Laptop

A laptop computer or notebook computer,

also known as a laptop or notebook, is a small,
portable personal computer (PC). Laptops typically
have a clamshell form factor with a flat-panel
screen on the inside of the upper lid and an
alphanumeric keyboard and pointing device on the
inside of the lower lid.[1][2] Most of the computer's
internal hardware is fitted inside the lower lid
enclosure under the keyboard, although many
modern laptops have a built-in webcam at the top
of the screen, and some even feature a touchscreen
display. In most cases, unlike tablet computers
which run on mobile operating systems, laptops
tend to run on desktop operating systems, which Clockwise from top left: A 2021 MacBook Pro by Apple
were originally developed for desktop computers. Inc.; a 2019 Microsoft Surface Pro 7 with detachable
hinge (left) and a 2018 Dell XPS 15 9570 with 360
Laptops can run on both AC power and degree hinge (right); a 2014 ThinkPad Helix by Lenovo
rechargable battery packs and can be folded shut with detachable screen; and a 2014 Acer Chromebook
11
for convenient storage and transportation, making
them suitable for mobile use.[3] Laptops are used
in a variety of settings, such as at work (especially on business trips), in education, for playing games,
web browsing, for personal multimedia, and for general home computer use.

The word laptop, modeled after the term desktop (as in desktop computer), refers to the fact that the
computer can be practically placed on the user's lap; while the word notebook refers to most laptops
sharing a form factor with paper notebooks. As of 2024, in American English, the terms laptop and
notebook are used interchangeably;[4] in other dialects of English, one or the other may be
preferred.[5] The term notebook originally referred to a type of portable computer that was smaller
and lighter than mainstream laptops of the time, but has since come to mean the same thing and no
longer refers to any specific size.

Laptops combine many of the input/output components and capabilities of a desktop computer into a
single unit, including a display screen (usually 11–17 in or 280–430 mm in diagonal size), small
speakers, a keyboard, and a pointing device (namely compact ones such as touchpads or pointing
sticks). Most modern laptops include a built-in webcam and microphone, and many also have
touchscreens. Hardware specifications may vary significantly between different types, models, and
price points.

Design elements, form factors, and construction can also vary significantly between models depending
on the intended use. Examples of specialized models of laptops include 2-in-1 laptops, with keyboards
that either be detached or pivoted out of view from the display (often marketed having a "laptop
mode"); rugged laptops, for use in construction or military applications; and low-production-cost
laptops such as those from the One Laptop per Child (OLPC) organization, which incorporate features
like solar charging and semi-flexible components not found on most laptop computers. Portable
computers, which later developed into modern laptops, were originally considered to be a small niche
market, mostly for specialized field applications, such as in the military, for accountants, or traveling
sales representatives. As portable computers evolved into modern laptops, they became widely used
for a variety of purposes.[6]

History
The history of the laptop follows closely behind the development
of the personal computer itself. A "personal, portable information
manipulator" was imagined by Alan Kay at Xerox PARC in 1968,[7]
and described in his 1972 paper as the "Dynabook".[8] The IBM
Special Computer APL Machine Portable (SCAMP) was
demonstrated in 1973.[9] This prototype was based on the IBM
PALM processor.[10] The IBM 5100, the first commercially
available portable computer, appeared in September 1975, and was
Alan Kay holding the mockup of his
based on the SCAMP prototype.[11] Dynabook concept in 2008

As 8-bit CPU machines became widely accepted, the number of

portables increased rapidly. The first "laptop-sized notebook
computer" was the Epson HX-20,[12][13] invented (patented) by
Suwa Seikosha's Yukio Yokozawa in July 1980,[14] introduced at
the COMDEX computer show in Las Vegas by Japanese company
Seiko Epson in 1981,[15][13] and released in July 1982.[13][16] It had
an LCD screen, a rechargeable battery, and a calculator-size
printer, in a 1.6 kg (3.5 lb) chassis, the size of an A4 notebook.[13]
It was described as a "laptop" and "notebook" computer in its
patent.[14] IBM 5100 (1975)

Both Tandy/RadioShack and Hewlett-Packard (HP) also produced

portable computers of varying designs during this period.[17][18]
The first laptops using the flip form factor appeared in the early
1980s. The Dulmont Magnum was released in Australia in 1981–
82, but was not marketed internationally until 1984–85. The
US$8,150 (equivalent to $25,730 in 2023) GRiD Compass 1101,
released in 1982, was used at NASA and by the military, among
The Epson HX-20, the first
others. The Sharp PC-5000,[19] the Ampere WS-1,[20] and Gavilan
"notebook computer", was invented
SC were released between 1983 and 1985.[21][20][22] The Toshiba in 1980 and introduced in 1982.
T1100 won acceptance by PC experts and the mass market as a
way to have PC portability.[23]
From 1983 onward, several new input techniques were developed
and included in laptops, including the touch pad (Gavilan SC,
1983), the pointing stick (IBM ThinkPad 700, 1992), and
handwriting recognition (Linus Write-Top,[24] 1987). Some CPUs,
such as the 1990 Intel i386SL, were designed to use minimum
power to increase battery life of portable computers and were
supported by dynamic power management features such as Intel
SpeedStep and AMD PowerNow! in some designs.

Some laptops in the 1980s using red plasma displays could only be
used when connected to AC power, and had a built in power GRiD Compass 1101 (1982)

supply.[25]

The development of memory cards was driven in the 1980s by the need for a floppy-disk-drive
alternative, having lower power consumption, less weight, and reduced volume in laptops. The
Personal Computer Memory Card International Association (PCMCIA) was an industry association
created in 1989 to promote a standard for memory cards in PCs. The specification for PCMCIA type I
cards, later renamed PC Cards, was first released in 1990.[26][27]

Displays reached 640x480 (VGA) resolution by 1988 (Compaq

SLT/286), and color screens started becoming a common upgrade in
1991,[28] with increases in resolution and screen size occurring
frequently until the introduction of 17" screen laptops in 2003. Hard
drives started to be used in portables, encouraged by the introduction
of 3.5" drives in the late 1980s, and became common in laptops
starting with the introduction of 2.5" and smaller drives around 1990;
capacities have typically lagged behind those of physically larger
desktop drives.
A Zenith SupersPort laptop,
released in 1988
Resolutions of laptop webcams are 720p (HD), or 480p in lower-end
laptops.[29] The earliest-known laptops with 1080p (Full HD)
webcams like the Samsung 700G7C were released in the early 2010s.[30]

Optical disc drives became common in full-size laptops around 1997: initially CD-ROM drives,
supplanted by CD-R, then DVD, then Blu-ray drives with writing capability. Starting around 2011, the
trend shifted against internal optical drives, and as of 2022, they have largely disappeared, though are
still readily available as external peripherals.

In 2021, Dell showed Concept Luna, which is a concept for a laptop that can be easily
dissassembled.[31][32][33]

Etymology
The terms laptop and notebook both trace their origins to the early 1980s, coined to describe portable
computers in a size class smaller than the contemporary mainstream units (so-called "luggables") but
larger than pocket computers.[34][35] The etymologist William Safire traced the origin of laptop to
some time before 1984;[36] the earliest attestation of laptop found by the Oxford English Dictionary
dates to 1983.[37] The word is modeled after the term desktop, as in desktop computer.[36] Notebook,
meanwhile, emerged earlier in 1982[38] to describe Epson's HX-20 portable, whose dimensions
roughly correspond to a letter-sized pad of paper.[35][39]: 9 [40] Notebooks emerged as their own
separate market from laptops with the release of the NEC UltraLite in 1988.[41]: 16 Notebooks and
laptops continued to occupy distinct market segments into the mid-1990s,[42] but ergonomic
considerations and customer preference for larger screens soon led to notebooks converging with
laptops in the late 1990s.[43] Today, the terms laptop and notebook are synonymous, with laptop
being the more common term in most English-speaking territories.[43][5]

Types of laptops
Since the 1970s introduction of portable computers, their forms
have changed significantly, spawning a variety of visually and
technologically differing subclasses. Excepting distinct legal
trademark around terms (notably Ultrabook), hard distinctions
between these classes were rare, and their usage has varied over
time and between sources. Since the late 2010s, more specific
terms have become less commonly used, with sizes distinguished
largely by the size of the screen.

Smaller and larger laptops

There were in the past a number of marketing categories for
smaller and larger laptop computers; these included "notebook"
and "subnotebook" models, low cost "netbooks", and "ultra-mobile
PCs" where the size class overlapped with devices like smartphone Compaq Armada laptop from the
and handheld tablets, and "Desktop replacement" laptops for late 1990s
machines notably larger and heavier than typical to operate more
powerful processors or graphics hardware.[44] All of these terms
have fallen out of favor as the size of mainstream laptops has gone
down and their capabilities have gone up; except for niche models,
laptop sizes tend to be distinguished by the size of the screen, and
for more powerful models, by any specialized purpose the machine
is intended for, such as a "gaming laptop" or a "mobile
workstation" for professional use.

Convertible, hybrid, 2-in-1

Apple MacBook Air, an
"ultraportable" laptop weighing
The latest trend of technological convergence in the portable under 3.0 lb (1.36 kg)
computer industry spawned a broad range of devices, which
combined features of several previously separate device types. The
hybrids, convertibles, and 2-in-1s emerged as crossover devices,
which share traits of both tablets and laptops. All such devices
have a touchscreen display designed to allow users to work in a
tablet mode, using either multi-touch gestures or a stylus/digital
pen.

Convertibles are devices with the ability to conceal a hardware

keyboard. Keyboards on such devices can be flipped, rotated, or
slid behind the back of the chassis, thus transforming from a
laptop into a tablet. Hybrids have a keyboard detachment
mechanism, and due to this feature, all critical components are
Lenovo's IdeaPad laptop
situated in the part with the display. 2-in-1s can have a hybrid or a
convertible form, often dubbed 2-in-1 detachable and 2-in-1
convertibles respectively, but are distinguished by the ability to
run a desktop OS, such as Windows 10. 2-in-1s are often marketed
as laptop replacement tablets.[45]

2-in-1s are often very thin, around 10 millimetres (0.39 in), and
light devices with a long battery life. 2-in-1s are distinguished from
mainstream tablets as they feature an x86-architecture CPU
(typically a low- or ultra-low-voltage model), such as the Intel Core
i5, run a full-featured desktop OS like Windows 10, and have a
Lenovo's ThinkPad business laptop,
number of typical laptop I/O ports, such as USB 3 and Mini originally an IBM product
DisplayPort.

2-in-1s are designed to be used not only as a media consumption

device but also as valid desktop or laptop replacements, due to
their ability to run desktop applications, such as Adobe Photoshop.
It is possible to connect multiple peripheral devices, such as a
mouse, keyboard, and several external displays to a modern 2-in-1.

Microsoft Surface Pro-series devices and Surface Book are

examples of modern 2-in-1 detachable, whereas Lenovo Yoga-
series computers are a variant of 2-in-1 convertibles. While the
older Surface RT and Surface 2 have the same chassis design as
the Surface Pro, their use of ARM processors and Windows RT do
not classify them as 2-in-1s, but as hybrid tablets.[46] Similarly, a
Asus Transformer Pad, a hybrid
number of hybrid laptops run a mobile operating system, such as tablet, powered by Android OS
Android. These include Asus's Transformer Pad devices, examples
of hybrids with a detachable keyboard design, which do not fall in
the category of 2-in-1s.

Rugged laptop
A rugged laptop is designed to reliably operate in harsh usage
conditions such as strong vibrations, extreme temperatures, and
wet or dusty environments. Rugged laptops are bulkier, heavier,
and much more expensive than regular laptops,[47] and thus are
seldom seen in regular consumer use.

Hardware Microsoft Surface Pro 3, 2-in-1

detachable
The basic components of laptops function identically to their
desktop counterparts. Traditionally they were miniaturized and
adapted to mobile use, The design restrictions on power, size, and
cooling of laptops limit the maximum performance of laptop parts
compared to that of desktop components, although that difference
has increasingly narrowed.[48]

In general, laptop components are not intended to be replaceable

or upgradable by the end-user, except for components that can be
detached; in the past, batteries and optical drives were commonly
exchangeable. Some laptops feature socketed processors with Alienware gaming laptop with backlit
sockets such as the Socket G2, but many laptops use processors keyboard and touch pad
that are soldered to the motherboard. Many laptops come with
RAM and storage that is soldered to the motherboard and cannot
be easily replaced. This restriction is one of the major differences
between laptops and desktop computers, because the large "tower"
cases used in desktop computers are designed so that new
motherboards, hard disks, sound cards, RAM, and other
components can be added. Memory and storage can often be
upgraded with some disassembly, but with the most compact
laptops, there may be no upgradeable components at all.[49]

The following sections summarizes the differences and Samsung Sens laptop
distinguishing features of laptop components in comparison to
desktop personal computer parts.[50]

Display
The typical laptop has a screen that, when unfolded, is upright to the user.

Screen technology
Laptop screens most commonly employ liquid-crystal display (LCD) technology, although use of
OLED panels has risen substantially since 2020. The display interfaces with the motherboard using
the Low-voltage differential signaling (LVDS) or embedded DisplayPort protocol.

Surface finish
Externally, it can be a glossy or a matte (anti-glare) screen.

Sizes
In the past, there was a broader range of marketing terms (both
formal and informal) to distinguish between different sizes of
laptops. These included Netbooks, subnotebooks, Ultra-mobile
PC, and Desktop replacement computers; these are sometimes still
used informally, although they are essentially dead in terms of
manufacturer marketing.

As of 2021, mainstream consumer laptops tend to come with 11", Panasonic Toughbook CF-M34, a
13" or 15"-16" screens; 14" models are more popular among rugged laptop/subnotebook
business machines. Larger and smaller models are available, but
less common – there is no clear dividing line in minimum or
maximum size. Machines small enough to be handheld (screens in
the 6–8" range) can be marketed either as very small laptops or
"handheld PCs", while the distinction between the largest laptops
and "All-in-One" desktops is whether they fold for travel.

Resolution
Having a higher resolution display allows more items to fit Inner view of a MacBook (Retina)
onscreen at a time, improving the user's ability to multitask, laptop
although at the higher resolutions on smaller screens, the
resolution may only serve to display sharper graphics and text
rather than increasing the usable area. Since the introduction of
the MacBook Pro with Retina display in 2012, there has been an
increase in the availability of "HiDPI" (or high Pixel density)
displays; as of 2022, this is generally considered to be anything
higher than 1920 pixels wide. This has increasingly converged
around 4K (3840-pixel-wide) resolutions.
A SODIMM memory module
External displays can be connected to most laptops, with most
models supporting at least one.[51] The use of technology such as
USB4 (section Alternate Mode partner specifications). DisplayPort Alt Mode has been utilized to
charge a laptop and provide display output over one USB-C Cable.[52]

Refresh rates
Most laptop displays have a maximum refresh rate of 60 Hz. The Dell M17x and Samsung 700G7A,
both released in 2011, were among the first laptops to feature a 120 Hz refresh rate,[53][54] and more
such laptops have appeared in the years since.

Central processing unit (CPU)

A laptop's CPU has advanced power-saving features and produces less heat than one intended purely
for desktop use. Mainstream laptop CPUs made after 2018 have at least two processor cores, often
four cores, and sometimes more, with 6 and 8 cores becoming more common.

For the low price and mainstream performance, there is no longer a significant performance
difference between laptop and desktop CPUs, but at the high end, the fastest desktop CPUs still
substantially outperform the fastest laptop processors, at the expense of massively higher power
consumption and heat generation; the fastest laptop processors top out at 56 watts of heat, while the
fastest desktop processors top out at 150 watts (and often need water cooling).

There has been a wide range of CPUs designed for laptops available from both Intel, AMD, and other
manufacturers. On non-x86 architectures, Motorola and IBM produced the chips for the former
PowerPC-based Apple laptops (iBook and PowerBook). Between around 2000 to 2014, most full-size
laptops had socketed, replaceable CPUs; on thinner models, the CPU was soldered on the
motherboard and was not replaceable or upgradable without replacing the motherboard. Since 2015,
Intel has not offered new laptop CPU models with pins to be interchangeable, preferring ball grid
array chip packages which have to be soldered;[55] and as of 2021, only a few rare models using
desktop parts.

In the past, some laptops have used a desktop processor instead of the laptop version and have had
high-performance gains at the cost of greater weight, heat, and limited battery life; this is not
unknown as of 2022, but since around 2010, the practice has been restricted to small-volume gaming
models. Laptop CPUs are rarely able to be overclocked; most use locked processors. Even on gaming
models where unlocked processors are available, the cooling system in most laptops is often very close
to its limits and there is rarely headroom for an overclocking–related operating temperature increase.

Graphics processing unit (GPU)

On most laptops, the GPU is integrated into the CPU to conserve power and space. This was
introduced by Intel with the Core i-series of mobile processors in 2010, followed by similar AMD APU
processors in January 2011.

Before that, lower-end machines tended to use graphics processors integrated into the system chipset,
while higher-end machines had a separate graphics processor. In the past, laptops lacking a separate
graphics processor were limited in their utility for gaming and professional applications involving 3D
graphics, but the capabilities of CPU-integrated graphics have converged with the low-end of
dedicated graphics processors since the mid-2010s. For laptops possessing limited onboard graphics
capability but sufficient I/O throughput, an external GPU (eGPU) can provide additional graphics
power at the cost of physical space and portability.

Higher-end laptops intended for gaming or professional 3D work still come with dedicated (and in
some cases even dual) graphics processors on the motherboard or as an internal expansion card. Since
2011, these almost always involve switchable graphics so that when there is no demand for the higher
performance dedicated graphics processor, the more power-efficient integrated graphics processor
will be used. Nvidia Optimus and AMD Hybrid Graphics are examples of this sort of system of
switchable graphics.
Traditionally, the system RAM on laptops (as well as on desktop computers) was physically separate
from the graphics memory used by the GPU. Apple's M series SoCs feature a unified pool of memory
for both the system and the GPU; this approach can produce substantial efficiency gains for some
applications but comes at the cost of eGPU support.

Memory
Since around the year 2000, most laptops have used SO-DIMM slots in which RAM is mounted,[50]
although, as of 2021, an increasing number of models use memory soldered to the motherboard,
either alongside SO-DIMM slots or without any slots and soldering all memory to the motherboard.
Before 2000, most laptops used proprietary memory modules if their memory was upgradable.

In the early 2010s, high end laptops such as the 2011 Samsung 700G7A have passed the 10 GB RAM
barrier, featuring 16 GB of RAM.[56]

When upgradeable, memory slots are sometimes accessible from the bottom of the laptop for ease of
upgrading; in other cases, accessing them requires significant disassembly. Most laptops have two
memory slots, although some will have only one, either for cost savings or because some amount of
memory is soldered. Some high-end models have four slots; these are usually mobile engineering
workstations, although a few high-end models intended for gaming do as well.

As of 2021, 8 GB RAM is most common, with lower-end models occasionally having 4 GB. Higher-end
laptops may come with 16 GB of RAM or more.

Internal storage
The earliest laptops most often used floppy disk for storage, although a few used either RAM disk or
tape, by the late 1980s hard disk drives had become the standard form of storage.

Between 1990 and 2009, almost all laptops typically had a hard disk drive (HDD) for storage; since
then, solid-state drives (SSD) have gradually come to supplant hard drives in all but some inexpensive
consumer models. Solid-state drives are faster and more power-efficient, as well as eliminating the
hazard of drive and data corruption caused by a laptop's physical impacts, as they use no mechanical
parts such as a rotational platter.[57] In many cases, they are more compact as well. Initially, in the
late 2000s, SSDs were substantially more expensive than HDDs, but as of 2021 prices on smaller
capacity (under 1 terabyte) drives have converged; larger capacity drives remain more expensive than
comparable-sized HDDs.

Since around 1990, where a hard drive is present it will typically be a 2.5-inch drive; some very
compact laptops support even smaller 1.8-inch HDDs, and a very small number used 1" Microdrives.
Some SSDs are built to match the size/shape of a laptop hard drive, but increasingly they have been
replaced with smaller mSATA or M.2 cards. SSDs using the newer and much faster NVM Express
standard for connecting are only available as cards.

As of 2022, many laptops no longer contain space for a 2.5" drive, accepting only M.2 cards; a few of
the smallest have storage soldered to the motherboard. For those that can, they can typically contain a
single 2.5-inch drive, but a small number of laptops with a screen wider than 15 inches can house two
drives.

A variety of external HDDs or NAS data storage servers with support of RAID technology can be
attached to virtually any laptop over such interfaces as USB, FireWire, eSATA, or Thunderbolt, or over
a wired or wireless network to further increase space for the storage of data. Many laptops also
incorporate a SD or microSD card slot. This enables users to download digital pictures from an SD
card onto a laptop, thus enabling them to delete the SD card's contents to free up space for taking new
pictures.

Removable media drive

Optical disc drives capable of playing CD-ROMs, compact discs (CD), DVDs, and in some cases, Blu-
ray discs (BD), were nearly universal on full-sized models between the mid-1990s and the early 2010s.
As of 2021, drives are uncommon in compact or premium laptops; they remain available in some
bulkier models, but the trend towards thinner and lighter machines is gradually eliminating these
drives and players – when needed they can be connected via USB instead.

Speaker
Laptops are usually have built-in speakers and built-in microphones. However, integrated speakers
may be small and of restricted sound quality to conserve space.

Inputs
An alphanumeric keyboard is used to enter text, data, and other
commands (e.g., function keys). A touchpad (also called a
trackpad), a pointing stick, or both, are used to control the
position of the cursor on the screen, and an integrated
keyboard[58] is used for typing. Some touchpads have buttons
separate from the touch surface, while others share the surface. A
quick double-tap is typically registered as a click, and operating Closeup of a touchpad on an Acer
systems may recognize multi-finger touch gestures. laptop, where buttons and the
touch-sensitive surface are shared
An external keyboard and mouse may be connected using a USB
port or wirelessly, via Bluetooth or similar technology. Some
laptops have multitouch touchscreen displays, either available as
an option or standard. Most laptops have webcams and
microphones, which can be used to communicate with other
people with both moving images and sound, via web conferencing
or video-calling software.

Closeup of a TrackPoint cursor and

UltraNav buttons on a ThinkPad
laptop
Laptops typically have USB ports and a combined
headphone/microphone jack, for use with headphones, a
combined headset, or an external mic. Many laptops have a
card reader for reading digital camera SD cards.

Input/output (I/O) ports Interfaces on a ThinkPad laptop (2011):

Ethernet network port (center), VGA (left),
On a typical laptop there are several USB ports; if they use DisplayPort (top right) and USB 2.0
only the older USB connectors instead of USB-C, they will (bottom right). Due to the trend towards
typically have an external monitor port (VGA, DVI, HDMI or very flat laptops and the widespread use of
Mini DisplayPort or occasionally more than one), an audio WLAN, the relatively high Ethernet socket
is no longer mandatory in today's devices,
in/out port (often in form of a single socket) is common. It is
as is the technically outdated VGA.
possible to connect up to three external displays to a 2014-
era laptop via a single Mini DisplayPort, using multi-stream
transport technology.[51]

Apple, in a 2015 version of its MacBook, transitioned from a number of different I/O ports to a single
USB-C port.[59] This port can be used both for charging and connecting a variety of devices through
the use of aftermarket adapters. Apple has since transitioned back to using a number of different
ports. Google, with its updated version of Chromebook Pixel, shows a similar transition trend towards
USB-C, although keeping older USB Type-A ports for a better compatibility with older devices.[60]
Although being common until the end of the 2000s decade, Ethernet network port are rarely found on
modern laptops, due to widespread use of wireless networking, such as Wi-Fi. Legacy ports such as a
PS/2 keyboard/mouse port, serial port, parallel port, or FireWire are provided on some models, but
they are increasingly rare. On Apple's systems, and on a handful of other laptops, there are also
Thunderbolt ports, but Thunderbolt 3 uses USB-C. Laptops typically have a headphone jack, so that
the user can connect headphones or amplified speaker systems for listening to music or other audio.

Expansion cards
In the past, a PC Card (formerly PCMCIA) or ExpressCard slot for expansion was often present on
laptops to allow adding and removing functionality, even when the laptop is powered on; these are
becoming increasingly rare since the introduction of USB 3.0. Some internal subsystems such as
Ethernet, Wi-Fi, or a wireless cellular modem can be implemented as replaceable internal expansion
cards, usually accessible under an access cover on the bottom of the laptop. The standard for such
cards is PCI Express, which comes in both mini and even smaller M.2 sizes. In newer laptops, it is not
uncommon to also see Micro SATA (mSATA) functionality on PCI Express Mini or M.2 card slots
allowing the use of those slots for SATA-based solid-state drives.[61]

Mobile PCI Express Module (MXM) is a type of expansion card that is used for graphics cards.[62]

Battery and power supply

Since the late 1990s, laptops have typically used lithium ion or lithium polymer batteries, These
replaced the older nickel metal-hydride typically used in the 1990s, and nickel–cadmium batteries
used in most of the earliest laptops. A few of the oldest laptops used non-rechargeable batteries, or
lead–acid batteries.

Battery life is highly variable by model and workload and can

range from one hour to nearly a day. A battery's performance
gradually decreases over time; a noticeable reduction in capacity is
typically evident after two to three years of regular use, depending
on the charging and discharging pattern and the design of the
battery. Innovations in laptops and batteries have seen situations
in which the battery can provide up to 24 hours of continued
Almost all laptops use smart
operation, assuming average power consumption levels. An
batteries.
example is the HP EliteBook 6930p when used with its ultra-
capacity battery.[63]

Laptops with removable batteries may support larger replacement batteries with extended capacity.

A laptop's battery is charged using an external power supply, which is plugged into a wall outlet. The
power supply outputs a DC voltage typically in the range of 7.2—24 volts. The power supply is usually
external and connected to the laptop through a DC connector cable. In most cases, it can charge the
battery and power the laptop simultaneously. When the battery is fully charged, the laptop continues
to run on power supplied by the external power supply, avoiding battery use. If the used power supply
is not strong enough to power computing components and charge the battery simultaneously, the
battery may charge in a shorter period of time if the laptop is turned off or sleeping. The charger
typically adds about 400 grams (0.88 lb) to the overall transporting weight of a laptop, although some
models are substantially heavier or lighter. Most 2016-era laptops use a smart battery, a rechargeable
battery pack with a built-in battery management system (BMS). The smart battery can internally
measure voltage and current, and deduce charge level and State of Health (SoH) parameters,
indicating the state of the cells.

Power connectors
Historically, DC connectors, typically cylindrical/barrel-shaped
coaxial power connectors have been used in laptops. Some vendors
such as Lenovo made intermittent use of a rectangular connector.

Some connector heads feature a center pin to allow the end device
to determine the power supply type by measuring the resistance
Laptop power supply with cylindrical
between it and the connector's negative pole (outer surface).
coaxial DC power connector
Vendors may block charging if a power supply is not recognized as
original part, which could deny the legitimate use of universal
third-party chargers.[64]

With the advent of USB-C, portable electronics made increasing use of it for both power delivery and
data transfer. Its support for 20 V (common laptop power supply voltage) and 5 A typically suffices for
low to mid-end laptops, but some with higher power demands such as gaming laptops depend on
dedicated DC connectors to handle currents beyond 5 A without risking overheating, some even above
10 A. Additionally, dedicated DC connectors are more durable and less prone to wear and tear from
frequent reconnection, as their design is less delicate.[65]

Cooling
Waste heat from the operation is difficult to remove in the compact internal space of a laptop. The
earliest laptops used passive cooling; this gave way to heat sinks placed directly on the components to
be cooled, but when these hot components are deep inside the device, a large space-wasting air duct is
needed to exhaust the heat. Modern laptops instead rely on heat pipes to rapidly move waste heat
towards the edges of the device, to allow for a much smaller and compact fan and heat sink cooling
system. Waste heat is usually exhausted away from the device operator towards the rear or sides of the
device. Multiple air intake paths are used since some intakes can be blocked, such as when the device
is placed on a soft conforming surface like a chair cushion. Secondary device temperature monitoring
may reduce performance or trigger an emergency shutdown if it is unable to dissipate heat, such as if
the laptop were to be left running and placed inside a carrying case. Aftermarket cooling pads with
external fans can be used with laptops to reduce operating temperatures.

Docking station
A docking station (sometimes referred to simply as a dock) is a laptop
accessory that contains multiple ports and in some cases expansion slots
or bays for fixed or removable drives. A laptop connects and disconnects
to a docking station, typically through a single large proprietary
connector. A docking station is an especially popular laptop accessory in a
corporate computing environment, due to a possibility of a docking
station transforming a laptop into a full-featured desktop replacement,
yet allowing for its easy release. This ability can be advantageous to "road
warrior" employees who have to travel frequently for work, and yet who
also come into the office. If more ports are needed, or their position on a
laptop is inconvenient, one can use a cheaper passive device known as a
port replicator. These devices mate to the connectors on the laptop, such Docking station and laptop
as through USB or FireWire.

Charging trolleys
Laptop charging trolleys, also known as laptop trolleys or laptop carts, are mobile storage containers
to charge multiple laptops, netbooks, and tablet computers at the same time. The trolleys are used in
schools that have replaced their traditional static computer labs[66] suites of desktop equipped with
"tower" computers, but do not have enough plug sockets in an individual classroom to charge all of the
devices. The trolleys can be wheeled between rooms and classrooms so that all students and teachers
in a particular building can access fully charged IT equipment.[67]

Laptop charging trolleys are also used to deter and protect against opportunistic and organized theft.
Schools, especially those with open plan designs, are often prime targets for thieves who steal high-
value items. Laptops, netbooks, and tablets are among the highest–value portable items in a school.
Moreover, laptops can easily be concealed under clothing and stolen from buildings. Many types of
laptop–charging trolleys are designed and constructed to protect against theft. They are generally
made out of steel, and the laptops remain locked up while not in use. Although the trolleys can be
moved between areas from one classroom to another, they can often be mounted or locked to the
floor, support pillars, or walls to prevent thieves from stealing the laptops, especially overnight.[66]

Solar panels
In some laptops, solar panels are able to generate enough solar power for the laptop to operate.[68]
The One Laptop Per Child Initiative released the OLPC XO-1 laptop which was tested and successfully
operated by use of solar panels.[69] Presently, they are designing an OLPC XO-3 laptop with these
features. The OLPC XO-3 can operate with 2 watts of electricity because its renewable energy
resources generate a total of 4 watts.[70][71] Samsung has also designed the NC215S solar–powered
notebook that will be sold commercially in the U.S. market.[72]

Accessories
A common accessory for laptops is a laptop sleeve, laptop skin, or laptop case, which provides a degree
of protection from scratches. Sleeves, which are distinguished by being relatively thin and flexible, are
most commonly made of neoprene, with sturdier ones made of low-resilience polyurethane. Some
laptop sleeves are wrapped in ballistic nylon to provide some measure of waterproofing. Bulkier and
sturdier cases can be made of metal with polyurethane padding inside and may have locks for added
security. Metal, padded cases also offer protection against impacts and drops. Another common
accessory is a laptop cooler, a device that helps lower the internal temperature of the laptop either
actively or passively. A common active method involves using electric fans to draw heat away from the
laptop, while a passive method might involve propping the laptop up on some type of pad so it can
receive more airflow. Some stores sell laptop pads that enable a reclining person on a bed to use a
laptop.

Modularity
Some of the components of earlier models of laptops can easily be
replaced without opening completely its bottom part, such as
keyboard, battery, hard disk, memory modules, CPU cooling fan,
etc.

Some of the components of recent models of laptops reside inside.

Replacing most of its components, such as keyboard, battery, hard
disk, memory modules, CPU cooling fan, etc., requires removal of Opened bottom covers allow
its either top or bottom part, removal of the motherboard, and replacement of RAM and storage
returning them. modules (Lenovo G555).
In some types, solder and glue are used to mount components such as RAM, storage, and batteries,
making repairs additionally difficult.[73][74]

Obsolete features
Features that certain early models of laptops used to have that are
not available in most current laptops include:

Reset ("cold restart") button in a hole (needed a thin metal tool to

press)
Instant power off button in a hole (needed a thin metal tool to
press)
Integrated charger or power adapter inside the laptop
Dedicated Media buttons (Internet, Volume, Play, Pause, Next,
Previous) A modem PCMCIA card on a
Floppy disk drive 1990s ThinkPad. The card would
Serial port normally fully insert into the
socket.
Parallel port
Modem
IEEE 1394 port
Docking port
Shared PS/2 input device port
IrDA
S-video port
S/PDIF audio port
PC Card / PCMCIA slot
ExpressCard slot
CD/DVD Drives (starting with 2013 models)
VGA port (starting with 2013 models)

Characteristics

Advantages
Portability is usually the first feature mentioned in any
comparison of laptops versus desktop PCs.[75] Physical
portability allows a laptop to be used in many places—not only
at home and the office but also during commuting and flights,
in coffee shops, in lecture halls and libraries, at clients'
locations or a meeting room, etc. Within a home, portability
enables laptop users to move their devices from room to room.
Portability offers several distinct advantages:
Productivity: Using a laptop in places where a desktop PC
cannot be used can help employees and students to increase A teacher using the laptop as part of
their productivity on work or school tasks, such as an office a workshop for school children
worker reading their work e-mails during an hour-long
 commute by train, or a student doing their homework at the
university coffee shop during a break between lectures, for
example.
Up-to-date information: Using a single laptop prevents
fragmentation of files across multiple PC's as the files exist in a
single location and are always up-to-date.
Connectivity: A key advantage of laptops is that they almost
always have integrated connectivity features such as Wi-Fi
and Bluetooth, and sometimes connection to cellular networks
A man using a laptop on a park
either through native integration or use of a hotspot. Wi-Fi
bench
networks and laptop programs are especially widespread at
university campuses.[76]
Other advantages of laptops:

Size: Laptops are smaller than desktop PCs. This is beneficial when space is at a premium, for
example in small apartments and student dorms. When not in use, a laptop can be closed and put
away in a desk drawer.
Low power consumption: Laptops are several times more power-efficient than desktops. A
typical laptop uses 10–100 W, compared to 200–800W for desktops. This could be particularly
beneficial for large businesses, which run hundreds of personal computers thus economies of
scale, and homes where there is a computer running 24/7 (such as a home media server, print
server, etc.).
Quiet: Laptops are typically much quieter than desktops, due both to the components (often silent
solid-state drives replacing hard drives) and to less heat production leading to the use of fewer,
sometimes no cooling fans. The latter has given rise to laptops that have no moving parts,
resulting in complete silence during use.
Battery: a charged laptop can continue to be used in case of a power outage and is not affected
by short power interruptions and blackouts, an issue that is present with desktop PC's.
All-in-One: designed to be portable, most modern laptops have all components integrated into the
chassis. For desktops (excluding all-in-ones) this is usually divided into the desktop "tower" (the
unit with the CPU, hard drive, power supply, etc.), keyboard, mouse, display screen, and optional
peripherals such as speakers.

Disadvantages
Compared to desktop PCs, laptops have disadvantages in the following areas:

Performance
The majority of laptops released in 2022 are capable of common tasks such as web browsing,
video playback, and office applications, even at the low end. That said, performance of desktops
often surpass comparably priced laptops. The upper limits of performance of laptops remain
lower than desktops, due to mostly practical reasons, such as decreased battery life, increased
size and heat, etc.
Upgradeability
The upgradeability of laptops is very limited compared to thoroughly standardized desktops, due
to technical and economic reasons. In general, hard drives and memory can be upgraded easily.
Due to the integrated nature of laptops, however, the motherboard, CPU, and graphics, are
seldom officially upgradeable. Some efforts towards industry standard parts and layouts have
been attempted, such as Common Building Block, but the industry remains largely proprietary
and fragmented. There is no industry-wide standard form factor for laptops; Moreover, starting
with 2013 models, laptops have become increasingly integrated (soldered) with the motherboard
 for most of its components (CPU, SSD, RAM, etc.) to reduce size and upgradeability
prospects.[55]
Durability
Laptops are less durable than desktops/PCs. However, the
durability of the laptop depends on the user if proper
maintenance is done then the laptop can work longer.
Because of their portability, laptops are subject to more wear
and physical damage than desktops, additionally hindered
by their integrated nature. A liquid spill onto the keyboard,
while a minor issue with a desktop system, can damage the
internals of a laptop and destroy the computer, result in a
costly repair or entire replacement of laptops. One study
found that a laptop is three times more likely to break during
the first year of use than a desktop.[77] To maintain a laptop, A clogged heat sink on a laptop after
it is recommended to clean it every three months for dirt, 2.5 years of use
debris, dust, and food particles. Most cleaning kits consist of
a lint-free or microfiber cloth for the screen and keyboard,
compressed air for getting dust out of the cooling fan, and a
cleaning solution. Harsh chemicals such as bleach should
not be used to clean a laptop, as they can damage it.[78]
Heating and cooling
Laptops rely on extremely compact cooling systems
involving a fan and heat sink that can fail from blockage
caused by accumulated airborne dust and debris. Most
laptops do not have any type of removable dust collection
filter over the air intake for these cooling systems, resulting
in a system that gradually conducts more heat and noise as Laptop keyboard with its keys
the years pass. In some cases, the laptop starts to overheat (except the space bar) removed,
even at idle load levels. This dust is usually stuck inside revealing crumbs, pet hair, and
where the fan and heat sink meet, where it can not be other detritus to be cleaned away
removed by a casual cleaning and vacuuming. Most of the
time, compressed air can dislodge the dust and debris but
may not entirely remove it. After the device is turned on, the
loose debris is reaccumulated into the cooling system by the fans. Complete disassembly is
usually required to clean the laptop entirely. However, preventative maintenance such as regular
cleaning of the heat sink via compressed air can prevent dust build-up on the heat sink. Many
laptops are difficult to disassemble by the average user and contain components that are
sensitive to electrostatic discharge (ESD).
Battery life
Battery life is limited because the capacity drops with time, eventually warranting replacement
after as little as 2–3 years. A new battery typically stores enough energy to run the laptop for five
to six hours or more, depending on usage and the battery size. The battery is often easily
replaceable and a higher capacity model may be obtained for longer charging and discharging
time. Some laptops do not have the usual removable battery and have to be brought to the
service center of their manufacturer or a third-party laptop service center to have their battery
replaced. Replacement batteries can also be expensive, depending on the availability of the
parts. Desktop PC's do not face similar problems since they are reliant on long lasting power
supplies.
Security and privacy
Because they are valuable, commonly used, portable, and easy to hide in a backpack or other
type of bag, laptops are often stolen. Every day, over 1,600 laptops go missing from U.S.
airports.[79] The cost of stolen business or personal data, and of the resulting problems (identity
theft, credit card fraud, breach of privacy), can be many times the value of the stolen laptop
itself. Consequently, the physical protection of laptops and the safeguarding of data contained
 on them are both of great importance. Some laptops, primarily professional and educational
devices, have a Kensington security slot, which can be used to tether them with a security cable
and lock. In addition, modern operating systems have features such as Activation Lock or similar
that prevents the use of the device without credentials. As of 2015, some laptops also have
additional security elements added, including biometric security components such as Windows
Hello or Touch ID.[80]
Software such as GadgetTrak and Find My Mac have been engineered to help people locate
and recover their stolen laptops in the event of theft. Setting one's laptop with a password on its
firmware (protection against going to firmware setup or booting), internal HDD/SSD (protection
against accessing it and loading an operating system on it afterward), and every user account of
the operating system are additional security measures that a user should do.[81][82] Fewer than
5% of lost or stolen laptops are recovered by the companies that own them,[83] however, that
number may decrease due to a variety of companies and software solutions specializing in
laptop recovery. In the 2010s, the common availability of webcams on laptops raised privacy
concerns. In Robbins v. Lower Merion School District (Eastern District of Pennsylvania 2010),
school-issued laptops loaded with special software enabled staff from two high schools to take
secret webcam shots of students at home, via their students' laptops.[84][85][86]

Ergonomics and health effects

Wrists
Prolonged use of laptops can cause repetitive strain injury because of their small, flat keyboard
and trackpad pointing devices.[87] Usage of separate, external ergonomic keyboards and
pointing devices is recommended to prevent injury when working for long periods of time; they
can be connected to a laptop easily by USB, Bluetooth or via a docking station. Some health
standards require ergonomic keyboards at workplaces.
Neck and spine
A laptop's integrated screen often requires users to lean over for a better view, which can cause
neck or spinal injuries. A larger and higher-quality external screen can be connected to almost
any laptop to alleviate this and to provide additional screen space for more productive work.
Another solution is to use a computer stand.
Possible effect on fertility
A study by State University of New York researchers found that heat generated from laptops can
increase the temperature of the lap of male users when balancing the computer on their lap,
potentially putting sperm count at risk. The study, which included roughly two dozen men
between the ages of 21 and 35, found that the sitting position required to balance a laptop can
increase scrotum temperature by as much as 2.1 °C (4 °F). However, further research is needed
to determine whether this directly affects male sterility.[88] A later 2010 study of 29 males
published in Fertility and Sterility found that men who kept their laptops on their laps
experienced scrotal hyperthermia (overheating) in which their scrotal temperatures increased by
up to 2.0 °C (4 °F). The resulting heat increase, which could not be offset by a laptop cushion,
may increase male infertility.[89][90][91][92][93]
A common practical solution to this problem is to place the laptop on a table or desk or to use a
book or pillow between the body and the laptop. Another solution is to obtain a cooling unit for
the laptop. These are usually USB powered and consist of a hard thin plastic case housing one,
two, or three cooling fans – with the entire assembly designed to sit under the laptop in
question – which results in the laptop remaining cool to the touch, and greatly reduces laptop
heat buildup.

Thighs
 Heat generated from using a laptop on the lap can also
cause skin discoloration on the thighs known as "toasted
skin syndrome".[94][95][96][97]

Sales

Manufacturers
Laptop cooler (silver) under laptop
There are many laptop brands and manufacturers. Several major (white), preventing heating of lap
brands that offer notebooks in various classes are listed in the and improving laptop airflow
adjacent box. The major brands usually offer good service and
support, including well-executed documentation and driver
downloads that remain available for many years after a particular laptop model is no longer produced.
Capitalizing on service, support, and brand image, laptops from major brands are more expensive
than laptops by smaller brands and ODMs. Some brands specialize in a particular class of laptops,
such as gaming laptops (Alienware), high-performance laptops (HP Envy), netbooks (EeePC) and
laptops for children (OLPC).

Many brands, including the major ones, do not design and do not manufacture their laptops. Instead,
a small number of Original Design Manufacturers (ODMs) design new models of laptops, and the
brands choose the models to be included in their lineup. In 2006, 7 major ODMs manufactured 7 of
every 10 laptops in the world, with the largest one (Quanta Computer) having 30% of the world
market share.[98] Therefore, identical models are available both from a major label and from a low-
profile ODM in-house brand.

Adoption by users
Battery-powered portable computers had just 2% worldwide market share in 1986.[99] However,
laptops have become increasingly popular, both for business and personal use.[100] Around 109
million notebook PCs shipped worldwide in 2007, a growth of 33% compared to 2006.[101] In 2008 it
was estimated that 145.9 million notebooks were sold, and that the number would grow in 2009 to
177.7 million.[102] The third quarter of 2008 was the first time when worldwide notebook PC
shipments exceeded desktops, with 38.6 million units versus 38.5 million units.[100][103][104][105] Due
to the advent of tablets and affordable laptops, many computer users now have laptops due to the
convenience offered by the device.

Price
Before 2008, laptops were very expensive. In May 2005, the average notebook sold for $1,131 while
desktops sold for an average of $696.[106] Around 2008, however, prices of laptops decreased
substantially due to low-cost netbooks, drawing an average US$689 at U.S. retail stores in August
2008. Starting with the 2010s, laptops have decreased substantially in price at the low end due to
inexpensive and low power Arm processors, less demanding operating systems such as ChromeOS,
and SoC's. As of 2023, a new laptop can be obtained for $299.[107]

Disposal
The list of materials that go into a laptop computer is long, and many of the substances used, such as
beryllium, lead, chromium, and mercury compounds, are toxic or carcinogenic to humans. Although
these toxins are relatively harmless when the laptop is in use, concerns that discarded laptops cause a
serious health and environmental risks when improperly discarded have arisen. The Waste Electrical
and Electronic Equipment Directive (WEEE Directive) in Europe specified that all laptop computers
must be recycled by law. Similarly, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has outlawed
landfill dumping or the incinerating of discarded laptop computers.

Most laptop computers begin the recycling process with a method known as Demanufacturing, this
involves the physical separation of the components of the laptop.[108] These components are then
either grouped into materials (e.g. plastic, metal and glass) for recycling or more complex items that
require more advanced materials separation (e.g.) circuit boards, hard drives and batteries.

Corporate laptop recycling can require an additional process known as data destruction. The data
destruction process ensures that all information or data that has been stored on a laptop hard drive
can never be retrieved again. Below is an overview of some of the data protection and environmental
laws and regulations applicable for laptop recycling data destruction:

Data Protection Act 1998 (DPA) HIPAA (Health Insurance Portability and
EU Privacy Directive (Due 2016) Accountability Act)
Financial Conduct Authority NIST SP 800–53
Sarbanes-Oxley Act Add NIST SP 800–171
PCI-DSS Data Security Standard Identity Theft and Assumption Deterrence Act
Waste, Electronic & Electrical Equipment Patriot Act of 2002
Directive (WEEE) PCI Data Security Standard
Basel Convention US Safe Harbor Provisions
Bank Secrecy Act (BSA) Various state laws[109][110]
FACTA Sarbanes-Oxley Act 6/3 JAN
FDA Security Regulations (21 C.F.R. part 11) Gramm-leach-Bliley Act
Gramm-Leach-Bliley Act (GLBA) DCID

Extreme use
The ruggedized Grid Compass computer was used since the early days of the Space Shuttle program.
The first commercial laptop used in space was a Macintosh portable in 1990 on Space Shuttle mission
STS-41 and again in 1991 aboard STS-43.[111][112][113][114] Apple and other laptop computers continue
to be flown aboard crewed spaceflights, though the only long-duration flight certified computer for the
International Space Station is the ThinkPad.[115] As of 2011, over 100 ThinkPads were aboard the ISS.
Laptops used aboard the International Space Station and other spaceflights are generally the same
ones that can be purchased by the general public but needed
modifications are made to allow them to be used safely and
effectively in a weightless environment such as updating the
cooling systems to function without relying on hot air rising and
accommodation for the lower cabin air pressure.[116] Laptops
operating in harsh usage environments and conditions, such as
strong vibrations, extreme temperatures, and wet or dusty
conditions differ from those used in space in that they are custom
ISS laptops in the US lab
designed for the task and do not use commercial off-the-shelf
hardware.

See also
List of computer size categories Personal digital assistant
List of laptop brands and manufacturers VIA OpenBook
Netbook Tethering
Smartbook XJACK
Chromebook Open-source computer hardware
Ultrabook Novena
Smartphone Mobile modem
Subscriber Identity Module Stereoscopy glasses
Mobile broadband Cloudbook
Mobile Internet device (MID) Laptop–tablet convergence

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