American Journal of Plant Sciences, 2013, 4, 189-196 189

http://dx.doi.org/10.4236/ajps.2013.42025 Published Online February 2013 (http://www.scirp.org/journal/ajps)

Conventional Sugarcane Breeding in South Africa:

Progress and Future Prospects
Marvellous Zhou1,2
1
South African Sugarcane Research Institute, Mt Edgecombe, South Africa; 2University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa.
Email: [email protected]

Received November 13th, 2012; revised December 11th, 2012; accepted December 17th, 2012

ABSTRACT
Initial sugarcane production in South Africa relied on imported varieties. When imported varieties succumbed to dis-
eases, the industry established the South African Research Institute (SASRI) with the mandate to develop sugarcane
varieties. The popular and highly successful varieties, NCo310 and NCo376 were selected from crosses imported from
India. NCo310 and NCo376 were grown successfully in several countries across the world where they produced high
yield and ratooning ability. Later, crossing was established at SASRI based on flowers initiated in the glasshouse and
photoperiod house under controlled temperature and photoperiod conditions. A five stage program is currently being
implemented in the variety development process. More than 60 varieties have been released from the breeding programs.
Other achievements include development of germplasm that is currently being used to enhance sugar cane variety de-
velopment in South Africa. Currently, high realised selection gains are evident in most of the advanced selection popu-
lations. The released varieties show genetic gains over time. Efforts to enhance the breeding program include introgres-
sion, family evaluation, selection models and use of molecular markers.

Keywords: Saccharum; Realised Gains; Family Selection; NCo310; NCo376

1. Introduction the SASRI breeding programs. The newly appointed re-

searchers at the Experiment Station tried making crosses,
The first sugar produced in South Africa in 1852 was
but no fertile seed was obtained [3]. Later the Experi-
derived from varieties of noble cane (Saccharum officei-
ment Station imported true seed from several countries
narum sp.). Initially, South Africa was dependent on
including India [4].
regular imports of new varieties and over time these va-
In 1945, Dr Peter Brett discovered that the absence of
rieties became susceptible to local diseases such as smut
viable seed in crosses was caused by pollen infertility
and mosaic [1]. Import of the variety Uba (S. sinensis) in
due to low temperatures during the flowering period.
the 1880s gave growers a respite, because Uba was re-
Sugarcane flower emergence in South Africa occurs in
sistant to mosaic. It also ratooned better than previous
winter when temperatures often drop below 20˚C thereby
varieties, and each stool produced many stalks. Although
causing pollen sterility. Pollen infertility was overcome
Uba was pleasing to the growers, the millers did not like
by keeping sugarcane flowers under temperatures above
it because it was high in fiber and low in sucrose content
20˚C [3,5] in heated glasshouses. Breeding progress at
leading to poor sugar recovering at processing. All
SASRI was limited by variable flowering in parent
growers were nevertheless urged by government to plant
genotypes. Further experiments developed procedures for
Uba to reduce sugarcane diseases. This strategy proved
inducing flowering by exposing the sugar cane plants to
less than ideal around 1915 when Uba was found to be
the day-lengths that occur in tropical countries where
susceptible to streak disease, leaving the sugar industry
flowering is profuse [3]. In 1966 and 1971, SASRI con-
in a crisis with no new varieties available to replace Uba.
structed a glasshouse and photoperiod house, respecttively.
In 1925, the South African Sugarcane Research Institute
Both facilities have controlled heating and lighting.
(SASRI) was established at Mount Edgecombe, Durban,
South Africa with the major objective of importing, test-
1970s to Mid-1990s
ing and releasing better varieties. The majority of im-
ported varieties were not adapted to local conditions and The structure of the breeding programs remained largely
often succumbed to pests and diseases [2]. The failure of unchanged from the early 1970s until the mid-1990s.
the majority of imported varieties led to the initiation of Crosses were made at Mt Edgecombe, and seedlings

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190 Conventional Sugarcane Breeding in South Africa: Progress and Future Prospects

were sent to 6 locations (Table 1) to undergo a five-stage Table 2. Current location of Research Farms where selec-
selection programme. The different locations were estab- tion is conducted.
lished to develop varieties adapted to the different grow- Research Region Number of Number
ing conditions that prevailed in the agro-ecological re- Farm (code) (Age, months) seedlings of lines
gions where sugarcane is grown in South Africa. In
Pongola (F) Irrigated North (12) 50,000 4000
South Africa, differences in agro-climatic zones results
Empangeni (T) Coastal high potential (12) 50,000 4000
in 3 main zones, viz. Irrigated, coastal and high altitude
Gingindlovu (U) Coastal avg. potential (12) 25,000 2000
(Midlands), and three harvest cycles, viz. 12 months, 16 - Gingindlovu (G) Coastal avg. potential (18) 25,000 2000
18 months and 24 months, respectively. Genotype by Kearsney (K) Hinterland (16 - 18) 50,000 4000
environment interaction for optimum harvest age is large Bruyns Hill (B) Midlands (24) 25,000 2000
and determines the structure of the breeding programs. In Glenside (S) Midlands (24) 25,000 2000
addition, pest and disease risk differs across the Industry
zones. For example, smut is prevalent in the coastal and
netic base of the sugarcane breeding populations, and
irrigated regions, eldana borer (Eldana saccharina) is
provide novel sources of disease resistance and other
endemic in coastal areas while mosaic and brown rust
important traits. Species of wild germplasm used include
dominate the Midlands region.
the vigorous, low sucrose S. spontaneum and the poor-
In 1993, an internal workshop reviewed the SASRI
growing, but high sucrose S. officinarum. Special crosses
breeding programs [6-8] after the loss of the Central Field
are also utilised to develop novel germplasm for use as
Research Station (CFS) site to urbanisation, the highly
parents in the future. The glasshouse and photoperiod
variable soils on some research stations giving unreliable
facilities have space to plant 50 parent varieties for each
selection data, over-emphasis of breeding resource on the
breeding program, plus another 50 for special crosses
coastal belt, the need to capture soil types representative
such as for eldana resistance and introgression.
of the major growing areas and underemphasis of breed-
ing resources in the Midlands area which had increased
2.2. Flower Initiation and Crossing
sugarcane production. The dry-land selection programme
was restructured by replacing all existing selection sites There are five flowering treatments in the photoperiod
with new sites better reflecting the major soil and agro- house and three in the glasshouse. Each genotype is al-
climatic zones of the South African sugar industry. The located to a particular photoperiod treatment and that
size of the SASRI programs was increased from 160,000 determines its approximate flowering date. The photope-
to 250,000 seedlings per annum (Table 2). riod treatment also determines whether the genotype
would be classified as male or female parent. A genotype
2. Breeding and Selection Process is categorized as male or female based on the amount of
2.1. Parent Selection viable pollen produced. Genotypes that produce large
quantities of viable pollen (>30%) are classified as males,
The breeding programs cycle starts with parent selection. otherwise they will be females. Parent genotypes are
Each year, the selected parents are planted in the glass- planted in September of each year and replicated across
house and photoperiod house to produce flowers for flowering treatments. Flowering treatments commence in
crossing. Parent varieties for each regional breeding pro- February. The temperature is kept above 20˚C to ensure
gram are selected based on high cane yield, high sucrose pollen fertility. The day-lengths are artificially maintained
content, high sucrose yield, desirable agronomic traits at 12.5 hours by artificial lighting. The photoperiod house
such as good ratooning ability, freedom from diseases provides greater control of day-length and is used to treat
and resistance to eldana borer. Imported genotypes and shy-flowering varieties, and to increase the number of
wild germplasm are included as parents to widen the ge- flowers with fertile pollen (males) while the glasshouse
is used to generate the majority of the female parents.
Table 1. Original selection sites used in the SASRI breeding Flowers emerge between 90 to 110 days after photope-
programs.
riod treatment. The number of stalks producing flowers
Selection site
Region Number of Number of varies between 50% and 70%, and depends on seasons.
(Age months) seedlings Single Lines
When the first florets of a flower open, anthers are
Pongola Irrigated North (12) 50,000 4000 collected and stained with an iodine solution. Cross
Mtunzini Coast (12) 25,000 2000 combinations depend on the breeders’ objectives and
Shaka’s Kraal Coast (12) 25,000 2000 available flowers. During crossing, the minimum tem-
C.F.S Coast (18) 25,000 2000 perature is kept above 20˚C, and humidity levels are
Mt Edgecombe Coast (12) 25,000 2000 maintained above 70% to ensure good pollen viability,
Holly Bros. Midlands (24) 9000 700 pollen survival and seed set. After 14 days from crossing,

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 Conventional Sugarcane Breeding in South Africa: Progress and Future Prospects 191

when shedding of pollen ceases, the males are discarded diseases, as well as for visual appraisal during selection.
and the female flower is ripened. At SASRI, flowering Selection at the Mini-lines stage is based on visual as-
and crossing take place from May to August. Approxi- sessment, freedom from disease and the family values for
mately 1500 crosses are made every year. An average of yield, sucrose content, diseases and pests. The family
350 seeds per flower is produced. The matured flowers data is obtained by determining the sucrose content [9] in
are harvested and dried when the topmost part of the a sample of one stalk from each of a sample of 20 plots.
flower begins to fluff up, a sign that the seed is mature. Family cane yield is estimated from yield components
The fuzz and the seed it contains are dried for 24 hours at (number of stalks, stalk height, stalk diameter) from a
30˚C. A sample of seed is taken for a germination test sample of 20 to 50 plots. Family disease scores and
and the remaining seed is placed in a plastic sachet and eldana borer damage data is also analysed. Approxi-
sealed, each cross separately. The seed is stored in a cold mately 11% of Mini-lines are selected.
room at −20˚C until required. The seed remains viable
for 10 years. 2.3.3. Stage 3: Single Lines
Selected genotypes from stage 2 are planted in 8 m row
2.3. Selection Program plots. It is at this stage that each clone receives a unique
number, for example 98F2225: the year the line was
The main objective of the programs is to select varieties
planted (98 for 1998), the site (F for irrigated) and its
suited to the major agro-climatic regions of South Africa.
location (2225 line number 2225) in the trial. Periodic
To achieve this objective, selection is carried out at six
research stations (Table 2). The first four stages of the disease inspections are carried out. At harvest, 12-stalks
selection programme are established at the research sta- are randomly sampled per plot and used to determine
tions. Stage 5 genotypes are planted across research sta- sucrose content in the laboratory [9]. Cane yield is esti-
tions and on-farm trials to evaluate for genotype by en- mated from number of stalks, stalk height and stalk di-
vironment interaction. It takes between 11 (irrigated pro- ameter. Due to the small plot size, the large trial size and
gram) and 20 (Midlands) years from the seedling stage to lack of replication, field variability is large. The data is
the release of a new commercial sugar cane variety. therefore adjusted for spatial trends. Selections to Stage 4
are based on yield estimates, disease and pest data and
2.3.1. Stage 1: Seedlings in Terraces visual evaluation of the genotypes in the field.
The selection programs starts with seedlings raised in the
glasshouse. About 250,000 seedlings are raised from true 2.3.4. Stage 4: Observation Trial
seed each year (Table 2). Crosses planted are made up of Genotypes selected to Stage 4 are planted to two rows by
proven crosses (that are known to produce high yield 8 m plots and three replications. The trial plots are har-
progenies) and test crosses (derived from unknown par- vested and sampled for sucrose content in plant and first
ents). Each cross is sown in a separate box by spreading ratoon crops. At harvest, all the millable stalks in the plot
the fuzz evenly over the surface of a mixture of peat are manually cut and weighed. Twelve stalks are ran-
moss and river sand. The fuzz is lightly covered with domly chosen and analysed for sucrose content at the
peat moss and watered, then placed in a heated glass- laboratory [9]. In the irrigated breeding program where
house at 30˚C. Germination occurs within three days. smut is a problem, the genotypes are planted into pre-
Five days after sowing the seedlings are counted, and liminary smut inoculation trials. In the coastal breeding
moved outside the glasshouse for steadily lengthening programs, a 20-stalk sample per plot is used to estimate
periods until they are hardened off. When the seedlings eldana borer damage at time of harvest. Selections to
are 3 - 5 cm tall, they are transplanted to airbricks in a Stage 5 are based on the combined analysis of the data
nursery. The seedlings in a cross are divided into three collected from the plant and first ratoon crops.
groups and each group is planted in a replication. The
seedlings are left to grow for seven to nine months. The 2.3.5. Stage 5: Advanced Variety Trial
best 66% of the seedlings are advanced to the next stage, Advanced variety trials provide final evaluation before a
where the miniature stalks (setts) of 1 m length are genotype is recommended for commercial planting.
planted in the field. Genotypes that produced significantly (P < 0.05) higher
yield than the control genotypes in Stage 4 are include in
2.3.2. Stage 2: Mini-Lines advanced variety trials. The trials are established at 6
The setts from stage 1 are planted individually as one locations and across research stations to evaluate for
meter plots, one meter apart in the row. The row widths genotype by environment interaction and harvested in the
in all trials range from 1.0 to 1.4 m, depending on the plant, first, second and third ratoon crops to evaluate for
research station. Every third row is skipped to allow suf- ratooning ability. Further disease and pest screening tri-
ficient room for the mini-lines to be examined for major als are established at this stage to determine resistance

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192 Conventional Sugarcane Breeding in South Africa: Progress and Future Prospects

levels for smut, mosaic and eldana borer. Combined data 3.2. Realised Selection Gains over Time
analysis is used to recommend varieties for release by
The realised selection gains over time were assessed us-
determining the areas of adaptability and ratooning abil-
ing advanced variety trials data because it represents the
ity. Genotypes recommended for release are expected to
produce significantly (P < 0.05) higher sugar yield than final and pre-release stage where genotypes are likely to
control genotypes and possess higher levels of resistance be released. Any gains reflected at this stage would ulti-
to diseases and pests prevalent in the agro-ecological mately lead to higher potential gains for genotypes being
region recommended for release. Details of the progress- released for commercial planting. These trials are planted
sion of selection are shown in Table 3. at several locations and therefore the data would also be
more representative of their true genetic potential across
3. Progress the target areas for release. The trait evaluated was sugar
yield because it represents the product the farmers are
From the days of importing crosses from India up to date, paid for their crops. The data for sugar yield (t/ha) were
significant progress has been made in the variety devel- transformed to reduce the effect of year to year seasonal
opment programs. Associated with the elite varieties re- variation. To transform the data, all the values were di-
leased for commercial production, a lot of progress has vided by the control (NCo376) that is used across all
been made in germplasm development, parent evaluation, programs to convert to percentages. It is the percentages
crossing techniques and selection procedures. Greater that were used in this analysis.
understanding of genotype by environment interaction For the irrigated region, the data covered 13 cycles of
has resulted in efficient variety testing and the develop- plant breeding and selection. The populations were de-
ment of testing sites and procedures. The significant ge- rived from crosses done from 1990 to 2002 and advanced
netic gains among breeding populations have led to ge- variety trials were harvested from 1998 to 2011. The
netic gains among released genotypes. trials were established at four locations, two trials (Pon-
gola research station and Komati research station) were
3.1. Germplasm Development planted and harvested in the early season and three trials
To date, 1800 germplasm lines have been developed (Pongola research station, Pongola off-station, Mhlati
(Table 4) that possess desirable trait values ranging from off-station in Mpumalanga) were planted and harvested
high cane yield, high sucrose content, disease and pest in the late season. The trials were harvested at 12 month
resistance. A comprehensive variety collection made up crop age for four crops (plant, first, second, third ratoon).
of 837 varieties released by SASRI and those imported The average genotype mean for each series was gener-
from other countries also includes the legendary PoJ va- ated using least square means from a combined analysis
rieties which make the basis of most modern sugarcane of all the data from all locations and across all the crops
hybrids. In addition to the collection of hybrids, wild using mixed models of the Statistical Analysis System
sugarcane relatives including 23 Saccharum officinarum, [10]. The genotype means (%control) (y-axis) were plot-
37 S. spontaneum, 9 S. robustum, 13 Erianthus and 76 F1 ted against the series year (x-axis) (Figure 1). In order to
and BC1 genotypes make up the germplasm collection. determine the significance of the trends, a regression
The Saccharum collection was imported from other coun- analysis was performed using the regression procedure of
tries because sugarcane is not indigenous to South Africa. SAS where the genotype means (%control) was the re-

Table 3. Details of the progression of selection in a breeding program.

Clones per
Selection Stage Trial design Reps Crops Select rate % Selection criteria
site/total
Stage 1 50,000 × 5 Replication of Family values, visual assessment and freedom from
1 70
Seedlings 250,000 families diseases
Stage 2 35,000 × 5 Replication of Family Family values for yield,
1 11
Mini-lines 175,000 families sucrose, P&D
Stage 3 4000 × 5 Replication of Freedom from
1 10 Sucrose yield, P&D
Single Lines 20000 families natuarally
occurring
Stage 4 400 × 5 High yield, diseases and
Lattice, 2 × 8 m 3 2 10 Combined P+1R
Observation 2000 sucrose, pests, and from
Stage 5 pest and agronomic
40 × 5 Lattice, 5 × 8 m 5 Combined across
Advanced 3 3 disease deffects
150 trials sites & crops
Variety
Release 1-2

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 Conventional Sugarcane Breeding in South Africa: Progress and Future Prospects 193

Table 4. SASRI germplasm collection. significant (r = 41%, P < 0.001) gains per cycle for the
coastal long cycle programs. The coastal long cycle
Species/collection Number of genotypes
breeding programs have shown great improvement in
Germplasm developed by SASRI 1800 populations in later series and more promising varieties
Variety collection 837
are emerging from the advanced variety trials. The Mid-
lands produced the highest and significant 2.57% (r =
Saccharum officinarum 23
54%, P < 0.001) gain per cycle. In recent years, excep-
Saccharum spontaneum 37
tionally high yield cultivars such as N31, N48, N50 and
Saccharum robustum 9
N52 have been released while several promising geno-
Erianthus 13
types have emerged.
F1, BC1 76
3.3. Released Varieties
sponse variable and the series was the predictor variable.
For the coastal short cycle, the data covered 12 cycles To date, more than 60 varieties have been released from
of plant breeding and selection. The populations were the SASRI breeding programs. The earliest successful
derived from crosses done from 1990 to 2002 and ad- varieties released were selected from seed of crosses im-
vanced variety trials were harvested from 1998 to 2011. ported from India in 1938. The cross Co421 × Co312
The data were derived from five trials established at four made at the Sugarcane Breeding Institute in Coimbatore,
locations. Four trials were planted and harvested early India was the most productive. The cross was made by
season at Gingindlovu research station, Empangeni re- the breeder Dr TS Venkatraman and seed imported to
search station, Gingindlovu off-station and Empangeni KwaZulu Natal in two batches, one batch in 1938 and the
off-station while one trial was planted and harvested late other in 1944 [11]. The 1938 batch produced variety
season at Empangeni research station. The trials were NCo310 which was released in 1945 while NCo376 was
harvested at 12 month crop age in the plant, first and released in 1955 from the 1944 batch [4]. The sibling
second ratoon crops. cultivars NCo310 and NCo376 became two of the most
The coastal long cycle and hinterland data was derived widely grown cultivars in South Africa and in many
from 11 cycles. The populations were derived from other parts of the world for a significant part of the 20th
crosses done from 1990 to 2002 and advanced variety century, a testimony to their wide adaptability and supe-
trials were harvested from 1997 to 2011. The data were rior yield.
derived from five trials established at five locations. NCo310 was very popular with growers because it
Three trials were planted and harvested, one at Gingind- produced high cane yield and high sucrose content
lovu research station, two off-station trials near the throughout the milling season. Ten years after release,
Gingindlovu research station. Two trials were planted NCo310 produced more than 50% of the total sugar pro-
and harvested at Kearsney, one on-station and the other duced in South Africa [12]. The decline in the area
off-station. The trials were harvested at 18 month crop- planted to NCo310 occurred 20 years later due to its high
age in the plant, first and second ratoon crops. susceptibility to smut and the rapid adoption of NCo376.
The Midlands region data was derived from 11 cycles NCo310 was exported to several countries (Table 5)
of trials. The populations were derived from crosses done creating a world-wide sensation. It remained the major
from 1990 to 2002 and advanced variety trials were har- cultivar in Egypt, Morocco, Sudan, Somalia, Kenya,
vested from 1998 to 2011. The data for the Midlands Zambia, Malawi, Mozambique, Zimbabwe and Swazi-
programs was from six trials established at six locations, land until it was replaced by NCo376. NCo310 experi-
three each (one on-station and two off-station) for the enced the fastest adoption in Taiwan [13]. The cultivar
sandy (Glenside research station) and humic (Bryuns Hill made such an impact that NCo310 sugarcane memorial
research station) soils. The trials were harvested at 24 was erected and exists to date. The cultivar was received
month crop-age in the plant, first and second ratoon in Taiwan in 1947 where extensive testing showed that it
crops. produced significantly higher yield than controls. By 1952,
There were highly significant 1.09% (r = 38%, P < 39,869 hectares were planted with NCo310, one of the
0.001) gains per cycle for sugar yield in the irrigated re- fastest variety adoptions. It was later replaced in Taiwan
gion (Figure 2). The irrigated program has produced the by its progenies (F146, F160, F164 and F167) in 1967.
largest number of released and promising varieties in NCo310 was planted in Australia where it was a major
recent years. The coastal short cycle programs produced cultivar from 1966 to 1986 [11]. At its peak, 68% of the
a significant −0.50% negative gain (r = 14%, P < 0.005) area under cane in Australia was NCo310. In 1954
per cycle. Very few promising varieties have emerged NCo310 was released in Louisiana, USA where the area
from this programme since inception indicating potential planted reached 25% in 1961 [14]. It was popular in
deficiencies with its gene pool. There was a 1.69% and Louisiana because of its tolerance to freezing damage,

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194 Conventional Sugarcane Breeding in South Africa: Progress and Future Prospects

140 140
Coastal short cycle
y = 1.0884x + 94.726 Irrigated y = ‐0.501x + 105.99
130 130
r = 37.9, P=0.0001 r = 14.1, P=0.0054
120

Sugar yield (%NCo376)

Sugar yield (%NCo376)

120
110
110
100
100
90
90
80

70 80

60 70
1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

2010

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009
Year of planting Year of planting
150 170
y = 2.5679x + 94.076
y = 1.6877x + 92.857
140 r = 54.1, P=0.0001
r = 41.1, P=0.0001 150
130
Sugar yield (%NCo376)

130

Sugar yield (%NCo376)

120

110 110

100
90
90
70
80
Coastal long cycle Midlands
70 50
1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

2008
Year of planting Year of planting

Figure 1. Gains over time for sugar yield (t/ha) for SASRI breeding programs.

17
y = 0.019x ‐ 23.433
ease of mechanical harvesting and good ratooning ability.
It was phased out in the 1970’s due to susceptibility to
Sugar yield (t/ha)

16 r= 0.25, P=0.1678
smut. In the Rio Grande Valley of Texas, the cultivar at
15 the height of its popularity reached 65% of the area [15].
14
It remains an important late season cultivar in Texas
where it has produced high cane yields, is resistant to
13 borers, has good ratooning characteristics and is cold
1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 tolerant. In Japan, NCo310 was a major cultivar be-
Year of release
tween1960 to 1992 where up to 80% of the area under
Figure 2. Performance of SASRI released varieties over cane was NCo310 [11].
time. Cultivar NCo376 was released in 1955 and was de-
scribed as producing high yields in all trials, across dif-
Table 5. List of countries and estates that imported NCo310 ferent soil types and in regions ranging from hot and wet
from 1945 to 1955 [11].
coastal areas to the cool midlands and irrigated regions in
Year Countries South Africa [4]. This cultivar produced higher cane
1945 USA, Argentina
yield than NCo310 and lower sucrose content. NCo376
went on to dominate the Southern Africa sugar industries
1946 Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Malawi, Australia (Brisbane)
for several decades [16]. It remained the most widely
Cuba, Taiwan, Tanzania, Philippines, India (Coimbatore), planted cultivar in South Africa from 1969 to 1991 and
1947
Brazil
one of the major cultivars until 1995, when it was sur-
Australia (Queensland), Coimbatore and Gopalpur (India), passed by one of its progeny, N12. It was widely grown
1948
Turkey, Somalia, Madagascar
in Swaziland, Mozambique, Malawi, Kenya, Tanzania,
1949 Turkey, Paris, Uruguay, Belgian Congo
Zambia and Zimbabwe [16] and was planted to more
1950
Madagascar, Pakistan, Guadeloupe, Cuba, Israel, Angola, than 90% of the area in those countries for more than 30
Kenya
years. NCo376 has been touted as a scientific model
1951 England, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Brazil, Angola genotype for breeders and is used as a control in SASRI
1952 Sudan, Malawi, Tanzania, Kenya, Ethiopia, Swaziland plant breeding trials [4]. In addition, its traits include the
1953 Congo Brazzaville, Mexico best combination of yield components (number of stalks,
1954 Mexico, Gold Coast (West Africa), Spain, Argentina
stalk height and stalk diameter) and compensates well
under adverse growing conditions. It is known to possess
1955 Libya, Tunisia, Belgian Congo, Zimbabwe excellent ratooning ability and is on record having pro-

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 Conventional Sugarcane Breeding in South Africa: Progress and Future Prospects 195

duced high yields in crops over 30 ratoon cycles in Swa- germplasm were made at the CTC breeding station in
ziland (Bernard Shongwe, Swaziland Sugar Association, Camamu, Brazil in 2001, and is being evaluated to iden-
personal communication) and Zimbabwe (Obert Mhon- tify genotypes to further backcross to SASRI elite germ-
diwa, Tongaat Hulletts Zimbabwe, personal communica- plasm. Efforts to generate F1 from SASRI spontaneum
tion). collection will continue to broaden genetic base as well
Both NCo310 and NCo376 were also successful as increase biomass of the gene pool. The high biomass pro-
parents. In 1945, NCo310 was crossed with Co301, genies will be evaluated for use in cogeneration as well
which resulted in the release of N10 and N55/805 in as ethanol production from cellulose. Introgression and
South Africa. A cross between NCo310 and Co331 in recurrent selection to develop elite germplasm for eldana
Japan produced cultivar NiN2. NiN2 was imported by resistance continues and is expected to produce elite parents.
SASRI and used as parent where one of its offspring Family selection for cane yield and sucrose content
gave rise to the popular coastal cultivar N27. In Taiwan, has been introduced and will be intensified across all
NCo310 as a parent produced major cultivars F146 and regional breeding programs. Family selection for eldana
F160 and is part of the pedigree of other cultivars [13]. In tolerance will be introduced to enhance development of
Australia, NCo310 as a parent produced more than 13 resistance to eldana borer. In sugarcane, it is established
“Q” cultivars. NCo310 was used as a parent in other that family selection for yield is more beneficial because
countries including Mauritius, Reunion and Cuba [17]. the trait is controlled by several additive genes [19,20].
NCo376 was crossed with Co331 and produced N55/77 Individual genotype selection will be concentrated within
[4]. It was crossed further with Co331 and Co285 and superior families. The data used for family evaluation
produced of the renowned cultivars N12, N16 and N20. will be used to estimate the breeding values of the par-
N12 is the most widely planted cultivar in South Africa ents [21]. At the same time, the evaluation of parents will
at the moment. Other progenies with NCo376 in their be used to build a core germplasm population of parents
pedigree such as N17, N18, N19, N23 and N32 were also that are known to produce superior progenies. Other im-
released. portant traits such as eldana, smut and rust resistance will
Since the inception of SASRI crossing program, 54 also be evaluated for family effects as well as breeding
cultivars have been released. When the sugar yield of the values of parents. It is envisaged that a parallel family
cultivars was plotted against year of release, a non-sig- evaluation programme across all the regions would
nificant (P = 0.1678) positive gain of 0.02 tons/ha per eventually form the basis of the regional breeding pro-
year was observed (Figure 2). Of significance is the grams. Using this approach, all crosses will be evaluated
presence of five genotypes released in the last 15 years at this stage and only elite families will be planted in
that have broken the 15tons/ha yield barrier indicating large numbers in the early selection stages.
the potential to further attain larger gains. These five Exploration and exploitation of selection models in
varieties are N25, N31, N44, N48 and N50 and have pro- early (non-replicated) selection stages will enhance iden-
duced consistently very high yields in commercial plant- tification of superior genotypes [22]. Selection models
ings. The significant gains observed in the advanced stages using logistic regression are used to predict the trait
also indicated the potential to sustain further gains in future. combinations, particularly for yield and quality that pre-
vail in our selection populations. Yield components such
4. Future Prospects as number of stalks, stalk diameter and stalk height are
To enhance to the opportunity of increasing genetic gains used to model cane yield in these populations [23]. This
of the SASRI breeding programs, a dedicated introgres- approach is expected to complement family selection in
sion program was established. Interest in utilisation of providing a mechanism to study within family population
wild germplasm resurfaced across sugar cane breeding variability for yield and yield components. It is envisaged
programs worldwide in 2000 when dissection of genome that the optimum trait combinations that impart yield
composition became possible using molecular marker advantage in different agro-climatic regions, if they exist,
and cytological technologies. The quantification of the will be identified and could then be used as a guide dur-
extent of narrow genetic diversity among breeding popu- ing the selection process.
lations [18] has also increased the need to utilise wild In summary, SASRI was established to develop sug-
germplasm using introgression. In order to save time, arcane varieties after imported genotypes succumbed to
collaborations were sought with organisations having diseases and were not adapted to local growing condi-
good collections of wild germplasm, or active introgres- tions. Popular sugarcane varieties released from SASRI
sion breeding programs. Seed of crosses with wild germ- include NCo310 and NCo376. These varieties were
plasm were imported from the basic breeding program at grown in several countries in the world where in some
the United Stated Department of Agriculture (USDA), countries they were responsible for economic survival of
Houma, Louisiana. In addition, crosses with Saccharum sugar industries. The establishment of flowering facilities

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196 Conventional Sugarcane Breeding in South Africa: Progress and Future Prospects

led to crosses being generated at SASRI. More than 60 Current and Future Breeding Strategy on Variety Charac-
varieties were released from these efforts and some of teristics,” South African Sugar Industry Agronomists As-
sociation, Kwa-Shukela, 2002, pp. 41-48.
these varieties are popular in South Africa and other Af-
rican countries. Realised selection gains for the irrigated, [9] B. M. Shoonees-Muir, M. A. Ronaldson, G. Naidoo and P.
M. Schorn, “SASTA Laboratory Manual Including the
coastal long cycle and midlands breeding programs con-
Official Methods,” South African Sugarcane Technolo-
tinue to show increasing trends. These trends indicate gists Association Publication, Durban, 2009.
that potential high genetic gains among released varieties
[10] SAS, “SAS/STAT User’s Guide, Version 9.2,” SAS In-
can be expected in the future. The future of SASRI stitute, Cary, 2009.
breeding programs will be enhanced by increased intro-
[11] K. J. Nuss and P. G. C. Brett, “The Release of Variety
gression crosses to develop new and better germplasm NCo310 in 1945 and Its Impact on the Sugar Industry,”
for use in crossing. Family evaluation aimed at identify- Proceedings of the South African Sugarcane Technolo-
ing superior selection populations will increase genetic gists Association, Vol. 69, 1995, pp. 1-8.
gains. Data from family selection will be used to evaluate [12] P. A. Donovan, “An Empirical Evaluation of the Sugar-
breeding values of parents in the SASRI gene pool. Se- cane Variety NCo310,” Proceedings of the South African
lection models are being developed for use in optimizing Sugarcane Technologists Association, Vol. 70, 1996, pp.
selection in early stages as well as increasing the under- 93-102.
standing of the populations in the breeding programs. [13] S. C. Shih and P. Y. Juang, “The Role of NCo310 in Sug-
arcane Breeding in Taiwan,” Proceedings of the Interna-
5. Acknowledgements tional Society of Sugar Cane Technologists, Vol. 15, 1974
pp. 82-88.
The work was supported by funding from South African [14] J. Matherne, “A History of Major Sugarcane Varieties,”
Sugarcane research Institute. Former SASRI plant breed- Proceedings of the International Society of Sugar Cane
ers (Peter Brett, Roger Bond, Karl Nuss, Mike Butter- Technologists, Vol. 13, 1969, pp. 1061-1069.
field and Roy Parfitt) contributed to the successes out- [15] N. Rozeff, “Saying Goodbye to an Old Friend,” Sugar
lined in this paper. Journal, Vol. 49, 1986, p. 24.
[16] M. M. Zhou, “Performance of Varieties N14 and NCo376
in the South East Lowveld of Zimbabwe,” Proceedings of
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