

- Judges arrive earlier to the event, to view and consider conditions, if applicable (eg.
surfing judges need to observe weather and waves)

- Preparation can give credibility to the results.

- Observation is when the skill is recorded/measured by watching the performer

digitally or live, and observe the range of variables. The analyst collects any
applicable data.

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 5
- The aim is to gather and organise the information provided in the preparation stage.

- The analyst organises the footage ready for evaluation.

- Evaluation is when the analyst judges the quality of the performance. They must
decide what the problem is, what is causing it, and how to address it.

- Performance can be assessed either objectively (timing gates, timers) or

subjectively. Subjectivity can be made more objective with the use of checklists,
criteria and rubrics.

- Ideally, these methods should be both valid and reliable.

- Evaluation is based around the critical features of the skill, and each critical feature
can be classified as inadequate, within the desirable range or excessive. Critical
features within the desired range are strengths, and those outside are weaknesses.

- Error correction is when the analyst uses the strengths and weaknesses
established to improve performance.

- Essentially, it is fixing the mistakes observed during earlier stages.

- Intervention can occur during the game or via training.

Error correction can include:

- Feedback. Can be given as corrective instruction and should be concise, specific,

immediate and given regularly.

- Modified practice. Practice can be undertaken in a closed environment, or broken

into parts, so there is more focus on the development of the technique.

- Exaggeration or overcompensation. Because small modifications can be difficult to

improve, some coaches exaggerate the aspect of the skill they need to learn, so it is
easier to learn.

- Visual model. The instructor could demonstrate or use video footage to show the
correct technique.

- Manual guidance. The coach can physically move the body parts of the performer
so they can actually experience the correct action.

- Mechanical guidance. A mechanical aid such as a brace is used to help them

maintain correct position.

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 6
- Qualitative analysis is primarily used to provide feedback to a performer, however a
quantitative analysis can provide data that supplements these assessments and
answers questions.

- A sprinter receiving assessment feedback:

- Qualitative:

“Slow out of the blocks as your weight was not far enough forward in the blocks.”

- Quantitative:

“Your 90 degree angle of your front leg allowed you to remain balanced and led
you to your 2.2 second split time over the first 10m.”

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 7
 BIOMECHANICAL PRINCIPLES
- Biomechanics is “the study of the mechanical principles that govern human
movement”.

- Two branches of biomechanics are kinetics and kinematics.

- Kinetics are the study of forces that cause motion and the energies associated with
causing the motion.

- Kinematics is the description of motion, without reference to the forces that caused
the motion.

- Biomechanics is used to:

- Provide a description, explanation and prediction of movement

- Determine optimal techniques in sport

- Improve performance

- Develop and sustain healthy movement patterns

- Motion refers to “a body’s change in position in relation to time”.

- Linear motion is motion that occurs in a straight line (rectilinear motion), or curved
path (curvilinear motion), i.e from Point A to Point B.

- Angular motion occurs when a body moves along a circular path, around an axis.

- Angular motion is caused by an eccentric force, which is a force that does not act
through an object’s centre of gravity. Eccentric forces cause objects to move and
rotate, and will produce a torque.

- Torque is the tendency for an object to rotate.

- Torque is the force applied at a distance from the axis

causing a turning effect. Greater torque = greater
acceleration.

- Torque = force x lever arm

- Lever arm is the perpendicular distance between

where the force was applied and the centre of the object
(axis of rotation).

- ie. Greater lever arm = greater rotation of a ball.

- General motion is a combination of angular and linear motion, and is far more
common than one type of motion alone.

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 8
Angular and linear kinetic concepts of human movement: Newton’s three laws of
motion, inertia, mass, force, momentum and impulse

- Law of inertia states that “an object will stay at rest or continue to travel in the same
direction at a constant velocity unless acted on by an unbalanced force.”

- Heavier object = greater inertia = greater force required to move it.

- Law of acceleration states that “the rate of acceleration of a body is proportional to

the force applied to it and takes place in the direction in which the force is applied”.

- Force = mass x acceleration

- ie. As mass is doubled, acceleration is halved, with the same amount of force
generated, and vice versa.

- Law of action & reaction states that “for every action there is an equal and opposite
reaction”.

- Even though two forces are equal, they don’t cancel each other out.

- This is sometimes harder to see. For example, when you hit a tennis ball with a
tennis racquet, the racquet has an impact on the ball as the ball flies across to the
other side of the court. The ball however will have an equal reaction on the racquet.
However, because the racquet has a much greater mass than the ball, and f = ma,
the acceleration of the racquet will be much smaller.

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 9
- In a 100m sprint, the athlete pushes into the block to obtain an equal and opposite
reaction of pushing them forward down the track.

- Laws of angular motion:

- The angular momentum of a body remains constant unless acted upon by an

external torque.

- A torque applied to an object will produce a change in angular motion in the direction
of the applied torque that is directly proportional to the size of the torque, and
inversely proportional to the moment of inertia that the object has.

- For every torque there is an equal and opposite torque.

- Inertia is the reluctance of a body to change in it’s state of motion. Greater mass =
greater inertia. Inertia can either be static (eg. barbell with weights on it) or dynamic
(eg. rugby player running quickly)

- The greater the inertia, the greater the force required to change it’s state of motion.

- Inertia is directly proportional to mass.

- Mass is the quantity of matter found within a particular body.

Measured in kilograms (kg).

- Mass is different than weight. Weight = Mass x Gravity

- Force is an effect on one body that results from the interaction of a second body.
Measured in Newton (N).

- Can be created internally through muscle contractions or externally through gravity,

friction, water and air.

- Friction occurs when two surfaces come in contact with one another. Friction resists
movement when an object and the surface are in contact.

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 10
- It is the push or pull on an object to:

- Get it moving

- Speed it up

- Slow it down

- Stop it

- Change it’s direction.

- Forces can either change the shape of an object or move the object.

- To get an object moving, you must apply a force that is greater than the maximum
static friction value, or the net force of that object.

- Maximal force production is the aim for most events, like javelin or a penalty shot in
soccer.

- Sub-maximal force is required in golf, or a basketball free throw.

- Force summation refers to the correct timing and sequencing of body segments and
muscles through a range of motion.

- Force summation can be achieved simultaneously or sequentially.

- Simultaneously is when all body parts are moved at the same time (eg. sprinting).

- Sequentially is when body parts move in a sequence to produce force. (eg. cricket
bowl).

- Sequential force summation principles:

- Activating stronger and larger muscles first

- Using as many body parts as possible

- Transferring momentum from one body part to another when at maximum velocity

- The presence of a stable base for maximal acceleration of body parts

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 11
- Ensuring appropriate follow-through is used to prevent unnecessary deceleration

In a throwing/bowling action:

1. Run up
2. Step forward with opposite foot to throwing arm
3. Upper body turns in the direction of the throw
4. Throwing arm extended behind body
5. Body leans forward
6. Elbow and wrist extend to release ball
7. Arm follows through to target
8. Falls forward once ball is released

- Momentum is the quantity of motion a particular body of mass has.

- Objects with greater momentum are harder to stop.

- Measured in kg m/s

- Momentum (p) = mass x velocity

- Momentum has a direction. (eg. 100 kg m/s to the right)

- Conservation of momentum states that whenever two bodies collide, the combined
momentum of the two bodies is conserved.

- The total momentum before the collision = total momentum after the collision.

- Eg. In a game of lawn bowls, a ball with mass 1.5kg was rolled at 5m/s towards the
stationary ball with a mass 1.2kg. When the balls collide, the moment is conserved.
The moving balls momentum is 1.5 x 5 = 7.5 kg m/s. The stationary ball originally has
a 0 momentum, but because of conversation of momentum, when the ball collides
with the other ball, the combined momentum of the two balls must have a momentum
of 7.5 kg m/s. Once the balls are both hit, they will both travel in the same direction.
We can find the relevant velocities of the balls when they move at the same speed;
7.5 = (1.5 + 1.2)v
7.5 = 2.7v
v = 2.7 m/s

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 12
Let’s say the player on the left has a momentum of 100 kg m/s, and the player on the right
has a momentum of 80 kg m/s. The net momentum = 100 - 80 = 20 kg m/s to the right.

This means the net momentum after the collision has to be 20 kg m/s to the right too. Once
they collide. If we know the mass and velocity of the two players, we can calculate the
momentum, and then the velocity after the collision. Momentum = mass x velocity. We know
momentum = 20 kg m/s and mass = 130 kg. Therefore 20 = 130 x velocity. Velocity = 0.15
m/s to the right.

- Angular momentum = moment of inertia x angular velocity.

- Moment of inertia is a measure of an objects resistance to change in its rate of

rotation.

- Moment of inertia = mass x radius2

- To decrease moment of inertia, distribute mass closer the the axis (radius)

- The closer the mass is to the axis of rotation, the easier the object is to rotate. This is
why gymnasts tuck into a ball while they flip, to increase velocity.

- As a gymnast goes into a tuck position, their moment of inertia is decreased,

because their mass is closer to the centre. This means that their angular velocity
must be increased, as angular momentum remains the same. This allows the
gymnast to somersault more quickly.

- When rotating a baseball bat, angular momentum can be increased by increasing the
mass of the bat, as well as the length of the bat. Modified equipment can reduce the
moment of inertia, promoting the ability to move the equipment with more ease, but
reduces the overall angular momentum.

- A bent arm when swimming in freestyle decreases moment of inertia and increases
the velocity of the stroke with less force.

- Running when you bend your legs in the air decreases moment of inertia and
increases velocity.

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 13
- Angular momentum is conserved while an object is in flight.
- Novice athletes often can’t summate momentum and can’t control a heavier bat.

- Impulse is the change of momentum of an object. To change the momentum of a

body, a force must be applied over a period of time.

- Impulse = force x time = mass x change in velocity

- The larger time the force is applied, the greater impulse and the greater the change
in momentum. The length of time over which a force is applied can affect the
acceleration of an object. This is why a follow through is important as it increases
the time in which the force is applied, and the impulse is greater and so is the change
in momentum.

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 14
- Greater impulse = greater change in momentum

- By increasing the time over which the force is applied, less force is needed to stop an
object. This is why we “give” with the ball, when catching a hard ball such as a cricket
ball, to avoid hurting our hands. “Giving” with the ball increases the time it takes to
stop the ball, which will reduce the force applied.

- The absorbent gymnastics mats allow an impulse to be applied over an extended

period of time, reducing the force than if a harder surface was used.

- Increasing impulse can also be used to increase momentum.

- If the force is exerted in the opposite direction of the object’s original momentum, the
object’s momentum will decrease.

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 15
Angular and linear kinematic concepts of human movement: distance, displacement,
speed, velocity, acceleration and projectile motion (height, angle and speed of
release)

- Distance refers to how much ground an object an object travels throughout its
motion.

- Displacement is the difference between the initial position and final position of an
object. Eg. In a 400m race, displacement = 0m, as you finish in the same position
you started.

- Speed is the time taken to cover a certain distance.

- Speed = distance/time (m/s)

- Velocity is the time taken to change position.

- Velocity = displacement/time (m/s)

- Velocity also has a direction (eg. 10m/s north)

- Acceleration refers to the rate of velocity change experienced by an object over

time.

- Acceleration = change in velocity / change in time

- = (final velocity - initial velocity) / time (m/s^2)

- Can be positive, negative or zero, indicating whether an object is speeding up,

slowing down or at a constant velocity.

- Angular distance is the total of all angular changes of a rotating body.

- Angular displacement is the difference between the initial and final angular position
of a rotating body.

- Angular speed is the angular distance covered by the time taken to complete the
motion.

- Angular speed = distance/time (degrees per second)

- Angular velocity is the rate of change of the angular displacement of a body

overtime.

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 16
- Angular velocity = displacement/time (degrees per second)

- Angular acceleration is the rate of change of angular velocity

(degrees / second^2)

- A Projectile is an object or body released into

the air and is under the influence of external
forces of gravity and air resistance.

- A projectile has a vertical and horizontal

component.

- The flight path of a projectile is referred to

as trajectory.

- Air resistance is a force working against motion, acting horizontally.

- Drag forces cause the projectile to slow down and reduce its flight time.

- The following factors influence a projectiles air resistance:

- Velocity (higher velocity = greater air resistance)

- Mass (lower mass = less drag as air can flow over the object)

- Surface area (greater surface area = greater air resistance eg. badminton
shuttlecock)

- Nature of surface area (smooth surfaces decrease drag and are less likely to be
affected by air resistance)

- Gravity acts against motion vertically by pulling an object back to the ground.
Therefore, any projectile in the air has an acceleration of 9.8 m/s towards ground.

- Other factors also can determine the trajectory of a projectile

- Height of release is the height from which the projectile is launched, in comparison
to when it lands. An object released from a higher point will travel further than one
released lower.

- Speed of release is the speed at which the projectile is laughed into the air. The
greater the force applied to the projectile, the greater the speed of the projectile and
the further it will travel.

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 17
- Angle of release is the angle that the projectile makes to the ground when it is
released. The optimal angle of release is generally 45 degrees, for maximal
horizontal distance.

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 18
Equilibrium and human movement: levers (force, axis, resistance and the mechanical
advantage of anatomical levers), stability and balance (centre of gravity, base of
support and line of gravity)

- A lever is a rigid structure that rotates around an axis to exert force on another
object. Levers are used to improve performance, and anatomical levers can provide
an advantage where a small amount of force can be used to move a larger force.

- Levers are used to magnify force.

- Leverage describes the action or advantage of using a lever.

- Axis is the turning point of the lever.

- Force is the point where force is applied.

- Resistance is the weight of whatever a person is trying to move.

- First class levers have the axis in the centre between the force and the resistance
(eg. see saw, your head and neck).

- Second class levers have the resistance in the centre between the axis and
force (eg. performing a calf rise, wheelbarrow).

- Third class levers have the force in the centre between the axis and resistance.

- These levers are most commonly seen in the human body.

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 19
- To move a body part, a force needs to be applied by the muscles to change the
angle of the joint (axis).

- Force arm refers to the distance between the force and the axis.

- Resistance arm refers to the distance between the axis and resistance.

- Mechanical advantage = force arm/resistance arm

- If mechanical advantage > 1

- The force required to move the load is less than the force of the
resistance.

- Less effort is required to move the resistance.

- Found in second class levers.

- If mechanical advantage < 1

- A greater force is required to overcome the resistance.

- However, the range of motion of the lever is increased and this increases the angular
speed of the lever.

- Found in third class levers.

- An increase in lever length increases the distance from the axis to the resistance, so
the resistance arm is longer than the force arm.

- This makes the mechanical advantage < 1

- A greater force is required to swing the lever (usually a club or bat), but the increase
in range of motion results in an increase of velocity.

- This is why soccer players fully extend their leg when kicking a ball, and tennis
players fully extend their arm up with their racquet when hitting a serve

- If you can’t increase the length of your lever (ie. in a game of lacrosse, everyone’s
equipment is the same), increase the extension of your arms, or lower your grip on
the lever.

- Using a 3 iron (longer lever) as opposed to a 9 iron (smaller lever) will increase the
range of motion of the golf club resulting to it travelling at a faster velocity and
therefore being able to hit the ball at greater speeds.

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 20
- Equilibrium refers to a state in which there is a balance of forces or influences in
opposition to each other.

- Static equilibrium is the state in which a body has zero velocity and zero
acceleration (eg. a ball stationary on the ground, a gymnast holding a handstand).

- Dynamic equilibrium is the state in which a body is in motion with a constant

velocity (eg. a gymnast moving throughout a floor routine with stability and strength).

- Stability refers to the degree to which a body resists changing its equilibrium (eg.
gymnast holding a handstand).

- Balance is the ability to control the state of an equilibrium (eg. netballer moving with
speed and control through the court).

- When stability is increased, the more difficult it is to unbalance an object.

- Factors affecting stability:

- Base of support: The larger the base of support, the greater the stability

- Base of support is the area within all body parts that are in contact with the ground.

- As the base of support increases the degree of muscular effort required to maintain
stability tends to decrease.

- Centre of gravity: The higher the centre of gravity, the less stable a body will be.

- Centre of gravity is the point around which its weight is balanced regardless of
position.

- Line of gravity: The closer the line of gravity is to the centre of the base of support,
the more stable the body will be.

- Line of gravity is the imaginary line which passes through the centre of gravity.

- Body mass: The greater the mass of an object or body, the greater the force
required to move it and therefore disrupt its equilibrium.

- Friction between the body and the surface or surfaces contacted: Increasing
friction between the body and the surface it is in contact with increases the persons
stability.

- Studs in a football boot aim to increase the friction between the grass and the boot to
allow the player to stay balanced

- Chalk on a gym bar helps to increase the friction between the bar and the hands to
allow the player to remain a strong grip and exert force to the bar

- The grooves on tyres on a motor race car apply friction to the road surface and allow
the car to grip to the road so the car can take the bend at the fastest speed possible

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 21
To decrease friction:

- The smooth clay surface on the French Open tennis has decreased friction allowing
the tennis player to slow momentum gradually when sliding into shots, reducing the
risk of knee injuries

- In ice hockey, the ice has no friction, allowing the puck to slide quickly along the
surface

- Reducing stability promotes agility.

- A sprinter would lean forward when beginning their sprint, to put them off balance so
they don't require as much force to move.

- Swimmers start on the blocks with one foot slightly in front of the other when waiting
for the starter’s gun, to increase base of support and increase stability, so maximum
power can be generated off the block.

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 22
 COACHING AND LEARNING

Direct and constraints based approaches to coaching and instruction

- Direct style coaching is an explicit, autocratic, coach orientated style coaching.

- Coach orientated means learners are given explicit instructions about skill execution
and tactical awareness.

- Explicit learning is when the learner is told what to do and when do to it

- A coach tells the players in a basketball drill to dribble from the base line to the free
throw line, and then shoot and rebound.

- A tennis coach might feed 50 forehands to a player in exactly the same spot, getting
them to hit the same shot continuously

- It is “skill and drill”, and involves breaking sports down into technical skills.

- Learners are passive receivers of information.

- There is emphasis on the textbook technique.

- The coach makes all the decisions in relation to:

- task selection
- task sequencing
- structure and timing of how tasks are performed
- duration of time spent on task
- how tasks will be modified
- how technique will be refined
- how feedback will be provided
Advantages:
- Learners are kept on task
- Facilitates the early-stage learning level
- Improvements in performance are rapid
- Emphasis on mastering technique
- Use of a predictable/closed environment

Disadvantages:
- Boring, repetitive drills
- Unable to apply skills in a game situation
- Dependence on coach instructions, don’t develop decision making skills
- Learners at risk of choking under pressure

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 23
- Constraints style coaching, or indirect coaching, is implicit, learner orientated style
coaching.

- Implicit learning occurs as a result of being involved in a game and discovery rather
than being directed.

- It involves short-sided, modified games, and the coach becomes the facilitator and
guides learning. Learners are often able to perform different tasks in different ways
suited to their strengths and weaknesses.

- Errors are critical for learning as the learner learns how to problem solve.

- Involves manipulation of the individual, task and environmental constraint factors,

typically task constraints.

- Constraints are boundaries that shape a learner’s self-organising movement

patterns, cognitions and decision making processes.

- Eg. changing the rules of a basketball game to make it half-court (task)

- Involves the idea of perception-action coupling.

- This describes the reciprocal relationship between what the performer sees, and the
actions they have. (ie. perception and actions influence each other)

- A batsman in cricket learns to interpret (perception) a bowler’s action and the

bowler’s grip on the cricket ball to predict the type of delivery before playing the
appropriate shot (action). This may not happen if a batsman is only exposed to
“throw downs” — a coach throwing the ball to a predetermined length to replicate and
perfect a prescribed technique.

- Constraints style learning utilises the game sense approach, which is a means of
coaching that uses small-sided, modified games to develop tactical and strategic
thinking, as well as movement skill performance. Games sense approach has five
key elements:

1. Designing short-sided, modified games to simulate decision making and

movement skill demands.

2. Coaches use questioning to guide the learning process. Questions should be open-
ended and encourage the learners to think for themselves. Questions should cover:

- Time : when should you….?

- Space: where should you….?

- Risk : which option…?

- Execution : how should you….?

- Questioning increases athlete’s problem solving ability, improves the athletes ability
to self-correct, and decreases the athlete’s reliance on the coach.

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 24
3. Establishing an environment where learning occurs through problem solving.
Learners take more ownership in discovery-based instruction.

4. Constraints are manipulated to emphasise a particular learning goal regarding

tactical/technical awareness and skill application.

5. Sports are classified into four game categories:

- Invasion games (ie. soccer, netball)

- Striking field games (ie. cricket, basketball)
- Net/court games (ie. tennis, badminton)
- Target games (ie. archery, shooting)

- Constraints can give more success, eg. a decreased playing field (task) can give
more of a chance of being involved
- A larger playing field (task) can improve 1v1 and reduce congestion, improve speed
and endurance and teach players to use space

- However being outside in a large playing field (task) can be a distraction, especially
for cognitive learners with low retention and concentration

Advantages:

- Learner improves decision making skills

- Learners improves skill execution
- Practice replicates game situations
- More variety ensuring versatile development of skills
- Implicit learners are better problem solvers
- Learners develop technical and tactical awareness
- Learners less likely to choke at times of stress
- Learners can be more motivated

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 25
Disadvantages:

- Cognitive learners become overwhelmed with rules, tactics and skills

- Technical skills may lack refinement
- Coaches are often unfamiliar with a game sense approach
- May not suit large groups or younger athletes
- May take longer to achieve results

Sociocultural factors that have an affect on skill development, and the characteristics
of the three stages of learning (cognitive, associative and autonomous)

- Cognitive stage is also known as the “beginner stage”.

- Novice performer.

- The learner must dedicate a lot of attention to understand the skill.

- Many skill errors, and they generally ask a lot of questions.

- Learning occurs through “trial and error”.

- Performance is inconsistent; they are simply trying to work out what skills they
actually need to perform.

- Jerky, non fluent movement.

- Cautious and weary.

- Usually the shortest of the three stages.

- Improvements in skill performance tend to be rapid.

Appropriate instruction should include:

- Simple feedback

- Watching repeated demonstrations

- Clear and concise verbal feedback

- Strategies to correct faults

- Provide feedback on the relative success

- Complex skills broken into smaller parts

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 26
- Associative stage is also known as the “practice stage”, or intermediate.

- Consistent performance of the basic and refining and replicating movement.

- Learner begins to understand why they make errors and adapt strategies to correct
errors.

- Fluency increases.

- They are able to pay more attention to the game environment.

- Performance improvement is more gradual.

- Not all individuals move past this stage.

Appropriate instruction should include:

- Regular feedback and practice opportunities

- Exposure to a more ‘open’ competitive environment, with variety

- Coaches should continue to assist the learners in recognising why they have made
an error and how to self-correct error

- Autonomous stage is also known as the “expert stage” or advanced

- Learner can perform a skill almost automatically.

- Skills is ‘ingrained’ and ‘second-nature’ to performer, requiring minimal attention.

- Can multi-task.

- For example, an elite cricket bowler doesn't have to focus on their run up, so they
can instead focus on where they want to deliver the ball.

- Performers become more aware of the competitive environment.

- Development of tactical and strategic awareness and decision making capabilities.

- Able to provide and respond to self-feedback.

- Fluency and smooth action is visible.

Appropriate instruction should include:

- Precise feedback, as small improvements can make a significant difference at elite

level

- Performers should stay motivated

- Practice with high levels of variability

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 27
- Use match simulation to enhance tactical knowledge and decision making

- Skill development is generally a result of a combination of the learner’s genetic

traits (biological physiological and psychological characteristics), the amount of
practice taken and the availability of expert coaching, and sociocultural factors that
encourage and facilitate learning opportunities.

- Sociocultural factors have a significant influence on determining sporting success in

the future.

- Family: parents facilitate their children’s involvement in sport by driving them to

practice and buying their uniforms, registration fees and equipment.

- Parents encourages their children to get involved and apply to practice.

- Family backyard can give children an opportunity to practice movement skills.

- Deliberate play is used, as opposed to deliberate practice. It describes an

unsupervised learning environment where children devise their own interpretation of
competition rules.

- Backyard cricket is an excellent example of deliberate play.

- Cultural norms, traditions and beliefs: Different nationalities identify with different
sports.

- Prevalence of sport in a community can have a significant impact on skill

development.

- Swimming is a high profile sport in Australia, as well as the country having a warm
climate and an abundance of beaches and pools. This makes the standard of
swimming skills in Australia relatively high.

- There may be language barriers in accessing important information regarding

organised sport.

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 28
- There may be lack of culturally appropriate venues and facilities.

- There may be a lack of appropriate role models.

- Peers play an important role in influencing the type of sport people participate in.

- Younger athletes are generally motivated to play with friends and choose sports
based on the popular ones in their social group.

- If a peer group has a tendency toward sedentary behaviour, this can present a
barrier to physical activity and movement skill development.

- Gender stereotypes means girls and boys will be socialised into different sports.

- Women are more likely to develop coordination, flexibility and balance and other
skills associated with sports such as gymnastics and dance.

- Some sports such as netball and softball are seen as ‘girls’ sports, whereas AFL and
rugby are seen as ‘boys’ sports.

- Historically, women have experienced significantly more barriers to participation in

sport and physical activity. Factors include:

- Lack of appropriate, accessible, affordable and acceptable facilities, such as sport

gymnasiums not having adequate female change rooms.

- Lack of media coverage to promote prominent role models.

- Lack of role models.

- Social stereotyping. In society, there are perceptions that sport is unfeminine

- Sporting organisations have fewer women sitting on managerial boards, and hence
there is a lack of advocacy for women’s sporting issues.

- Socioeconomic status. People of low socioeconomic status typically have a

disadvantage in participating in physical activity.

- Remote communities may lack adequate facilities required for some organised sport

- Socioeconomic status can influence the type of sport in which an individual chooses
to participate. For example, rugby league has a working class background whereas
those of a more privileged background are more likely to sail or row.

- Local community. There is overrepresentation of elite sportspeople who grew up

and developed their sporting process in small country towns.

- A high proportion of young people in rural settings are involved in their local netball or
football club.

- Urban sporting facilities have to cater for larger populations, which potentially limits
the time available for a team or an individual to use the facilities.

- Country towns can struggle to find sufficient participants to fill their teams.

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 29
- A young sportsperson in a rural community may find themselves playing in a number
of different sports, and this experience can create a highly stimulating learning
environment, allowing them to develop fundament movement skills and game sense

Other sociocultural factors include:

- Time
- Self-belief
- Housing
- Values and attitudes

Factor Cognitive stage Associative stage Autonomous stage

Role models Visual demonstrations Visual demonstrations Visual demonstrations

are essential, so are still important to are no longer important,
coaches should refine skills and instead the athlete
demonstrate the skill. techniques should analyse the
Elite athletes can also opponent to develop
serve as a role model game plans
and encourage
participation and
enthusiasm
Family Having parents and Family members are Family dynamics are
dynamics siblings that participate often required to unlikely to be an
in the same sport can provide transportation to important influencer in
encourage motivation and from training and this stage of learning
and interest in games, as well as
developing skills someone to practice
with
Resources Individuals may need Individuals may need to Athletes may need high-
access to basic regularly access playing level training facilities,
equipment and a grounds, and have as well as sponsorship
playing space reasonable equipment
Time Having some free time Hundreds of hours of A huge amount of time
is important to begin practice are often is required to progress.
with. Family members needed to be put in in Once in this stage,
should take you to play this stage athletes should continue
too to spend a lot of time
practicing
Politics Development of Assessable government Athletes in this stage
supportive policies such funded/supported require to have access
has having compulsory resources and facilities to world-class training
PE in schools has the allow people to access facilities, and quality
potential to influence sporting clubs coaches
skill development

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 30
 PRACTICE AND FEEDBACK

Practice strategies to improve movement skills including amount, distribution

(massed and distributed) and variability (blocked and random)

- Generally, coaches should consider the following:

- The more you practice, the more you learn, and thus increase the amount of
practice.

- Gladwell’s theory states the 10 000 hours rules, that the key to mastering any elite
spot, is to accumulate 10 000 hours of practice. However coaches don't have the
luxury of limitless time at their disposal.

- Maximise meaningful skill practice within the time available. This also ensures
greater learner engagement and motivation.

- In the interest of learner engagement, develop a sense of when it’s best to stop
working on one skill and move on to a new activity. Be weary of the amount of time
spent on task; coaches can’t afford a perfectionist approach.

- Be aware the principle of diminishing returns when deciding how to make the
most of training time.

- Diminishing returns dictates that performers in the early stage of learning will improve
rapidly in response to practice.

- However as the performer progresses through the learning stages, their rate of
improvement in response to practice decreases.

- When discussing how to practice, we consider the two variables:

- How much rest should there be between practice trials?

- Do we practice one at a time or different tasks in random order?

- Practice distribution refers to the ratio of the time spent practicing compared to time
spent resting, and the schedule of training

- Massed practice, or continuous practice, involves little to no rest between

performances of a skill

- This can be useful when developing discrete skills that are non-fatiguing.

- Practicing these discrete skills in one continuous training block can help assist the
learner to replicate efficient movement patterns.

- Experienced athletes, or autonomous stage learners, are suited to this practice

distribution when they want to focus their time and attention to work on complex
skills.

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 31
- However more novice performers might use this method to work around the barriers
of time.

- The attention span of the cognitive learner may be low, and therefore they could get
bored during the massed practice.

- Because massed practice requires learners to concentrate for an extended period of

time, they can develop mental and physical resilience.

Advantages:

- Maximises practice time

- May suit a non-fatiguing discrete skill

- May suit an elite, highly motivated performer

Disadvantages:

- Physical and mentally fatiguing

- Repetitious and boring

- Distributed practice is when sessions are broken into smaller practice intervals,
with rest periods in between.

- Rest periods are generally greater than the work periods.

Advantages:

- Greater learner engagement

- Assists a beginner (cognitive) or less motivated learner

- Reduction of fatigue

- May help to learn a new or complex skill

- Recovery period allows for memory consolidation and allows the learner to digest the
coaches instruction and reflect upon what they have learnt

Disadvantages:

- More time-consuming

- May be less suited to discrete skill rehearsal

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 32
- Practice variability refers to the degree to which a coach varies the conditions in
which skills are rehearsed, as well as the number or variety of skills that are practiced

- Practice variability is largely dependent on the type of skill and the performer’s
stage of learning.

- Generally, there should be more variability in the later stages of learning.

- There should be a higher degree of variability for open sports rather than closed
sports.

- Lower variability in practice will lead to better performance in practice, however

greater variability in practice will result in greater learning and greater preparedness
for the game environment.

- Blocked practice involves practising the same skill repetitively in the same practice
conditions for a set period of time.

- Eg. a tennis player spending 15 minutes working on forehand, 15 minutes on

backhand, 15 minutes on serve etc.

- These sessions have low levels of variability.

- The learners attention is predominantly on executing and replicating ideal skill

technique.

- Useful for cognitive learners.

Advantages:

- The novice learner is able to concentrate on one skill at a time, free of distractions

- The learner can become familiar with the basic mechanics of the skill

- Helps the learner develop confidence in their skill performance

- Facilities significant improvement in skill execution during practice sessions

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 33
- Random practice is when a variety of skills are rehearsed within the same session.

- Eg. a tennis player may serve, hit a forehand and then a volley

- Skills are practiced in random order

- Usually specific to the game environment

- The learners attention is predominantly to decision making

- A large number of errors will occur

- This is useful for learners in the associate and autonomous stages

Advantages:

- Effective at preparing learners for a game environment, as a game is random

- More closely represents the physical and cognitive demands of a game

- Enables the learner to develop more applicable skills

- Enables the learner to improve decision making skills

- Substantial improvements in competition performance

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 34
Feedback including type (intrinsic, augmented, knowledge of results and knowledge
of performance) and frequency.

- Feedback is any form of information a learner receives about their skill performance
- We give feedback to:
- Motivate the learner by providing information on the progress of skill learning
- Highlight skill errors and enable the learner to make appropriate corrections
- Provide positive reinforcement, confirming when the learner is performing correctly

- Intrinsic feedback is information the performer receives directly from their sensory
systems as well as their skin, to judge their performance.

- It is self-correction, and allows the athlete to correct or improve their skill execution
during the performance.

- This is useful if the performer understands the task.

- Eg. a basketball player shooting a free throw is aware of their balance and
coordination at the time, and they feel the spin on the ball as they release it and see
the flight of the ball in the air.

- Coaches may use questioning as a strategy to enhance the performers use of

intrinsic feedback. Eg. ‘do you feel unbalanced as you bowl the ball?’

- Proprioception is sensory information received from within the muscle. Eg. if you
are blindfolded, you know through proprioception if your arm is above your head or
on the side of you body.

- Sensory feedback can also be visual, auditory, or touch

- Augmented feedback is information that comes from sources external to the player
(coach).

- Includes the use of video analysis.

- Endurance sports use augmented feedback in the form of monitors that record heart
rate and speed.

- This type of feedback can more motivate performers and provide positive
reinforcement for good feedback.

- Augmented feedback can be divided into two categories:

- Knowledge of performance is feedback that provides information about the

progress of performing a skill.

- Eg. a golfer is able to recognise they have a problem with their weight transferral
after watching a video of their swing.

- It is feedback on how the skill is performed and its characteristics, rather than the
outcome or result.

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 35
- Comes from either the coach or video analysis.

- Coaches should mostly focus on providing knowledge of performance feedback as

that is the most effective means of correcting faults and facilitating learning.

- Knowledge of results is information about the outcome of skill performance.

- Eg. the golfer sees the resulting ball flight when they hit the ball and they see where it
lands.

- Eg. tennis serve speed.

- The learner can often see where their shot lands, so the coach doesn't need to
provide knowledge of results feedback's often.

- This type of feedback is particularly important in the early stages of learning, as

successful outcomes can be a strong motivating factor for cognitive learners.

- Players can align this feedback with their own intrinsic feedback, to improve
consistency.

- Statistics can be either knowledge of performance or knowledge of results. Eg.

missed tackles are knowledge of results, but can indicate for a team to increase their
intensity, indicating knowledge of performance.

- Timing of feedback refers to when feedback is provided in relation to the

performance

- For feedback to be effective, it should be accuracy, relevant and immediate.

- Concurrent feedback is feedback that occurs during the activity.

- Eg. a netball coach yelling out to their team on the sidelines.

- Advantages are that it can have an immediate impact on skill performance, and is
time-efficient, and allows for no interruption of training intervals.

- Concurrent feedback should not be used if it distracts the learner, which is more
likely to be the case in the early stages of learning.

- Terminal feedback is feedback that occurs after the performance.

- Eg. a football coach talking to their team post-match.

- The advantage is that the player can give full attention to the coach as feedback is
being given out, which is important for a cognitive learner.

- It is recommended the coach momentarily delays the delivery of feedback post skill
performance, as this allows the learner to first evaluate their own intrinsic feedback.

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 36
- Frequency of feedback: feedback should be provided regularly to facilitate skill
acquisition.

- However, too much feedback can lead to information overload.

- Too much feedback in the early stages of learning can lead to the learner becoming
overly dependent on the coach’s guidance

- Generally, more feedback should be provided in the early stages of learning, and
less in the later stages, so they can detect their own error.

Type of learner Cognitive Associative Autonomous

Type of feedback Knowledge of results Knowledge of Knowledge of

performance performance
Frequency of High frequency Medium frequency Low frequency
feedback
Coaching type Direct Direct / Constraints Constraints

Practice distribution Distributed Distributed (Task Massed / distributed

dependent) (task dependent)
Practice variability Blocked Blocked / Random Random

Timing of feedback Terminal Terminal / Terminal /

Concurrent Concurrent

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 37
 KEY SKILLS

• analyse and classify movement skills

• analyse individual, task and environmental factors influencing movement skill

development

analyse the link between motor skill development and participation and performance

perform a qualitative analysis of a movement skill using video and systematic

observation to analyse and improve a variety of movement skills

analyse, interpret and apply graphical, visual and physical representations of

biomechanical principles to improve movement skills in a coaching context

explain and apply theories of learning to practical coaching situations

explain sociocultural factors that influence movement skill development at different

stages of learning

discuss how skill classification affects the selection of appropriate practice strategies

participate in, observe and record the characteristics of different types of practice
strategies

perform, observe, analyse, and report on the role of feedback in improving

performance through practical- based activities.

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 38
 ANALYSE AND CLASSIFY MOVEMENT SKILLS

When answering these kind of questions, make sure you indicate the nature of the skill (eg.
movement type, predictability of the environment, precision of movement)

Outline the difference between open and closed skills, using shooting in basketball as
an example of each (3 Marks)

An open skill is a skill where the environment is unpredictable, such as a layup with an
opponent in front of you, as there are more factors you have to consider when performing
the skill (height of the opponent, proximity from the ring, etc). Whereas a closed skill has a
predictable, consistent environment, such as a free throw, as there are less factors to
consider

1 mark for outlining what a closed skill is

1 mark for outlining what an open skill is
1 mark for relating it back and using basketball as an example

When we are first learning a skill, what environment should we be learning in and
justify why (2 marks)

You should first learn in a closed environment, as there aren't as many factors to consider
when performing the skill; it is predictable, and this allows you to fully focus on the correct
technique of the skill. It would be too hard to learn in an open environment when you are first
learning as there are too many distractions and is externally paced and unpredictable.

1 mark for correct identification of the closed environment

1 mark for the justification

Use the photo above to describe the movement skills occurring within this photo
(6 Marks)
- On the predictability of the environment continuum, surfing sits towards the open
end, largely due to the unpredictable nature of the surf, where the surfer’s timing is
dependent upon external factors that often change.
- The surfers movements are forceful, utilising large muscle groups such as the
gluteals, quadriceps and hamstrings, making it a gross motor skill.

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 39
- The surfer links together a series of discrete skills, including turns, aerial manoeuvres
and tube rides in a routine, making it a serial performance.

1 mark for identification of an open skill

1 mark for justification of an open skill
1 mark for identification of a gross skill
1 mark for justification of a gross skill
1 mark for identification of a serial skill
1 mark for justification of a serial skill

ANALYSE INDIVIDUAL, TASK AND ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS

INFLUENCING MOVEMENT SKILL DEVELOPMENT

The Kellysville Kolts Baseball Club has programs for people of various ages. Their Modball
competition is for under-10 boys and girls. The game is played on a diamond with 60-foot
base paths, with minor, age-appropriate variations to rules to provide a deeper learning
opportunity. The game introduces the player to a pitched ball, developing their
understanding of the strike zone, as well as introducing the position of catcher with proper
protective equipment. A parent of the batting team pitches the ball to the batter, thus
encouraging the player to hit, rather than a pitcher trying to strike the batter out.

a. Choose three of the modifications that have been made and identify whether
they are related to task, individual or environmental constraints on movement.
(3 marks)

- Individual: Introduction of the strike zone, so the children can decide whether or not
to bat the ball and develop their decision making skills

- Task: Using parents to pitch the ball, to keep the pitching consistent rather than
children pitching the ball, is an alteration of the rules.

- Environmental: Playing the diamond on 60 foot base paths is a modification of the

field size

3 marks for identifying each modification correctly

b. Individual constraints can be assigned to two categories. Identify and explain

these categories. (2 marks)

Structural constraints relate to body structure of the individual, such as how the
under-10s will have a smaller physique. Whereas functional constraints relate to
behaviours. The under-10s will have less developed perpetual skills and need more
time to learn the rules of the sport

2 marks for identifying both functional and structural constraints

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 40
c. The Modball program has been designed to assist the under-10s to progress
towards regular baseball. Explain two ways in which the introductions that
have been made to the Modball program can help the players to overcome
movement constraints in the game of baseball. (4 Marks)

- Using a strike zone to help the players learn the skills required in baseball and
deciding whether or not to swing the bat can improve their decision making skills and
improve their game awareness.

- Using a parent to pitch the ball to them rather than using a tee, can develop the
timing and batting technique skills of the children and improve their judgement.

2 marks for explaining two introductions that have been made

2 marks for linking to overcoming movement constraints

Describe how you could manipulate the size of playing equipment to focus on a
particular concept when implementing constraints-based coaching (2 marks)

A softball coach could get batters to swing with a lighter bat to encourage batters to get their
hands through quicker, to generate enhanced bat speed.

1 mark for explaining how to manipulate the size of the playing equipment
1 mark for explaining how it focuses on a particular concept, or improves performance

ANALYSE THE LINK BETWEEN MOTOR SKILL DEVELOPMENT

AND PARTICIPATION AND PERFORMANCE
The key concept is the greater an individual’s motor skills have been developed, the more
likely the are to participate in sports and have a stronger performance

Why is it important that children have well developed fundamental motor skills?
(1 mark)

To make the transition into more sport specific skills, such as rebounding or performing a
gymnastics routine, easier, and to make them more likely to participate in sport later in life.

Explain the relationship between movement skills, participation and performance

(2 marks)

People who have have strong movement skills such as running or kicking are more likely to
participate in sports that require these skills more often, which then improves performance,
through practice. Whereas people with weak movement skills are less likely to participate,
which decreases the success in their performance.

1 mark for explaining the effect of people with strong movement skills
1 mark for explaining the effect of people with weak movement skills

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 41
How can a lack of skill development impact on students’ experiences with physical
education programs? (1 mark)

Children not proficient in basic motor skills will have little success performing more complex
sport specific skills that feature heavily in secondary school physical education and sport
program.

PERFORM A QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS OF A MOVEMENT SKILL USING

VIDEO AND SYSTEMATIC OBSERVATION TO ANALYSE AND IMPROVE A
VARIETY OF MOVEMENT SKILLS

Qualitative analysis should be undertaken by applying the four stages. This should be
undertaken with the aim to improve performance.

Henry has qualified for the Olympics and is currently working with his coach to improve his
long jump. Henry’s coach will make some changes to the training program and knows that
these changes need to be based on a systematic observation of Henry’s technique.

a. Identify a type of analysis that Henry’s coach could perform and outline the
tasks that he would undertake during this analysis. (9 marks)

- Henry’s coach would perform a qualitative analysis. Qualitative analysis involves four
tasks: preparation, observation, evaluation and error correction.

- Preparation — during this phase, the coach will research the critical features, such as
take off, run up and landing of the movement and have an understanding of times or
other measures that Henry needs to achieve for each of these aspects of the skill.

- Observation — this phase involves the actual recording of Henry’s technique in

accordance with what was outlined in the preparation stage. It would most likely
involve using high speed video of him performing his jump.

- Evaluation — once the footage has been recorded, it will be evaluated. The data
collected during the evaluation will be compared to the performance expectations
outlined in the preparation phase. Each critical feature will be analysed. This will
provide information about aspects of the performance that are adequate or those that
could be improved.

- Error correction — once the critical features that could be improved have been
identified, the coach will provide Henry with feedback, including verbal feedback or
modified practice, and make changes to his training regime to best improve his jump.

1 mark for a identifying qualitative analysis

4 marks for identifying the key components
4 marks for explaining each

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 42
b. Identify two critical features of a long jump. (2 marks)

Take-off speed and height of jump

2 marks for each component correctly identified

c. Select one critical feature identified in part b and outline a possible error
correction method that could be used to improve Henry’s performance.
(2 marks)

Physical conditioning — Henry could train to increase his running speed, which
would help him to increase his velocity at take-off.

1 mark for identifying a correct method

1 mark for explaining how it could improve performance

Apply the four qualitative principles if you were critiquing a baseballer (4 marks)

I would prepare by gathering information about the pitcher, and determine what constitutes
an effective pitch. I would then observe the athlete and set up video recordings, to watch
them and observe the range of critical features they perform. I would then evaluate the skill
and assess the pitch by watching over the video, and then class the critical features as
strengths and weakness, using checklists as an aid to make evaluation more objective.
Once strengths and weaknesses have been established, I would use error correction to
provide visual feedback through the video of the athlete, and then over-exaggerate their
weakness and give them modified practice, so they can practice and further improve their
pitch.

4 marks for correctly explaining each of the four principles

Observations can be performed live or recorded digitally. Describe an advantage of a

coach recording a performance before completing their observational analyses.
(2 marks)

The coach can look over and analyse the performance multiple times, to make sure they
study all the critical features of the skill and how the player performs it. The coach can also
provide visual feedback by showing the athlete various examples of what they did.

1 mark for identifying the review and re-review of video

1 mark for identifying the visual feedback

During the evaluation phase the athlete needs to be judged on the quality of the
performance or skill. Performance can be assessed either objectively, subjectively or
both. Compare objective and subjective measures of performance. (3 marks)

Objective measures are based on the collection of data, eg. a score or time, or development
of a checklist/rubric. Objective measures are not subject to personal opinion, whereas
subjective measures are. Subjective measures are based on a person’s perception, or
interpretation of an event, such as how they think a game should look.

1 mark for explaining what objective measures are

1 mark for explaining the difference between objective and subjective measures
1 mark for explaining what subjective measures are.

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 43
 ANALYSE, INTERPRET AND APPLY GRAPHICAL, VISUAL AND PHYSICAL
REPRESENTATIONS OF BIOMECHANICAL PRINCIPLES TO IMPROVE
MOVEMENT SKILLS IN A COACHING CONTEXT

No calculations are needed in the exam, however you must know the relationship between
the terms in the formulas.

A rugby player receives a pass from a team mate while stationary. Immediately after
receiving the ball, he is tackled by an opposition player. Explain, using the principle of
transfer of momentum, what would happen next (2 marks)

Since the opposition player has a certain momentum by running at a high velocity, the
principle of transfer of momentum states that momentum in a collision is conserved. This
means that the stationary rugby player will begin moving in the direction he was tackled,
absorbing the impact of the collision and keeping the net momentum the same, until they fall
and hit the ground.

1 mark for using the principle of transfer of momentum

1 mark for explaining what would happen

There are two wrestlers, one with a larger mass than the other. Explain, using
Newton’s first law of motion, why the wrestler with the larger mass would be harder to
move than the wrestler with smaller mass, all other factors being equal (2 marks)

Newton’s first law states that in order for a body to move a force must be applied them that is
great enough to overcome their inertia. The larger a wrestler’s mass, the greater their inertia
and the more force required to overcome their state of motion, hence why it would be harder
to move the heavier wrestler.

1 mark for explaining what Newton’s first law does

1 mark for explaining why the heavier wrestler will be harder to move

Brooke Stratton set a new Australian women’s long jump record in Perth during 2016 with a
jump of 7.05 metres. Describing this achievement, a sports scientist said Brooke’s jump was
outstanding as she first had to overcome inertia and develop enough force during the run up
to propel herself into the air for this performance.

a. Describe what the term inertia means. (1 mark)

The reluctance of a body to change in it’s state of motion

b. Prior to Brooke moving, she has to overcome her static inertia. What is this
static inertia directly proportional to? (2 marks)

Her mass. A greater mass = greater inertia, and the more force needed to change
her state of motion.

1 mark for identifying mass

1 mark for explaining the relationship

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 44
c. After Brooke propelled herself into the air, she was confronted by two external
forces that prevented her from jumping even further. Name these two forces.
For each of these forces explain how they acted on Brooke. (4 marks)

Gravity acted on Brooke and pulled Brooke down to Earth from the air vertically. Air
resistance also acted on Brooke, and affected her by resisting her forward
horizontally.

1 mark for identifying gravity

1 mark for identifying air resistance
2 marks for explaining the vertical/horizontal impact of the two

d. Describe what Newton’s third law of motion states. (1 mark)

For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.

e. Use Newton’s third law to describe how Brooke was able to run down the long
jump track prior to her jump, explaining what the terms equal and opposite
mean in this context. (2 marks)

The third law state that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
When Brooke pushes downwards and backwards on the track to run, the ground
exerts an equal and opposite force back, causing Brooke to run forwards and
upwards.

1 mark for explaining how Brooke could run down the track
1 mark for linking to Newton’s third law

Two 13-year-old students competed in a 100-metre race during an athletics competition.

Runner 1
Rachael, who weighs 40 kg

Runner 2
Kylie, who weighs 60 kg

a. If Rachael and Kylie produce the same amount of force at the beginning of the
race, explain, using Newton’s second law of motion, who would be leading in
the 100-metre race. (3 marks)

If Rachael and Kylie take off with the same force, the lighter one (Rachael) will go
faster. Force = mass x acceleration. For the same force, as mass decreases
acceleration increase and vice versa. Therefore Rachael will have greater
acceleration.

1 mark for identifying who will lead

1 mark for explaining Newton’s second law
1 mark for relating it back to the example

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 45
b. Use Newton’s first law of motion to explain why Kylie would find it harder to
slow down after the conclusion of the race. Use the key words mass and inertia
in your response. (2 marks)

Kylie will have to be acted upon by an unbalanced force to change her state of
motion to stop. Because Kylie has a heavier mass, she has a greater inertia and
requires more force for her to stop.

1 mark for using the first law of motion

1 mark for explaining with reference to mass and inertia

c. At the start of the race, both girls push back and down against the starting
blocks with great force. Using Newton’s third law, explain what occurs next
and why. Why do the girls use great force? (2 marks)

The girls use great force in their action, because for each action there is an equal
and opposite reaction. So the force that is applied against the starting blocks will
push back against and towards the girls, which can cause them to accelerate.

1 mark for using Newton’s third law

1 mark for explaining what happens and why

What is the common variable in Newton’s first, second and third laws of motion?
Explain your answer (4 marks)

Force is the common variable. A force is required to change the motion of an object (first
law). A force is required to increase the acceleration of the object (second law). The force
applied to an object is equal in magnetite and opposite in direction to the force the object
applies back (third law).

1 mark for identifying the common variable as force

3 marks for explaining why and relating back to each of the three laws of motion

Explain how a sumo wrestler can increase his stability and balance (3 marks)

A wrestler should lower his centre of gravity to a lower height, by squatting down, increase
his area of his base of support by widening his legs and shift his line of gravity over the
centre of his base of support by remaining upright. This will give him more support to resist
changing his state of motion and any attacks from opponents, increasing his stability and his
ability to control his balance of forces.

2 marks for explaining and given examples of at least two factors that affect stability
1 mark for explaining how this increases balance and stability

In baseball, what is the advantage of being able to run through first base? (2 marks)

You already have momentum going as you sprinted already to first base, meaning you don't
have to worry about decelerating as you approach the base. You can get to your fastest
velocity get to the base faster.

1 mark for identifying the correct biomechanics principles

1 mark for explaining why it is an advantage

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 46
Explain how modifying a push up from your toes to your knees changes the
mechanical advantage of the lever system and the impact it has on performance
(3 marks)

Performing a pushup on your knees decreases the size of the resistance arm, which
increases the mechanical advantage (force arm/resistance arm) of the lever. When
mechanical advantage > 1, the force required move the body is less than the force of the
resistance, which means that there is not as much force required to lower the body to the
ground, making the push-up easier to perform.

1 mark for explaining how modifying the pushup affects the lever
1 mark for explaining what mechanical advantage is
1 mark for explaining why the pushup will be easier to perform

Netball players often need to change direction suddenly. Is it better for the netball
player to assume a position in which their stability is decreased? Explain (3 marks)

Netballers would need to assume a position in which their stability is decreased, so it is

easier for them to move and change position. They do this by increasing the height of their
centre of gravity by going on their toes, so they can be more nimble and less force is
required to unbalance them and change direction faster

1 mark for identifying if they should increase or decrease stability

1 mark for explaining how they decrease their stability
1 mark for explaining the effect on performance

Clearly discuss how you can use the principle of “summation of momentum” to
improve your performance / skill development in throwing. (3 marks)

Summate maximum momentum by activating stronger and larger muscles, like the legs, first,
using as many body parts as possible, transferring momentum at maximum velocity from
one body part to the other and ensuring an appropriate follow through is used to prevent
deceleration. When these principles are applied, momentum will be achieved in the throw,
allowing the ball to travel with greater velocity through the air, causing it to travel a further
distance, improving performance.

3 marks for referencing 3 summation of momentum principles

Impulse occurs when there is a change of momentum applied on an object and it

occurs in many ways during sporting performances. Provide two examples where the
change in momentum of an object has occurred to (i) speed up and (ii) slow down an
object (4 marks)

(i) A hockey player would apply an impulse by making sure the stick comes into contact
with the puc for a longer period of time, to create a greater impulse and greater
change of momentum, and thus increase the velocity of the puc when hit.

(ii) A baseball player when fielding and catching a ball would ‘give’ with the ball, the
increase the amount of time the ball comes into contact with the glove, increasing the
impulse and creating a greater change of momentum, and thus decreasing the
velocity of the ball. This means less force is required to stop the ball.

4 marks for explaining two examples in impulse in sport

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 47
By using biomechanics principles, namely those associated with moment of inertia,
discuss why it is preferable to give beginners equipment that is shorter and lighter
when playing baseball/softball/cricket and as they improve their skill level that these
become heavier and strong (3 marks)

Equipment that is lighter has a smaller mass, and shorter has a smaller radius, which
decreases the moment of inertia. When moment of inertia is decreased, the equipment can
be swung at a greater angular velocity as angular momentum remains the same. This is
beneficial for beginners as they have more control of the equipment and can make it swing
faster, when then increases momentum and velocity of the ball they’re hitting, as momentum
is conserved. As they improve their skill level, they can increase the mass and length of the
equipment, to give it a higher moment of inertia, and allow for greater momentum and
velocity to be transferred to the ball.

1 mark for referencing what decreased moment of inertia can do

1 mark for justifying why this is useful for beginners
1 mark for referring to the sport and the shorter and lighter equipment

Netball and basketball both involve shooting the ball through a hoop/basket that is
3.05cm high.

a. Discuss any differences in the height of release for the tallest student in your
class contrasted to the shortest student in your class, when shooting a basket
(2 marks)

Tall students will release at an optimal angle, while a shorter athlete will need to
increase this angle of release and use more force in an effort to reach the ring and
score a goal.

1 mark for outlining that tall students have a more preferred angle
1 mark for outlining what the shorter student would need to do

b. If you had to teach a group of Year 4 students how to effectively shoot in

basketball or netball, discuss the biomechanics reasons why you would lower
the hoop/basket height (2 marks)

Lowering the ring height means younger students don’t need to exert as much force,
and they are able to throw at an optimal angle more easily.

2 marks for referencing two biomechanics principles

c. Discuss two other modifications you might consider making when coaching
juniors in basektball/netball to enable them to experience more success during
training sessions, ensure you refer to relevant biomechanics principles to
support your discussion (4 marks)

- Decrease the mass of the ball, so less force is required to accelerate the ball when
juniors are throwing it.

- Use a smaller ball, so smaller hands can get a ‘grip’ on the ball and increase the
friction between their hands and the ball, increasing stability they have over the ball.

4 marks for discussing two modifications and identifying biomechanics principles

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 48
In biomechanics terms, explain why some shorter elite tennis players use a longer
racquet to improve their serve (2 marks)

Increasing the length of the racquet increases the length of the lever and increases the
resistance arm. This makes the mechanical advantage < 1, so that more range of motion is
covered by the lever and allows it to be swung at an increased velocity, and the tennis ball
can have a greater acceleration and travel further.

1 mark for referring to the mechanical advantage

1 mark for explaining that a mechanical advantage <1 can create increased velocity

Explain how Newton’s second and third laws apply to a volleyball game. (4 marks)

The greater the force with which the spiker hits the ball the greater the acceleration of the
ball and the more likely it is that the blockers will not be able to successfully block the ball.
(2nd law). The volleyball hitting the blockers hands/arms at an angle bounces off on an
angle with similar force to that with which it was spiked. (3rd law)

2 marks for giving examples of newton’s 2 laws in action

2 marks for explaining how the laws work in the game of volleyball

Inertia can be advantageous or disadvantageous in a sport such as rugby union.

Describe why. (6 marks)

- A player having a greater inertia means more force is required to overcome that
player’s state of motion. If you are in a rugby scrum and have a high inertia, the
opposing players will need to apply a larger face to knock you over and get the ball.

- Inertia and mass are directly proportional, meaning if you have a high inertia, you
have a high mass. Having a high mass means more force is required to accelerate
faster. This means it’ll be more difficult to change the player’s state of motion and run
faster, or change direction, which is a disadvantage when trying to out run other
players.

2 marks for describing an advantage and disadvantage

2 marks for using rugby as the example
2 marks for referring to inertia in both the advantage and disadvantage

Explain the advantage a taller athlete may have over their shorter competitors in
throwing events such as javelin. Explain what the shorter athlete can do to make up
for their height difference. (4 marks)

A taller athlete will naturally have a higher height of release, which will mean the javelin will
travel further in the horizontal direction, which is an advantage in throwing events. For a
shorter athlete to make up for their height difference, they should increase their angle of
release and release velocity, to try and make the javelin travel further.

1 mark for identifying the taller athlete has a higher height of release
1 mark for explaining the effect height of release has on a projectiles motion
1 mark for identifying the increase in angle of release for a shorter athlete
1 mark for identifying the increase in speed of release for a shorter athlete.

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 49
Explain how longer tennis racquets produce greater serve velocities. (2 marks)

Longer levers allow for tennis players to generate greater speeds during serving because of
the increased linear velocity of the racquet head, which imparts greater velocity on the ball.

1 mark for identifying the increased lever length

1 mark for identifying the increased velocity of the lever

Sporting equipment is often modified for children to be shorter and lighter. Explain
why this is suitable for younger children learning to play tennis. (3 marks)

The shorter and lighter racquets are easier to manipulate due to the smaller moment of
inertia, allowing children to have greater control and greater success in hitting the ball. The
increased opportunities to execute the stroke, combined with the increased success
experienced by the children, enhances skill development and enjoyment for the children

1 mark for referencing moment of inertia

1 mark for explaining that children can have more control and success
1 mark for explaining that success enhances skill development

Two students perform a biceps curl with a 10kg dumbbell. Student A is taller and has
much longer forearms than student B. Which student is required to generate more
muscular force to perform the bicep curl? Explain your answer. (4 marks)

Student A will be required to generate more force than Student B, because they have a
longer forearm and longer resistance arm, decreasing the mechanical advantage. Having a
longer lever arm increases the torque (t = f x lever arm) generated by the dumbbell. When
mechanical advantage is decreased, there is a greater force required to move the lever.

1 mark for correct identification of who would need to generate more force
1 mark for explaining that Student A has a decreased mechanical advantage
1 mark for referring to torque
1 mark for explaining decreased mechanical advantage increases force required

During an olympic routine, what must a gymnast do in order to generate angular

motion? (2 marks)

The gymnast must apply an eccentric force, which is a force that acts outside the centre of
gravity. This force is achieved by the gymnast pushing off the beam with her hands or feet
and ensuring that the rest of her body is outside the centre of gravity, which then starts
angular motion.

1 mark for identifying the eccentric force

1 mark for explaining what this is

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 50
Why can shot-putters get better results when using the rotational/spin technique?
(2 marks)

They are applying the force over a longer period of time, which generates impulse and
allows for a greater increase in angular momentum, which then gets transferred to the shot
and the shot will have an increased velocity and travel a further distance.

1 mark for explaining the increased impulse

1 mark for referring to increased momentum and conservation of momentum

EXPLAIN AND APPLY THEORIES OF LEARNING TO PRACTICAL

COACHING SITUATIONS

Practice using scenarios and identify the type of coaching and practice/feedback that is
happening

Be aware of the advantages and disadvantages of the different types of coaching and
practice methods. The constraints-based approach and the direct approach both have their
relative strengths and weaknesses. The coach should choose an instructional approach
based on the participant’s stage of learning (individual) and the nature of the movement skill
(task).

Ben is an under-12 AFL footballer who demonstrates effective technique when

executing a drop-punt kick during uncontested line drills. His kicks generally hit their
intended targets but lack consistency and and skill execution. However, when Ben is
involved in match practice, his kicking skills deteriorate significantly.

a. Name the stage of learning most applicable to Ben’s kicking skills and provide
two instructional strategies applicable to this stage of learning. (3 marks)

Ben’s kicking is in the associative stage of learning. Firstly, Ben needs regular
supervised kicking practice and secondly, the coach should assist Ben to understand
why he has made a kicking error, as well as develop strategies to correct skill errors.

1 mark naming the associative stage of learning

2 marks for naming two instructional strategies

b. Name the instructional approach that would most likely enhance Ben’s kicking
skills in a match. Explain how this instructional approach facilitates the
execution of effective skills under match conditions. Provide an example to
support your answer. (4 marks)

A constraints-based approach to instruction. The constraints-based approach places

the learner in a small-sided game modified to simulate match conditions and hence
develop applicable movement skills; for example, a game of ‘keepings off’, in which
Ben and three other teammates try to maintain possession by kicking the ball to each
other within a designated space and avoid being intercepted by two designated
defenders. The game implicitly teaches important and applicable kicking skills that
are generally not developed in line drills, such as kicking the ball out ‘in front’ of the
leading teammate and practising externally paced skills.

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 51
 1 mark for naming the constraints-based approach
2 marks for explaining how the constraints-based approach simulates match
conditions to produce applicable movement skills
1 mark for an example of the approach

Outline two coaching tips for autonomous learners (2 marks)

Autonomous learners would require precise, detailed feedback from the coach to allow for
improvements in skill execution. They also need to be exposed to a game sense, and match
simulation to enhance tactical knowledge and decision-making skills.

2 marks for two coaching tips

You have to design training sessions for a newly formed tennis club that consists of
many members with a wide range of skills and experiences. Discuss typical
skills/drills you would design for players at the cognitive and associative stages of
development. (2 marks)

For the cognitive stage, I would give them simple drills in a blocked style of practice, with a
closed environment, focusing on discrete skills such as forehand, backhand, and serving,
and give repeated demonstrations.

For the associative stage, I would spend some time allowing them to focus on refining their
serving, forehand and backhand skills, before sending them into a game situation, where the
game is more open and practice is more random. Instructions can be detailed.

1 mark for skills/drills at the cognitive stage

1 mark for skills/drills at the associative stage

EXPLAIN SOCIOCULTURAL FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE MOVEMENT

SKILL DEVELOPMENT AT DIFFERENT STAGES OF LEARNING

It is sometimes difficult to tell exactly where an individual falls on the spectrum of stages of
learning, as there is no clear start or end point between each of the stages. The same
individual can also fall into different stages for different skills.

Be able to identify how different factors affect different stages of learning

Explain how having an active and skilled role model could positively influence a
young person’s opportunity to develop their motor skills. (2 marks)

A coach can demonstrate correct technique of a particular skill, which a young person can
then model. The coach’s role modelling may provide motivation to the young person to try
harder.

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 52
Joel lives in Mans eld in the alpine region of Victoria. His cousin Tom lives in
Anglesea on the west coast of Victoria. Explain the influence geographic location may
have on the boys’ skill acquisition opportunities in the cognitive stage (2 marks)

Geographic location can influence people’s access to various physical activities and the
variety of sports they can try. Joel is more likely to have access to programs, facilities and
resources related to alpine sports, whereas Tom is more likely to have access to aquatic
activities.

DISCUSS HOW SKILL CLASSIFICATION AFFECTS THE SELECTION OF

APPROPRIATE PRACTICE STRATEGIES

Skill classification describes the type of skill in terms of precision of movement (fine or
gross), the predictability of the performance environment (open or closed), whether it is
complex (multiple sub-routines) or whether it is continuous or discrete

A. What is the type of feedback a hockey player would rely on while playing in a
game? Provide an example of this type of feedback in your discussion.
(2 marks)

A hockey player would rely on intrinsic feedback, feedback that comes from within
such as feeling the control they have over the puc, as it is difficult for them to obtain
external feedback during a game.

1 mark for explaining intrinsic feedback

1 mark for the example

B. Suggest how and when a coach could use the following types of practice in
hockey for maximal benefit:

Random practice
Massed practice (2 marks)

A coach could use random practice when players aim to practice their decision
making skills and improve their awareness of the game, most likely to be used in the
associate and autonomous stages of learning, whereas they could use massed
practice when they aim to emphasis skill execution on a certain skill in the cognitive
stages of learning.

1 mark for explaining when and how random practice works

1 mark for explaining when and how massed practice works

Identify and justify whether an open or closed environment is most preferable for an
associative learner (2 marks)

The environment should be more open and random, as there are more factors to consider
and this more closely replicates a game environment. This will help associative learners
build tactical and strategic thinking, and allow for a greater transfer of learning.

1 mark for open environment

1 mark for the justification

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 53
 OBSERVE AND RECORD THE CHARACTERISTICS OF DIFFERENT
TYPES OF PRACTICE STRATEGIES

This is about learning about practice strategies and their characteristics and how they can
lead to certain outcomes in learning

Why would a coach provide beginners with a lot of blocked practice in a very
structured predictable environment? (2 marks)

Blocked practice has low levels of variability and involves performing the same skill
repeatedly, and the closed environment gives little distractions to the beginner learner so
they can focus on developing and improving their skill and technique.

1 mark for explaining what blocked practice is

1 mark for explaining why a closed environment helps beginners

Describe the relationship between the stage of learning and the amount of variability
of practice (2 marks)

Early stages of learning will generally have more blocked practice with low levels of
variability so the learners can concentrate. As they progress through the stages. the amount
of variability they experience will be greater, and they’ll be involved in more random practice,
to enhance their decision making skills and ensure they develop applicable skills.

Why is massed practice better suited to performers at the associative and

autonomous stages of learning? (2 marks)

The massed practice allows for continuous practice of the skill, and generally requires high
levels of motivation and self-monitoring. This maximises practice time and allows associative
and autonomous learners to precisely replicate and refine their skill further, and allow for
better movement skills performance which they can apply in the game.

1 mark for explaining what massed practice is

1 mark for explaining why this type of practice is better suited

Why is distributed practice better suited to performers when they are learning a skill
for the first time? (2 marks)

The rest periods allow for memory consolidation and the player can give themselves
feedback intrinsically or externally from a coach. This helps a cognitive learner as the rest
periods give them time to think through a skill and avoid fatigue, and to keep them
motivated.

1 mark for explaining what distributed practice does

1 mark for explaining how this helps a cognitive learner

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 54
Why does random practice result in greater retention of skill when compared to
blocked practice? (2 marks)

Random practice more closely replicates a game situation, as games are random, and the
learner is more actively involved in the learning as opposed to the simple, repetitious activity
performed in blocked practice. This makes random practice more likely to result in retention
of skill in a game environment for players

2 marks for justifying why random practice results in greater skill retention

PERFORM, OBSERVE, ANALYSE, AND REPORT ON THE

ROLE OF FEEDBACK IN IMPROVING PERFORMANCE THROUGH
PRACTICAL- BASED ACTIVITIES

This is about knowing the types of feedback and how they can be used in various scenarios
to improve performance

Describe the type of feedback elite Hockeyroo Anna Flanagan would use while
playing a match and explain how she would utilise this feedback to enhance her skill
performance. (5 marks)

Anna would be reliant on concurrent augmented feedback from her coach on the sideline, as
well as her own intrinsic feedback; for example, Anna can feel when she has struck the ball
with the appropriate speed and accuracy. As an experienced hockey player, Anna can
process her coach’s instructions while playing and further enhance her skill performance and
her contribution to the team’s success.

1 mark for acknowledging Anna is experienced

2 marks for two types of feedback
2 marks for providing examples of each type of feedback

Describe the best type of feedback for a cognitive learner (2 marks)

Augmented, knowledge of results would be the best for the cognitive learner, as they don’t
get overwhelmed with information, as well as keeping them motivated through successful
outcomes.

1 mark for identifying augmented, knowledge of results

1 mark for describing why it helps the cognitive learner

Provide an example of how both terminal and concurrent feedback could be used in
the sport of basketball (2 marks)

Concurrent feedback could be used when a coach tells out instructions to the team from the
sidelines while they’re playing a match, and terminal feedback could be used after a match
when a coach sits down and discusses the game with the team.

1 mark for how terminal feedback could be used

1 mark for how concurrent feedback could be used

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 55
Feedback is vital for improving learning and skill development. Why is it important
that feedback is provided as soon as practical after a skill is performed? (2 marks)

Feedback highlights skill errors and allows learners to refine their technique and make
appropriate corrections efficiently. Feedback also provides positive reinforcement, so
learners can recognise what they are doing correctly.

2 marks for two points about the importance of the timing of feedback.

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 56
 AREA OF STUDY 2: HOW DOES THE
BODY PRODUCE ENERGY?
KEY KNOWLEDGE

fuels (both chemical and food) required for resynthesis of ATP at rest and during
physical activity, including the relative contribution of fuels at varying exercise
intensities

characteristics of the three energy systems (ATP–CP, anaerobic glycolysis, aerobic

system) for physical activity, including rate of ATP production, the yield of each
energy system, fatigue/limiting factors and recovery rates associated with active and
passive recoveries

interplay of energy systems in relation to the intensity, duration and type of activity

oxygen uptake at rest, and during exercise and recovery, including oxygen deficit,
steady state, and excess post-exercise oxygen consumption

acute physiological responses to exercise in the cardiovascular, respiratory and

muscular systems.

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 57
 FUELS

Fuels (both chemical and food) required for resynthesis of ATP at rest and during
physical activity, including the relative contribution of fuels at varying exercise
intensities

- Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is the chemical energy of all body cells. It powers all
of the cell’s metabolic activities, including the muscle’s ability to contract.

- ATP is the only source of energy for muscular contractions. Other fuels simply allow
ADP to be rebuilt into ATP.

- The energy that powers the mechanisms involved in muscular contraction is obtained
from catabolism (breaking down) of ATP.

- ATP, or Adenosine Triphosphate is one adenosine and three phosphate

molecules.

- ATP —> ADP + Pi + Energy

- However, the body only stores a very small quantity of ATP within the cells, enough
to only power 1-2 seconds of maximal exercise.

- As most sporting activities last longer than this, the body must resynthesise ATP on
an ongoing basis.

- To do this, chemical reactions using the body’s available fuels add a phosphate back
to ADP to make more ATP.

- During energy production, a phosphate molecule splits off. ATP is split into ADP and
Pi.

- Energy is required to rejoin ADP and Pi back into ATP so more energy for muscular
contractions can be released.

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 58
- Phosphocreatine, or PC, is stored in limited quantities within the muscles, however
as supplies are limited PC is quickly depleted during maximal exercise.
- PC only requires simple chemical reactions, so it can be broken down at a fast rate.

- PC splits into creatine and inorganic phosphate when broken down. This produces
energy that is used to rebuild ATP.

- Only approximately 10 seconds worth of PC can be stored at the muscles.

- Carbohydrates, or CHO, are the preferred source of food fuels during exercise.

- They are stored as glycogen within the liver and muscles.

- Glycogen is broken down into glucose, where glucose travels in the blood and
enters muscle cells.

- Excess CHO is stored as fats.

- High Glycemic Index (High GI) foods are absorbed fast compared to low GI food

- Carbohydrates require less oxygen to be oxidised than fats and are broken down at a
much faster rate, and therefore are the preferred fuel for when exercising at
moderate-high intensities.

- When CHO is broken down without oxygen, they are incompletely broken, as
opposed to being completely broken with oxygen.

- Examples of foods containing carbohydrates are potatoes, rice, bread, flour, popcorn
etc.

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 59
- Fats, or lipids, are the preferred source of food fuels during rest and low intensities.

- They are stored as adipose tissue around the body or within the muscle as
triglycerides.

- Fats contain the most energy and a great yield of ATP but need a lot of oxygen to
breakdown.

- Fats require complex chemical reactions to breakdown, and therefore produce

energy at a much slower rate.

- After digestion, lipids get broken down to free fatty acids (FFA) and are transported
through the blood.

- During exercise, the percentage of fats being used as an energy source decreases
as the exercise intensity increases.

- However, as exercise duration increases, the percentage of fats being used in the
production of ATP increases.

- Fats become increasingly important when stores of CHO deplete during endurance
exercise (around 90-120 minutes).

- Examples of foods containing fats are butter, margarine, cheese, oils.

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 60
- Protein is only used in extreme circumstances, such as an ultra marathon.

- They are stored as muscle tissue.

- Proteins are built from basic units called amino acids, which travel through the
blood.

- Protein requires a lot of oxygen to break down for energy release.

- Used for growth and repair.

- They are only used when all other sources have been depleted.

- Examples of foods containing protein are meat, fish, eggs, cheese.

- At rest and low-intensity activity, the body uses two-thirds lipids and one-third
CHO. Fats can liberate more energy than CHO as there is an abundance of oxygen
at rest.

- During moderate-intensity exercise, there is a mixture of lipids and CHO being

used for fuel. Extended duration efforts will see glycogen deplete and lipids become
the dominant provider, at this point intensity is decreased as more oxygen is needed
for lipid breakdown compared to CHO.

- But if you can metabolise triglycerides at higher intensities (glycogen sparing) this is
an advantage.

- This allows the athlete to metabolise triglycerides at higher intensities allow you to
conserve glycogen.

- Using a greater percentage of fats (not necessarily the dominant fuel source) allows
you to maximise carbohydrates for longer.

- It is important to recognise that glycogen sparing is not a strategy to improve

performance, it is an adaptation!

- During high-intensity exercise, phosphate creatine and CHO are predominantly

used.

- Carbohydrate loading is a process that allows for performance enhancement by

increasing your glycogen stores and carbohydrate intake 3-5 days prior to a major
competition.

- This should be also done alongside a taper period, where training frequency
decreases but intensity maintains the same. This is to ensure the extra
carbohydrates consumed aren't burned off.

- This allows for a prolonged performance, however could increase a person’s

bodyweight and increase their water storage.

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 61
- Carbohydrate loading cannot be mentioned without talking about tapering!

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 62
 ENERGY SYSTEMS

Characteristics of the three energy systems (ATP–CP, anaerobic glycolysis, aerobic

system) for physical activity, including rate of ATP production, the yield of each
energy system, fatigue/limiting factors and recovery rates associated with active and
passive recoveries

- The energy for muscular contractions is produced either anaerobically or

aerobically via three every systems.

Anaerobic systems:

- ATP-PC system

- Anaerobic glycolysis system

Aerobic systems:

- Aerobic glycolysis system

- Aerobic lipolysis system

- At rest the body has lots of oxygen available, however during activity, increased
oxygen supply is needed to go to the working muscles.

- Exercises of short duration and high intensity means the anaerobic systems
supply most of the energy.

- Exercises of longer duration and low intensity means the aerobic system supplies
most of the energy.

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 63
 ATP-PC Anaerobic glycolysis Aerobic

AKA Phosphate system, Lactacid system Oxygen system

phospagen system
Fuel source PC (Phosphate Glycogen Glycogen and
creatine) triglycerides
Intensity Maximal, explosive, High intensity, 85%+ Sub-maximal < 85%
95% HR max HR Max HR Max
Rate of ATP Most rapid / explosive Fast CHO : Moderate
production Fats : Slowest
Yield of ATP Limited, low, 0.7 ATP Small amount, 2-3 36-38 ATP per glucose
produced per molecule of PC ATP per glucose 147 ATP per glyceride
molecule (450 per triglyceride)
Dominance 0-10 seconds / 0-25 10-60 seconds 60 seconds +
for elite 2 hours + aerobic
lipolysis
Peak power 2-4 seconds 5-15 seconds 1-2 minutes

By-products Inorganic phosphate, Lactate, hydrogen Carbon dioxide, heat,

ADP ions, ADP water
Fatigue Depletion of PC, Accumulation of Elevated body
mechanism leading to increased metabolic by-products temperature
reliance on anaerobic
glycolysis system
Recovery Passive recovery Active recovery High GI foods, active
method recovery
Sporting eg. 100m sprint, shot put, 200m sprint, 100m Marathon, midfield
jumping swim, defensive play football, beep test
Work : rest ratio 1:5 1:3 2:1 +

- ATP is resynthesised using ADP and a free phosphate molecule (Pi).

- This process requires energy.

- Phosphocreatine is the chemical compound that provides this energy.

- So PC is broken down to phosphate and creatine to produce energy, and this allows

- ADP to be rebuilt to ATP, which can then produce the energy needed for muscular
contractions,

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 64
- The ATP-PC system provides the most readily available source of ATP for energy,
because it depends on short and simple chemical reactions.

- ATP and PC are both stored in the muscle and available for immediate energy
release

- Processes occur anaerobically, so there is no reliance on oxygen.

- Once PC is depleted, ATP must be resynthesised in other ways, usually via

glycogen through the anaerobic glycolysis system.

- Anaerobic glycolysis system supplies ATP at a slower rate, therefore there is a

decrease in the amount of force in muscular contractions and rate.

- There is also an accumulation of metabolic by-products, inorganic phosphate

and ADP.

- Pi accumulation decreases the rate and force at which the muscles contract,
causing fatigue in very high intensity activities where Pi accumulates at a fast rate.

- ADP accumulation results in decreased contraction velocity, causing fatigue in very

high intensities where ADP accumulates quickly.

- Once PC is depleted, it gets replenished via a passive recovery.

- 70% of PC gets replenished in 30 seconds.

- 98% after 3 minutes.

- 100% replenished in 10 minutes.

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 65
- The anaerobic glycolysis system produces energy from the breakdown of
glycogen to glucose, the process is known as glycolysis.

- This provides the energy necessary to rebuild ADP to ATP.

- Because oxygen is not present, the glycogen is not fully broken down.

- Pyruvic acid is created and because there is no oxygen, it is converted to lactic

acid and then lactate.

- Hydrogen ions are also released.

- As these by-products increase in the muscles it decreases the rate of ATP

rebuilding and leads to fatigue.

- The anaerobic glycolysis system requires more complex reactions than the ATP-PC
system to release energy.

- An accumulation of H+ ions leads to a decrease in pH in the muscle and increased

muscle acidity, which contributes to decreased muscle function. The acidic
environment slows down enzyme activity and ultimately the breakdown of glucose
slows down. This causes the muscle to become fatigued.

- Lactate doesn't cause fatigue, accumulation of H+ ions do.

Recovery methods include:

- Active recovery, which is where you continue the activity but at a reduced intensity.
Here oxygen can be delivered to the working muscles and remove metabolic by-
products and prevent venous pooling, and assist venous return.

- By performing an active recovery over a passive recovery, you can half your recovery
time.

- Massage, which increases blood flow to muscles and aids in removal of by-products.

- Hold/cold therapy, involving vasodilation and vasoconstriction, which increases

blood flow to remove by-products.

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 66
- The lactate inflection point (LIP) refers to the last exercise intensity where blood
lactate production equals blood lactate removal within the body (is balanced)
(generally aerobic work).

- This typically occurs around 85-90% MHR, but can be up to 95% for elite athletes.

- Lactate is always present in the blood, but at lower intensities it is able to be oxidised
and removed at a similar rate to what it is produced.

- LIP is an aerobic concept; a higher LIP indicates that an athlete can work at a higher
intensity for a longer period of time predominantly aerobically. That means less
reliance on anaerobic glycolysis contribution at higher intensities an they can
effectively transport oxygen to working muscles and oxidise lactate at the rate it is
being produced. Therefore not allowing LIP to be reached and no accumulation of
lactate.

- Lactate tolerance is an anaerobic concept. An athlete with a greater lactate

tolerance will be able to maintain performance despite the accumulation of lactate
and continue to derive significant contribution from their anaerobic glycolysis system.

- Any work above LIP requires an increased contribution from the anaerobic systems
to supply energy.

- Lactate accumulation is associated with an accumulation of H+ ions.

- After LIP, H+ ions will begin to accumulate in the muscles and cause fatigue.

- At exercise intensities beyond LIP, blood lactate concentration increases.

exponentially; this is believed to result from the accumulation of H+ ions, not lactate
itself.

- To recover from LIP, an active recovery is best. This keeps blood flow high to help
break down lactate into pyruvic acid and ATP again. When oxygen is available it can
help to produce ATP and give lactate a positive effect on performance.

- In order to delay the accumulation of metabolic by-products, an athlete would most

likely train at or slightly below their LIP.

- Eg. its ideal for a marathon runner to run at or just above their LIP.

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 67
- The aerobic system breaks down glycogen into glucose and pyruvic acid using
oxygen (aerobic glycolysis).

- This occurs in the mitochondria.

- Because oxygen is present a more complete breakdown of glycogen occurs,

resulting in no lactate.

- Pyruvic acid gets channeled into the Krebs Cycle and Electron Transport System,
where more ATP is produced, and instead of lactate forming, pyruvic acid is
eventually broken down into heat, carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O).

- None of these cause fatigue, and the aerobic system can be used indefinitely

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 68
- The aerobic system prefers to break down CHO rather than fats.

- Although fats can produce more ATP, they require more oxygen to be broken down.

- Stores of glycogen in the muscle and liver can fuel continuous exercise for over 90
minutes. When glycogen stores are depleted there is an increased reliance on
triglycerides to produce ATP.

- Fats require more oxygen, therefore an athlete must decrease intensity as ATP is
resynthesised at a slower rate.

- To prevent glycogen fuel depletion, athletes should carbohydrate load before

exercise, as well as exercise taper.

- During exercise, they should drink hypertonic sports drinks or consume sports
gels.

- After exercise, high GI foods should be consumed as soon as possible.

- In aerobic lipolysis, the aerobic system metabolises fats for ATP resynthesis.

- Lipolysis is the breakdown of triglycerides into glycerol and free fatty acids. These
are then broken down to acetyl coenzyme A, which can enter the Krebs cycle and
be broken down in the same way as carbohydrate metabolism.

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 69
- During aerobic exercise, heat is generated during energy production causing an
increase in core body temperature.

- The body must monitor its balance between cooling and muscle blood supply, which
occurs through thermoregulation.

- When body temperature increases, more blood is redirected to the surface of the
skin (vasodilation at the skin) as a cooling mechanism, therefore less blood is
supplied to the working muscles.

- This has a cooling effect as heat radiates with the environment.

- However less oxygen is going to the working muscles to remove waste products.

- Therefore a greater contribution from the anaerobic glycolysis system is required and
potential accumulation of H+ ions.

- Sweat production also increases due to dehydration. Dehydration won’t occur

without elevated body temperature.

- This assists with cooling the body.

- However, this reduces blood plasma levels and decreases electrolytes in the body,
which can lead to dehydration.

- Decreased blood volume results in decreased cardiac output, reducing oxygen

delivery to the muscles, and decreases the ability to remove by-products.

- Both increased blood flow to the skin and increased sweat production leads to
decreased oxygen delivery to the working muscles and can cause fatigue.

To prevent / recover from this:

- Hydrate before, during and after events.

- Consume sports drinks containing sodium to encourage fluid retention.

- Ice baths or cold showers.

- Wear light weight, light coloured clothing.

- Use shade.

- Take regular breaks.

- Acclimatise to conditions.

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 70
Interplay of energy systems in relation to the intensity, duration and type of activity

- Interplay refers to the energy systems working together, but at different rates, to
supply the ATP required for an activity.

- All three energy systems contribute to the resynthesis of ATP during physical activity.

- How each system works alongside the other energy systems is referred to as the
interplay of energy systems.

- Two factors determine the ATP demand of an activity:

- Duration: determines the yield of ATP expended that is required to be resynthesised

over the course of the activity.

- Intensity: determines the rate of ATP use, and consequently, resynthesis during the
activity.

- Availability of oxygen and availability and resynthesis of chemical/food fuels

can also determine the contribution of each energy system.

- The three systems do not function independently, all three energy systems are
activated at the start of exercise.

- The intensity and duration of the physical activity determine which of the energy
systems is the dominant contributor to ATP production.

- The figures below assume that continuous exercise is being performed.

- After 60-90 seconds, the aerobic system becomes dominant generally.

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 71
- The ATP-PC system is the only system with the capacity to meet the high power
output demand of very high intensity exercise (eg. shot put) for 0-6 seconds.

- Other energy systems will produce ATP at slower rates, but their contribution to the
energy supply will be minimal in proportion compared to the ATP-PC.

- When exercise of high intensity lasts for more than 10 seconds, the the intensity has
to be reduced for activity to continue. As PC stores deplete, the anaerobic glycolysis
increases its contribution to energy production.

- If activity is to continue beyond 60 seconds, the intensity would have to be decreased

and the aerobic system becomes the dominant supplier to energy production.

- Transitioning from rest to exercise always results in an increased energy demand

and requires an increased oxygen supply to the working muscles.

- However the respiratory and circulatory systems are unable to meet this increased
demand immediately, so the body must use the anaerobic energy pathways to meet
the ATP demands until the body has time to increase its oxygen delivery to meet the
oxygen demand of the activity.

- This “lag” period, where oxygen supply does not meet oxygen demand is referred to
as oxygen deficit.

- In intermittent exercise, athletes may be required to perform movements at maximal

intensity for a short duration, but also maintain speed and endurance throughout the
entire exercise.

- There may be rest periods within the exercise where athletes can replenish PC in
their body or flush out lactate and hydrogen levels.

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 72
 ACUTE RESPONSES

Oxygen uptake at rest, and during exercise and recovery, including oxygen deficit,
steady state, and excess post-exercise oxygen consumption

- Oxygen uptake (VO2) refers to the amount of oxygen transported to, taken up by,
and used by the body for energy production.

- At rest, the body consumes oxygen at a rate of approximately 0.25 litres per minute.
The need for ATP is relatively small, requiring minimal oxygen consumption.

- When exercise begins, oxygen uptake increases as the working muscles use more of
the oxygen made available by the cardiovascular and respiratory systems.

- There is a linear relationship between oxygen uptake and oxygen intensity. This
continues until the maximum oxygen uptake (VO2 max) occurs.

- VO2 max is the maximum amount of oxygen that can be taken up, transported, and
utilised per minute.

- VO2 max can either be measured as relative or absolute.

- Relative takes into account body weight (mL/kg/min) whereas absolute doesn't
(L/min).

- Relative allows for an easier comparison between individuals.

- Factors affecting maximum oxygen uptake include:

- Body size. A heavier, larger person requires more oxygen than a smaller person.

- Gender. Males generally have a higher VO2 max due to greater muscle mass, blood
volume and larger lung and heart sizes.

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 73
- Genetics. Aerobic capacity may have a 25-50% variation between individuals due to
genetics.

- Age. VO2 max peaks during late adolescence and early adulthood, and then
declines.

- Training status / fitness level. Aerobic, endurance athletes can have significantly
higher VO2 max.

- It is possible for an athlete to work above 100% VO2 max, by calling upon the
anaerobic energy systems.

- VO2 max = a-VO2 diff (mL of O2 per 100mL blood) x cardiac output (L/min) at
maximal exercise levels.

- An elite athletes VO2 max might be:

- 65mL/kg/min for males.

- 56mL/kg/min for females.

- Cross-country skiers are generally athletes with the highest VO2 max — highly
aerobically trained

- Oxygen deficit refers to the point where oxygen demand exceeds oxygen supply.

- Whilst this is occurring, ATP is gained anaerobically.

- During any exercise, there will be a time of oxygen deficit.

- Oxygen deficit can be reduced by decreasing intensity, completing a warm-up, and

training aerobically.

- Oxygen deficit occurs because the respiratory and circulatory systems take time to
adjust to the new oxygen demand.

- When the oxygen supply does equal oxygen demand, the athlete is working
aerobically and has reached a steady state.

- This steady state also coincides with a plateau in heart rate and ventilation.

- There can be multiple oxygen deficits and multiple steady states in an exercise
session.

- A plateau doesn't always mean sub-maximal intensity has been reached. A plateau
could mean you cannot obtain any more oxygen, which is the case for maximal
intensity exercises, or it could mean you don’t need any more oxygen.

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 74
- At the completion of exercise, the demand for ATP decreases. But the amount of
oxygen we require still remains above the amount required at resting levels.

- This is known as oxygen debt (EPOC - excess post-exercise oxygen

consumption).

- This is vital for recovery. The excess oxygen is used to decrease body temperature,
prevent venous pooling and remove by-products.

- The greater the accumulation of lactate, the larger EPOC.

- In this graph, the white area underneath the blue line and the steady state line can
represent either the oxygen consumption or the aerobic energy contribution

- It is important to understand that oxygen consumption, VO2 and heart rate graphs
never start from 0!

Acute physiological responses to exercise in the cardiovascular, respiratory and

muscular systems.

- When exercise begins, the body needs to make a number of physiological changes
to accomodate the energy requirements of the activity. There is an increased
demand for oxygen and energy substrates, and the cardiovascular, respiratory
and muscular systems respond to meet these needs.

- The level of response is dependent on the intensity and type of exercise being
undertaken

- Acute responses are the body’s immediate, short-term responses that last only for
the duration of the training or exercise session and for a short time period afterwards.

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 75
- Acute respiratory responses

- The primary purpose of the respiratory system is to deliver oxygen to, and removal
carbon dioxide, from the cells of the body.

- Increased ventilation (V). At the start of exercise we increase our breathing rate.
We breathe more often and more deeply. Therefore our ventilation (amount of air
breathed in and out in one minute) increases. Increased ventilation means there is
more oxygen in the lungs that can be delivered to the working muscles.

- Ventilation increases because respiratory rate (RR) (number of breaths taken in one
minute) and tidal volume (TV) (amount of air inspired and expired in one breath -
litre per breath) both increase.

- V = RR x TV

- Tidal volume at rest is typically 0.5L/breath, and during exercise can increase to
2L/breath.

- Respiratory rate at rest is typically 12 breaths/min, and 50 breaths/min during

exercise.

- During sub maximal exercise, ventilation increases rapidly at the start of exercise and
then plateaus after 4-5 minutes. This means a steady state is reached.

- A typical ventilation at rest might be 6 litres, and one during exercise might be 100
litres.

- During maximal exercise, ventilation increases rapidly at the start of exercise and
continues to increase until exercise stops. (No plateau period or steady state).

- Tidal volume plateaus at high (but not maximal) intensities.

- Increased pulmonary diffusion. Diffusion of molecules is movement of molecules

from an area of higher concentration to lower concentration. Pulmonary diffusion
occurs when oxygen is taken in via the lungs to the blood, and carbon dioxide is
diffused from the blood to the lungs.

- When oxygen levels are high in the alveoli, they diffuse into the bloodstream, and
then into the working muscles. Alternatively, when carbon dioxide levels are high in
the working muscles, they diffuse into the bloodstream and then into the alveoli, for
removal from the body via the lungs.

- Diffusion capacity increases so greater amounts of oxygen and carbon dioxide can
be exchanged.

- Increased oxygen uptake. When exercise begins, oxygen uptake increases as the
working muscles use more of the oxygen made available by the circulatory and
respiratory systems.

- As exercise intensity increases, oxygen uptake increases linearly, until a maximum

level of oxygen uptake is attained.

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 76
- Acute cardiovascular responses to exercise

- The primary purpose of the cardiovascular system is to transport more blood to the
working muscles.

- Increased cardiac output (Q). Cardiac output (amount of blood pumped out of the
heart in one minute) increases, because stroke volume (SV) (amount of blood
ejected from the left ventricle per beat) and heart rate (HR) (number of times heart b
eats per minute) both increase.

- Cardiac output at rest might be 4-5 L/min and 20-30 L/min during maximal exercise.

- Q = HR x SV

- A trained, fit, aerobic athlete would generally have a lower heart rate, and an
increased stroke volume. This means the athletes heart does not have to beat as
often to eject the same amount of blood.

- An untrained athlete might have 60-80 bpm heart rate at rest, whereas a trained
athlete might have 30-50 bpm heart rate at rest.

- During sub-maximal exercise where the body reaches a steady state, heart rate will
level off.

- Heart rate increases linearly with exercise intensity, and if a steady state is reached,
heart rate plateaus.

- A prolonged steady state in exercise can cause cardiac drift, where heart rate
increases as body temperature increases.

- An estimation of maximum heart rate can be calculated by subtracting your age from
220.

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 77
- Heart rate actually does rise above resting levels just before the start of exercise.
This is called the anticipatory response, and helps to prepare the body for exercise,
also contributed to by an increase in adrenaline.

- Stoke Volume does level off however after sub-maximal exercise, as it has a finite
capacity. Therefore, any increase in cardiac output after this point will be due to the
increase in heart rate.

- An untrained athlete might have a 50-70 mL/beat stroke volume at rest, and
110-130 mL/beat during exercise.

- A trained athlete might have a 80-100 mL/beat stroke volume at rest, and
160-200 mL/beat during exercise

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 78
- Increased blood pressure. Increase in cardiac output results in an increased blood
pressure, as blood is pumped more forcefully out of the heart.

- Blood pressure is the pressure exerted by the blood against the artery walls.

- Systolic blood pressure is the only blood pressure that increases with exercise.
Diastolic blood pressure increases only during resistance training.

- A typical blood pressure reading at rest is 120/80 mm/Hg.

- Blood pressure = systolic/diastolic mmHg.

- mmHg = millimetres of mercury

- Systolic blood pressure is the pressure in the arteries as blood is ejected during the
contraction phase of the heart cycle.

- Diastolic blood pressure is the pressure in the arteries during the relaxation phase of
the heart cycle.

- Holding your breath during exercise (valsalva manoeuvre) can increase blood
pressure significantly.

- Increased venous return. During exercise the heart is ejecting large amounts of
blood, which means blood needs to be returned quickly to the heart. Increased
venous return allows blood to keep moving around the body so it can be refuelled
with oxygen and delivered to the working muscles repetitively.

- Venous return is increased through: muscle pump, respiratory pump, and

vasoconstriction.

- During vasoconstriction, the veins constrict, forcing more blood back to the heart.

- In muscle pump, and when the muscles contract, the veins are squished together.

- In respiratory pump, when an individual breathes in, their diaphragm increases

pressure in the abdominal area, forcing veins there to be emptied towards the heart.
When they breathe out, the pressure is released and the veins fill with blood again.

- Decreased blood volume. This occurs due to lost plasma levels while sweating.

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 79
- Increased redistribution of blood flow. Extra blood is redistributed away from
some of the vital organs to the working muscles, to give them extra oxygen.

- Vasodilation at the working muscles and vasoconstriction at the non-essential

organs help with this process. This allows the muscles to work harder for longer.

- Vasodilation is when blood vessels increase in size, allowing for an increase in

blood flow.

- Vasoconstriction is when blood vessels decrease in size, decreasing blood flow.

- Increased arteriovenous oxygen difference (a-VO2 diff). a-VO2 diff is the

difference in oxygen concentration in the arteries compared with the veins. It is
measured in millilitres per 100mL of blood.

- The working muscles extract greater amounts of oxygen from the blood. This means
that less oxygen is remaining in the veins as the blood travels back to the heart. This
means the difference between the oxygen concentration in the arteries compared to
the veins becomes larger.

- This has a linear relationship with intensity.

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 80
- Acute muscular responses to exercise

- During exercise, there must be an increase in muscular contractions.

- Increased blood flow to the muscles. There is a redistribution of blood flow to the
working muscles. This allows a greater delivery of oxygen to meet the metabolic
demands of the exercise.

- Increased motor unit and muscle fibre recruitment. During exercise, the force
required by the muscles increases. This increase is met by recruiting greater number
of motor units, or increasing the frequency of motor unit recruitment. This allows for a
greater muscular contraction to occur.

- A motor unit is the means by which the central nervous system controls the
muscles.

- The number of motor units recruited depends on the speed and force of the
contraction required.

- Smaller motor units will be recruited first, followed by larger motor units.

- A motor unit will contract maximally or not at all. This is the all-or-nothing principle.

- Decreased energy substrates. Energy stores (ATP, PC, glycogen, triglycerides)

decrease as they are used to fuel the body.

- Increased lactate. Regardless of the type of exercise, there is always some lactate
produced. If anaerobic exercise increases the body produces more lactate.

- If steady state has been reached during exercise, there is enough oxygen available
to break down lactate, and the athlete will be working at or below their LIP.

- Increased body/muscle temperature. When we exercise our body heats up. Heat
is a by-product from exercise.

- Our body tries to cool itself by sweating and vasodilating capillaries at the skin.
This has a cooling effect as heat is exchanged with the environment.

- Increased muscle temperature also allows for increased enzyme activity.

- Increased muscle enzyme activity. Enzyme activity increases to produce the

increased amounts of ATP required by the muscles.

- Increased oxygen supply and use. The muscle cells extract and use more oxygen
from the blood during exercise because of the increased demand for ATP.

- Increased arteriovenous oxygen difference (a-VO2 diff). The muscles extract

more of the available oxygen from the blood during exercise.

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 81
 KEY SKILLS

Participate in a variety of physical activities and describe, using appropriate

terminology, the interplay and relative contribution of the energy systems

Perform, observe, analyse and report on laboratory exercises designed to explore

the relationship between the energy systems during physical activity and recovery

Explain the changes in oxygen demand and supply at rest, and during sub-maximal
and maximal activity

Participate in physical activities to collect and analyse data on the range of acute
effects that physical activity has on the cardiovascular, respiratory and muscular
systems of the body

Explain the fatiguing factors associated with the use of the three energy systems
under varying conditions.

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 82
 OBSERVE, ANALYSE AND REPORT ON LABORATORY EXERCISES
DESIGNED TO EXPLORE THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE ENERGY
SYSTEMS DURING PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND RECOVERY

This relates to explaining the fuels of energy systems, the characteristics of energy systems
and how they are used in physical activity and recovery.

You must know the three systems very well. When are they used? Under what conditions?
What fuels are used? What are the by-products? What is the limiting factor of each energy
system?

You should be able to determine which energy system predominates in a given situation,
and provide examples of sports or activities where each system is predominant. What are
the approximate contributions to some activities?

You should also be able to read graphs to determine energy system contributions.

Common mistakes:

- No use of data
- Calling the ATP-PC system “ATP”
- ATP lasts for 10 seconds… PC does
- Calling the anaerobic glycolysis system “anaerobic”
- Not putting “accumulation” in front of metabolic by products when discussing fatigue

Describe what happens to the use of fats in the production of ATP as exercise
intensity increases, and give a reason for this change in fuel (2 Marks)

As exercise intensity increases, the percentage of fats being used for ATP production
decreases. High intensity exercises require ATP to be provided quickly, and fats cannot be
broken down fast enough to provide this energy as they require a significant amount of
oxygen.

1 mark for identifying that as intensity increases the use use of fats decreases
1 mark for explaining that fats take longer to break down and high intensity exercises need
energy immediately

Glycogen is the preferred fuel for endurance activity, even though fats provide more
ATP. Why? (2 Marks)

Glycogen has a lower oxygen cost and are broken down much faster than triglycerides, as
there are less complex chemical reactions involved. Therefore glycogen produces energy at
a faster rate, and allows the athlete to work at a higher intensity as they have more ATP
being delivered to them readily.

1 mark for describing the oxygen cost and rate of ATP production for glycogen verses fats
1 mark for linking back to why we use glycogen over fats

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 83
VCAA Exam 2013

Alice is a 40-year-old female who enjoys recreational mountain biking. To adjust her training,
she varies her choice of riding terrain. The graph below shows her heart rate responses for
three different rides that she completed

a. Which food fuel would be used predominantly throughout each ride? (1 mark)

Carbohydrates

b. Support your answer to part a. using the data provided in the graph (2 marks)

All tracks go for 21km, and lasts for several minutes, indicating the aerobic glycolysis
system will be the dominant contributor to energy production throughout the rides.
Due to the intensity of the ride being sub-maximal (between 100-160bpm),
carbohydrates would be the preferred fuel source due to producing a higher yield of
ATP for less oxygen.

1 mark for justifying why carbohydrates would be predominant

1 mark for using data

c. How would the fuel usage of an elite mountain bike rider be different from that
of Alice? (2 marks)

The elite cyclist could be able to glycogen spare, which means they use more fats at
higher intensities, compared to Alice who would predominantly use her glycogen
stores earlier.

2 marks for two points about glycogen sparing

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 84
Compare and contrast the use of the anaerobic glycolysis and the aerobic energy
systems (4 Marks)

The anaerobic glycolysis system and aerobic energy system both work to produce ATP for
energy in the body. They both involve the breakdown of glucose, but because the anaerobic
glycolysis system doesn’t have oxygen present in the glycolysis, pyruvic acid gets converted
to lactic acid, which gets broken down into lactate and hydrogen ions, which causes fatigue.
The anaerobic glycolysis system has a finite capacity, although ATP is produced at a fast
rate. Whereas the aerobic energy system has sufficient oxygen present, so pyruvic acid can
be broken down into CO2 and H2O, and can be used indefinitely and produce more ATP
yields without any fatiguing by-products, although at a moderate rate.

1 mark for recognising they both produce ATP through glycolysis

1 mark for recognising the use of oxygen vs no oxygen
1 mark for comparing the by-products formed
1 mark for comparing the rate and yield of the systems

Why does the lactate inflection point occur? (1 Mark)

At or before LIP, lactate production and removal are balanced. After LIP, there is an
increased contribution for the anaerobic glycolysis system, and lactate production exceeds
lactate removal.

1 mark for outlining that the increased contribution from the anaerobic glycolysis system
results in an imbalance in lactate production and removal

VCAA Exam 2012

Training their anaerobic capacity would be beneficial to both a 3000m pursuit cyclist
and 500m time trialist. Explain why this is the case (3 Marks)

The 500m race is predominantly anaerobic, which requires a high tolerance to lactate to
sustain speed gained from the anaerobic glycolysis system working, and the 3000m cyclist
would benefit by being able to run at a faster pace, especially at the beginning and end of
the race when they aren't in steady state. By training their anaerobic capacities, they are
able to work at higher intensities above VO2 max where there is a great reliance on the
anaerobic systems to produce energy. This can allow both cyclists to have a faster speed,
as the anaerobic systems have a faster rate of ATP production.

1 mark for outlining how they can work above VO2 max
1 mark for explaining how these provides faster speed
1 mark for linking to the two events

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 85
VCAA Exam 2015

The graph below shows the energy system contribution in track athletes during
simulated running

a. Explain why the contribution from the aerobic energy system increases as the
race distance changes from 400 m to 1500 m (2 Marks)

The anaerobic energy systems have a finite capacity and can only fuel short-duration
energy. So the additional energy required to complete the 1500m compared to the
400m must come from the aerobic system

1 mark for explaining the anaerobic systems have finite capacity

1 mark for linking to the two events

b. The rate of ATP production is greater in the anaerobic energy systems.

Explain how the rate of ATP production influences the average speed for both
the 400 m and 1500 m events. (2 marks)

The anaerobic energy systems are the dominant supplier of ATP for energy for the
400m events, whereas the 1500m event has the aerobic system the dominant
supplier. Because the anaerobic energy system produces ATP at a faster rate than
the aerobic system, the average speed of the 400m events is faster than the 1500m
events.

1 mark for explaining why the anaerobic systems generate greater speed
1 mark for linking to the two events

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 86
VCAA Exam 2014

The graph below shows the contribution of the anaerobic and aerobic energy systems
to the total energy requirements for four different track events: 200 m, 400 m, 800 m
and 1500 m.

a. Which column – black or grey – represents the contribution from the anaerobic
systems? (1 mark)

Black

b. With reference to the data, justify your answer above (3 marks)

The anaerobic systems are the dominant supplier of energy for high-intensity, short-
duration events such as the 200m and 400m events. ATP demand is high, and the
anaerobic systems provide energy at a fast rate. The 200m sprint and 400m sprint
predominantly have energy coming from the black columns (70% and 55%
respectively). As duration increases the contribution from the anaerobic systems
decrease, as they have a finite capacity and create fatigue causing by-products,
meaning events of longer duration cannot sustain these systems being dominant.
This can be seen as for the 800m and 1500m events, anaerobic work does not
exceed 35% of total energy contribution.

1 mark for using data

2 marks for explaining what relates to the anaerobic systems to make them the black
column

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 87
c. What is the role of the anaerobic systems in the 1500m event? In your
response, refers to the data provided (4 marks)

The anaerobic systems contribute a small percentage of the total energy

requirements of the 1500m event (only 15%). Since the aerobic system takes a while
to respond to the increased demand for ATP and oxygen, the anaerobic system is
the dominant provider of ATP during this period of oxygen deficit, until the energy
demands of the race can be met aerobically. The anaerobic systems also increase
their contribution during any surges in the race, such as the final sprint to the finish
line, where the runner must increase their intensity.

1 mark for using data

2 marks for explaining the role of the anaerobic system
1 mark for linking to the 1500m event

VCAA Exam 2014

The men’s track cycling team pursuit event is competed over a distance of 4 km by a team of
four riders. Riders in a team follow each other closely and, periodically, the lead rider (who
works the hardest) moves up the bank of the track and rejoins the team at the rear.
Since the winning team is decided by the third rider across the line, it is common for one
rider to take a ‘death pull’, where he rides so hard that he cannot maintain the group pace
afterwards. This allows his teammates to briefly recover behind him before they make a final
three-man acceleration towards the finish line. The world record for this event is 3:53.31
minutes.

Explain why a rider would be working above their LIP when riding at the front of the
team (2 marks)

In order for a rider to ride out at the front, they would have to be working at higher intensities,
which results in an increased contribution from the anaerobic glycolysis system. This is
associated with a greater accumulation of lactate, and consequently working above LIP.

2 marks for explaining how increasing speed makes the rider work above LIP

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 88
EXPLAIN THE FATIGUING FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH THE USE OF THE
THREE ENERGY SYSTEMS UNDER VARYING CONDITIONS

Explain how physiologically an accumulation of metabolic by-products contributes to

fatigue (3 Marks)

Once LIP occurs, lactate accumulates and this is associated with hydrogen ions
accumulating. H+ ions increase muscle acidity and slow down enzyme activity in the
muscles, which decreases muscle function and the breakdown of glycogen. This would
decrease the rate of ATP production, which will cause the athlete to perform exercise at a
slower intensity.

1 mark for identifying the accumulation of hydrogen ions

1 mark for explaining how hydrogen ions affect muscle function
1 mark for explaining how this affects the athletes intensity

Explain the consequences of glycogen depletion to ATP production (3 Marks)

When glycogen is depleted after about 2 hours, there is an increased reliance on

triglycerides to produce ATP for energy. Because there are more complex chemical
reactions and fats require more oxygen to be broken down, they produce ATP at a slower
rate, there is a decrease in the intensity of the athlete, which causes fatigue.

1 mark for outlining there’s an increased reliance on fats

1 mark for explaining how ATP is produced at a slower rate
1 mark for explaining the consequences is that the athlete must decrease intensity

a. Explain a major cause of fatigue for: (6 marks)

I. ATP-PC system:

Depletion of PC stores after around 10 seconds of explosive movements require an

increased contribution from the anaerobic glycolysis system to supply energy, which
produces ATP at a slower rate than the ATP-PC system and causes an athlete to
decrease their intensity.

II. Anaerobic glycolysis system

An accumulation of metabolic by-products of H+ ions and Pi increase muscle acidity,

which slows down enzyme activity in the muscles. This slows down muscle function
and the breakdown of glucose, which means ATP gets produced at a slower rate and
the athlete fatigues.

III. Aerobic system

Thermoregulation and elevated body temperature causes vasodilation at the skin and
vasoconstriction at the working muscles, and a redistribution of blood flow from the
working muscles to the skin, which means less oxygen gets transported to the
working muscles and the muscles fatigue

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 89
b. Explain an appropriate recovery method for each of the fatigue mechanisms
recognised in part a. (6 marks)

IV. A passive recovery where you sit or lie down allows PC to be replenished. 70% of PC
gets replenished in 30 seconds of passive recovery and 98% in 3 minutes

V. An active recovery, where you continue to perform the activity, but at a reduced
intensity, promotes blood flow and allows oxygen to break down fatiguing by-
products.

VI. Elevated body temperature can cause dehydration from sweating. To recover, an
athlete should hydrate and increase their fluid consumption, to restore blood plasma
levels that have been lost. Cold showers and ice baths can also have a cooling effect
on the body

DESCRIBE, USING APPROPRIATE TERMINOLOGY, THE INTERPLAY AND

RELATIVE CONTRIBUTION OF THE ENERGY SYSTEMS

The aerobic system will be dominant during EPOC, recovery and steady state.

If a system isn't dominant during a passage of play, still mention it by saying it contributes to
energy, it just wasn’t dominant.

Examiners generally are not looking for specific pieces of information, but instead the
answer as a whole. (Eg. high quality answers = full marks)

- Avoid using numbers such as “the anaerobic system will be dominant for the next 30
seconds”

- However, it is important to make specific reference to the stimulus material if given

(there usually is a stimulus)

When you are asked to explain why one event takes less time to complete or why it is
performed at faster speeds compared to another event you must:

- Refer to interplay if it’s an interplay question

- Identify the event’s predominant energy system

- Discuss how the predominant energy systems are different to each event and
therefore the athlete’s speed/performance will be slower/faster

- Refer to the rate of ATP production

- Use data

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 90
For a continuous activity:

- 1 mark for “all there energy systems work together….”

- 1 mark for explaining how at the beginning of the event, there will be a period of
oxygen deficit, and the anaerobic systems will be predominantly providing ATP
where there is insufficient time for the cardio-respiratory systems to respond and
meet the oxygen demands from the working muscles

- 1 mark for providing specific examples of when the PC system will be dominant by
making reference to the intensity and duration of those examples. Explain why this
energy system will be no longer dominant after maximal exercise

- 1 mark for providing specific examples of when the anaerobic glycolysis system
will be dominant (eg. during o2 deficit), or when there will be increased contributions
from this system, by making reference to the intensity and duration for those
examples. Explain why this system cannot be sustained for long periods

- 1 mark for providing examples of when the aerobic system will be dominant by
making reference to steady state, intensity and duration of those examples.
Explain how this system helps to remove metabolic by-products and replenish PC
stores (check for rest periods)

- 1 mark for concluding by identifying the overall predominant energy system for the
sport or activity

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 91
Discuss energy system interplay (1 Mark)

All three energy systems contribute to ATP production at any given time, but their relevant
contribution is determined by the intensity and duration of the activity

Discuss the energy system interplay in a basketball game (6 Marks)

All three energy systems contribute to energy production in a game of basketball. Their
relevant contribution is determined by the duration and intensity of the activity. In basketball,
explosive, maximal intensity movements such as shooting and jumping or blocking and
rebounding will require the ATP-PC system to be the dominant contributor to energy
production, as it produces ATP at the fastest rate to quickly meet the energy demands of the
movements. However PC depletes after around 10 seconds, and high intensity movements
will then require an increased contribution from the anaerobic glycolysis system. The
anaerobic glycolysis system will become dominant when a basketball needs to work at a
high intensity for any movement between 10-60 seconds, such as running up and back a
court to defend. However metabolic by-products oh H+ ions and Pi will accumulate and
cause fatigue. The aerobic system will be the dominant contributor to ATP when a play lasts
for several minutes in any steady state. Because a basketball game lasts for four 12-minute
quarters, the aerobic system will overall be the dominant energy system.

VCAA Exam 2015

The following is an account of 2 minutes 30 seconds of play in an Australian Football

League (AFL) game.

‘From his position as full forward, Zach sprinted 20 m from the top of the goal square,
leading out to receive the ball. Zach leapt powerfully into the air to mark the ball successfully
before landing on his feet. He walked back from the player on the mark. He placed the ball
on the ground, pulled up his socks and checked the direction of the breeze before picking up
the ball, beginning his run up and kicking the ball towards goal. Having only scored a point,
Zach jogged back to pick up his opponent and waited for the ball to be kicked back into play.’

Using specific examples from this account, explain how the energy systems interplay
to provide the energy required for Zach to complete this passage of play. (6 Marks)

All three energy systems work together to produce ATP during this period of the AFL game,
however at any given time one system will be more dominant. When Zach first sprinted 20m
from the top of the goal square and leapt powerfully into the air, his ATP-PC system would
be dominant, as it provides the fastest rate of ATP to meet the high energy demands for
these short-duration, explosive, maximal intensity movements. However the ATP-PC system
has a finite capacity, and once PC depletes, the anaerobic glycolysis system would increase
it’s contribution, although in this passage of play, there are no repeated efforts where the
anaerobic glycolysis system is dominant. Zach’s aerobic system becomes the predominant
pathway for ATP production during rest, steady state or low-intensity periods, such as when
he walks back from the player on the mark. Here the aerobic system allow Zach’s PC stores
to be replenished and ready to be used again in another explosive movement, such as
kicking towards the goal. Overall in this passage of play, Zach’s aerobic system was
dominant, as majority of the time he was involved in sub-maximal intensity movements, and
the duration of this play is 2 minutes and 30 seconds.

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 92
VCAA Exam 2011

The world record for the 100-metre swim is 46.91seconds compared to the 400-metre record
of 3:40.07 minutes. It takes the 400-metre swimmer approximately 51 seconds to complete
each 100-metre split.

Explain why this occurs by discussing energy system interplay and by making
reference to the data provided. (4 Marks)

All three energy systems work together to produce ATP during both swimming events,
however one system would be more dominant. Although the ATP-CP and aerobic systems
contribute, the predominant energy system for the 100-metre swim is anaerobic glycolysis as
it takes 46.91 seconds compared to the 400-metre swim, which takes 3.40 minutes, meaning
that the predominant energy system for this event is the aerobic system. The aerobic system
produces ATP at a slower rate than anaerobic glycolysis and therefore the times for each
100-metre split will be slower.

The world record times for running the 100-m and 400-m sprints are shown below.

100 m – 09.58 seconds

400 m – 43.18 seconds

Explain why a 400-m race cannot be run at the same pace as a 100-m race. In your
answer, make reference to energy system interplay (3 Marks)

All three energy systems work together to produce ATP in both track events, however the
100m sprint will predominantly be anaerobic work, with the ATP-PC system being dominant.
The 400m is longer than the 100m and therefore has a greater contribution from the
anaerobic glycolysis system and aerobic system to provide energy. These systems cannot
provide ATP at as fats as rate as the ATP-PC system, so the pace for the 400m must
decrease.

1 mark for referencing interplay

1 mark for contrasting the anaerobic system’s rate of ATP
1 mark for linking to the 100m and 400m races

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 93
Explain how the energy systems interplay to provide energy required to complete a 20
minute swimming session (6 Marks)

All three energy systems work together to produce energy during the swimming session,
however at any given time, one system will be more dominant. During the initial period of
oxygen deficit and at the start of the swim the anaerobic systems will be predominantly be
providing ATP, where there is insufficient time for the cardio-respiratory systems to meet the
oxygen demands of the working muscles. When the swimmer first dives in the water, the
ATP-PC system will be the dominant provider of ATP, as it provides ATP at the fastest rate
to meet the immediate high energy demands of the swimmer. However, the ATP-PC system
has a finite capacity, and once PC is depleted, the anaerobic glycolysis system will increase
its contribution and become dominant. The anaerobic glycolysis system will remain dominant
as it supplies a fast rate of energy, until the swimmer reaches a steady state and there is
enough oxygen present for the aerobic system to be the predominant provider of energy.
The aerobic system would remain dominant for the majority of the duration of the swim, as it
produces the largest yield of ATP that can be used to sustain the duration of the 20 minute
swim. Dominance of the aerobic system can break down fatigue causing metabolic by-
products H+ and Pi, that are accumulated during periods where the anaerobic glycolysis
system is dominant. This allows for the anaerobic glycolysis system to be ready to be used
again when ATP needs to be provided at a faster rate, during periods where intensity needs
to be increased, such as when the swimmer tumble turns at the end of the lap. As the swim
lasts for 20 minutes, the aerobic system will overall be the dominant contributor to energy
production.

EXPLAIN THE CHANGES IN OXYGEN DEMAND AND SUPPLY AT REST,

AND DURING SUB-MAXIMAL AND MAXIMAL ACTIVITY

- At rest, oxygen uptake is low as the body’s need for ATP is relatively small

- During exercise, the demand for ATP increases, however the cardiorespiratory
systems cannot meet the oxygen demand of the task immediately. This causes an
oxygen deficit, and ATP will be resynthesised using the anaerobic pathways

- The relationship between exercise intensity and oxygen uptake is linear

- After the cessation of exercise, oxygen remains temporarily elevated (EPOC)

- EPOC replenishes PC

- Are you able to draw and label an oxygen uptake graph?

- Do you know the definitions of oxygen deficit, steady state, and EPOC?

- Do you know what energy system is dominant during each period of oxygen uptake?

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 94
Provide an explanation for how oxygen deficit during the onset of exercise causes an
increase in heart rate (2 Marks)

When exercise commences, there is an increased demand for oxygen by the working
muscles. It takes time for the heart and lungs to adjust to the increased demand for oxygen,
and energy is provided by the anaerobic systems during this time of oxygen deficit, where
oxygen supply doesn't meet oxygen demand. As a result heart rate rapidly increases and the
cardiorespiratory mechanisms adjust until a steady state is reached, and oxygen supply
equals oxygen demand, then heart rate plateaus.

1 mark for how oxygen deficit works

1 mark for how this can increase heart rate

VCAA Exam 2012

How will the EPOC of a runner be affected by him running at maximal intensity for the
last 500m of his run instead of maintaining a steady state until the end of his run
(2 Marks)

EPOC will increase and it will take longer to return to resting levels if the athlete sprints the
final 500m, due to the increased contribution from the anaerobic systems. EPOC is directly
influenced by periods of work where the athlete is in oxygen deficit. If the athlete maintains a
steady state for the last 500m, EPOC will be reduced.

VCAA Exam 2015

Explain the changes in oxygen uptake from rest, during sub-maximal exercise in
recovery, and how this has an impact on ATP production (4 Marks)

At rest the body can easily take in oxygen, as demands for ATP are low. Oxygen uptake
increases from rest to sub-maximal exercise, as there is an increased demand for oxygen as
demands for ATP increase. However it takes time for the cardiorespiratory mechanisms to
kick in and meet the oxygen demand, and as a result the athlete will experience oxygen
deficit. Here ATP will be produced predominantly anaerobically. Oxygen uptake will continue
to increase until the body reaches a steady state. This allows ATP to be produced
aerobically, and oxygen uptake will plateau. During recovery, the demand for ATP
decreases, and oxygen uptake will decrease from that of sub-maximal exercise, but will still
remain higher than oxygen uptake during resting conditions, as the athlete experiences
oxygen debt. This allows the body to return to a pre-exercise state.

1 mark for explaining resting conditions

1 mark for explaining what happens when exercise commences and outlining oxygen deficit
1 mark for outlining steady state
1 mark for explaining what happens during recovery

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 95
Provide an explanation for a 1km swimmer to have periods of oxygen deficit, steady
state and oxygen debt (3 Marks)

During periods of oxygen deficit, oxygen supply doesn't equal oxygen demand. It takes
several minutes for the cardiorespiratory mechanisms to work to increase oxygen supply,
until then the athlete is working anaerobically. Once oxygen supply equals oxygen demand,
ventilation plateaus and the swimmer reaches a steady state, where they are working
aerobically. The swimmer will remain in a steady state for the duration of the swim, until they
begin recovery and reduce their intensity. During this time period, they will experience
oxygen debt, where the demand for ATP is reduced, however the amount of oxygen required
is still greater than that required at rest, as the swimmer must return to a pre-exercise state.

3 marks for correctly explaining each period, including energy system dominance

Describe what is occurring in the body in relation to ventilation and oxygen that
allows for a steady state to occur (2 Marks)

During exercise, we breathe more often and more deeply to result in an increase in
ventilation, resulting in an increase in oxygen in the lungs, which allows more oxygen to be
supplied to the working muscles. During sub-maximal exercise, the increased oxygen supply
is enough to meet he oxygen demands, allowing the athlete to work aerobically and a steady
state occurs, resulting in a plateau in ventilation.

1 mark for explaining oxygen supply equals oxygen demand

1 mark for identifying aerobic system dominance

Analyse data on the range of acute effects that physical activity has on the
cardiovascular, respiratory and muscular systems of the body

- Be familiar with, and able to explain the graph and tables of the cardiorespiratory
acute responses to exercise

- Understand the key equations, including the relationship between stroke volume,
heart rate and cardiac output, respiratory rate, tidal volume and ventilation, and
cardiac output and oxygen uptake

- Be able to explain what the benefit of these acute responses are to the athlete

- Recognise that there is a difference in ventilation and energy substrate levels

between maximal and sub-maximal exercise

- Compare a trained and untrained athletes heart; a trained athlete has a greater
cardiac output at maximal intensities

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 96
Explain the relationship between ventilation and maximal exercise and sub-maximal
exercise. (2 marks)

During the onset of exercise, ventilation increases rapidly to account for the increased
oxygen demands in the body. During sub-maximal exercise, ventilation will increase until it
plateaus at around 3-4 minutes, where the athlete has reached a steady state. During
maximal exercise, ventilation will continue to increase until exercise stops.

1 mark for explaining ventilation at maximal exercise

1 mark for explaining ventilation at sub maximal exercise

Briefly outline what happens to blood pressure when we start to exercise. (2 marks)
Blood pressure increases, as an increase in cardiac output increases the force of the blood
against the artery walls as it is pumped out of the heart. Systolic blood pressure is the only
blood pressure that increases during aerobic exercise though.

What energy substrates are stored in muscles? What happens to the amount of these
when we start to exercise? What is the end result of this? (3 marks)

ATP and PC are stored in limited quantities in the muscle, as well as glycogen and
triglycerides. When we begin to exercise, there is an increased demand for fuels and energy,
and as a result ATP, PC, glycogen and triglycerides decrease. This allows for more energy
to be used by the working muscles.

1 mark for stating what energy substrates are in the muscles

1 mark for explaining what happens to them during exercise
1 mark for explaining the result

Redistribution of blood flow is an acute response to exercise. This is an important

mechanism in the thermoregulation of the body. Explain how blood flow to the skin
assists in regulating the body’s temperature during sub-maximal exercise (3 Marks)

Since body temperature increases during sub-maximal exercise, as heat is produced as a

by-product of aerobic energy production, the body must thermoregulate and cool down.
Increased redistribution of blood flow to the skin, including vasodilation of capillaries at the
skin, and vasoconstriction of capillaries at the inactive muscles and non-essential organs
(kidneys, spleen), has a cooling effect where waste products and heat can be exchanged
with the environment, and the body can cool down.

1 mark for explaining heat is produced during exercise

1 mark for explaining vasodilation of vessels at the skin allows for increased blood flow to
the skin
1 mark for explaining how this can help cool the body

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 97
Outline two reasons for an increase in heart rate from resting levels prior to
exercising commencing (2 Marks)

- Anticipatory response to prepare the body for exercise

- Warm-up to prepare the body for exercise

Describe the relationship between cardiac output and oxygen uptake, and the role of
the stroke volume and heart rate when moving from a resting state to exercise
(3 Marks)

There is a linear relationship between cardiac output and oxygen uptake; as cardiac output
increases so does oxygen uptake, and vice versa. Stroke volume and heart rate both
increase when moving from rest to exercise, as there is an increased demand for oxygen by
the working muscles. As a result, cardiac output increases, and so does oxygen uptake,
when moving from a state of rest to exercise.

1 mark for explaining the relationship between cardiac output and oxygen uptake
1 mark for explaining how stroke volume and heart rate impact cardiac output
1 mark for explaining what happens when moving from a resting state to exercise

Contrast the energy substrate levels of a 100m sprinter and a 10k runner at the end of
their respective event (4 Marks)

As the ATP-PC system is the dominant energy system for the 100m sprint, the sprinter is
going to have a decrease in their ATP and PC stores by the end of the event. Whereas since
the 10k run is predominantly aerobic, the runner is more likely to have a decrease in their
glycogen and triglyceride stores.

2 marks for identifying substrate levels decrease for both athletes

1 mark for identifying the ATP and PC stores of the sprinter will decrease
1 mark for identifying the glycogen and fats stores of the runner will decrease

How do the changes in a-VO2 diff from rest to exercise enhance an athlete’s ability to
exercise? (3 Marks)

a-VO2 diff increases during exercise, as there is an increased demand for oxygen by the
working muscles. When a-VO2 diff increases, more oxygen is being extracted from the
capillaries by the working muscles, resulting in an increased difference between oxygen
concentration in the arteries compared to the veins. This allows the working muscles to have
more oxygen available to work aerobically, enhancing performance.

1 mark for identifying a-VO2 diff increases from rest to exercise

1 mark for explaining more oxygen can be extracted
1 mark for explaining how the athlete can work aerobically

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 98
How does the process of diffusion enhance the ability of the body to exercise?
(2 Marks)

Increased pulmonary diffusion means more oxygen is being inhaled in to the lungs, which
diffuses into the bloodstream and then working muscles, allowing them to have more oxygen
available to work aerobically harder for longer. Diffusion also means carbon dioxide can be
exchanged with oxygen and transported from the working muscles into the bloodstream and
then lungs, and exhaled into the environment.

1 mark to explain what increased diffusion means, in relation to carbon dioxide and oxygen
1 mark to explain the effects this will have on the body, and how more oxygen can go to the
working muscles

Briefly explain the effect of a trained individual having a larger left ventricle and a
higher stroke volume at rest than an untrained individual and how it effects resting
heart rates, when considering similar cardiac output (2 Marks)

Because the trained athlete has a higher stroke volume at rest, their heart does not have to
beat as often to eject the same amount of blood in a minute and have the same cardiac
output as an untrained individual. As a result, the trained athlete would have a lower resting
heart rate than the untrained athlete.

1 mark for explaining the effect of a higher stroke volume

1 mark for linking this back to resting heart rate

Outline the advantage of having a higher stroke volume for the trained athlete
(2 Marks)

The trained athlete’s has a more efficient heart, which does not have to work as hard and
beat as often compared to the untrained athlete. This means at maximal intensity exercise
where the athlete reaches maximum heart rate, the trained athlete can produce a greater
cardiac output and the muscles can receive more oxygen than the untrained athlete.

1 mark for explaining the heart of the trained is more efficient

1 mark for explaining at MHR, the trained athlete will have higher cardiac output and more
oxygen being supplied to the working muscles

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 99
Outline the interplay between the body systems that allow an increase in oxygen
uptake to occur (4 Marks)

There is an increased demand for oxygen during exercise, so oxygen uptake must increase.
The respiratory system works to increase the amount of oxygen being taken in through the
body via lungs, by increasing respiratory rate, tidal volume, and ventilation, as well as
increasing diffusion so more oxygen can be exchanged into the blood. The cardiovascular
system works to increase the amount of oxygen being supplied to the working muscles, by
increasing heart rate, stroke volume, and cardiac output, as well as a redistribution of blood
flow to the working muscles. The muscular system works to increase the use of oxygen at
the working muscles to create energy, by increasing a-VO2 diff and oxygen supply and use,
so more oxygen is extracted from the blood by the working muscles. Since oxygen uptake is
the amount of oxygen being taken in, transported to and used by the working muscles, the
three systems work to increase oxygen uptake during exercise.

3 marks for explaining each systems contribution

1 mark for explaining what oxygen uptake is

Outline how two acute muscular response to exercises would assist a 100m sprinter
(4 Marks)

- During exercise, there is an increase in motor unit recruitment at the working

muscles. This allows for more muscle fibres to contract maximally, and the 100m
sprinter can produce a greater force and have a stronger take off from the starting
blocks.

- During exercise, there is an increase in muscle enzyme activity. This allows for a
faster rate of ATP breakdown for energy, which can allow the sprinter to sprint faster.

4 marks for describing two acute responses and linking it to a 100m sprint

 The School For Excellence 2022 Unit 3 Physical Education – A+ Student Generated Materials Page 100