Surveying Unit-1
Introduction
Definition
Surveying is defined as “taking a general view of determining the boundaries, size, position,
quantity, condition, value etc. of land, estates, building, farms mines etc. by observation and
measurement and finally presenting the survey data in a suitable form”. This covers the work of
the valuation surveyor, the quantity surveyor, the building surveyor, the mining surveyor and so
forth, as well as the land surveyor. Another way of defining surveying as the act of making
measurement of the relative position of natural and manmade features on earth’s surface and the
presentation of this information either graphically or numerically.
Importance of surveying
It's virtually impossible to build a structure without having the correct inputs. This is where the
site survey becomes so vital. It provides an exact idea of the topography of the site, various
resources available, access roads and points, and of the adjacent structures and locations. The
data gathered from surveying helps establish planning and design and provides data that can be
used to determine the best course of action. These can be as diverse as deciding the routes of
major infrastructure projects, to planning a simple house extension. Survey is a method that takes
all land aspects including soil, past and present buildings and roads, and even archaeological data
into account when planning a new development. All types of engineers as well as architects are
concerned with surveying to
I. Map the earth above and below the sea level
II. Prepare navigational charts for use on the air, land and in the sea.
III. Establish property boundaries of private and public lands
IV. Develop data banks of land use to manage the environment
V. Prepare maps/ plans of different parts of earth
Classification of surveying
For easy understanding of surveying and the various components of the subject, we need a deep
understanding of the various ways of classifying it to enable the students to have understanding
of the various ways of classifying surveying. Surveying is classified based on various criteria
including the instruments used, purpose, the area surveyed and the method used.
(1) Classification on the Basis of curvature of earth considered
On the basis of whether the curvature of the earth is taken into account or not, surveying can be
divided into two main categories:
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(i) Plane surveying: is the type of surveying where the mean surface of the earth is considered
as a plane. All angles are considered to be plane angles. Since curvature of earth is not
considered in the surveying, hence it is less accurate than geodetic surveying. For small areas
less than 250 km2 plane surveying can safely be used. For most engineering projects such as
canal, railway, highway, building, pipeline, etc constructions, this type of surveying is used. It is
worth noting that the difference between an arc distance of 12 km and the subtended chord lying
in the earth’s surface is 1 cm. Also the sum of the angles of a plane triangle and the sum of the
angles in a spherical triangle differ by 1 second for a triangle on the earth’s surface having an
area of 196 km2.
(ii) Geodetic surveying: is that branch of surveying, which takes into account the true shape of
the earth (spheroid). Since this surveying considers the curvature of the earth, hence this
surveying gives more accuracy. This surveying is used for survey of large areas greater than 250
km2, generally done by Government of India for surveying of a city, state or country showing its
boundaries and topographical features.
(2) Classification on the Basis of Instruments Used
Based on the instrument used surveys can be classified into:
(i) Chain / tape surveys- This is the simple method of taking the linear measurement using a
chain or tape with no angular measurements made.
(ii) Leveling- This is the measurement and mapping of the relative heights of points on the
earth’s surface showing them in maps, plane and charts as vertical sections or with conventional
symbols.
(iii) Compass surveys- Here horizontal angular measurements are made using magnetic
compass with the linear measurements made using the chain or tape.
(iv) Plane table surveys- This is a quick survey carried out in the field with the measurements
and drawings made at the same time using a plane table.
(v)Theodolite surveys- Theodolite survey takes vertical and horizontal angles in order to
establish controls.
(3) Classification based on the surface and the area surveyed
(i) Land survey- Land surveys are done for objects on the surface of the earth. It can be
subdivided into: (a) Topographic survey- This is for depicting the (hills, valleys, mountains,
rivers, etc) and manmade features (roads, houses, settlements) on the surface of the earth. (b)
Cadastral survey- This is used to determining property boundaries including those of fields,
houses, plots of land, etc. (c) Engineering survey- This is used to acquire the required data for
the planning, design and execution of engineering projects like roads, bridges, canals, dams,
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railways, buildings, etc. (d) City surveys- The surveys involving the construction and
development of towns including roads, drainage, water supply, sewage street network, etc, are
generally referred to as city survey.
(ii) Marine or Hydrographic Survey- Those are surveys of large water bodies for navigation,
tidal monitoring, the construction of harbors etc.
(iii) Astronomical Survey- Astronomical survey uses the observations of the heavenly bodies
(sun, moon, stars etc) to fix the absolute locations of places on the surface of the earth.
(4) Classification on the basis of purpose
(i) Engineering survey- is used to acquire the required data for the planning, design and
execution of engineering projects like roads, bridges, canals, dams, railways, buildings, etc.
(ii) Control Survey- Control survey uses geodetic methods to establish widely spaced vertical
and horizontal control points.
iii) Geological Survey- Geological survey is used to determine the structure and arrangement of
rock strata. Generally, it enables to know the composition of the earth.
(iv) Military or Defense survey- This is carried out to map places of military and strategic
importance
(iv) Archeological survey- This is carried out to discover ancient maps/relics of antiquity.
Method of surveying
(1) Traverse survey- If the bearing and distance of a place of a known point is known: it is
possible to establish the position of that point on the ground. From this point, the bearing and
distances of other surrounding points may be established. In the process, positions of points
linked with lines linking them emerge. The traversing is the process of establishing these lines, is
called traversing, while the connecting lines joining two points on the ground. Joining two while
bearing and distance is known as traverse. A traverse station is each of the points of the traverse,
while the traverse leg is the straight line between consecutive stations. Traverses may either be
open or closed.
(i) Closed Traverse- When a series of connected lines forms a closed circuit, i.e. when the
finishing point coincides with the starting point of a survey, it is called as a closed traverse.
(ii) Open Traverse- When a sequence of connected lines extends along a general direction and
does not return to the starting point, it is known as open traverse or (unclosed traverse).
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Figure 1 Closed and open traverse
(2) Triangulation Survey- In order to make the survey manageable, the area to be surveyed is
first covered with series of triangles. Lines are first run round the perimeter of the plot, then the
details fixed in relation to the established lines. This process is called triangulation. The triangle
is preferred as it is the only shape that can completely over an irregularly shaped area with
minimum space left.
Basic principles in surveying
(1) working from whole to part- It is a fundamental rule to always work from the whole to the
part. This implies a precise control surveying as the first consideration followed by subsidiary
detailed surveying. This surveying principle involves laying down an overall system of stations
whose positions are fixed to a fairly high degree of accuracy as control, and then the survey of
details between the control points may be added on the frame by less elaborate methods. Once
the overall size has been determined, the smaller areas can be surveyed in the knowledge that
they must (and will if care is taken) put into the confines of the main overall frame. Errors which
may inevitably arise are then contained within the framework of the control points and can be
adjusted to it. Surveying is based on simple fundamental principles which should be taken into
consideration to enable one get good results. Working from the whole to the part is achieved by
covering the area to be surveyed with a number of spaced out control point called primary
control points called primary control points whose pointing have been determined with a high
level of precision using sophisticated equipments. Based on these points as theoretic, a number
of large triangles are drawn. Secondary control points are then established to fill the gaps with
lesser precision than the primary control points. At a more detailed and less precise level, tertiary
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control points at closer intervals are finally established to fill in the smaller gaps. The main
purpose of surveying from the whole to the part is to localize the errors as working the other way
round would magnify the errors and introduce distortions in the survey. In partial terms, this
principle involves covering the area to be surveyed with large triangles. These are further divided
into smaller triangles and the process continues until the area has been sufficiently covered with
small triangles to a level that allows detailed surveys to be made in a local level. Error is in the
whole operation as the vertices of the large triangles are fixed using higher precision instruments.
(2) Using measurements from two control parts to fix other points- Given two points whose
length and bearings have been accurately determined, a line can be drawn to join them hence
surveying has control reference points. The locations of various other points and the lines joining
them can be fixed by measurements made from these two points and the lines joining them. For
an example, if A and B are the control points, the following operations can be performed to fix
other points. i) Using points A and B as the centers, ascribe arcs and fix (where they intersect).
ii) Draw a perpendicular from D along AB to a point C. Under revision iii) To locate C, measure
distance AB and use your protractor to equally measure angle ABC. iv) To locate C the interior
angles of triangle ABC can be measured. The lengths of the sides AC and BC can be calculated
by solving the triangle.
Figure 2 Fixing the third points using two points
Errors
Even when carefully following established surveying procedures, observations may still contain
errors. Errors, by definition, are the difference between a measured value and its true value. The
true value of a measurement is determined by taking the mean value of a series of repeated
measurements.
Sources of error
The sources of error in surveying are classified as natural, instrumental and personal.
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Natural errors- These result from the temperature, refraction, obstacles to measurements,
magnetic declinations etc. For example, the length of steel tape varies with change in
temperature. Such sources of error are beyond the control of surveyor, but by taking
precautionary measures and adopting suitable methods to fit into the conditions, the errors can be
contained within the permissible limits.
Instrumental errors- These results from the imperfect construction and adjustment of the
instrument. The incorrect graduations of a steel tape and the improper adjustment of the plate
levels of a transit are a few examples. The effects of most of the instrumental errors can be
brought within the desired limits of precision by applying proper corrections and selecting
suitable field methods.
Personal errors- These arise from the limitation of the human senses such as sight, touch and
hearing. For example, improper bisecting of the object by fixing the line of sight of a transit
while measuring angles is a personal error.
Types of errors
Systematic errors- These are caused by the surveying equipment, observation methods, and
certain environmental factors. Under the same measurement conditions, these errors will have
the same magnitude and direction (positive or negative). For example, the error due to sag of the
tape supported at ends can be calculated and subtracted from each measurement.
Accidental errors- These are the errors due to a combination of causes and are beyond the
control of a surveyor. It can be plus or minus. Calibration of a chain is an example of an
accidental error.
Difference between mistake and error
Errors are the difference between true and measured values. Tend to be small and can be
reduced, but not eliminated because it arises from sources. Mistakes are caused by
misunderstanding of the problem, carelessness or poor judgment, hence its magnitude may be
large. This can occur at any stage of survey- observing, computing or plotting. Independent
checks must therefore be applied. Mistakes can be corrected only if discovered.
Difference between precision and accuracy
Accuracy refers to how closely a measurement or observation comes to measuring a true value
since measurements and observations are always subject to error. Precision refers to how closely
repeated measurements or observations come to duplicating measured or observed values. It
follows that a measurement may be accurate without being precise and vice-versa.
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Figure 3 Precision and accuracy
The process of surveying
The survey process passes through 3 main phases – the reconnaissance, field work and
measurements, and, the office work.
(a) Reconnaissance survey- This is a pre-field work and measurement phase. It requires taking
an overall inspection of the area to be surveyed to obtain a general picture before commencement
of any serious survey. Walking through the site enables one to understand the terrain and helps in
determining the survey method to be adopted, and the scale to be used. The initial information
obtained in this stage helps in the successful planning and execution of the survey.
(b) Field work and measurement- This is the actual measurements in the field and the
recordings in the field notebook. To get the best results in the field, the surveyor must be
acquainted with the functions of the equipments and take good care of them.
(c) Office work- This is the post field work stage in which data collected and recordings in the
field notebooks are decoded and used to prepare the charts, planes and maps for presentation to
the clients and the target audience
Units of measurement
The five common types of survey measurements are horizontal distances and angles, vertical
distances and angles, and slope distances.
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Horizontal distances are measured by chain or tape. The length of survey chain is 22 yard
approximately equal to 20 meter (1 yard = 0.9144 m) and it comprises of 100 links. Hence,
length of one link is equal to 7.92 inches or approximately 20.12 cm. In US customary units
modern definition, the link is exactly 66⁄100 of a US survey foot. Tape are also used to measure
horizontal distance. Tapes are available in different lengths of 2m, 10m, 15m, 20m, 30m, and
50m. The direction of a line is determined with the help of a compass,
Vertical distance - Vertical distance is measured with the help of ranging rod and levelling staff.
Vertical distance is measured to do the levelling of a ground.
Angle measurement- Both horizontal and vertical angles are measured with the help of
Theodolite.
All these measurements will be explained in more detail in next module.
The system of units used in India in the recent years in M.K.S. and S.I. but all the records
available in surveying done in past are in F.P.S. units. Therefore, it becomes necessary to know
the conversion of units from one system to another, a few of which are listed below-
1 ft = 0.3048 m
1 mile = 5280 ft
1 yard = 3 ft = 0.9144 m
1 mile = 1.609 km
1 sq mile = 2.590 km2
1 sq mile = 640 acres
1 acre = 43560 sq. feet
1 hectare = 2.471 acres
Map, plan and scale
The graphical representation of the surface of the earth or a part of it which shows countries
states, cities, rivers, mountains, roads, etc. Scale of a map is 1 cm = 100 m or greater than 100 m.
Hence, scale of a map is comparatively smaller.
Plan is a detail of drawing of small areas like a building. Scale of a map is 1 cm = 10 m or less
than 10 m. Hence, scale of a plan is comparatively larger.
Scale of a map/ plan
A scale is the ratio of the distance marked on the map/plan to the corresponding distance on the
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ground. A good draughtsman can plot a length to accuracy within 0.25 mm. Types of Scales are
generally classified as large, medium and small.
Large scale : 1 cm = 10 m or less than 10 m.
Medium scale : 1 cm = 10 m to 100 m.
Small scale : 1 cm = 100 m or more than 100 m.
Representative Fraction (RF)
It is the ratio of the distance on the map to the corresponding distance on the ground taken as
same units. Scale of 1 cm = 50 m, 1 cm on the map represents 50 m (5000 cm) on the ground.
Therefore, the representative fraction (R.F.) is 1/5000 or 1: 5000.
Purpose of Survey Scale R.F
Building Site 1 cm = 10 m 1:1000
Town Planning, Reservoir planning, etc 1 cm = 50 cm to 100 m 1:5000 to 10000
Route Surveys 1 cm = 10 m to 60 m 1:1000 to 1:6000
Longitudinal Sections 1 cm = 10 m 1:1000
1 cm = 1 m 1:100
Cross- Sections 1 cm = 1 m 1:100
Land Surveys/ Cadastral Surveys 1 cm = 10 m to 50 m 1:1000 to 1:5000
Topographical Maps 1 cm = 0.25 km to 2.5 km 1:25000 to 1:250000
Geographical Maps 1 cm = 5 km to 150 km 1:500000 to
1:15000000
Mine Surveys 1 cm = 10 m to 25 m 1:1000 to 1:2500
Forest Maps 1 cm = 250 m 1:25000
Types of Measuring Scales used in Surveying
I. Plane scale
II. Diagonal scale
III. Vernier scale
IV. Shrunk scale
Plain scale
Plain Scale is used to measure up to two consecutive units, i.e. a unit and its immediate sub
division. For example metre and decimeter, kilometre and hectometer, feet and inches etc.
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Diagonal scale
Diagonal Scale is used to represent three consecutive units i.e. a unit and its immediate two sub
divisions. Diagonal scale is an engineering measuring instrument which is composed of a set of
parallel straight lines which are obliquely crossed by another set of straight lines. Diagonal scales
are used to measure small fractions of the unit of measurement. Diagonal scale follows
the principle of similar triangles where a short length is divided into number of parts in which
sides are proportional. Divided into required number of equal parts.
Figure 4 Diagonal Scale
Vernier scale
It is a device for measuring accurately the fractional part of the smallest division on a graduated
scale.
Figure 5 Vernier Cliper
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Vernier caliper is divided into-
I. Direct vernier
II. Retrograde vernier
III. Double vernier
IV. Extended vernier
Direct Vernier- Calibration of both main scale and vernier scale are done in same direction. ‘n’
divisions on the vernier scale are equal in length to (n – 1) divisions on the main scale. Thus ‘n’
divisions of vernier = {n -1) of main scale :
n ‘v’ = (n-1) ‘s’
∴ v = {(n-1)/n}*s
Where, n = total no. of divisions on vernier scale, v = length of one division on the vernier, s =
length of one division on the main scale.
The least count (L.C) is, therefore given by
L.C = s – v
L.C = s – {(n-1)/n}*s
L.C = s/n
Retrograde Vernier- Calibration of both main scale and vernier scale are done in opposite
direction. ‘n’ divisions of the vernier scale are equal to ‘(n+1)’ divisions on the main
scale.
n ‘v’ = (n+1) ‘s’
∴ v = {(n+1)/n}*s
Where, n = total no. of divisions on vernier scale, v = length of one division on the vernier, s =
length of one division on the main scale.
The least count (L.C) is, therefore given by
L.C = v– s
L.C = {(n+1)/n}*s - s
L.C = s/n
Extended Vernier- ‘n’ divisions of the vernier scale are equal in length to (2n – 1) divisions of
the main scale. Therefore,
∴ n ‘v’ = (2n-1)s
∴ v = {(2n-1)/n}s
It is used in Astronomical survey.
Double Vernier - It is used when the graduations on the main scale are numbered in both
directions. It is used in Abney level.
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Least count of any type of vernier scale is s/n, where n = total No. of divisions on vernier scale,
v = length of one division on the vernier, s = length of one division on the main scale.
Shrunk scale
After a period of long time (10, 20 or more years), the sheet on which map is drawn may shrunk
due to environmental factor like moisture. Due to this, the length of line drawn on map also
reduces and hence for a given ground distance, the corresponding length on map has become
smaller a unit distance on map will represent more length on ground because the scale has
become smaller. To reduce this error, shrinkage factor is determined which is ratio of shrunk
length on map to original length on map. Then, shrunk scale will be determined by multiplying
original scale with shrinkage factor.
𝑆ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑛𝑘 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑝
𝑆ℎ𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 =
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑝
𝑆ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑛𝑘 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 = 𝑆ℎ𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 × 𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒
If the above correction is not applied, then due to wrong scale the measured distance will be
wrong. The relation between correct scale, correct length and wrong scale, measured length is
given as-
𝑅𝐹 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒
𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ = × 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝑅𝐹 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒
In case of area calculation, the below given formula is used in which square of ratio of RF of
wrong scale and RF of correct scale is done-
Conventional signs and symbols
While making plan or map, different objects may come in or around the area to be surveyed.
Hence, these objects are represented using different symbols. Here are a few important
Conventional Signs and symbols useful in the field of surveying given in figure 6.
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Figure 6 Conventional Symbols
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