SECTION C INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

CSEC Chemistry Metals always form positive ions

Metals

Extremes in Metals Metallic properties

Lightest: Lithium Metals have high:
Heaviest: Osmium - density: high mass per unit volume
Most brittle: Manganese and - tensile strength: high strength of the metal under stress
chromium - durability: resistant to corrosion
Lowest melting point: Mercury - malleability: ability to be made into sheets
Highest melting point: - ductility: ability to be made into wires
Tungsten Most expensive: - thermal conductivity: ability to conduct heat
Platinum - electrical conductivity: ability to conduct electricity
Rarest: Rhodium - sonority: ability to produce sound when struck
Most abundant: Aluminium

Alloys
∙ a mixture of metallic elements or metallic with ∙ pewter: tin and lead
non-metallic.
∙ Uses of solder: mixture of tin and lead, has a
∙ Pure metals are weak as the layers of atoms much lower melting point than either of its
slide over each other easily. In alloy of 2 components so more easily fusible ---
metals, they have different sizes of atoms so suitable for welding electrical wire
this disrupts the orderly layer of atoms
together ∙ Uses of stainless steel: is an alloy
making it difficult for atoms to slide over.
of iron containing chromium or nickel. Is the
∙ Eg of alloys most expensive way
∙ Steel: iron and carbon
applications for:
∙ bronze: copper and tin

∙ brass: copper and zinc ∙ cutleries

∙ duralumin: aluminium, copper, ∙ medical instruments

magnesium ∙ kitchen sinks
∙ Uses of duralumin: it is light but
∙ steel objects in chemical factories
strong and durable so used for
aircraft parts, greenhouse frames, and oil refineries
overhead cables, curtain walling in
high-rise buildings etc.

The Reactivity Series of Metals

Elements Symbols
∙ is an arrangement of the metals (and
Potassium K
carbon and hydrogen) in order of Most reactive
their reactivity.
Sodium Na
∙ The reactivity of a metal is determined Calcium Ca
Magnesium Mg
by its ability to form a positive ion. ∙ Reactivity Decrease
s
Reactions of Metals:
The reactivity series of metals Aluminium Al
was deduced by performing Carbon – not a metal C
several Zinc Zn
experiments in the lab which enabled Iron Fe
scientists to arrange metals according Tin Sn
to their reactivity with dilute acid, Lead Pb
oxygen (air), and water. Hydrogen - not a
H
∙ Reactive metals tend to form metal
Copper Cu
positive ions easily, by losing Mercury Hg
electrons and forming compounds Silver Ag
∙ unreactive metals prefer to remain Platinum Pt
in uncombined form, as the Gold Au
element itself Least reactive
∙ the order of reactivity is worked out N.B: Some text books list Gold before Platinum
from the metal's reaction (if any) There are more metals in the reactivity series but
with water or steam and acids they are not studied at this level.
 ∙ if there is a reaction, the metal
displaces hydrogen

Metal + hydrogen ion 🡪 metal ion +

hydrogen gas

Here’s a jingle to help you remember the order of the series:

Please Send Chief Minister A Cute Zebra In The Largest Heaviest Case Marked Striped Perishable
Goods

∙ Two non-metals, carbon and hydrogen, are included in the table for comparison, and are important
chemical reference points concerning the method of metal extraction and reactivity towards acids o
Metals above carbon cannot usually be extracted by carbon or carbon monoxide reduction and are
usually extracted by electrolysis. In sense this means metals above carbon in the reactivity series
cannot be 'displaced' from their compounds by carbon.
o Metals below carbon in the series can be extracted by heating the oxide with carbon or
carbon monoxide.
o Metals below hydrogen will not usually displace hydrogen from acids and can be extracted
by heating the oxide in hydrogen, though is rarely done e.g. for cost (not as cheap as
coke/carbon) and safety reasons (hydrogen very explosive in air). Again, you can think of metals
above hydrogen in the reactivity series as being reactive enough to displace hydrogen from acids
in aqueous solution.

Metals were arranged in order of reactivity starting with the most reactive metal which had the highest rate of
effervescence of hydrogen gas. The rate of effervescence is also the rate of this reaction is measured by measuring the
volume of hydrogen produced per unit time.
Metals Reactivity with Dilute HCl

Potassium, Sodium & Calcium React extremely violently with rapid effervescence and splashing

Magnesium & Aluminum React violently with rapid effervescence

Zinc, Iron & Lead React slowly with bubbles

Copper, Silver, Gold & Platinum Do not react

Metal Metal with water/steam Metal with acid

potassium react with cold water violent reaction with dilute acids
sodium M(s) + 2H2O(l) --> MOH(aq) + M(s) + 2HCl(aq) --> MCl2(aq) + H2(g)
calcium H2(g) Metal + Water --> Metal Metal + Acid --> Metal Chloride + Hydrogen
Hydroxide + Hydrogen

magnesi react with steam react with dilute acids with decreasing
um M(s) + 2H2O(g) --> MO(s) + H2(g) ease M(s) + 2HCl(aq) --> MCl2(aq) +
aluminiu Metal + Water --> Metal Oxide + Hydrogen H2(g)
m Metal + Acid --> Metal Chloride + Hydrogen
zinc
iron

lead do not react with water or steam react with dilute acids with decreasing ease
hydrogen

copper do not react with water or steam react only with concentrated acids
mercury
silver
platinum

Reactions with Oxygen in Air:

Most metals react with oxygen from air forming a metal oxide. You have previously studied that metal
oxides are basic oxides and that some of them are insoluble in water and some of them are soluble in water
forming an alkaline solution. The most reactive metals like potassium, sodium, calcium and magnesium
react with oxygen with a very bright flame and producing white ashes and their oxides are soluble.
Moderately reactive metals like aluminum and zinc react with oxygen forming white powdered ashes but
their oxides are insoluble. Iron and copper react very slowly with oxygen. The result of iron oxygen reactions
is rust which is reddish brown iron oxide. When a copper lump reacts with oxygen, a white layer of black
copper oxide forms on it. When the lump gets covered by this layer; the reaction stops. Oxides of iron and
copper are insoluble. Metals that are less reactive than copper like silver, gold and platinum do not react
with oxygen.
Note: When aluminum reacts with oxygen, a layer of aluminum oxide adheres and covers the
aluminum. At this point no further reaction can take place.
 Metal Observation Inference Equation

Magnesiu Burns vigorously with a very brilliant The reactivity of 2Mg(s) +

m (Mg) white flame. The residue is white when Mg towards O2 is O2(g)–>
hot and cold. very high. 2MgO(s)
Magnesium
oxide is formed.

Zinc (Zn) Burns quickly with a bright flame. The The reactivity of Zn 2Zn(s) + O2(g)–
residue is yellow when hot and white towards O2 is high. > 2ZnO(s)
when cold. Zinc oxide is
formed.

Iron (Fe) Glows very brightly. The residue The reactivity of 2Fe(s) + O2(g)–
is reddish-brown when hot and Fe towards O2 is > 2Fe2O3(s)
cold. medium. Iron (III)
oxide is formed.

Lead (Pb) Glows brightly. The residue is The reactivity of 2Pb(s) + O2(g)–
brown when hot and yellow when cold. Pb towards O2 is > 2PbO(s)
low.
Lead (II) oxide is
formed.

Copper Glows faintly. The residue is The reactivity of Cu 2Cu(s) + O2(g)–

(Cu) black when hot and cold. towards O2 is very > 2CuO(s)
low. Copper (II)
oxide is formed.

Question: Predict the reactivity of the other metals in the reactivity series with oxygen.
Metal: Reaction: Order of Products:
reactivity:

Potassiu Violent reaction with cold water. Floats and 1st- most Potassium hydroxide,
m catches fire. reactive. KOH and hydrogen gas.

Sodium Very vigorous reaction with cold water. 2nd. Sodium hydroxide, NaOH
Floats. Can be lit with a lighted splint. and hydrogen gas.

Calcium Less vigorous with cold water. 3rd. Calcium hydroxide,

Ca(OH)2 and hydrogen gas.

Magnesiu Very slow with cold water, but vigorous with 4th. Magnesium oxide, MgO
m steam. and hydrogen gas.

Zinc Quite slow with steam. 5th. Zinc oxide, ZnO and
hydrogen gas.

Iron Slow with steam. 6th. Iron oxide, Fe203 and

hydrogen gas.

Copper No reaction with steam. 7th- least

reactive.

Competition Reactions in Solid State:

Previously you’ve studied displacement reactions which are pre-formed in aqueous states. A very similar
reaction takes place in the solid state, it is called thermite reaction. This reaction is used to repair
damaged railway lines. In this reaction, aluminum and iron (III) oxide are the reactants. In the reaction,
aluminum removes the oxygen ion from iron and bonds with it. This happens because aluminum is more
reactive than iron. The products are aluminum oxide and iron in molten form. In the fixing procedure, the
reactants are put in the cut in the railway line and the reaction is triggered by heating using a magnesium
fuse. The reaction leaves aluminum oxide and molten iron with then condenses in the cut welding it. Like
displacement reactions, this reaction is exothermic.

2Al + Fe2O3 → Al2O3 +2Fe

Competition Reactions in Aqueous State:

These are ordinary displacement reactions in which the two positive ions compete for the negative ion. The
ion of the more reactive metal wins. Zinc is higher than copper in the reactivity series. If zinc is added to a
solution of copper nitrate, a displacement reaction will take place in which the zinc will displace the copper
ion from the solution in its salt. The products of this reaction are zinc nitrate and copper. Copper salt
solutions have a blue color which fades away as the reaction proceeds because
the concentration of the copper salt decreases. This type of reaction also helped in confirming reactivity of
metals since the more reactive metal displaces the less reactive one.

Zn + Cu(NO3)2 → Zn(NO3)2 + Cu

Stability of metal compounds (Action of Heat)

∙ Compounds of metals high up in the reactivity series are stable and not easily decomposed by
heating.
∙ Compounds of metals low down in the series are unstable, and are often decomposed by
heating, or are easily reduced.
∙ The oxides of metals above zinc in the series can only be reduced to the metal by using
electrolysis.

∙ At cathode, reduction occurs

∙ Al3+ + 3e----> Al

∙ The oxides below can be reduced with reducing agents like carbon or hydrogen, except zinc oxide
which cannot be reduced by action of hydrogen
∙ ZnO + C --> Zn + CO

∙ CuO + H2 --> Cu + H2O

Metal Oxide Hydroxide Carbonate Nitrate

potassiu electrolytic stable to heat stable to heat decompose to

m reduction nitrite and oxygen
sodium

calcium electrolytic decompose to decompose to decompose to metal

magnesiu reduction metal oxide and metal oxide and oxide, nitrogen
m steam on heating carbon dioxide and oxygen
aluminiu dioxide gas on heating on heating
m

zinc reduced by decompose to decompose to decompose to metal

iron heating with metal oxide and metal oxide and oxide, nitrogen
lead carbon steam on heating carbon dioxide and oxygen
copper dioxide gas on heating on heating

mercury reduced by unstable, do not unstable, do not exist decompose to

silver heating alone exist metal, oxygen and
platinum nitrogen dioxide gas
on heating

∙ Down the series, reduction becomes easier because the metals prefer to exist as atoms, as
opposed to ions
∙ For metal oxides like mercury(II) oxide, no reducing agent is needed - just heating alone ∙
2HgO --> 2Hg + O2
∙ Hydroxides of the metals calcium and below decompose to their corresponding oxide and give off
steam, on heating. This can be confirmed by using anhydrous copper(II) sulphate which turns
white to blue with steam
∙ Ca(OH)2 ---> CaO + H2O

∙ Similarly, most carbonates, except sodium and potassium carbonates, undergo thermal
decomposition again to a metal oxide, but this time giving off carbon dioxide gas. This can be
confirmed by bubbling the gas through limewater, which turns milky with carbon dioxide ∙ PbCO3
---> PbO + CO2
∙ Nitrates also decompose on heating, but the stable ones at the top of the series only decompose as
far as the nitrite (nitrite(III)), giving off oxygen gas. This can be identified by the gas relighting a
glowing splinter
∙ 2KNO3 ---> 2KNO2 + O2

∙ The majority of nitrates decompose to the metal oxide, giving off brown fumes of nitrogen
dioxide as well as oxygen gas.
∙ 2Mg(NO3)2 ---> 2MgO + 4NO2 + O2
 ∙ The unstable nitrates at the bottom of the reactivity series decompose all the way to the metal itself
∙ 2AgNO3 ---> 2Ag + 2NO2 + O2

∙ Applying heat to a metal compound such as potassium nitrate will cause it to decompose into
potassium nitrite and oxygen. This is a thermal decomposition reaction.
Metal: Anion:

Nitrate (NO3-) Carbonate (CO32-) Hydroxide (OH-)

Potassium Metal Nitrate → Metal NO DECOMPOSITION

Sodium nitrite + Oxygen

Calcium Metal Nitrate → Metal Metal Carbonate → Metal hydroxide

Magnesiu oxide + Nitrogen Metal oxide + Carbon →Metal oxide +
m dioxide + Oxygen dioxide Hydrogen
Aluminum
Zinc
Iron
Lead
Copper

Silver Metal Nitrate → Metal Metal Carbonate → -

Gold + Nitrogen dioxide + Metal + Carbon dioxide
Oxygen + Oxygen

Silver and gold hydroxides do not exist.

Ions of more reactive metals tend to hold on tightly to their anions and do not decompose easily this is
why lots of heat is needed.

Extraction of Metals from their Ores:

Most metals do not exist in nature as pure elements. Instead, they are found as naturally occurring
compounds called ores. Ores are naturally occurring minerals from which a metal can be extracted. Most
ores are metals oxide, carbonate or sulfide mixed with other impurities. The extraction of metal from ores
begun long ago when people started purifying iron from its iron oxide ore by reducing it using charcoal. This
was possible because carbon is more reactive than iron so it can reduce it take the oxygen ion from it. But
then other metals were discovered which were higher than carbon in the reactivity series. Those metals
were not possibly extracted from their ores until in the 19th century when a method of extracting them by
electrolysis was invented. The method extracting a metal depends on its reactivity.
Metals - in decreasing order of reactivity Reactivity

potassium Extract by electrolysis

sodium
calcium
magnesium
aluminium

carbon

zinc Extract by reaction with carbon or carbon monoxide

iron
tin
lead

hydrogen

copper Extracted by various chemical reactions

silver
gold
platinum

Metals from Rocks Occurrence of Metals

Metal ores are compounds, usually as:

∙ Minerals – elements/compounds that make
up rocks
∙ Metal oxides – metal + oxygen, eg: Al2O3 ∙
∙ Metal ore – rock containing metal
Metal sulphides – metal + sulphur, eg: HgS ∙
Extracting these metals Metal carbonates – metal + carbon + oxygen, eg:
MgCO3

∙ Metal ores are removed from ground. ∙ The

ores contain useful and unwanted materials.
Unwanted materials are separated to obtain
concentrated mineral.
 ∙ Metal is extracted from the mineral.

∙ Least Reactive – easiest to extract; extracted by physical methods

∙ Less Rective – harder to extract than least reactive; by blast furnace; usually occur as compounds of
oxides or sulphides.
∙ Most Reactive – hardest to extract – strong bonds in compounds; by electrolysis – decomposing
compounds with electricity.

Uses of Metals

The choice of metals over another depends on 3 factors:

∙ Physical properties (e.g. melting point, strength, density, conductivity)

∙ Chemical properties (e.g. resists corrosion)

∙ Cost

Recycling Metals
∙ There are many iron on the surface but copper and tin are seriously reducing.

∙ High temperatures and pressures and greater depth increases hazards that prevent mining up to the
lower part of crust, although there are more metals further down
∙ Ways to conserve metals

∙ Use alternative materials to replace the use of iron (e.g. use of plastic pipes instead of iron, use of
glass bottles for soft drinks instead of aluminium)
∙ Recycle unused metals by melting them to produce new blocks of clean metal

Advantages of recycling metals

∙ Recyling helps conserving metals, especially valuables such as gold and platinum. ∙ E.g. used computer
parts processed to extract gold used for electrical contacts of processors and memory chips
∙ Recycling saves the cost of extracting new metals

∙ Recycling benefits environment, e.g. if there is a car wasteland, it causes eyesore

Disadvantages of recycling metals

∙ Recycling metals can damage the environment by smelting process which sends a lot of fumes into the
air
 ∙ Cost to separate metals from waste is high. E.g. separating metals in alloys is hard

∙ Transport costs for collecting scrap metal is high, e.g. trucks should be used

∙ People are not interested in depositing their used materials in recycling bins

Extraction of Iron
The ore of iron is called haematite. It consists of 60% iron in form of Iron oxide (Fe2O3) with other
impurities such as silicon dioxide (SiO2).
Substances Products and Waste Materials

Iron ore (Hematite) Pure Iron

Coke (heated coal) Carbon dioxide
Limestone (Calcium carbonate) Air
Hot Air Slag (Calcium silicate)

∙ Iron is extracted from the iron ore haematite, Fe2O3

∙ Iron is extracted from the oxide in a tower called a blast furnace

Several reactions take place before the iron is finally produced.

1. Oxygen in the air reacts with coke to give carbon dioxide:

2. The limestone breaks down to form carbon dioxide:

3. Carbon dioxide produced in 1 + 2 react with more coke to produce carbon monoxide:

4. The carbon monoxide reduces the iron in the ore to give molten iron:

5. The limestone from 2, reacts with the sand to form slag (calcium silicate):

CaO(s) + SiO2(s) → CaSiO3(l)

Both the slag and iron are drained from the bottom of the furnace.
Steel Advantages of steel:

∙ Iron made from blast furnace is not good as: ∙ it is strong and tough
∙ it contains impurities which makes it ∙ it can be bent and stretched without
brittle (can break easily) shattering
∙ it cannot be bent or stretched
Different Types of Steel:
∙ Most iron is converted into steel which is an alloy
of iron and carbon with small amounts of other There are many different forms of steel. Each
elements. has different components and properties and
 Making Steel:
Impurities of iron is removed by blowing oxygen into is used for different purposes.
molten iron to change the impurities into oxides.
They are then combined with CaO and removed as
slag.

∙ Carbon and other metals are added in certain

amount to make steel.

Steel Composition Properties Uses

Mild Steel 99.5% Iron Easily worked lost Car bodies

0.5% Carbon brittleness large structures
Machinery

Hard Steel 99% Iron Tough and brittle Cutting tools and chisels
1% Carbon

Stainless Steel 87% Iron Tough and springy Drill bits and springs and
13% Manganese chemical plants

Manganese Steel 74% Iron Tough and resistant Cutlery and surgical
18% to corrosion tools, kitchen sinks
Chromium
8% Nickel

Tungsten Steel 95% Iron Tough and hard even Edges of high speed
5% Tungsten at high temperatures cutting tools

Extraction of Aluminum:
Aluminum exists naturally as aluminum oxide (alumina) in its ore, which is called bauxite.
Because aluminum is a very reactive metal, it holds on very tightly to the anion it bonds with,
which is oxide in this case. This is why the best way to extract and purify aluminum is by
electrolysis in a cell like the one below.

1 Graphite blocks - anode

2 Graphite lining - cathode

3 alumina is dissolved in molten cryolite

4 Steel container
1. Mining of Bauxite:
5 Outlet for molten aluminium

The bauxite (red-brown solid) - aluminium oxide (Al2O3) mixed with impurities - is
extracted from the earth.

2. Purification of Bauxite:

The extracted aluminium oxide is then treated with alkali (NaOH), to remove the
impurities. This results in a white solid called aluminium oxide (or alumina)
(Al2O3).

3. Electrolysis of Aluminium oxide:

o The alumina is then transported to huge tanks. The tanks are lined with
graphite, this acts as the cathode. Also blocks of graphite hang in the
middle of the tank, and acts as anodes.

o Alumina’s melting point (2050oC) is very high, therefore the alumina is dissolved
in molten cryolite - this lowers the melting point to 950 °C - saves money!

o When molten, the aluminium ions and oxide ions in the alumina can move.

o Electricity is passed and electrolysis begins. Electrolysis is the decomposition of

a compound using electricity.

o At the anode: The oxide ions lose electrons to become oxygen molecules, O2:
 o At the cathode: Here the aluminium ions receive electrons to become atoms
again:

Overall equation: 4Al (l) + 6O (l) 🡪 4Al(l) + 3O2(g)

3+ 2-

∙ Oxygen gas evolves and is collected with waste gases

∙ Aluminum is sucked out of the container at regular intervals

∙ Oxygen gas which evolves reacts with carbon from the cathode forming CO2. The
cathode gets worn away. To solve this, the cathode is replaced at regular
intervals.
Uses of Aluminium because

aircraft light, strong, resists corrosion

other transport such as ships' superstructures, container

light, strong, resists corrosion
vehicle bodies, tube trains (metro trains)

overhead power cables (with a steel core to strengthen light, resists corrosion, good conductor
them) of electricity

light, resists corrosion, good

saucepans
appearance, good conductor of heat

Reactivity Series Involving Non-Metals

Metals react by losing electrons - they are reducing agents. Non-metals react by
gaining electrons - they are oxidising agents. In the same way that metals can be
ordered in terms of reducing strength, the non-metals can be ordered in terms of their
oxidising strength. The halogens are a typical example of a non-metal reactivity series.

Reactivity of the halogens Fluorine most reactive Fluorine is so reactive that we

laboratory very easily, as it
and glass. As a result we
Chlorine fluorine at pre-university lev
other three (astatine is very

Bromine Do not confuse this order of

the metals - these are non-m
in terms of oxidising pow
Iodine least best oxidising agent out of
reactive iodine.

1. Chlorine will displace bromine from solutions containing bromide ions

Cl2 + 2Br- Br2 + 2Cl

In this reaction the chlorine is oxidising the bromide ions by removing an electron from them. Bromine
is liberated from the solution and may be detected by its orange/red colour

2. Bromine will displace iodine from solutions containing iodide ions

Br2 + 2I I2 + 2Br

In this reaction the bromine is oxidising the iodide ions by removing an electron from them. Iodine is
liberated from the solution and may be detected by its orange/brown colour which turns blue/black in
the presence of starch indicator.

It is predictable, then, that chlorine will also displace iodine from a solution containing iodide ions

Qualitative Analysis
Test for Gases
Gas Test and Test Results

Ammonia (NH3) turns damp red litmus paper blue

Carbon dioxide (CO2) gives white ppt with limewater, ppt dissolves with excess CO2

Chlorine (Cl2) bleaches damp litmus paper

Hydrogen (H2) produces "pop" sound with lighted splint

Oxygen (O2) relights a glowing splint

Sulfur dioxide (SO2) turns aqueous acidified potassium dichromate (VI) from orange to green

Test for Anions

Anion Test Test result

Carbonate Add dilute acid Effervescence, carbon

(CO32-) dioxide produced

Chloride (Cl-) Acidify with dilute nitric acid, then add White ppt
(in solution) aqueous silver nitrate

Iodide (I-) Acidify with dilute nitric acid, then add Yellow ppt
(in solution) aqueous lead(II) nitrate

nitrate (NO3-) Add aqueous sodium hydroxide, then aluminium Ammonia produced
(in solution) foil, warm carefully

Sulfate Acidify with dilute nitric acid, then add White ppt
(SO42-) (in aqueous barium nitrate
solution)

Colours of some metal hydroxides

Metal hydroxide Colour

calcium hydroxide white

copper(II) hydroxide light blue

iron(II) hydroxide green

iron(III) hydroxide red-brown

lead(II) hydroxide white

zinc hydroxide white

Testing for cations

∙ Cations can be identified by their reactions with aqueous sodium hydroxide and aqueous
ammonia
∙ A precipitate is an insoluble solid.

∙ When testing for cations, these precipitates only form when a metal ion in solution joins with
hydroxide ions in solution to form an insoluble metal hydroxide
∙ eg Cu2+ + 2OH---> Cu(OH)2 (blue copper(II) hydroxide precipitate)

Cation Add dilute NaOH Add excess Add dilute Add excess
(5 drops) dilute NaOH aqueous NH3 (5 dilute
drops) aqueous NH3

Al3+ white ppt of aluminium hydroxide ppt dissolves white ppt of ppt insoluble
colourless aluminium
solution hydroxide

Ca2+ white ppt of calcium hydroxide ppt insoluble no reaction no reaction

Cu2+ blue ppt of copper(II) hydroxide ppt insoluble blue ppt of ppt
copper(II) dissolves
 hydroxide deep blue
solution

Fe2+ dirty green ppt of iron(II) hydroxide ppt insoluble dirty green ppt of ppt insoluble
iron(II) hydroxide

Fe3+ red-brown ppt of iron(III) hydroxide ppt insoluble red-brown ppt of ppt insoluble
iron(III) hydroxide

Pb2+ white ppt of lead(II) hydroxide ppt dissolves white ppt of ppt insoluble
colourless lead(II)
solution hydroxide

Zn2+ white ppt of zinc hydroxide ppt dissolves white ppt of zinc ppt
colourless hydroxide dissolves
solution colourless
solution

NH4+ ammonia gas is produced on - no reaction -

ammoniu warming with dilute NaOH. This
m gas has a pungent smell and
turns moist red litmus paper blue

[Lead(II) ions can be distinguished from aluminium ions by the insolubility of lead(II) chloride.]

Laboratory Preparation of Gases

Laboratory Preparation of Oxygen

Oxygen has similar density to air hence is collected

by water displacement

Laboratory Preparation of Ammonia Laboratory Preparation of Carbon Dioxide

 This method of gas preparation is called
downward delivery.
A method for preparing and collecting a
gas less dense (lighter) than air by (i) Calcium carbonate (limestone/marble chips)
heating solid reactants. The less dense with hydrochloric acid makes carbon dioxide.
gas rises into, and displaces, the more carbon dioxide is moderately soluble in water
dense air downwards. This method of gas
preparation is called upward delivery. CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) ==> CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

e.g. Heating a mixture of ammonium chloride

and calcium hydroxide (slaked lime) solids
gives ammonia which has a very pungent
odour! and turns red litmus blue.

2NH4Cl(s) + Ca(OH)2(s) ==> CaCl2(s) +

2H2O(l) + 2NH3(g)

To make dry ammonia you need a tube

packed with granules of calcium oxide (quick
lime) between the horizontal pyrex tube and the
vertical inverted collection test tube.

Laboratory Preparation of Hydrogen

A method for preparing a sample of hydrogen gas

Method for preparing and collecting a gas less

dense (lighter) than air by reacting a liquid and a
solid. The less dense gas rises into, and displaces,
the more dense air downwards. This method of gas
preparation is called upward delivery.

e.g. A mixture of zinc and hydrochloric acid

makes hydrogen. Hydrogen gives a squeaky pop!
with a lit splint.

Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) ==> ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)

Drying agents: Gas used to dry

o concentrated sulphuric acid Oxygen, hydrogen, chlorine
o anhydrous calcium chloride

o silica gel Carbon dioxide

o calcium oxide ammonia

MCQ Questions
1. Which statement about salts is not 2. An example of a salt which can be prepared
correct? a, salts are made by neutralising by precipitation is
alkalis with acids b. salts contain anions and a. lead(II) nitrate
cations b. sodium carbonate
c. salts are made by dissolving metal oxides c. silver chloride
in acids d. magnesium sulphate
d. salts always contain water of crystallisation

3. A way of distinguishing dilute 4. Which of these statements about solubility

hydrochloric acid from dilute sulphuric is true?
acid is to a. all sulphates are soluble in water except calcium
a. add universal indicator and lead sulphate
b. add aqueous barium nitrate b. all nitrates are insoluble in water except sodium
c. add a metal carbonate and potassium nitrate
d. add magnesium ribbon c. most metal oxides are soluble in water except
those of Group I and II
d. most metal carbonates are soluble in water

5. Barium sulphate is insoluble in water. It is 6. Which of these salts is best prepared by

used in a 'barium meal' to allow X-ray studies reaction with an acid and a base?
of the intestines. It can be prepared by a a. barium sulphate
precipitation reaction between two aqueous b. copper(II) carbonate
solutions. Which two substances would be c. magnesium sulphate
suitable for preparing barium sulphate for use d. silver chloride
in X-ray radiography?
a. barium carbonate and sulphuric acid
b. barium chloride and sodium sulphate
c. barium oxide and potassium sulphate
d. barium nitrate and calcium sulphate
 7. A solution of substance X gave a white 8. Iron(III) hydroxide is precipitated out of
precipitate when aqueous NaOH was added. solution when aqueous sodium hydroxide
However, when lead(II) nitrate solution was solution is added to iron(II) chloride solution.
added to an acidified solution of X, a yellow Fe3+ (aq) + 3OH-(aq) --> Fe(OH)3 (s)
precipitate formed. What is the correct
identity of X? What is the minimum volume of 2 mol/dm3
a. calcium chloride aqueous NaOH required to precipitate the
b. magnesium sulphate maximum amount of iron(III) hydroxide from
c. sodium bromide 20cm3 of 1 mol/dm3 iron(III) chloride solution?
d. zinc iodide a. 10 cm3
b. 20 cm3
c. 30 cm3
d. 60 cm3

9. After acidification with dilute nitric acid, a 10. An element reacts with steam but not with
colourless solution X reacts with aqueous cold water. Its oxide can be reduced by heating
silver nitrate to give a yellow precipitate. it with carbon. When it is placed in a solution
What could X be? containing iron(II) ions, a grey deposit is
a. calcium iodide formed. The element is most likely to be
b. copper(II) chloride a. lead
c. iron(II) iodide b. magnesium
d. sodium chloride c. zinc
d. copper

MCQ Answers 6. c
1. d 7. d
2. c 8. c
3. b 9. a
4. b 10. c
5. b

Structured Questions Worked Solutions

1. A student was given an aqueous Solution: 1a.
solution analyse. It contains copper(II)
chloride and aluminium nitrate. ∙ Add dilute nitric acid followed by aqueous silver
a. Describe how he could detect the presence nitrate.
of chloride ions in the aove solution.
b. Name the precipitate(s) formed when ∙ A white precipitate will be seen in the presence of
excess aqueous ammonia is added to the
above solution. chloride ions
OR
∙ Add dilute nitric acid followed by aqueous lead(II)
nitrate.
∙ A yellow precipitate will be seen in the presence of
chloride ions

2. W is an alkali and X is a salt. When the two solutions were mixed together, a reddish-brown precipitate Y was
obtained. When a salt Z was added to solution W and heated, a pungent gas which turned moist red litmus blue
was evolved. Suggest what could W, X, Y, and Z be.

Solution

W: Sodium hydroxide
X: Iron(III) chloride/sulphate/etc
Y: Iron(III) hydroxide
Z: Ammonium chloride/nitrate/etc

3. Give the name and formula of the ions present in each of the solutions X, Y and Z below - a. Solution X gives
a white precipitate when dilute hydrochloric acid and aqueous barium chloride are added to it. b. An alkaline gas
is given off when sodium hydroxide solution is added to the colourless solution Z and the mixture heated.

Solution

3a. sulphate ion (SO42-)

3b. Ammonium ion (NH4+)

4. A similar reagent is added to zinc carbonate and sample S to initiate both reactions A and B.

ai. Name the reagent(s) required for Reaction A.

aii. Write down the chemical equation (with state symbols) for Reaction A.
bi. Give a possible identity of Sample S.
bii. Based on your answer in bi, write a chemical equation with state symbols for Reaction

B. Solution
ai. Hydrochloric acid
aii. ZnCO3 (s) + 2HCl (aq) ---> ZnCl2 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
bi. Zinc
bii. Zn (s) + 2HCl (aq) ---> ZnCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)

5.

a. Identify A to F.
b. Write an ionic equation (with state symbols) for the formation of the yellow
precipitate. c. Describe a test for the pungent gas R.
d. Pungent gas R dissolves in water to form a solution. Describe the observations when a few drops of copper(II)
sulphate solution is added to the solution.

Solution

a.
A: lead(II) carbonate
B: dilute nitric acid
C: ammonia gas
D: carbon dioxide
E: lead(II) nitrate
F: lead(II) hydroxide

b. Pb2+ (aq) + 2I-(aq) ---> PbI2 (s)

c. Place two pieces of damp red and blue litmus papers at the mouth of the test tube. If the gas is ammonia, the
damp red litmus paper will turn blue. A pungent gas will also be detected.

d. Blue precipitate is formed which dissolves in excess aqueous ammonia to form a dark blue solution.

6. In the experiment shown below, the gas X produced by the action of dilute sulphuric acid on the zinc granules
was passed over two heated metallic oxides. A colourless liquid W was collected and the excess gas X was
burnt off at Y.

a. What is gas X? Write the ionic equation for the formation of the gas.
b. State what is observed of:
i. zinc oxide
ii. copper(II) oxide
Write equation(s) for any change observed.
c. Explain your observation made in bi and bii.
d. Give a chemical test to identify liquid W.
e. Suggest a suitable drying agent to be placed inside the drying bulb.
f. Why was the excess gas X burnt off at Y?
g. What precautions should be taken before the excess gas was lit?

Solution

a.hydrogen gas
Zn + 2H+---> Zn2+ + H2

bi. Zinc oxide turns from white to yellow.

bii. Copper(II) oxide turns from black to pink
CuO + H2 ---> Cu + H2O

c. Zinc is above hydrogen in the reactivity series so zinc oxide will not be reduced by hydrogen to zinc.
Upon being heated, zinc oxide will change its colour from white to yellow.
Copper is below hydrogen in the reactivity series so copper(II) oxide will be reduced to form pink copper.

d. W is tested with anhydrous cobalt(II) chloride paper. If W is water, the cobalt(II) chloride paper will turn
from blue to pink.

e. fused calcium chloride

f. Because hydrogen gas is flammable and a mixture of hydrogen and air is very explosive.

g. Ensure that there is no leakage in the apparatus.

Students should be able to explain the importance of metals and their compounds to living systems
and the environment.
Metals in Living Systems
Some metals are an integral part of different structures in living systems. It is well known that calcium is
necessary for the formation of bones, teeth and shells. Iron is present in the haemoglobin of red blood,
and magnesium is present in chlorophyll, the compound found in the green parts of plants. Potassium is
an essential constituent of protoplasm. Generally the metals function by being part of the mineral
structure of the plants and animals. Thus metals in minerals are important to general body function.
They are particularly important for regulation of some activities like fluid balance, acid-base balance and
some forms of metabolism.

Harmful Metals
Some metals may also be very harmful to living systems. Lead is used in certain paints, soldering, car
batteries and in ceramics. Leaded gasolene is used in some internal combustion engines because lead
prevents 'knocking'. Careless disposal of industrial wastes into rivers and streams has caused death to
fish, possibly other forms of aquatic life and human beings. Disposal of household refuse containing
fluorescent tubes and electrical switches which contain mercury needs to be done carefully. If the
fluorescent tubes are left around and get broken and the switches get burnt, a lot of mercury vapour will
get into the atmosphere and eventually settle on the ground causing possible contamination of soil and
ground water.
Another point to note is that levels which may be good or at least harmless may, when increased, become
harmful. Evidence of this is the effect that excess sodium ions has on blood pressure.
Radioactive Isotopes
When the number of neutrons in the nucleus is much greater than the number of protons, the nucleus is
unstable. An isotope with an unstable nucleus is called a radio-isotope. Spontaneous changes occur in the
nuclei of radio-isotopes. For example, in carbon-14, a neutron in a nucleus changes to give a proton and
an electron. The atom produced by the nuclear change is no longer an atom of carbon but one of
nitrogen, since it now has seven protons. Nuclear changes produce different elements. The electrons
given off from the nucleus during nuclear reactions are called beta particles. The rate at which
spontaneous nuclear changes occur is fixed for any one radio-isotope but varies greatly for different
radio-isotopes.

Nuclear changes also produce emissions of alpha particles, gamma rays and x-rays. Radiation can
damage the cells of organisms. Some metals have radioactive isotopes. Medical diagnosis and treatment
make use of radiation. Undue exposure to radiation should be avoided.
Nuclear Energy
Nuclear reactions produce much more energy than combustion of fossil fuels. The atom bomb
demonstrated the vast differences in energy between nuclear change and chemical change (involving the
extra-nuclear electrons). Nuclear reactions can be so controlled that the energy released is used to
generate electricity.

The nuclear fuel, usually a radio-isotope of a heavy metal, is made to split into atoms with about half the
relative mass. The energy released can convert water to steam which is used to drive generators to
produce electricity.
There is always the p6ssibility of leaks of radioactive material. There are also serious problems
associated with disposal of radioactive wastes. As spontaneous decay of some radio-isotopes is slow,
they can be harmful for a very long time. Stable elements produced from radioactive decay may also be
harmful. Some related accidents have already occurred.
EVALUATION
In addition to the project mentioned under 'Teaching Strategies', direct questions could
be: 1. Name four metals essential to the health of plants and/or animals.
2. Name two metals which are harmful to living things.
3. It has been found that corrosion of a metal which involves a chemical reaction is speeded up if the
metal is in contact with a less reactive metal and an electrolyte. The less reactive metal does not
react under these circumstances.
(a) Explain what you would expect to be the long-term consequences of using uncoated iron
nails to secure roofing material made of (i) sheets of iron coated with zinc and (ii) sheets
of iron coated with tin, which is less reactive than iron.
(b) Which of these two types of sheets would you select for your roof given that tin is cheaper
and more attractive than zinc and that the sheets will eventually become scratched?
Justify your choice.
(c) Explain briefly why anodizing can be used to protect aluminium but not iron articles from
 corrosion.

Students should be able to discuss the harmful effects of non-metal and metal compounds to living
systems and the environment.
Sulphur dioxide is a soluble, acidic gas. Sulphur is present in association with coal and hydrocarbons
and sulphur dioxide is released from refineries and is also released when fuels burn. Sulphur dioxide is
also produced during the extraction of metals from sulphide ores. Sulphur dioxide can cause a disease of
the lungs. Sulphur dioxide also poisons plants in two main ways. It may enter the stomata of leaves and
react with the tissue fluids to form sulphites; with the on-going water loss, the concentration of sulphites
could build up, killing the cells. The second adverse effect on plants occurs when sulphur dioxide
dissolves in rain, thereby increasing soil acidity. A prolonged acid soil situation may lead to plasmolysis
and the death of vegetation in an area.
Carbon monoxide is always formed when carbon or carbon containing compounds is oxidized in
insufficient oxygen. This includes oxidation of decaying organic matter and burning of fossil fuels.
Carbon monoxide is also produced during reduction of metallic oxides for the extraction of metals.
Carbon monoxide combines much more readily than oxygen with haemoglobin. When carbon
monoxide is inhaled, it prevents the haemoglobin from taking oxygen to the body's cells. Continued
breathing of air containing carbon monoxide eventually causes death.

Carbon dioxide
The carbon cycle shows a number of ways in which carbon dioxide is produced. The great increase in the
use of fossil fuels and population pressures contribute to the increase in carbon dioxide concentration in
the earth's atmosphere.
When solar radiation reaches the earth's atmosphere about fifty percent of the visible light is reflected
into space. The remainder causes warming on earth. Warmed surfaces on earth re-radiate energy as heat.
Carbon dioxide, water vapour and ozone, referred to as "greenhouse gases" acting as a blanket readily
absorb some of the radiated heat energy and in turn warms the earth's atmosphere. This is called the
"greenhouse effect". Scientists have found direct correlation between carbon dioxide concentration and
global warming. An increase in carbon dioxide concentration resulted in an increase in global
temperatures. Global warming is a major potential problem that the world faces.

Hydrogen sulphide has a distinctive smell of rotten eggs (rotten eggs contain hydrogen sulphide).
Hydrogen sulphide is produced during the putrefaction of once-living material which contained sulphur.
It is also present in volcanic gases and some mineral springs. Hydrogen sulphide reacts readily with
many cations, forming insoluble sulphides Many cations contribute to good health by contributing to
enzyme activity, and to the formation of bone, pigment and haemoglobin. Although these cations are
required in extremely small concentrations, they are removed by being precipitated as sulphides, and
thus are not available for regular function. Careless dumping of refuse contributes to atmospheric
pollution by hydrogen sulphide.

Aerosols also contribute to atmospheric pollution. The material we emit into the air diffuses, so that we
may not smell it after a while. However, unless it has reacted with some other substance in the air,
whatever we emit remains in the atmosphere and could eventually affect us. Some aerosols contain
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) as propellants. CFCs are low molecular mass hydrocarbons in which some
or all of the hydrogen atoms have been replaced by chlorine and fluorine atoms. CFCs are odourless, non
toxic, stable at high temperatures, inert non-flammable and can be easily liquified. These properties
allow CFCs to be very useful. In addition to aerosols, they are used in foamed plastic products, fast food
containers, as coolants in air conditioners and refrigeration. It is believed that CFCs might be responsible
for destroying the protective ozone layer which prevents harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation from
reaching the earth. The carbon-chlorine bond in a CFC molecule is easily broken by a UV photon
producing an active chlorine atom. This atom combines with an ozone molecule forming a chlorine
oxide radical and oxygen. The radical reacts with more ozone producing the chlorine atom again. This
kind of reaction is repeated thousands of times. This type of reaction is thought to account for about
eighty percent of the loss of ozone observed.

Phosphates, used in detergents to increase cleaning power and phosphates and nitrates from fertilizers,
contribute to environmental pollution. High concentration of phosphates and nitrates, nutrients for plant
growth, cause excessive growth of aquatic flora. Excessive growth of algae and other aquatic plants and
their putrefaction use up oxygen from the water thus reducing the amount available to aquatic animals
resulting in their death.

Lead is a heavy metal poison that is widely encountered. It may occur in food, beverages, paint, water
from lead-sealed pipes, in air polluted by combustion of fuels containing lead compounds. The average
person can excrete about 2 mg of lead per day. Above this quantity accumulation begins in bone and soft
tissue. Soluble lead salts are toxic but metallic lead can be absorbed through the skin. Children are
especially vulnerable to lead toxicity since they retain a larger fraction of absorbed lead than adults.
They do not store lead as quickly as adults, so the lead circulates in the blood stream exerting its toxic
effect on various organs and systems. Some of the effects of lead in children's blood are as follows: ∙
rising blood pressure
∙ lowered intelligence, irreversible mental retardation

∙ reduced haemoglobin formation resulting in anaemia

∙ reduced calcium and vitamin D metabolism

∙ impaired central nervous system function

∙ convulsions, coma may result in death.

The teacher may need to have his/her own scrapbook of newspaper clippings concerning the dangers that
result from pollution. For example, in one territory people died when they were sent to clean out a
molasses tank, which had been closed up for a while. In another territory a motorist died in bumper-to-
bumper traffic, which stood still for quite a long period. Elsewhere, desert conditions have been created
in the vicinity of some industries. These or other situations could be used to introduce the topic.

Students should be able to list uses of the non-metals: carbon, sulphur, phosphorus, chlorine
nitrogen, silicon, and their compounds

An outline of the uses of the non-metals and their compounds is given. Generally, substances as used as
their particular properties allow.
Table 6: Uses of Non-Metals and their compounds
Non-metal Uses
/Compounds

Carbon Reducing agent in extraction of some metals, lubricant, electrodes, abrasives,

(Allotropes, solvents, 'rubbers’, plastics, fuels, jewellery, decolourizing agent, for gas
carbon dioxide) absorption in masks, cutting glass, drill bits, dry ice as refrigerant, manufacture
sodium hydrogen carbonate and sodium carbonate for water softening, raising
agent, carbonated beverages.

Silicon As an alloy with iron for acid-resistant steels, as a semiconductor in

transistorized circuits; as quartz in electronic equipment and lenses; as silicates
in jewellery, cement, glass; silicones in lubricants, water repellants, defoaming
agents, electrical insulators, paints, polishes, finishes; as silicon carbide (in
abrasives; as silica gel, a drying agent.

Nitrogen Manufacture of ammonia, nitric acid, fertilizers, dyes, explosives and textiles.
As an inert atmosphere for easily oxidizable substances and electric lamps. As
a cooling agent.

Phosphorus As phosphor bronze alloys. For fertilizers, detergents and safe matches.

Sulphur Manufacture of sulphuric acid for production of fertilizers, detergents, paints,

enamels, vulcanized rubber, dyes, textiles, pharmaceuticals, anti-fungal
ointments and oils.

Chlorine For manufacture of bleaches, hydrochloric acid, solvents, drug, insecticides,

antiseptics, anaesthetics, refrigerants, plastics, p~ removers and aerosol sprays.
Nitrogen Cycle

How does the Nitrogen Cycle work?

Although nitrogen gas (N2) makes up 78% of the air, plants cannot use it for growth unless it is turned
into nitrate (NO3) in the soil.

Making nitrogen in the atmosphere into nitrate in the soil is called fixing. Nitrogen fixing occurs
naturally in four ways. Nitrogen fixing also occurs with the Haber process - see below.

1. Nitrogen fixing bacteria in the soil turn nitrogen in the soil into nitrate.
2. Nitrogen fixing bacteria on some plant root nodules turn nitrogen into nitrate. Plants that have these
kinds of root nodules include peas, beans and clover.

3. Compounds containing ammonia occur in animal excretion and in dead animals. The ammonia turns
into nitrite and there are nitrifying bacteria in the soil that turn nitrite (NO2) into nitrate (NO3). They
are called nitrifying bacteria because they increase the amount of nitrate in the soil.

4. Lightning fixation. Lightning can cause chemical reactions in the atmosphere that make nitrogen
react with oxygen producing nitrous oxides. Nitrous oxides are also made from petrol engine pollution.
The nitrous oxides can react with more oxygen and dissolve in rain water to make dilute nitric acid
(HNO3(aq)) (see acid rain). HNO3 contains nitrate and so rain water containing HNO3 increases the
amount of nitrate in the soil.

Most of the fixing of nitrogen occurs through the natural processes described above. The Haber
process for making fertilisers accounts for about 30% of nitrogen fixing. Nitrate in the soil is essential
for plant growth.
5. There are denitrifying bacteria in the soil that turn nitrate (NO3) into nitrogen gas (N2) and the
nitrogen gas goes back into the atmosphere. They are called denitrifying bacteria because they decrease
the amount of nitrate in the soil. Compare this with the nitrifying bacteria described above at number 3.

The Carbon Cycle

The carbon cycle is simply the process by which Carbon Dioxide is put into and removed from the

atmosphere. This process is very finely balanced to keep the percentage of CO 2 in the atmosphere at
0.03%. Even so, man is doing his part to unbalance this cycle by excess burning of fossil fuels and
deforestation.

The reactions involved in the carbon cycle are as follows:

1. Combustion - exothermic reactions at a very fast rate

Fuel [Methane] + Oxygen ----> Carbon Dioxide + Water (+ energy)

CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g) ----> CO2 (g) + 2H2O (l)

2. Evaporation of Sea Water (containing dissolved CO2). Carbon Dioxide dissolves in sea
water. Some of the water evaporates and CO2 is released. This is a reversible reaction:

Sea Water + Sunlight <----> Water + Carbon Dioxide

H2O (l) + CO2 (g) <----> H2CO3 (aq) [Carbonic Acid]

3. Decay of Organic Matter. Plants and animals decay to leave behind coal, oil, and gas after
millions of years of being squashed by materials above. Some materials just decay and a form
of respiration occurs that releases Carbon Dioxide. CO2 is also given off when the raw
materials mentioned above decay.
4. Photosynthesis. Plants make sugar from light using carbon dioxide and water. These
constituents are catalysed by chlorophyll in green leaves to form glucose, which the plant
requires. The bi-product is Oxygen.
5. Respiration is the name of the process which involves animals ingesting food and inhaling air.
The inhaled air dissolves in the blood and is transported around the body. Some of the oxygen
is used within cells to oxidise sugars. When this occurs, CO2, H2O, and O2 are released.

Glucose + Oxygen ----> Carbon Dioxide + Water + Energy

6. Sedimentation. Under extreme pressure, dead sea creatures decay without air deep
underground. Over millions of years, the sea creatures become oil, or natural gas. Also, when
shells of sea creatures etc... build up in layers over millions of years, sedimentary rock can be
formed.

Water Cycle

Processes
Many different processes lead to movements and phase changes in water
Precipitation
Condensed water vapor that falls to the Earth's surface. Most precipitation occurs as rain, but also
includes snow, hail, fog drip, and sleet.
Runoff
The variety of ways by which water moves across the land. This includes both surface runoff and
channel runoff. As it flows, the water may seep into the ground, evaporate into the air, become stored
in lakes or reservoirs, or be extracted for agricultural or other human uses. Infiltration
The flow of water from the ground surface into the ground. Once infiltrated, the water becomes soil
moisture or groundwater.
Evaporation
The transformation of water from liquid to gas phases as it moves from the ground or bodies of water into
the overlying atmosphere.[6] The source of energy for evaporation is primarily solar radiation. Evaporation
often implicitly includes transpiration from plants, though together they are specifically referred to as
evapotranspiration. 86% of global evaporation occurs over the ocean. Condensation
The transformation of water vapor to liquid water droplets in the air, creating clouds and fog.
Transpiration
The release of water vapor from plants and soil into the air. Water vapor is a gas that cannot be seen.
Percolation
Water flows horizontally through the soil and rocks under the influence of gravity.