Pacific Ocean

The Pacific Ocean is the largest and deepest of Earth's

five oceanic divisions. It extends from the Arctic Pacific Ocean
Ocean in the north to the Southern Ocean (or,
depending on definition, to Antarctica) in the south,
and is bounded by the continents of Asia and Australia
in the west and the Americas in the east.

At 165,250,000 square kilometers (63,800,000 square

miles) in area (as defined with a southern Antarctic
border), this largest division of the World Ocean and
the hydrosphere covers about 46% of Earth's water
surface and about 32% of the planet's total surface
area, larger than its entire land area (148,000,000 km2
(57,000,000 sq mi)).[1] The centers of both the Water
Hemisphere and the Western Hemisphere, as well as
the oceanic pole of inaccessibility, are in the Pacific Coordinates 0°N 160°W
Ocean. Ocean circulation (caused by the Coriolis Surface area 165,250,000 km2
effect) subdivides it[2] into two largely independent (63,800,000 sq mi)
volumes of water that meet at the equator, the North
Average 4,280 m (14,040 ft)
Pacific Ocean and the South Pacific Ocean (or more
depth
loosely the South Seas). The Pacific Ocean can also be
informally divided by the International Date Line into Max. depth 10,911 m (35,797 ft)
the East Pacific and the West Pacific, which allows it Water volume 710,000,000 km3
to be further divided into four quadrants, namely the (170,000,000 cu mi)
Northeast Pacific off the coasts of North America, the
Islands Pacific Islands
Southeast Pacific off South America, Northwest
Settlements List
Pacific off Far Eastern/Pacific Asia, and the
Southwest Pacific around Oceania.

The Pacific Ocean's mean depth is 4,000 meters (13,000 feet).[3] Challenger Deep in the Mariana Trench,
located in the northwestern Pacific, is the deepest known point in the world, reaching a depth of 10,928
meters (35,853 feet).[4] The Pacific also contains the deepest point in the Southern Hemisphere, the
Horizon Deep in the Tonga Trench, at 10,823 meters (35,509 feet).[5] The third deepest point on Earth,
the Sirena Deep, is also located in the Mariana Trench.
The western Pacific has many major marginal seas, including the Philippine Sea, South China Sea, East
China Sea, Sea of Japan, Sea of Okhotsk, Bering Sea, Gulf of Alaska, Mar de Grau, Tasman Sea, and the
Coral Sea.

Etymology
In the early 16th century, Spanish explorer Vasco Núñez de Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Panama in
1513 and sighted the great "Southern Sea" which he named Mar del Sur (in Spanish). Afterwards, the
ocean's current name was coined by Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan during the Spanish
circumnavigation of the world in 1521, as he encountered favorable winds on reaching the ocean. He
called it Mar Pacífico, which in Portuguese means 'peaceful sea'.[6][7]

Largest seas in the Pacific Ocean

Top large seas:[8]

Australasian Mediterranean Sea – 9.080 million km2

(includes other seas)
Philippine Sea – 5.695 million km2 (largest single sea)
Coral Sea – 4.791 million km2
Chilean Sea – 3.6 million km2
South China Sea – 3.5 million km2
Tasman Sea – 2.3 million km2
Bering Sea – 2 million km2
Sea of Okhotsk – 1.583 million km2
Gulf of Alaska – 1.533 million km2 The Pacific Ocean, photograph taken
East China Sea – 1.249 million km2 from space by the GOES-18 spacecraft
in September 2023
Mar de Grau – 1.14 million km2
Sea of Japan – 978,000 km2
Solomon Sea – 720,000 km2
Banda Sea – 695,000 km2
Arafura Sea – 650,000 km2
Timor Sea – 610,000 km2
Yellow Sea – 380,000 km2
Java Sea – 320,000 km2
Gulf of Thailand – 320,000 km2
Gulf of Carpentaria – 300,000 km2
Celebes Sea – 280,000 km2
Sulu Sea – 260,000 km2
Bismarck Sea – 250,400 km2
Gulf of Anadyr – 200,000 km2
Molucca Sea – 200,000 km2
 Gulf of California – 160,000 km2
Gulf of Tonkin – 126,250 km2
Halmahera Sea – 95,000 km2
Bohai Sea – 78,000 km2
Gulf of Papua – 70,400 km2
Koro Sea – 58,000 km2
Bali Sea – 45,000 km2
Savu Sea – 35,000 km2
Seto Inland Sea – 23,203 km2
Salish Sea – 18,000 km2
Seram Sea – 12,000 km2

History

Prehistory
Across the continents of Asia, Australia and the Americas, more than 25,000 islands, large and small, rise
above the surface of the Pacific Ocean. Multiple islands were the shells of former active volcanoes that
have lain dormant for thousands of years. Close to the equator, without vast areas of blue ocean, are a dot
of atolls that have over intervals of time been formed by seamounts as a result of tiny coral islands strung
in a ring within surroundings of a central lagoon.

Early migrations
Important human migrations occurred in the Pacific in prehistoric
times. Modern humans first reached the western Pacific in the
Paleolithic, at around 60,000 to 70,000 years ago. Originating
from a southern coastal human migration out of Africa, they
reached East Asia, Mainland Southeast Asia, the Philippines, New
Guinea, and then Australia by making the sea crossing of at least
80 kilometres (50 mi) between Sundaland and Sahul. It is not
known with any certainty what level of maritime technology was
used by these groups – the presumption is that they used large
bamboo rafts which may have been equipped with some sort of
sail. The reduction in favourable winds for a crossing to Sahul
after 58,000 B.P. fits with the dating of the settlement of Australia, Model of a Fijian drua, an example
with no later migrations in the prehistoric period. The seafaring of an Austronesian vessel with a
abilities of pre-Austronesian residents of Island South-east Asia double-canoe (catamaran) hull and
a crab claw sail
are confirmed by the settlement of Buka by 32,000 B.P. and
Manus by 25,000 B.P. Journeys of 180 kilometres (110 mi) and
230 kilometres (140 mi) are involved, respectively.[9]

The descendants of these migrations today are the Negritos, Melanesians, and Indigenous Australians.
Their populations in maritime Southeast Asia, coastal New Guinea, and Island Melanesia later
intermarried with the incoming Austronesian settlers from Taiwan and the northern Philippines, but also
earlier groups associated with Austroasiatic-speakers, resulting in the modern peoples of Island Southeast
Asia and Oceania.[10][11]

A later seaborne migration is the

Neolithic Austronesian
expansion of the Austronesian
peoples. Austronesians
originated from the island of
Taiwan c. 3000–1500 BCE.
They are associated with
distinctive maritime sailing
technologies (notably outrigger
boats, catamarans, lashed-lug Map showing the migration of the Austronesian peoples
boats, and the crab claw sail) –
it is likely that the progressive
development of these technologies were related to the later steps of settlement into Near and Remote
Oceania. Starting at around 2200 BCE, Austronesians sailed southwards to settle the Philippines. From,
probably, the Bismarck Archipelago they crossed the western Pacific to reach the Marianas Islands by
1500 BCE,[12] as well as Palau and Yap by 1000 BCE. They were the first humans to reach Remote
Oceania, and the first to cross vast distances of open water. They also continued spreading southwards
and settling the rest of Maritime Southeast Asia, reaching Indonesia and Malaysia by 1500 BCE, and
further west to Madagascar and the Comoros in the Indian Ocean by around 500 CE.[13][14][15] More
recently, it is suggested that Austronesians expanded already earlier, arriving in the Philippines already in
7000 BCE. Additional earlier migrations into Insular Southeast Asia, associated with Austroasiatic-
speakers from Mainland Southeast Asia, are estimated to have taken place already in 15000 BCE.[16]

At around 1300 to 1200 BCE, a branch of the Austronesian migrations known as the Lapita culture
reached the Bismarck Archipelago, the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, Fiji, and New Caledonia. From there,
they settled Tonga and Samoa by 900 to 800 BCE. Some also back-migrated northwards in 200 BCE to
settle the islands of eastern Micronesia (including the Carolines, the Marshall Islands, and Kiribati),
mixing with earlier Austronesian migrations in the region. This remained the furthest extent of the
Austronesian expansion into Polynesia until around 700 CE when there was another surge of island
exploration. They reached the Cook Islands, Tahiti, and the Marquesas by 700 CE; Hawaiʻi by 900 CE;
Rapa Nui by 1000 CE; and finally New Zealand by 1200 CE.[14][17][18] Austronesians may have also
reached as far as the Americas, although evidence for this remains inconclusive.[19][20]

European exploration
The first contact of European navigators with the western edge of the Pacific Ocean was made by the
Portuguese expeditions of António de Abreu and Francisco Serrão, via the Lesser Sunda Islands, to the
Maluku Islands, in 1512,[21][22] and with Jorge Álvares's expedition to southern China in 1513,[23] both
ordered by Afonso de Albuquerque from Malacca.

The eastern side of the ocean was encountered by Spanish explorer Vasco Núñez de Balboa in 1513 after
his expedition crossed the Isthmus of Panama and reached a new ocean.[24] He named it Mar del Sur
("Sea of the South" or "South Sea") because the ocean was to the south of the coast of the isthmus where
he first observed the Pacific.
In 1520, navigator Ferdinand Magellan and his crew were the
first to cross the Pacific in recorded history. They were part of a
Spanish expedition to the Spice Islands that would eventually
result in the first world circumnavigation. Magellan called the
ocean Pacífico (or "Pacific" meaning, "peaceful") because,
after sailing through the stormy seas off Cape Horn, the
expedition found calm waters. The ocean was often called the
Sea of Magellan in his honor until the eighteenth century.[25] Universalis Cosmographia, also known
Magellan stopped at one uninhabited Pacific island before as the Waldseemüller map, dated 1507,
was the first map to show the Americas
stopping at Guam in March 1521.[26] Although Magellan
separating two distinct oceans. South
himself died in the Philippines in 1521, Spanish navigator Juan America was generally considered the
Sebastián Elcano led the remains of the expedition back to New World and shows the name
Spain across the Indian Ocean and round the Cape of Good "America" for the first time, after
Hope, completing the first world circumnavigation in 1522. [27] Amerigo Vespucci
Sailing around and east of the Moluccas, between 1525 and
1527, Portuguese expeditions encountered the Caroline
Islands,[28] the Aru Islands,[29] and Papua New Guinea.[30] In 1542–43 the Portuguese also reached
Japan.[31]

In 1564, five Spanish ships carrying 379 soldiers crossed the ocean from Mexico led by Miguel López de
Legazpi, and colonized the Philippines and Mariana Islands.[32] For the remainder of the 16th century,
Spain maintained military and mercantile control, with ships sailing from Mexico and Peru across the
Pacific Ocean to the Philippines via Guam, and establishing the Spanish East Indies. The Manila galleons
operated for two and a half centuries, linking Manila and Acapulco, in one of the longest trade routes in
history. Spanish expeditions also arrived at Tuvalu, the Marquesas, the Cook Islands, the Solomon
Islands, Vanuatu, the Marshalls and the Admiralty Islands in the South Pacific.[33]

Later, in the quest for Terra Australis ("the [great] Southern Land"), Spanish explorations in the 17th
century, such as the expedition led by the Portuguese navigator Pedro Fernandes de Queirós, arrived at
the Pitcairn and Vanuatu archipelagos, and sailed the Torres Strait between Australia and New Guinea,
named after navigator Luís Vaz de Torres. Dutch explorers, sailing around southern Africa, also engaged
in exploration and trade; Willem Janszoon, made the first completely documented European landing in
Australia (1606), in Cape York Peninsula,[34] and Abel Janszoon Tasman circumnavigated and landed on
parts of the Australian continental coast and arrived at Tasmania and New Zealand in 1642.[35]

In the 16th and 17th centuries, Spain considered the Pacific Ocean a mare clausum – a sea closed to other
naval powers. As the only known entrance from the Atlantic, the Strait of Magellan was at times patrolled
by fleets sent to prevent the entrance of non-Spanish ships. On the western side of the Pacific Ocean the
Dutch threatened the Spanish Philippines.[36]

The 18th century marked the beginning of major exploration by the Russians in Alaska and the Aleutian
Islands, such as the First Kamchatka expedition and the Great Northern Expedition, led by the Danish-
born Russian navy officer Vitus Bering. Spain also sent expeditions to the Pacific Northwest, reaching
Vancouver Island in southern Canada, and Alaska. The French explored and colonized Polynesia, and the
British made three voyages with James Cook to the South Pacific and Australia, Hawaii, and the North
American Pacific Northwest. In 1768, Pierre-Antoine Véron, a young astronomer accompanying Louis
Antoine de Bougainville on his voyage of exploration, established the width of the Pacific with precision
for the first time in history.[37] One of the earliest voyages of scientific exploration was organized by
Spain in the Malaspina Expedition of 1789–1794. It sailed vast areas of the Pacific, from Cape Horn to
Alaska, Guam and the Philippines, New Zealand, Australia, and the South Pacific.[33]

Made in 1529, the Diogo Ribeiro map Map of the Pacific Ocean Maris Pacifici by Ortelius
was the first to show the Pacific at about during European (1589). One of the first
its proper size Exploration, circa 1754. printed maps to show
the Pacific Ocean[38]

Map of the Pacific

Ocean during
European Exploration,
circa 1702–1707

New Imperialism
Growing imperialism during the 19th century resulted in the
occupation of much of Oceania by European powers, and later
Japan and the United States. Significant contributions to
oceanographic knowledge were made by the voyages of HMS
Beagle in the 1830s, with Charles Darwin aboard;[39] HMS
Challenger during the 1870s;[40] the USS Tuscarora (1873–
76);[41] and the German Gazelle (1874–76).[42]

In Oceania, France obtained a leading position as imperial power The bathyscaphe Trieste before her
after making Tahiti and New Caledonia protectorates in 1842 and record dive to the bottom of the
1853, respectively. [43] After navy visits to Easter Island in 1875 Mariana Trench, 23 January 1960
and 1887, Chilean navy officer Policarpo Toro negotiated the
incorporation of the island into Chile with native Rapanui in 1888.
By occupying Easter Island, Chile joined the imperial nations.[44]: 53 By 1900 nearly all Pacific islands
were in control of Britain, France, United States, Germany, Japan, and Chile.[43]

Although the United States gained control of Guam and the Philippines from Spain in 1898,[45] Japan
controlled most of the western Pacific by 1914 and occupied many other islands during the Pacific War;
however, by the end of that war, Japan was defeated and the U.S. Pacific Fleet was the virtual master of
the ocean. The Japanese-ruled Northern Mariana Islands came
under the control of the United States.[46] Since the end of World
War II, many former colonies in the Pacific have become
independent states.

Geography Abel Aubert du Petit-Thouars taking

over Tahiti on 9 September 1842
The Pacific separates Asia and Australia from the Americas. It
may be further subdivided by the equator into northern (North
Pacific) and southern (South Pacific) portions. It extends from
the Antarctic region in the South to the Arctic in the north.[1]
The Pacific Ocean encompasses approximately one-third of the
Earth's surface, having an area of 165,200,000 km2
(63,800,000 sq mi) – larger than Earth's entire landmass
combined, 150,000,000 km2 (58,000,000 sq mi).[47]

Extending approximately 15,500 km (9,600 mi) from the Sunset over the Pacific Ocean as seen
Bering Sea in the Arctic to the northern extent of the from the International Space Station.
Tops of thunderclouds are also visible.
circumpolar Southern Ocean at 60°S (older definitions extend
it to Antarctica's Ross Sea), the Pacific reaches its greatest
east–west width at about 5°N latitude, where it stretches
approximately 19,800 km (12,300 mi) from Indonesia to the
coast of Colombia – halfway around the world, and more than
five times the diameter of the Moon.[48] Its geographic center is
in eastern Kiribati south of Kiritimati, just west from Starbuck
Island at 4°58′S 158°45′W.[49] The lowest known point on
Earth – the Mariana Trench – lies 10,911 m (35,797 ft; 5,966
fathoms) below sea level. Its average depth is 4,280 m
(14,040 ft; 2,340 fathoms), putting the total water volume at
roughly 710,000,000 km3 (170,000,000 cu mi).[1] The island geography of the Pacific
Ocean Basin
Due to the effects of plate tectonics, the Pacific Ocean is
currently shrinking by roughly 2.5 cm (1 in) per year
on three sides, roughly averaging 0.52 km2
(0.20 sq mi) a year. By contrast, the Atlantic Ocean is
increasing in size.[50][51]

Along the Pacific Ocean's irregular western margins

lie many seas, the largest of which are the Celebes
Sea, Coral Sea, East China Sea (East Sea), Philippine
Sea, Sea of Japan, South China Sea (South Sea), Sulu
Sea, Tasman Sea, and Yellow Sea (West Sea of
Korea). The Indonesian Seaway (including the Strait The three major cultural areas of the Pacific
of Malacca and Torres Strait) joins the Pacific and the Ocean islands: Micronesia, Melanesia and
Indian Ocean to the west, and Drake Passage and the Polynesia
Strait of Magellan link the Pacific with the Atlantic Ocean on the east. To the north, the Bering Strait
connects the Pacific with the Arctic Ocean.[52]

As the Pacific straddles the 180th meridian, the West Pacific (or western Pacific, near Asia) is in the
Eastern Hemisphere, while the East Pacific (or eastern Pacific, near the Americas) is in the Western
Hemisphere.[53]

The Southern Pacific Ocean harbors the Southeast Indian Ridge crossing from south of Australia turning
into the Pacific-Antarctic Ridge (north of the South Pole) and merges with another ridge (south of South
America) to form the East Pacific Rise which also connects with another ridge (south of North America)
which overlooks the Juan de Fuca Ridge.

For most of Magellan's voyage from the Strait of Magellan to the Philippines, the explorer indeed found
the ocean peaceful; however, the Pacific is not always peaceful. Many tropical storms batter the islands of
the Pacific.[54] The lands around the Pacific Rim are full of volcanoes and often affected by
earthquakes.[55] Tsunamis, caused by underwater earthquakes, have devastated many islands and in some
cases destroyed entire towns.[56]

The Martin Waldseemüller map of 1507 was the first to show the Americas separating two distinct
oceans.[57] Later, the Diogo Ribeiro map of 1529 was the first to show the Pacific at about its proper
size.[58]

Bordering countries
(Inhabited dependent territories are denoted by
the asterisk (*), with names of the
corresponding sovereign states in round
brackets. Associated states in the Realm of New
Zealand are denoted by the hash sign (#).)

American Samoa* (US)

Australia
Brunei
Cambodia An exclusive economic zone (EEZ) map of the Pacific
Canada which excludes non-tropical islands.
Chile
People's Republic of China
Colombia
Cook Islands#
Costa Rica
Ecuador
El Salvador
Federated States of Micronesia
Fiji
French Polynesia* (France)
Guam* (US)
Guatemala
 Honduras Papua New Guinea
Hong Kong* (People's Republic of Peru
China) Philippines
Indonesia Pitcairn Islands* (UK)
Japan Russia
Kiribati Samoa
Macau* (People's Republic of China) Singapore
Malaysia Solomon Islands
Marshall Islands South Korea
Mexico Taiwan
Nauru Thailand
New Caledonia* (France) Timor-Leste
New Zealand Tonga
Nicaragua Tokelau* (New Zealand)
Niue# Tuvalu
Norfolk Island* (Australia) United States
Northern Mariana Islands* (US) Vanuatu
North Korea Vietnam
Palau Wallis and Futuna* (France)
Panama

Uninhabited territories
Territories with no permanent civilian population.

Baker Island (US) Kingman Reef (US)

Clipperton Island (France) Macquarie Island (Australia)
Coral Sea Islands (Australia) Midway Atoll (US)
Howland Island (US) Palmyra Atoll (US)
Jarvis Island (US) Wake Island (US)
Johnston Island (US)

Landmasses and islands

The Pacific Ocean has most of the islands in the world. There
are about 25,000 islands in the Pacific Ocean.[59][60][61] The
islands entirely within the Pacific Ocean can be divided into
three main groups known as Micronesia, Melanesia and
Polynesia. Micronesia, which lies north of the equator and west
of the International Date Line, includes the Mariana Islands in
the northwest, the Caroline Islands in the center, the Marshall Tarawa Atoll in Kiribati
Islands to the east and the islands of Kiribati in the
southeast.[62][63]

Melanesia, to the southwest, includes New Guinea, the world's second largest island after Greenland and
by far the largest of the Pacific islands. The other main Melanesian groups from north to south are the
Bismarck Archipelago, the Solomon Islands, Santa Cruz, Vanuatu, Fiji and New Caledonia.[64]
The largest area, Polynesia, stretching from Hawaii in the north to New Zealand in the south, also
encompasses Tuvalu, Tokelau, Samoa, Tonga and the Kermadec Islands to the west, the Cook Islands,
Society Islands and Austral Islands in the center, and the Marquesas Islands, Tuamotu, Mangareva
Islands, and Easter Island to the east.[65]

Islands in the Pacific Ocean are of four basic types: continental islands, high islands, coral reefs and
uplifted coral platforms. Continental islands lie outside the andesite line and include New Guinea, the
islands of New Zealand, and the Philippines. Some of these islands are structurally associated with
nearby continents. High islands are of volcanic origin, and many contain active volcanoes. Among these
are Bougainville, Hawaii, and the Solomon Islands.[66]

The coral reefs of the South Pacific are low-lying structures that have built up on basaltic lava flows
under the ocean's surface. One of the most dramatic is the Great Barrier Reef off northeastern Australia
with chains of reef patches. A second island type formed of coral is the uplifted coral platform, which is
usually slightly larger than the low coral islands. Examples include Banaba (formerly Ocean Island) and
Makatea in the Tuamotu group of French Polynesia.[67][68]

Ladrilleros Beach in Colombia Tahuna maru islet, French Los Molinos on the coast of
on the coast of Chocó natural Polynesia Southern Chile
region

Water characteristics
The volume of the Pacific Ocean, representing about 50.1 percent
of the world's oceanic water, has been estimated at some
714 million cubic kilometers (171 million cubic miles).[69]
Surface water temperatures in the Pacific can vary from −1.4 °C
(29.5 °F), the freezing point of seawater, in the poleward areas to
about 30 °C (86 °F) near the equator.[70] Salinity also varies
latitudinally, reaching a maximum of 37 parts per thousand in the
southeastern area. The water near the equator, which can have a
salinity as low as 34 parts per thousand, is less salty than that Sunset in Monterey County,
found in the mid-latitudes because of abundant equatorial California, U.S.
precipitation throughout the year. The lowest counts of less than
32 parts per thousand are found in the far north as less evaporation
of seawater takes place in these frigid areas.[71] The motion of Pacific waters is generally clockwise in the
Northern Hemisphere (the North Pacific gyre) and counter-clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere. The
North Equatorial Current, driven westward along latitude 15°N by the trade winds, turns north near the
Philippines to become the warm Japan or Kuroshio Current.[72]
Turning eastward at about 45°N, the Kuroshio forks and some water moves northward as the Aleutian
Current, while the rest turns southward to rejoin the North Equatorial Current.[73] The Aleutian Current
branches as it approaches North America and forms the base of a counter-clockwise circulation in the
Bering Sea. Its southern arm becomes the chilled slow, south-flowing California Current.[74] The South
Equatorial Current, flowing west along the equator, swings southward east of New Guinea, turns east at
about 50°S, and joins the main westerly circulation of the South Pacific, which includes the Earth-circling
Antarctic Circumpolar Current. As it approaches the Chilean coast, the South Equatorial Current divides;
one branch flows around Cape Horn and the other turns north to form the Peru or Humboldt Current.[75]

Climate
The climate patterns of the Northern and Southern
Hemispheres generally mirror each other. The trade winds in
the southern and eastern Pacific are remarkably steady while
conditions in the North Pacific are far more varied with, for
example, cold winter temperatures on the east coast of Russia
contrasting with the milder weather off British Columbia
during the winter months due to the preferred flow of ocean
currents.[76]

In the tropical and subtropical Pacific, the El Niño Southern

Oscillation (ENSO) affects weather conditions. To determine
the phase of ENSO, the most recent three-month sea surface
temperature average for the area approximately 3,000 km
(1,900 mi) to the southeast of Hawaii is computed, and if the
region is more than 0.5 °C (0.9 °F) above or below normal for
that period, then an El Niño or La Niña is considered in Impact of El Niño and La Niña on North
progress.[77] America

In the tropical western Pacific, the monsoon and the related wet
season during the summer months contrast with dry winds in
the winter which blow over the ocean from the Asian
landmass.[78] Worldwide, tropical cyclone activity peaks in late
summer, when the difference between temperatures aloft and
sea surface temperatures is the greatest; however, each
particular basin has its own seasonal patterns. On a worldwide
scale, May is the least active month, while September is the
most active month. November is the only month in which all
the tropical cyclone basins are active.[79] The Pacific hosts the
two most active tropical cyclone basins, which are the
northwestern Pacific and the eastern Pacific. Pacific hurricanes
form south of Mexico, sometimes striking the western Mexican
Typhoon Tip at global peak intensity on
coast and occasionally the Southwestern United States between 12 October 1979
June and October, while typhoons forming in the northwestern
Pacific moving into southeast and east Asia from May to December. Tropical cyclones also form in the
South Pacific basin, where they occasionally impact island nations.[80]

In the arctic, icing from October to May can present a hazard for shipping while persistent fog occurs
from June to December.[81] A climatological low in the Gulf of Alaska keeps the southern coast wet and
mild during the winter months. The Westerlies and associated jet stream within the Mid-Latitudes can be
particularly strong, especially in the Southern Hemisphere, due to the temperature difference between the
tropics and Antarctica,[82] which records the coldest temperature readings on the planet. In the Southern
hemisphere, because of the stormy and cloudy conditions associated with extratropical cyclones riding
the jet stream, it is usual to refer to the Westerlies as the Roaring Forties, Furious Fifties and Shrieking
Sixties according to the varying degrees of latitude.[83]

Geology
The ocean was first mapped by
Abraham Ortelius; he called it Maris
Pacifici following Ferdinand Magellan's
description of it as "a pacific sea"
during his circumnavigation from 1519
to 1522. To Magellan, it seemed much
more calm (pacific) than the
Atlantic.[84]

The andesite line is the most significant

regional distinction in the Pacific. A
petrologic boundary, it separates the
deeper, mafic igneous rock of the A Ring of Fire; the Pacific is ringed by many volcanoes and
Central Pacific Basin from the partially oceanic trenches. This map does not show the Cascadia
Subduction Zone along part of the west coast of North America,
submerged continental areas of felsic
whose trench is completely buried in sediments.
igneous rock on its margins.[85] The
andesite line follows the western edge
of the islands off California and passes south of the Aleutian arc,
along the eastern edge of the Kamchatka Peninsula, the Kuril
Islands, Japan, the Mariana Islands, the Solomon Islands, and New
Zealand's North Island.[86][87]

The dissimilarity continues northeastward along the western edge

of the Andes Cordillera along South America to Mexico, returning
then to the islands off California. Indonesia, the Philippines,
Japan, New Guinea, and New Zealand lie outside the andesite line. A stratovolcano in Ulawun on the
island of New Britain in Papua New
Within the closed loop of the andesite line are most of the deep Guinea
troughs, submerged volcanic mountains, and oceanic volcanic
islands that characterize the Pacific basin. Here basaltic lavas
gently flow out of rifts to build huge dome-shaped volcanic mountains whose eroded summits form
island arcs, chains, and clusters. Outside the andesite line,
volcanism is of the explosive type, and the Pacific Ring of Fire is
the world's foremost belt of explosive volcanism.[62] The Ring of
Fire is named after the several hundred active volcanoes that sit
above the various subduction zones.

The Pacific Ocean is the only ocean which is mostly bounded by

subduction zones. Only the central part of the North American
coast and the Antarctic and Australian coasts have no nearby Mount St. Helens in Skamania
County, Washington, U.S. in 2020
subduction zones.

Geological history
The Pacific Ocean was born 750 million years ago at the breakup of Rodinia, although it is generally
called the Panthalassa until the breakup of Pangea, about 200 million years ago.[88] The oldest Pacific
Ocean floor is only around 180 Ma old, with older crust subducted by now.[89]

Seamount chains
The Pacific Ocean contains several long seamount chains, formed by hotspot volcanism. These include
the Hawaiian–Emperor seamount chain and the Louisville Ridge.

Economy
The exploitation of the Pacific's mineral wealth is hampered by the ocean's great depths. In shallow
waters of the continental shelves off the coasts of Australia and New Zealand, petroleum and natural gas
are extracted, and pearls are harvested along the coasts of Australia, Japan, Papua New Guinea,
Nicaragua, Panama, and the Philippines, although in sharply declining volume in some cases.[90]

Fishing
Fish are an important economic asset in the Pacific. The shallower shoreline waters of the continents and
the more temperate islands yield herring, salmon, sardines, snapper, swordfish, and tuna, as well as
shellfish.[91] Overfishing has become a serious problem in some areas. Overfishing leads to depleted fish
populations and closed fisheries, causing both economic and ecologic consequences.[92] For example,
catches in the rich fishing grounds of the Okhotsk Sea off the Russian coast have been reduced by at least
half since the 1990s as a result of overfishing.[93]

Environment
The Northwestern Pacific Ocean is most susceptible to micro plastic pollution due to its proximity to
highly populated countries like Japan and China.[95] The quantity of small plastic fragments floating in
the north-east Pacific Ocean increased a hundredfold between 1972 and 2012.[96] The ever-growing Great
Pacific garbage patch between California and Japan is three times the size of France.[97] An estimated
80,000 metric tons of plastic inhabit the patch, totaling 1.8 trillion pieces.[98]
Marine pollution is a generic term for the
harmful entry into the ocean of chemicals or
particles. The main culprits are those using the
rivers for disposing of their waste.[99] The rivers
then empty into the ocean, often also bringing
chemicals used as fertilizers in agriculture. The
excess of oxygen-depleting chemicals in the
water leads to hypoxia and the creation of a dead
zone.[100]

Marine debris, also known as marine litter, is

Pacific Ocean currents have created three islands of
human-created waste that has ended up floating
debris.[94]
in a lake, sea, ocean, or waterway. Oceanic debris
tends to accumulate at the center of gyres and
coastlines, frequently washing aground where it is known as beach
litter.[99]

In addition, the Pacific Ocean has served as the crash site of

satellites, including Mars 96, Fobos-Grunt, and Upper Atmosphere
Research Satellite.

Nuclear waste
Marine debris on a Hawaiian coast
From 1946 to 1958, Marshall Islands served as the Pacific Proving
in 2008
Grounds, designated by the United States, and played host to a
total of 67 nuclear tests conducted across various atolls.[102][103]
Several nuclear weapons were lost in the Pacific Ocean,[104]
including one-megaton bomb that was lost during the 1965
Philippine Sea A-4 incident.[105]

In 2021, the discharge of radioactive water from the Fukushima

nuclear plant into the Pacific Ocean over a course of 30 years was
approved by the Japanese Cabinet. The Cabinet concluded the
radioactive water would have been diluted to drinkable
In 2020, Japanese Prime Minister
standard.[106] Apart from dumping, leakage of tritium into the
Suga declined to drink the bottle of
Pacific was estimated to be between 20 and 40 trillion Bqs from
Fukushima's treated radioactive
2011 to 2013, according to the Fukushima plant.[107] water that he was holding, which
would otherwise be discharged to
the Pacific.[101]
Deep Sea Mining
An emerging threat for the Pacific ocean is the development of
deep-sea mining. Deep-sea mining is aimed at extracting manganese nodules that contain minerals such
as magnesium, nickel, copper, zinc and cobalt. The largest deposits of these are found in the Pacific
Ocean between Mexico and Hawaii in the Clarion Clipperton Fracture Zone.[108]

Deep-sea mining for manganese nodules appears to have drastic consequences for the ocean. It disrupts
deep-sea ecosystems and may cause irreversible damage to fragile marine habitats.[109] Sediment stirring
and chemical pollution threaten various marine animals. In addition, the mining process can lead to
greenhouse gas emissions and promote further climate change. Preventing deep-sea mining is therefore
important to ensure the long-term health of the ocean.

Major ports and harbors

List of major ports

Acapulco Johor Bahru San Diego
Auckland Kaohsiung San Francisco
Bangkok Keelung Seattle
Busan Long Beach Shanghai
Callao Los Angeles Singapore
Cebu City Manila Sydney
Dalian Melbourne Tianjin
Guangzhou Nagoya Tokyo
Haiphong Nakhodka Valparaíso
Ho Chi Minh City Oakland Vancouver
Hong Kong Osaka Vladivostok
Honolulu Panama City Yokohama
Jakarta Portland

List of seas, gulfs and bays by surface area

Philippine Sea : 5,695,000 km2 (2,199,000 sq mi)
Coral Sea : 4,791,000 km2 (1,850,000 sq mi)
South China Sea: 3,500,000 km2 (1,400,000 sq mi)
Tasman Sea : 2,300,000 km2 (890,000 sq mi)
Bering Sea : 2,000,000 km2 (770,000 sq mi)
Sea of Okhotsk : 1,583,000 km2 (611,000 sq mi)
Gulf of Alaska : 1,533,000 km2 (592,000 sq mi)
East China Sea: 1,249,000 km2 (482,000 sq mi)
Sea of Japan : 978,000 km2 (378,000 sq mi)
Solomon Sea : 720,000 km2 (280,000 sq mi)
Arafura Sea : 650,000 km2 (250,000 sq mi)
Banda Sea : 470,000 km2 (180,000 sq mi)
Yellow Sea : 380,000 km2 (150,000 sq mi)
Gulf of Thailand : 320,000 km2 (120,000 sq mi)
Java Sea : 320,000 km2 (120,000 sq mi)
Gulf of Carpentaria : 300,000 km2 (120,000 sq mi)
Celebes Sea : 280,000 km2 (110,000 sq mi)
Sulu Sea : 260,000 km2 (100,000 sq mi)
Bismarck Sea : 250,400 km2 (96,700 sq mi)
 Flores Sea : 240,000 km2 (93,000 sq mi)
Molucca Sea : 200,000 km2 (77,000 sq mi)
Gulf of Anadyr : 200,000 km2 (77,000 sq mi)
Gulf of California : 160,000 km2 (62,000 sq mi)
Gulf of Tonkin : 126,250 km2 (48,750 sq mi)
Halmahera Sea : 95,000 km2 (37,000 sq mi)
Bohai Sea : 78,000 km2 (30,000 sq mi)
Gulf of Papua : 70,400 km2 (27,200 sq mi)
Koro Sea : 58,000 km2 (22,000 sq mi)
Bali Sea : 45,000 km2 (17,000 sq mi)
Savu Sea : 35,000 km2 (14,000 sq mi)
Bohol Sea 29,000 km2 (11,000 sq mi)
Seto Inland Sea : 23,203 km2 (8,959 sq mi)
Sibuyan Sea 22,400 km2 (8,600 sq mi)
Seram Sea 12,000 km (7,500 mi)
Visayan Sea 11,850 km2 (4,580 sq mi)
Gulf of Panama 2,400 km2 (930 sq mi)
Manila Bay : 2,000 km2 (770 sq mi)
Tokyo Bay : 1,500 km2 (580 sq mi)

List of islands in the Pacific

Theories of natural delimitation between the Atlantic and Pacific

oceans
Scientific researchers have proposed delimiting the boundary between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans by
two different natural boundaries, by the Shackleton Fracture Zone[110] and by the Scotia Arc[111][112][113]
the former being more current than the latter.

See also
Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation
List of rivers of the Americas by coastline#Pacific Ocean coast
Pacific Alliance
Pacific coast
Mikhail Tikhanov
Pacific Time Zone
Seven Seas
Trans-Pacific Partnership
War of the Pacific
 Natural delimitation between the Pacific and
South Atlantic oceans by the Shackleton
Fracture Zone
Natural delimitation between the Pacific and
South Atlantic oceans by the Scotia Arc

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Further reading
Barkley, Richard A. (1968). Oceanographic Atlas of the Pacific Ocean. Honolulu: University
of Hawaii Press.
prepared by the Special Publications Division, National Geographic Society. (1985). Blue
Horizons: Paradise Isles of the Pacific. Washington, DC: National Geographic Society.
ISBN 978-0-87044-544-6.
Cameron, Ian (1987). Lost Paradise: The Exploration of the Pacific (https://archive.org/detail
s/lostparadiseexpl00came). Topsfield, MA: Salem House. ISBN 978-0-88162-275-1.
Couper, A.D., ed. (1989). Development and Social Change in the Pacific Islands. London:
Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-00917-1.
Gilbert, John (1971). Charting the Vast Pacific. London: Aldus. ISBN 978-0-490-00226-5.
Igler, David (2013). The Great Ocean: Pacific Worlds from Captain Cook to the Gold Rush.
New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-991495-1.
 Jones, Eric, Lionel Frost, and Colin White. Coming Full Circle: An Economic History of the
Pacific Rim (Westview Press, 1993)
Lower, J. Arthur (1978). Ocean of Destiny: A Concise History of the North Pacific, 1500–
1978 (https://archive.org/details/oceanofdestinyco0000lowe). Vancouver: University of
British Columbia Press. ISBN 978-0-7748-0101-0.
Napier, W.; Gilbert, J.; Holland, J. (1973). Pacific Voyages. Garden City, NY: Doubleday.
ISBN 978-0-385-04335-9.
Nunn, Patrick D. (1998). Pacific Island Landscapes: Landscape and Geological
Development of Southwest Pacific Islands, Especially Fiji, Samoa and Tonga (https://books.
google.com/books?id=AN8486A8fMcC&pg=PA15). [email protected]. ISBN 978-982-02-
0129-3.
Oliver, Douglas L. (1989). The Pacific Islands (3rd ed.). Honolulu: University of Hawaii
Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-1233-1.
Paine, Lincoln. The Sea and Civilization: A Maritime History of the World (2015).
Ridgell, Reilly (1988). Pacific Nations and Territories: The Islands of Micronesia, Melanesia,
and Polynesia (2nd ed.). Honolulu: Bess Press. ISBN 978-0-935848-50-2.
Samson, Jane. British imperial strategies in the Pacific, 1750–1900 (Ashgate Publishing,
2003).
Soule, Gardner (1970). The Greatest Depths: Probing the Seas to 20,000 feet (6,100 m)
and Below (https://archive.org/details/greatestdepthspr00soul). Philadelphia: Macrae Smith.
ISBN 978-0-8255-8350-6.
Spate, O.H.K. (1988). Paradise Found and Lost. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota
Press. ISBN 978-0-8166-1715-9.
Terrell, John (1986). Prehistory in the Pacific Islands: A Study of Variation in Language,
Customs, and Human Biology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-
30604-1.

Historiography
Calder, Alex, et al. eds. Voyages and Beaches: Pacific Encounters, 1769–1840 (U of Hawai'i
Press, 1999)
Davidson, James Wightman. "Problems of Pacific history." Journal of Pacific History 1#1
(1966): 5–21.
Dickson, Henry Newton (1911). "Pacific Ocean" (https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encycl
op%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Pacific_Ocean). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 20 (11th ed.).
pp. 434–441.
Dirlik, Arif. "The Asia-Pacific Idea: Reality and Representation in the Invention of a Regional
Structure", Journal of World History 3#1 (1992): 55–79.
Dixon, Chris, and David Drakakis-Smith. "The Pacific Asian Region: Myth or Reality?"
Geografiska Annaler: Series B, Human Geography 77#@ (1995): 75+
Dodge, Ernest S. New England and the South Seas (Harvard UP, 1965).
Flynn, Dennis O., Arturo Giráldez, and James Sobredo, eds. Studies in Pacific History:
Economics, Politics, and Migration (Ashgate, 2002).
Gulliver, Katrina. "Finding the Pacific world." Journal of World History 22#1 (2011): 83–100.
online (https://www.academia.edu/241829/Finding_the_Pacific_World)
Korhonen, Pekka. "The Pacific Age in World History", Journal of World History 7#1 (1996):
41–70.
Munro, Doug. The Ivory Tower and Beyond: Participant Historians of the Pacific (Cambridge
Scholars Publishing, 2009).
 "Recent Literature in Discovery History." Terrae Incognitae, annual feature in January issue
since 1979; comprehensive listing of new books and articles.
Routledge, David. "Pacific history as seen from the Pacific Islands." Pacific Studies 8#2
(1985): 81+ online (https://web.archive.org/web/20160923134705/https://journals.lib.byu.ed
u/spc/index.php/PacificStudies/article/viewFile/9369/9018)
Samson, Jane. "Pacific/Oceanic History" in Kelly Boyd, ed. (1999). Encyclopedia of
Historians and Historical Writing vol 2 (https://books.google.com/books?id=0121vD9STIMC
&pg=PA901). Taylor & Francis. pp. 901–902. ISBN 978-1-884964-33-6.
Stillman, Amy Ku'uleialoha. "Pacific-ing Asian Pacific American History", Journal of Asian
American Studies 7#3 (2004): 241–270.

External links
EPIC Pacific Ocean Data Collection Viewable (https://web.archive.org/web/2010050401242
9/http://www.epic.noaa.gov/epic/ewb/) on-line collection of observational data
NOAA In-situ Ocean Data Viewer (https://web.archive.org/web/20060211015453/http://dapp
er.pmel.noaa.gov/dchart/) plot and download ocean observations
NOAA PMEL Argo profiling floats Realtime Pacific Ocean data (https://web.archive.org/web/
20060210183949/http://floats.pmel.noaa.gov/floats/)
NOAA TAO (https://www.pmel.noaa.gov/tao/drupal/disdel/) El Niño data Realtime Pacific
Ocean El Niño buoy data
NOAA Ocean Surface Current Analyses (https://web.archive.org/web/20051229005041/htt
p://www.oscar.noaa.gov/datadisplay/) – Realtime (OSCAR) Near-realtime Pacific Ocean
Surface Currents derived from satellite altimeter and scatterometer data

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