4.
1 Definition: hazard, vulnerability and risk
4.1.1 Hazard:
In geology, a hazard is a natural event or process that has the potential to cause harm to people,
property, and the environment. Geological hazards include a variety of phenomena, such as:
Earthquakes, Volcanic Eruptions, Landslides, Floods, Tsunamis, etc. Geological hazards are
distinguished by their natural origins and their potential to impact human societies and
ecosystems.
4.1.2 The different types of hazards are as follows:
i ) Geological hazards;
It is an extreme natural event in the crust of the earth that poses threat to the life and property. For example;
earthquake, volcanic eruption, tsunamis, landslide, GLOF , etc.
ii ) Industrial hazards;
Industrial hazard may be defined as any condition produced by industries that may cause injury or death to
personnel or loss of product or property. It is caused due to the mishandling of machines, wear and tear of
machine parts. For example; fire, explosion, toxic waste products during manufacturing, etc.
iii) Climatic hazards;
Climatic hazards are agents of disaster in terms of what they may do to human settlements or to the
environment. It is due to the unbalance of natural ecosystem. For example; floods, droughts ,tropical cyclones ,
etc.
iv) Wars and civil strife;
A civil war, also known as an intrastate war occurs between result in large numbers of casualties and the
consumption of significant resources. Most modern civil wars involve intervention by outside powers. It is due
to the social effects of the people in the environment. For example; terrorism, armed aggression , etc.
v)Environmental hazards;
An environmental hazard is a substance, state or event which has the potential to threaten the surrounding
natural environment and/or adversely affect people's health. It is due to the drastic change in the environment
that we live. For example; deforestation, pollution ,droughts , desertification, famine (scarcity of food),
environmental degradation ,etc .
4.1.3 Phenomenon of Hazards (Measuring Criteria of Hazard);
i)Relative hazard;
It is assessed by assigning ratings to different factors contributing to hazards.
ii)Absolute hazard;
It is expressed deterministically. For example ; factor of safety or probability
iii) Monitored hazard;
It is assessed by the actual measurement of the effects. For example , deformations
The potential harm that the the people and society might
4.1.4 Vulnerability: get due to hazard event ,,
In geology, vulnerability refers to the susceptibility of a community, environment, or structure to harm from
geological hazards. It encompasses the degree to which these entities are likely to experience damage,
disruption, or adverse effects when exposed to a hazardous event. Key factors influencing vulnerability include:
1) Location
2) Building materials and construction quality
3) Population density and distribution
4) Socioeconomic factors
5) Environmental conditions
4.1.5 Risk:
In the context of geology, risk refers to the probability and potential consequences of harmful events resulting
from geological hazards. It is a combination of the likelihood of a hazardous event occurring and the severity of
its impact.
Introduction to major geological hazards and their
effects on development of the Earth's surface
Geological hazards encompass a range of natural events that can pose significant risks to
human populations and infrastructure. These hazards arise from processes within the Earth,
often triggered by geological forces such as tectonic activity, volcanic eruptions, and
weathering. Understanding these hazards is crucial for minimizing their impact on the
development of the Earth's surface. Here's an introduction to some major geological
hazards and their effects:
1. Tectonic hazards such as tsunamis and earthquakes result from the sudden release
of energy along fault lines, causing ground shaking.
2. Volcanic eruptions release molten rock (magma), ash, and gases onto the Earth's
surface. Effects include destruction of property, air pollution, and disruption of air
traffic.
3. Mass movements such as landslides and mudslides rapid downslope movement of
rock, soil, and debris. Triggered by heavy rainfall, earthquakes, volcanic activity,
or human activities. Can bury infrastructure, block roads, and cause fatalities.
4. Erosions like soil erosion and coastal erosion is caused by
removal of soil and coastal soil by high blowing wind and
waves leads to sedimentation in water bodies and also
threatens coastal areas, infrastructure and habitats.
5. Climate related hazards like floods and droughts are also
major natural hazards which are detrimental to the Earth's surface.
It can cause extensive damage to property, infrastructure, and
agricultural land.
4.3 landslide
Definition
Classification
Causes and Mitigative measures
4.3.1 Definition :
A landslide is the movement of rock, earth, or debris down a slope due to gravity. This geological phenomenon
can be triggered by factors such as heavy rainfall, earthquakes, volcanic activity, or human activities like
deforestation and construction. They can happen suddenly or more slowly over long periods of time. When the
force of gravity acting on a slope exceeds the resisting forces of a slope, the slope will fail and a landslide
occurs.
4.3.2 Classification :
I ) Based on Material:
[Link]: Involving mainly rock masses.
2. Earth: Consisting of fine-grained materials like soil, clay, or silt.
3. Debris: Comprising a mixture of various materials, including soil, rocks, and organic matter.
II )Based on Movement:
1 ) Falls: Rapid downward movement of rock or earth, typically from cliffs or steep slopes.
Rock Falls: When detached rock fragments fall freely through the air or bounce and roll down a slope.
Earth Falls: Similar to rock falls but involving soil or unconsolidated material.
2 ) Slides: Movement along a distinct surface.
Translational Slides: Movement along a planar or nearly planar surface of weakness, such as a bedding plane
or fault.
Rotational Slides: Movement along a concave-upward, curved surface, leading to a backward rotation of the
slide mass.
3 ) Flows: Fluid-like movement of material, often water-saturated.
Debris Flow: A rapid flow of a mixture of water-saturated debris, including soil, rock, and organic material, down a slope.
Mudflow: A flow composed mainly of water and fine particles like silt and clay, often triggered by heavy rainfall or rapid
snowmelt.
Earthflow: Slow to rapid movement of fine-grained material, typically occurring on gentle to moderate slopes.
4 ) Topples: Forward rotation and falling of material, often due to undercutting or erosion.
Rock Topples: Forward rotation and falling of rock masses, often around a pivot point at or near the base of the
rock.-
Soil Topples: Similar to rock topples but involving soil or unconsolidated material
5 ) Creeps: Very slow, gradual downslope movement of soil or rock.
I ) Soil Creep: Very slow, gradual downslope movement of soil, often indicated by curved tree trunks, tilted
fences, or bent retaining walls.-
II ) Rock Creep: Slow movement of rock down a slope, often affecting large masses over a long period.
4.3.3 Causes of landslides:
Natural Causes:
• Weak or sensitive materials (e.g., clay, loose sediments)
• Weathered materials
• Jointed or fissured materials
• Erosion by rivers, glaciers, or waves
• Weathering processes
• Heavy rainfall
• Rapid snowmelt
• Increased groundwater pressure
• Earthquakes
• Volcanic activity
Human-Induced Causes:
• Excavation of slopes
• Adding weight (buildings, roads) on slopes
• Deforestation
• Land use changes (e.g., converting forests to farmland)
• Overgrazing by livestock
• Over-irrigation
• Changes in water levels due to reservoirs and dams
4.3.4 Mitigative measures:
• Constructing retaining walls
• Creating terraces
• Reinforcing slopes with rock bolts, soil nailing, and geotextiles
• Installing drainage systems
• Reshaping slopes through grading - Planting trees and vegetation
• Reforesting deforested areas- Educating communities about landslide risks and safety measures
• Developing and practicing evacuation and response plans
• Managing irrigation practices to prevent soil saturation
• Monitoring and managing reservoir water levels
• Implementing environmental protection policies
• Installing erosion barriers like sandbags and riprap
• Applying mulch or planting ground cover to protect soil
4.4 Earthquake and seismicity
4.4.1 Earthquake
An earthquake is a sudden and violent shaking of the ground, often caused by the movement of the tectonic plate beneath
the Earth’s surface.
4.4.2 Seismicity
It is the measure of frequency of the earthquake in the region. For example, the number of earthquake of magnitude
between 4 and 6 per 100 square km.
4.4.3 Seismology
Seismology is the scientific discipline that is concerned with the study of the earthquake and the propagation of the
seismic wave within the earth.
4.4.4 Some important terms related with Earthquake
1 ) Seismic wave
Seismic waves are defined as the vibration that propagates through the Earth’s crust and mantle as a result of
earthquake or other resource such as volcanic activities.
Types of seismic wave
Seismic wave are divided into two type on the basis of their propagation characteristics and the medium through which
they travel.
A ) Body wave
They travel through the earth’s interior. The two main types of body wave are P-wave and S-wave.
i ) P-wave
P-wave or primary wave are the fastest compressional wave that can travel through solids, liquids and gases making
them first wave to be detected by seismograph.
ii ) S-wave
S-wave are slower seismic wave that can travel through solids only. Though they are slower than P-wave they are yet
more dangerous because they move rock up and down at right angle to the wave’s direction, causing intense side-to-
side shaking motion during earthquake.
B ) Surface wave
Surface waves travel along the Earth’s surface, causing the ground to move in a rolling motion during an earthquake. The
surface wave include rayleigh wave and love wave.
i ) Rayleigh wave
They are type of surface wave that moves in a rolling motion along Earth’s surface during earthquake. They are slower
than body wave but can cause significant damage due to their movement.
ii ) Love wave
They are the types of surface wave that move side-to-side, causing the ground to shake horizontally during an earthquake
2 ) Hypocenter
The hypocenter, also called as focus, is the spot deep down within the earth’s surface where the earthquake actually
originates. It is the origin point of the seismic wave that causes shaking we feel on the surface.
3 ) Epicenter
The epicenter of the earthquake is the point on the earth’s surface directly above the origin of the earthquake (i.e
focus).When we talk about the earthquake, the epicenter is where all the action happens, where the shaking is the
strongest.
4 ) Richter scale
A numerical scale for expressing the magnitude of an earthquake on the basis of seismograph oscillation developed by
Charles Francis Richter. The range of the Richter scale typically goes from 0 to 10 or even higher for exceptionally
strong earthquake.
4.4.5 Cause of Earthquake
Earthquake can happen due to various reasons, some of them are :-
1 ) Tectonic Plate movement
Earthquakes often occur when tectonic plates, large slabs of rocks that make up the Earth’s lithosphere, interact. When
these slabs collide or strike due to friction then it can lead to earthquake.
2 ) Volcanic Activity
Earthquake can be triggered due to volcanic eruption and the movement of the magma beneath the earth’s crust. The
pressure and the release of the gases during volcanic activity can cause the ground to shake.
3 ) Landslide
Large landslide can displace rocks and soil rapidly, generating seismic wave that mimic earthquake tremors.
4 ) Human Activity
Some earthquakes are induced by human activities such as mining, reservoir induced seismicity(filling the reservoir with
water), or underground nuclear test.
5 ) Subduction Zones
In subduction zones, where tectonic plate is forced beneath another, immense pressure can build up. When this pressure
is released, it can cause powerful earthquakes.
6) Faulting
Fault are the secondary structure formed due to relative displacement of earthy/rock blocks. Stress along these fault lines
can build up over time and eventually cause sudden movements causing earthquake.
4.4.6 Measurement of Earthquake
Earthquake is measured using device called as seismometer. When an earthquake happens, seismometer detect the
ground vibrations. These devices record the seismic waves caused by the earth’s crust’s movement. Seismologists then
analyze this data to calculate the earthquake’s magnitude using the Richter scale, which measures the strength of the
earthquake of the earthquake based on the amplitude of the seismic wave.
i )Magnitude of Earthquake
The magnitude of earthquake is determined based on the amplitude of seismic waves recorded by seismometer during
earthquake.
It is given by,
Log10E=5.24+1.44M
where, E= Energy dissipated and M=Magnitude of earthquake
ii ) Intensity
The intensity of an earthquake refers to the effect of the earthquake at a specific location. It is measures using the
Modified Mercalli Intensity(MMI) scale, which assesses the earthquake’s impact on building, and the environment. The
MMI scale ranges from I (not felt) to XII (total destruction).
Relation between Mercalli Scale and Richer Scale
4.4.7 Phases of earthquake
1 ) Foreshock
Foreshock earthquakes occur before the main shock and sometimes even provide the warning sign that a larger earthquake
known as main shock may occur imminent. While not all foreshocks lead to major earthquake, they can indicate increased
seismic activity in the area. They are usually smaller than main shocks.
2 ) Main shock
Main shock are the primary earthquakes that follow foreshock. They are the largest event in a sequence of seismic activity and
cause a significant damage and effects.
3 ) Aftershocks
Aftershock earthquake occur after the main shock and are usually smaller in magnitude than the main earthquake. Monitoring
aftershock is essential as they can continue for days, weeks, or even months following the main earthquake.
4.4.8 Effects of Earthquake
The effects of earthquake are as follows :-
• Ground shaking
• Avalanches
• Landslides
• Tsunamis
• Loss of electricity
• Loss of man-made infrastructures
• Hazardous chemical spills
Erosion, Flood, Landslide Dam Outburst
Flood and Glacial Lake Outburst
Flood(GLOF)
Erosion
● Erosion is an action of water or
wind that removes soil, rock or
dissolved material from one
location on earth crust and
transport it to another location.
● The breakdown of rocks into
smaller fragments is termed as
physical erosion and the soil or
rock material is removed from an
area by the water which is called
chemical erosion.
Causes of erosion
● High rainfall
● Steep slopes
● Deforestation
● Grazing of plants by cattle
● High blowing wind
● Softening of top soil due to farming
Effects of erosion
● Risk of life and property
● Decrease infertility of soil
● Difficulty in designing the dams, bridges, roads
● Rise in water pollution because it carries fertilizers of soil
● Effect in the lives of wild animals
Flood
● It is a rising and
overflowing of
the body of water
(oceans, rivers)
into normally dry
land.
Causes of flood
● Heavy rainfall
● Glacier lake outburst flood
● Failure of dam
● Deforestation
● High tides
● Overgrazing
● River and stream management
Benefit of flood
● Preserving of wetlands
● Recharging ground water and maintaining ecosystem
● Removal of pollutant in water ways
● Deposits valuable nutrients in the soil
Negative effects of flood
● Loss of life and property
● Damage the major infrastructure like roads, bridges, dams,
water supply system
● Occupies the farm land and make it unworkable
● Spreading of epidemic diseases
● Shortage of flood due to flooding in farmland
Landslide Dam
Outburst Flood
● It occurs when a
natural dam, created
by a landslide
blocking a river or
stream, suddenly fails
or breaches.
● This can result in the
rapid release of
water stored behind
the dam, leading to a
catastrophic flood
downstream.
Causes of Landslide Dam Outburst Flood
● Intense or prolonged rain saturates soil, triggering to landslides that block
rivers
● Sudden melting of snow increases the water flow, triggering landslides
● Natural erosion and weathering leads to landslides
● Deforestation, mining, and construction destabilize slopes leads to
landslides
● Continuous erosion of rivers undermines dams, cause the landslide dam
outburst flood
Glacial Lake
Outburst Flood
● A glacial lake
outburst flood
(GLOF) is a type
of outburst flood
that occurs
when the dam
containing a
glacial lake fails.
Causes of GLOF
● Failure of glacier dam due to erosion
● Building of water pressure in the
dam
● Heavy and fast flowing of snow
● Volcanic eruption in ice
● Earthquake factors
Effects of GLOF
● Damage of life and property
● Damage of projects
● Mass wasting
● Slope failure
● Problem in cultivated land
● Initiation of snow and rock avalanche
