CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

The study of macroinvertebrates is a wide spread subject that can be expressed in so many ways. Many
workers have made significant contribution to the study of biological parameters (macroinvertebrates)
of fresh water bodies both in Nigeria and overseas.

Arimoro, (2010), carried out a survey on microhabitat preference, diversity and ecology of aquatic mites
in a municipal stream in the Niger Delta. The information he encountered on water mite assemblages
from afrotropical streams were scanty. During the study, he investigated the aspects of the ecology of
the aquatic mites of the Orogodo River, Niger Delta, Nigeria. The study was carried out between January
and June 2006. Water samples and aquatic mites were collected from four different microhabitats in
Orogodo River, analyzed and studied. The water at the site of sampling was slightly acidic at pH 5.8 –
7.4, water temperature ranged from 24.6 to 33.7oC, dissolved oxygen 6.6 – 8.4mg/l and Biochemical
Oxygen demand (BOD) 1.9 – 4.0mg/l. These parameters fluctuated within the normal range suitable for
habitation of macroinvertebrates intolerant to organic pollution. A survey of different microhabitats in
the stream revealed that water mites were widely distributed but relatively less abundant. A total of 386
mites belonging to five species in five families were recorded. Arrenurus damkoehleri and Piona africana
were the dominant mites with the latter being the most ubiquitous species recovered from all
microhabitats studied. EncenItridophorus was the least abundant, recovered only from litter in riffle.
Based on the ecological requirements, the mites fell into three groups namely, Helocrene, Rheocrenes
and Limnocrene. The number and diversity of mites were found to be more abundant in the
macrophytes and riffle microhabitats compared to other microhabitats as indicated by the rather high
Simpson dominance (0.755) recorded for the pool. Typical standing water dwellers represented only a
small fraction of the species sampled. A principal component analysis clearly grouped the various mite
species with the microhabitat having the greatest influence on their distribution.

Belore et al., (2002), studied the use of diatoms and macroinvertebrates as bioindicators of water
quality in southern Ontario Rivers. The effectiveness of diatoms and macroinvertebrates as indicators of
environmental conditions in lotic systems was compared in a regional assessment. Benthic samples were
collected during summer 2000 from 35 Provincial Water Quality Monitoring river stations in the Grand,
Credit, Maitland and Upper Thames watersheds in southern Ontario. Patterns of diatom and
macroinvertebrates taxon distributions in relation to environmental variables were determined using
canonical correspondence analysis (CCA). ‘Total nitrate, phosphate, conductivity and alkalinity were
significant in explaining diatom data, while alkalinity, total nitrate, ammonium and total nitrogen were
significant in explaining invertebrate data. The Eigen values of the first two CCA axes were significant (p
< 0.05) for both diatoms and invertebrates, while the invertebrate analysis explained more taxonomic
variation (19o/o r., s 120/o). Regression and calibration models were developed for total nitrate. The
correlation between taxon-inferred and observed values was higher for diatoms than invertebrates in
the analysis (0.70 zs. 0.59); however, cross-validation with bootstrapping indicated that apparent
coefficients may be inflated. Biotic indices were also calculated. The composite invertebrate metric
scores gave a slightly closer representation of water quality conditions than the diatom trophic index,
but, biotic indices were not as effective as CCA in describing sites. Overall, the invertebrate and diatom
communities were similar in their abilities to predict water quality.

Sharma et al., (2006), investigated the water quality assessment of Behta River using
macroinvertebrates. They discovered that aquatic macroinvertebrates play significant role in responding
to a variety of environmental condition of rivers and streams and therefore may be used as bio-
indicators for water quality assessment. They choose the Behta River of Paonta Sahib in Himachal
Pradesh assess the suitability of river water for drinking purposes. Their study involved sampling, pre-
identification and identification of macroinvertebrates and computing the percent of occurrence of
families of various taxonomic groups and conducting physico-chemical analysis of samples from selected
location. Macroinvertebrates
chosen were identified up to
family level, and bio-
assessment at
various locations was done
using NEPBIOS score
system. It was found that out of
total of 30 genus belonging to
10 families of taxonomical group
like Ephemeroptera,
Trichoptera,
Plecoptera,
Coleoptera, Heteroptera, Odonata, Diptera Mollusca, Oligochaetes etc were found in different
composition inhabiting the river. The results further show that all the locations assessed for quality using
macroinvertebrates and physico-chemical analysis were in the range of water quality class ill
(Moderately Polluted) and the water cannot be used for drinking purposes.

Aquatic macroinvertebrates are insects in their nymph and larval stages, snails, worms, crayfish, and
clams that spend at least part of their lives in water. These insects play a large role in freshwater
ecosystems by recycling nutrients as well as providing food to higher trophic levels.
Trichoptera larva

They are visible to the naked eye, do not possess a vertebral column, and spend at least a portion of
their lives in water (Stumpf et al.,2009). "Aquatic Macroinvertebrates - Ecological Role". National Park
Service. These invertebrates are ubiquitous to freshwater ecosystems around the world and are present
in both lotic and lentic ecosystems, often living among the rocks and sediment. Aquatic
macroinvertebrates include insects, bivalves, gastropods, annelids, and crustaceans. Aquatic insect
orders include Trichoptera, Ephemeroptera, Odonata, Megaloptera, Plecoptera, Diptera, and Coleoptera
(Merrit et al., 1996.)Life histories

Aquatic macroinvertebrates are oviparous, however their life history strategies vary. Their reproductive
strategies fall along a continuum between semelparous and iteroparous, and involve differences in egg
number, egg size, and brood care (Verberk et al., 2008). Once they hatch, the majority of aquatic
macroinvertebrates undergo three main life stages: nymph, pupa, and adult. Some taxa, like dragonflies,
spend their adult stage outside the water. Other taxa, like water beetles, are aquatic for their entire
lives. The evolution of different life history strategies of aquatic macroinvertebrates has allowed species
to take advantage of differences in food supply and allow some to better tolerate extreme
environmental conditions.(Mandaville et at all., 2002).

Feeding

Macroinvertebrates play an important role in aquatic food webs as they are major food sources for
higher trophic levels. Macroinvertebrates are also crucial in aquatic nutrient cycling(Cummins et al.,
973). They are often food generalists and have therefore been classified into five main groups called
functional feeding groups. This facilitates the incorporation of their ecological roles into research
studies. Their classification into these five groups is based on a combination of their morphological
characteristics and behavioral mechanisms of feeding (Ramírez et at.,2014). These groups include
shredders, grazers, gatherers, filterers and predators.

The River Continuum Concept proposed by Vannote, (vonnote et al., 1980). predicts the functional
distribution of aquatic macroinvertebrates in a stream based on food resources. This concept highlights
the importance of freshwater ecosystem inputs to food resources and how this influences aquatic
macroinvertebrate communities

Shredders

Shredders feed on coarse particulate organic matter (CPOM) from terrestrial leaf litter inputs. Using
their mouthparts, they shred organic matter to feed and in doing so, suspend smaller particles into the
water column. Examples include Diptera (e.g. Tipulidae) and Plecoptera (e.g. Tallaperla).

Grazers
Grazers use rasping mouthparts to scrape biofilm and algae off rocks and submerged aquatic vegetation
and include Ephemeroptera (e.g. Baetidae). Their grazing affects algal biomass in aquatic ecosystems
and therefore primary production in aquatic ecosystems.[Wallace et al.,1996) .

Collectors/Gatherers

edit

Odonata larval species

Collectors/gatherers primarily scavenge stream or lakebed substrates for deposited fine particulate
organic matter (FPOM) and dead organisms. They play a role in bioturbation and re suspension of
organic matter and include Diptera (e.g. Chironomidae).
Filterers

edit

Filterers remove suspended FPOM from the water column using a variety of filtering mechanisms. They
expend less energy searching for food, rather relying on sufficient current velocity and upstream food
supply. Examples include Diptera (e.g. Simuliidae) and Coleoptera (e.g. Elmidae).

Predators

edit

Predators consume animal tissue and therefore have direct top-down effects on the food web. Some
predator species include Odonata and Plecoptera larvae which utilize grasping mouthparts to ambush
their prey (Ingram et al. 2018).

Bioindicators

Aquatic macroinvertebrate communities are strongly influenced by their environment, and act as
bioindicators for the overall condition of freshwater ecosystems (Rosenberg et al., 1993). Species have
been classified based on their tolerance to environmental changes, and their assemblages can therefore
indicate if an ecosystem is healthy. The orders Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, and Trichoptera are sensitive
to pollutants so they are used to calculate an EPT index to indicate water general quality (Merritt et al.,
2008). Specific effects of pesticides can be indicated with the SPEAR index.(Liess et al., 2009) German
stream monitoring of pesticide exposure and effects (Liess et al., 2021)

Water pollution

Water pollution (or aquatic pollution) is the contamination of water bodies, with a negative impact on
their uses (Cummins et al.,1973). It is usually a result of human activities. Water bodies include lakes,
rivers, oceans, aquifers, reservoirs and groundwater. Water pollution results when contaminants mix
with these water bodies. Contaminants can come from one of four main sources. These are sewage
discharges, industrial activities, agricultural activities, and urban runoff including stormwater
(Eckenfelder et al., 2000). Water pollution may affect either surface water or groundwater. This form of
pollution can lead to many problems. One is the degradation of aquatic ecosystems. Another is
spreading water-borne diseases when people use polluted water for drinking or irrigation
(Environmental Health Education Program 2013). The Water pollution also reduces the ecosystem
services such as drinking water provided by the water resource.

Sources of water pollution are either point sources or non-point sources (Schaffner et al., 2009) Point
sources have one identifiable cause, such as a storm drain, a waste water treatment plant or an oil spill.
Non-point sources are more diffuse. An example is agricultural runoff (Moss et al., 2008). Pollution is the
result of the cumulative effect over time. Pollution may take many forms. One would is toxic substances
such as oil, metals, plastics, pesticides, persistent organic pollutants, and industrial waste products.
Another is stressful conditions such as changes of pH, hypoxia or anoxia, increased temperatures,
excessive turbidity, or changes of salinity). The introduction of pathogenic organisms is another.
Contaminants may include organic and inorganic substances. A common cause of thermal pollution is
the use of water as a coolant by power plants and industrial manufacturers.

Control of water pollution requires appropriate infrastructure and management plans as well as
legislation. Technology solutions can include improving sanitation, sewage treatment, industrial
wastewater treatment, agricultural wastewater treatment, erosion control, sediment control and
control of urban runoff (including stormwater management).

Contaminants

Pathogens

Bacteria, viruses, protozoans and parasitic worms are examples of pathogens that can be found in
wastewater (Von Sperling et al., 2007). In practice, indicator organisms are used to investigate
pathogenic pollution of water because the detection of pathogenic organisms in water sample is difficult
and costly, because of their low concentrations. The indicators (bacterial indicator) of fecal
contamination of water samples most commonly used are total coliforms (TC) or fecal coliforms (FC), the
latter also referred to as thermotolerant coliforms, such as Escherichia coli (Von Sperling et al., 2007).

Pathogens can produce waterborne diseases in either human or animal hosts (Harrison et al., 2013).
Some microorganisms sometimes found in contaminated surface waters that have caused human health
problems include Burkholderia pseudomallei, Cryptosporidium parvum, Giardia lamblia, Salmonella,
norovirus and other viruses, and parasitic worms including the Schistosoma type (Schueler et al, 2013).

The source of high levels of pathogens in water bodies can be from human feces (due to open
defecation), sewage, blackwater, or manure that has found its way into the water body. The cause for
this can be lack of sanitation procedures or poorly functioning on-site sanitation systems (septic tanks,
pit latrines), sewage treatment plants without disinfection steps, sanitary sewer overflows and
combined sewer overflows (CSOs Laws EA 2018). during storm events and intensive agriculture (poorly
managed livestock operations).

Organic compounds

Organic substances that enter water bodies are often toxic (Laws EA,. 2018).

Petroleum hydrocarbons, including fuels (gasoline, diesel fuel, jet fuels, and fuel oil) and lubricants
(motor oil), and fuel combustion byproducts, from oil spills or storm water runoff

Volatile organic compounds, such as improperly stored industrial solvents. Problematic species are
organochlorides such as polychlorinated biphenyl (PCBs) and trichloroethylene, a common solvent. Per-
and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are persistent organic pollutants.
Inorganic contaminants

Bauxite residue is an industrial waste that is dangerously alkaline and can lead to water pollution if not
managed appropriately

Muddy river polluted by sediment

Inorganic water pollutants include for example: Ammonia from food processing waste

Heavy metals from motor vehicles (via urban storm water runoff (Burton et al., 2001). and acid mine
drainage Nitrates and phosphates, from sewage and agriculture, Silt (sediment) in runoff from
construction sites or sewage, logging, slash and burn practices or land clearing sites.

Salt: Freshwater salinization is the process of salty runoff contaminating freshwater ecosystems. Human-
induced salinization is termed as secondary salinization, with the use of de-icing road salts as the most
common form of runoff.

Pharmaceutical pollutants

This section is an excerpt from Environmental impact of pharmaceuticals and personal care products.

The environmental effect of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) is being investigated
since at least the 1990s. PPCPs include substances used by individuals for personal health or cosmetic
reasons and the products used by agribusiness to boost growth or health of livestock. More than twenty
million tons of PPCPs are produced every year. The European Union has declared pharmaceutical
residues with the potential of contamination of water and soil to be "priority substances".

PPCPs have been detected in water bodies throughout the world. More research is needed to evaluate
the risks of toxicity, persistence, and bioaccumulation, but the current state of research shows that
personal care products impact the environment and other species, such as coral reefs and fish. PPCPs
encompass environmental persistent pharmaceutical pollutants (EPPPs) and are one type of persistent
organic pollutants. They are not removed in conventional sewage treatment plants but require a fourth
treatment stage which not many plants have.

In 2022, the most comprehensive study of pharmaceutical pollution of the world's rivers found that it
threatens "environmental and/or human health in more than a quarter of the studied locations". It
investigated 1,052 sampling sites along 258 rivers in 104 countries, representing the river pollution of
470 million people. It found that "the most contaminated sites were in low- to middle-income countries
and were associated with areas with poor wastewater and waste management infrastructure and
pharmaceutical manufacturing" and lists the most frequently detected and concentrated
pharmaceuticals.

Environmental persistent pharmaceutical pollutants, which can include various pharmaceutical drugs
and their metabolites such as antidepressant drugs, antibiotics or the contraceptive pill.

Metabolites of illicit drugs, for example methamphetamine and ecstasy.

Solid waste and plastics

Solid waste can enter water bodies through untreated sewage, combined sewer overflows, urban
runoff, people discarding garbage into the environment, wind carrying municipal solid waste from
landfills and so forth. This results in macroscopic pollution– large visible items polluting the water– but
also microplastics pollution that is not directly visible. The terms marine debris and marine plastic
pollution are used in the context of pollution of oceans.

Microplastics persist in the environment at high levels, particularly in aquatic and marine ecosystems,
where they cause water pollution. 35% of all ocean microplastics come from textiles/clothing, primarily
due to the erosion of polyester, acrylic, or nylon-based clothing, often during the washing process.

Stormwater, untreated sewage and wind are the primary conduits for microplastics from land to sea.
Synthetic fabrics, tyres, and city dust are the most common sources of microplastics. These three
sources account for more than 80% of all microplastic contamination.

refers to contaminants that enter a waterway from a single, identifiable source, such as a pipe or ditch.
Examples of sources in this category include discharges from a sewage treatment plant, a factory, or a
city storm drain.

The U.S. Clean Water Act (CWA) defines point source for regulatory enforcement [Link] CWA
definition of point source was amended in 1987 to include municipal storm sewer systems, as well as
industrial storm water, such as from construction sites.

Sewage

Sewage typically consists of 99.9% water and 0.1% solids. Sewage contributes many classes of nutrients
that lead to Eutrophication. It is a major source of phosphate for example. Sewage is often
contaminated with diverse compounds found in personal hygiene, cosmetics, pharmaceutical drugs (see
also drug pollution), and their metabolite. Water pollution due to environmental persistent
pharmaceutical pollutants can have wide-ranging consequences. When sewers overflow during storm
events this can lead to water pollution from untreated sewage. Such events are called sanitary sewer
overflows or combined sewer overflows.

A polluted river draining an abandoned copper mine on Anglesey Industrial wastewater

Perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS) is a global pollutant that has been found in drinking water. It
appears not to biodegrade.

Further information: Industrial wastewater treatment

Industrial processes that use water also produce wastewater. This is called industrial wastewater. Using
the US as an example, the main industrial consumers of water (using over 60% of the total consumption)
are power plants, petroleum refineries, iron and steel mills, pulp and paper mills, and food processing
industries. Some industries discharge chemical wastes, including solvents and heavy metals (which are
toxic) and other harmful pollutants.

Industrial wastewater could add the following pollutants to receiving water bodies if the wastewater is
not treated and managed properly:

Heavy metals, including mercury, lead, and chromium

Organic matter and nutrients such as food waste: Certain industries (e.g. food processing,
slaughterhouse waste, paper fibers, plant material, etc.) discharge high concentrations of BOD,
ammonia nitrogen and oil and grease.

Inorganic particles such as sand, grit, metal particles, rubber residues from tires, ceramics, etc.;

Toxins such as pesticides, poisons, herbicides, etc.

Pharmaceuticals, endocrine disrupting compounds, hormones, perfluorinated compounds, siloxanes,

drugs of abuse and other hazardous substances.

Microplastics such as polyethylene and polypropylene beads, polyester and polyamide.

Thermal pollution from power stations and industrial manufacturers

Radionuclides from uranium mining, processing nuclear fuel, operating nuclear reactors, or disposal of
radioactive waste.

Some industrial discharges include persistent organic pollutants such as per- and polyfluoroalkyl
substances (PFAS).

Oil spills

An oil spill is the release of a liquid petroleum hydrocarbon into the environment, especially the marine
ecosystem, due to human activity, and is a form of pollution. The term is usually given to marine oil
spills, where oil is released into the ocean or coastal waters, but spills may also occur on land. Oil spills
may be due to releases of crude oil from tankers, offshore platforms, drilling rigs and wells, as well as
spills of refined petroleum products (such as gasoline and diesel fuel) and their by-products, heavier
fuels used by large ships such as bunker fuel, or the spill of any oily refuse or waste oil.[citation needed]

Sampling, measurements, analysis

Environmental scientists preparing water autosamplers

Further information: Water quality § Sampling and measurement, Environmental monitoring, Analysis of
water chemistry, Water sampling station, and Regulation and monitoring of pollution § Water pollution

Water pollution may be analyzed through several broad categories of methods: physical, chemical and
biological. Some methods may be conducted in situ, without sampling, such as temperature. Others
involve collection of samples, followed by specialized analytical tests in the laboratory. Standardized,
validated analytical test methods, for water and wastewater samples have been published.

Common physical tests of water include temperature, Specific conductance or electrical conductance
(EC) or conductivity, solids concentrations (e.g., total suspended solids (TSS)) and turbidity. Water
samples may be examined using analytical chemistry methods. Many published test methods are
available for both organic and inorganic compounds. Frequently used parameters that are quantified are
pH, BOD,chemical oxygen demand (COD),(Newton et al., 2008). dissolved oxygen (DO), total hardness,
nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus compounds, e.g. nitrate and orthophosphates), metals (including
copper, zinc, cadmium, lead and mercury), oil and grease, total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH),
surfactants and pesticides.

The use of a biomonitor or bioindicator is described as biological monitoring. This refers to the
measurement of specific properties of an organism to obtain information on the surrounding physical
and chemical environment. Biological testing involves the use of plant, animal or microbial indicators to
monitor the health of an aquatic ecosystem. They are any biological species or group of species whose
function, population, or status can reveal what degree of ecosystem or environmental integrity is
present(Karr JR 1981). One example of a group of bio-indicators are the copepods and other small water
crustaceans that are present in many water bodies. Such organisms can be monitored for changes
(biochemical, physiological, or behavioral) that may indicate a problem within their ecosystem.

This section is an excerpt from Water quality § Sample collection.[edit]

The complexity of water quality as a subject is reflected in the many types of measurements of water
quality indicators. Some measurements of water quality are most accurately made on-site, because
water exists in equilibrium with its surroundings. Measurements commonly made on-site and in direct
contact with the water source in question include temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen, conductivity,
oxygen reduction potential (ORP), turbidity, and Secchi disk depth.

Pollution control philosophy

One aspect of environmental protection are mandatory regulations but they are only part of the
solution. Other important tools in pollution control include environmental education, economic
instruments, market forces and stricter enforcements. Standards can be "precise" (for a defined
quantifiable minimum or maximum value for a pollutant), or "imprecise" which would require the use of
Best available technology (BAT) or Best practicable environmental option (BPEO). Market-based
economic instruments for pollution control can include: charges, subsidies, deposit or refund schemes,
the creation of a market in pollution credits, and enforcement incentives (Jones et al., 2013).

Moving towards a holistic approach in chemical pollution control combines the following approaches:
Integrated control measures, trans-boundary considerations, complementary and supplementary
control measures, life-cycle considerations, the impacts of chemical mixtures.(Jones et al., 2013).

Control of water pollution requires appropriate infrastructure and management plans. The
infrastructure may include wastewater treatment plants, for example sewage treatment plants and
industrial wastewater treatment plants. Agricultural wastewater treatment for farms, and erosion
control at construction sites can also help prevent water pollution. Effective control of urban runoff
includes reducing speed and quantity of flow.

Water pollution requires ongoing evaluation and revision of water resource policy at all levels
(international down to individual aquifers and wells).

Sanitation and sewage treatment

Further information: Sanitation, WASH, and Water issues in developing countries

Plastic waste on the big drainage, and air pollution in the far end of the drainage in Ghana

Municipal wastewater can be treated by centralized sewage treatment plants, decentralized wastewater
systems, nature-based solutions or in onsite sewage facilities and septic tanks. For example, waste
stabilization ponds can be a low cost treatment option for sewage (Von Sperling et al., 2007). UV light
(sunlight) can be used to degrade some pollutants in waste stabilization ponds (sewage lagoons)The use
of safely managed sanitation services would prevent water pollution caused by lack of access to
sanitation.

Well-designed and operated systems (i.e., with secondary treatment stages or more advanced tertiary
treatment) can remove 90 percent or more of the pollutant load in Some plants have additional systems
to remove nutrients and pathogens. While such advanced treatment techniques will undoubtedly
reduce the discharges of micropollutants, they can also result in large financial costs, as well as
environmentally undesirable increases in energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions.(jones et
al., 2007).

Sewer overflows during storm events can be addressed by timely maintenance and upgrades of the
sewerage system. In the US, cities with large combined systems have not pursued system-wide
separation projects due to the high cost,(Renn et al., 2016).) but have implemented partial separation
projects and green infrastructure [Link] some cases municipalities have installed additional CSO
storage facilities or expanded sewage treatment capacity.

Industrial wastewater treatment

This section is an excerpt from Industrial wastewater treatment.[edit]

Industrial wastewater treatment describes the processes used for treating wastewater that is produced
by industries as an undesirable by-product. After treatment, the treated industrial wastewater (or
effluent) may be reused or released to a sanitary sewer or to a surface water in the environment. Some
industrial facilities generate wastewater that can be treated in sewage treatment plants. Most industrial
processes, such as petroleum refineries, chemical and petrochemical plants have their own specialized
facilities to treat their wastewaters so that the pollutant concentrations in the treated wastewater
comply with the regulations regarding disposal of wastewaters into sewers or into rivers, lakes or
oceans.[Tchobanoglous G et al., 2003). This applies to industries that generate wastewater with high
concentrations of organic matter (e.g. oil and grease), toxic pollutants (e.g. heavy metals, volatile
organic compounds) or nutrients such as ammonia.[George Tchobanoglous et al., 2003). Some
industries install a pre-treatment system to remove some pollutants (e.g., toxic compounds), and then
discharge the partially treated wastewater to the municipal sewer system (Von Sperling et al., 2007).

Agricultural wastewater treatment

This section is an excerpt from Agricultural wastewater treatment.[edit]

Agricultural wastewater treatment is a farm management agenda for controlling pollution from confined
animal operations and from surface runoff that may be contaminated by chemicals in fertilizer,
pesticides, animal slurry, crop residues or irrigation water. Agricultural wastewater treatment is required
for continuous confined animal operations like milk and egg production. It may be performed in plants
using mechanized treatment units similar to those used for industrial wastewater. Where land is
available for ponds, settling basins and facultative lagoons may have lower operational costs for
seasonal use conditions from breeding or harvest cycles (Reed et al., 1988). Animal slurries are usually
treated by containment in anaerobic lagoons before disposal by spray or trickle application to grassland.
Constructed wetlands are sometimes used to facilitate treatment of animal wastes.

Management of erosion and sediment control

Silt fence installed on a construction site

Sediment from construction sites can be managed by installation of erosion controls, such as mulching
and hydroseeding, and sediment controls, such as sediment basins and silt fences. Discharge of toxic
chemicals such as motor fuels and concrete washout can be prevented by use of spill prevention and
control plans, and specially designed containers (e.g. for concrete washout) and structures such as
overflow controls and diversion berms.

Erosion caused by deforestation and changes in hydrology (soil loss due to water runoff) also results in
loss of sediment and, potentially, water pollution (Mapulanga et al., 2019).

Control of urban runoff (storm water)

This section is an excerpt from Urban runoff § Prevention and mitigation.[edit]

Effective control of urban runoff involves reducing the velocity and flow of stormwater, as well as
reducing pollutant discharges. Local governments use a variety of stormwater management techniques
to reduce the effects of urban runoff. These techniques, called best management practices for water
pollution (BMPs) in some countries, may focus on water quantity control, while others focus on
improving water quality, and some perform both functions.

Pollution prevention practices include low impact development (LID) or green infrastructure techniques
- known as Sustainable Drainage Systems (SuDS) in the UK, and Water-Sensitive Urban Design (WSUD) in
Australia and the Middle East - such as the installation of green roofs and improved chemical handling
(e.g. management of motor fuels & oil, fertilizers, pesticides and roadway deicers). Runoff mitigation
systems include infiltration basins, bioretention systems, constructed wetlands, retention basins, and
similar devic
Share of water bodies with good water quality in 2020. A water body is classified as "good" quality if at
least 80% of monitoring values meet target quality lev

Control and reduction

View of secondary treatment reactors (activated sludge process) at the Blue Plains Advanced
Wastewater Treatment Plant, Washington, D.C., United States. Seen in the distance are the sludge
digester building and thermal hydrolysis reactors.

Pollution control philosophy

One aspect of environmental protection are mandatory regulations but they are only part of the
solution. Other important tools in pollution control include environmental education, economic
instruments, market forces and stricter enforcements. Standards can be "precise" (for a defined
quantifiable minimum or maximum value for a pollutant), or "imprecise" which would require the use of
Best available technology (BAT) or Best practicable environmental option (BPEO). Market-based
economic instruments for pollution control can include: charges, subsidies, deposit or refund schemes,
the creation of a market in pollution credits, and enforcement incentives(Jones et al., (2013).

Moving towards a holistic approach in chemical pollution control combines the following approaches:
Integrated control measures, trans-boundary considerations, complementary and supplementary
control measures, life-cycle considerations, the impacts of chemical mixtures (Jones et al., (2013).

Control of water pollution requires appropriate infrastructure and management plans. The
infrastructure may include wastewater treatment plants, for example sewage treatment plants and
industrial wastewater treatment plants. Agricultural wastewater treatment for farms, and erosion
control at construction sites can also help prevent water pollution. Effective control of urban runoff
includes reducing speed and quantity of flow.

Water pollution requires ongoing evaluation and revision of water resource policy at all levels
(international down to individual aquifers and wells).
Pollution control philosophy

One aspect of environmental protection are mandatory regulations but they are only part of the
solution. Other important tools in pollution control include environmental education, economic
instruments, market forces and stricter enforcements. Standards can be "precise" (for a defined
quantifiable minimum or maximum value for a pollutant), or "imprecise" which would require the use of
Best available technology (BAT) or Best practicable environmental option (BPEO). Market-based
economic instruments for pollution control can include: charges, subsidies, deposit or refund schemes,
the creation of a market in pollution credits, and enforcement incentive(Jones et al., 2013).

Moving towards a holistic approach in chemical pollution control combines the following approaches:
Integrated control measures, trans-boundary considerations, complementary and supplementary
control measures, life-cycle considerations, the impacts of chemical mixtures.(Jones OA et al., 2013).

Control of water pollution requires appropriate infrastructure and management plans. The
infrastructure may include wastewater treatment plants, for example sewage treatment plants and
industrial wastewater treatment plants. Agricultural wastewater treatment for farms, and erosion
control at construction sites can also help prevent water pollution. Effective control of urban runoff
includes reducing speed and quantity of flow.

Water pollution requires ongoing evaluation and revision of water resource policy at all levels
(international down to individual aquifers and wells).

Pollution control is a term used in environmental management. It refers to the control of emissions and
effluents into air, water or soil. Without pollution control, the waste products from overconsumption,
heating, agriculture, mining, manufacturing, transportation and other human activities, whether they
accumulate or disperse, will degrade the environment. In the hierarchy of controls, pollution prevention
and waste minimization are more desirable than pollution control. In the field of land development, low
impact development is a similar technique for the prevention of urban runoff.

Policy, law and monitoring/transparency/life-cycle assessment-attached economics could be developed

and enforced to control pollution.(Sisterson et al., 1990).)A review concluded that there is a lack of
attention and action such as work on a globally supported "formal science–policy interface", e.g. to
"inform intervention, influence research, and guide funding".
In September 2023 a Global Framework on Chemicals aiming to reduce pollution was agreed during an
international conference in Bonn, Germany. The framework includes 28 targets, for example, to “end
the use of hazardous pesticides in agriculture where the risks have not been managed” by 2035.

Pollution affects humans in every part of the world. An October 2017 study by the Lancet Commission
on Pollution and Health found that global pollution, specifically toxic air, water, soil and workplaces, kills
nine million people annually, which is triple the number of deaths caused by AIDS, tuberculosis and
malaria combined, and 15 times higher than deaths caused by wars and other forms of human violence.
The study concluded that "pollution is one of the great existential challenges of the Anthropocene era.
Pollution endangers the stability of the Earth's support systems and threatens the continuing survival of
human societies.

Adverse air quality can kill many organisms, including humans. Ozone pollution can cause respiratory
disease, cardiovascular disease, throat inflammation, chest pain, and congestion. A 2010 analysis
estimated that 1.2 million people died prematurely each year in China alone because of air
[Link]'s high smog levels can damage the human body and cause various diseases (Goel PK
2006). In 2019, air pollution caused 1.67 million deaths in India (17.8% of total deaths nationally).
Studies have estimated that the number of people killed annually in the United States could be over
50,000. A study published in 2022 in GeoHealth concluded that energy-related fossil fuel emissions in
the United States cause 46,900–59,400 premature deaths each year and PM2.5-related illness and death
costs the nation $537–$678 billion annually. In the US, deaths caused by coal pollution were highest in
1999, but decreased sharply after 2007. The number dropped by about 95% by 2020, as coal plants have
been closed or have scrubbers installed.

In 2019, water pollution caused 1.4 million premature deaths. Contamination of drinking water by
untreated sewage in developing countries is an issue, for example, over 732 million Indians (56% of the
population) and over 92 million Ethiopians (92.9% of the population) do not have access to basic
sanitation (Olenin S et al., 2007). ] In 2013 over 10 million people in India fell ill with waterborne
illnesses in 2013, and 1,535 people died, most of them children. (Nesaratnam ST et al., 2014). As of
2007, nearly 500 million Chinese lack access to safe drinking water.

Acute exposure to certain pollutants can have short and long term effects. Oil spills can cause skin
irritations and rashes. Noise pollution induces hearing loss, high blood pressure, stress, and sleep
disturbance. Mercury has been linked to developmental deficits in children and neurologic symptoms.
Older people are significantly exposed to diseases induced by air pollution. Those with heart or lung
disorders are at additional risk. Children and infants are also at serious risk. Lead and other heavy metals
have been shown to cause neurological problems, intellectual disabilities and behavioural problems.
Chemical and radioactive substances can cause cancer and birth defects.