Aggression

Aggression refers to behavior aimed at causing harm or pain to others. It can manifest in various forms,
including physical violence, verbal abuse, and psychological harm. Aggression can be impulsive, driven
by emotion, or premeditated, calculated to achieve a specific goal.

Influences on Aggression

Modern theories of aggression suggest that it is influenced by a combination of situational and personal
factors. These factors interact to increase the likelihood of aggressive behavior.

1. Biological Factors:

 Genetics: Certain genetic predispositions can increase the likelihood of aggressive

behavior.

 Neurochemical Influences: Neurotransmitters like serotonin and hormones like

testosterone play a role in modulating aggression.

2. Social Learning:

 Observation and Imitation: Individuals learn aggressive behaviors by observing others,

especially role models or media characters.

 Reinforcement: Aggression can be reinforced if it leads to rewards or desired outcomes.

3. Situational Factors:

 Frustration: According to the frustration-aggression hypothesis, frustration can lead to

aggression when an individual’s goal is blocked.

 Provocation: Insults, physical attacks, or other provocations can trigger aggressive

responses.

 Environmental Stressors: Factors like heat, overcrowding, and noise can increase
aggression.

4. Cognitive Factors:

 Hostile Attribution Bias: Individuals with a tendency to interpret others’ behaviors as

hostile are more likely to respond aggressively.

 Aggressive Scripts: Pre-existing scripts and schemas about aggression can guide
behavior in conflict situations.

Reducing Aggression

1. Cognitive Approaches:
  Anger Management: Techniques to recognize and control anger before it leads to
aggression.

 Cognitive Reappraisal: Changing the way one thinks about a provocative situation to
reduce aggressive responses.

2. Social and Environmental Interventions:

 Reducing Exposure to Aggression: Limiting exposure to aggressive models in media and

real life.

 Conflict Resolution Training: Teaching individuals alternative ways to handle conflicts.

3. Behavioral Approaches:

 Reinforcement of Non-Aggressive Behavior: Rewarding non-aggressive responses to

frustration and provocation.

 Punishment: Applying appropriate consequences for aggressive behavior to discourage

it.

The Lucifer Effect

The Lucifer Effect is a concept introduced by psychologist Philip Zimbardo to describe how good people
can turn evil under certain circumstances. It emphasizes the powerful influence of situational factors
and systemic structures in promoting unethical or aggressive behavior. This concept was notably
illustrated in Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison Experiment, where ordinary individuals adopted abusive
behaviors when placed in a simulated prison environment.

Bullying

Bullying is a form of aggressive behavior where an individual or a group repeatedly harms another
person through physical, verbal, or psychological means. It involves an imbalance of power, with the
bully using their power to control or harm the victim.

Types of Bullying:

1. Physical Bullying: Involves hitting, pushing, or other forms of physical aggression.

2. Verbal Bullying: Involves insults, teasing, or threats.

3. Social Bullying: Involves spreading rumors, excluding someone from a group, or other actions
that harm social relationships.

4. Cyberbullying: Involves using digital technologies to harass, threaten, or humiliate someone.

Effects of Bullying:
  Victims: Experience anxiety, depression, low self-esteem, and other psychological issues.

 Bullies: May develop behavioral problems and continue aggressive behaviors into adulthood.

 Bystanders: Witnessing bullying can lead to feelings of powerlessness and fear.

Preventing Bullying:

 School Programs: Implementing anti-bullying policies and educational programs.

 Parental Involvement: Encouraging parents to discuss bullying with their children and monitor
their behavior.

 Support Systems: Providing support for victims of bullying through counseling and peer support
groups.

Summary

Modern theories of aggression highlight the complexity of factors influencing aggressive behavior,
ranging from biological to situational influences. Strategies to reduce aggression involve cognitive,
social, and behavioral interventions. Understanding concepts like the Lucifer Effect and the dynamics of
bullying further underscores the importance of situational factors and systemic interventions in
addressing aggressive behavior.

Social Learning Perspective

Key Proponents: Bandura (1997), Anderson et al. (2010), Bushman & Anderson (2002)

Main Idea:

 Acquisition of Aggressive Behaviors: Humans are not innately born with aggressive responses.
Instead, they acquire aggressive behaviors through direct experience and observation of others,
such as live persons or characters in media.

 Learning Process:

 Observing Models: Watching aggressive behaviors being modeled by others.

 Reinforcement: Learning which behaviors are rewarded or punished.

 Influencing Factors:

 Past Experience: How past experiences with aggression shape future behaviors.

 Cultural Contexts: Cultural norms and values dictate what is considered appropriate or
inappropriate aggressive behavior.

General Aggression Model (GAM)

Key Proponents: Anderson & Bushman (2002)

Main Idea:

 Complex Framework: Unlike earlier theories, GAM integrates multiple factors influencing
aggression.

 Input Variables:

 Situational Factors:

 Frustration: Situations that block goals.

 Provocation: Insults or physical attacks from others.

 Exposure to Aggression: Witnessing aggressive models in real life or media.

 Discomfort: Unpleasant environmental conditions, such as heat or noise.

 Person Factors:

 Traits: Individual predispositions towards aggression (e.g., irritability).

 Attitudes and Beliefs: Personal views on violence and its acceptability.

 Hostile Attribution Bias: Tendency to perceive others' actions as hostile.

 Aggressive Skills: Knowledge of how to perform aggressive acts.

 Processes Leading to Aggression:

 Arousal: Increase in physiological arousal or excitement.

 Affective States: Generation of hostile feelings and expressions.

 Cognitions: Hostile thoughts and activation of aggressive beliefs.

 Outcomes:

 Appraisal and Decision: Depending on the situation and restraining factors, individuals
may engage in thoughtful or impulsive actions, leading to overt aggression.

 Priming for Aggression:

 Repeated Exposure: Continuous exposure to aggressive stimuli strengthens aggression-

related knowledge structures (beliefs, attitudes, schemas, and scripts), making
aggression more likely in future situations.

Earlier Theories for Comparison:

 1. Instinct Theory (Freud, Lorenz):

 Suggests that aggression is an innate biological drive.

2. Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis (Dollard et al., 1939):

 Proposes that frustration leads to an aggressive drive whose primary goal is to harm
others.

3. Drive Theories of Aggression:

 Focus on external conditions, like frustration, that arouse a drive to harm others.

Contributions of Modern Theories:

 Multifactorial Approach: Modern theories like the social learning perspective and the GAM
emphasize the interaction of various factors (biological, psychological, social, and
environmental) in understanding aggression.

 Cognitive and Situational Influences: Highlight the role of cognitive processes and situational
contexts in shaping aggressive behavior.

 Scientific Progress: These theories provide a more nuanced and comprehensive understanding
of aggression, reflecting advancements in psychological research.

By integrating insights from various areas of psychology, modern theories offer a deeper and more
accurate picture of the roots and dynamics of aggressive behavior, surpassing the limitations of earlier
single-factor explanations.

Social Exclusion and Aggression

Social Exclusion: Being excluded or rejected by others is an unpleasant
experience that impacts our self-image negatively. Aggressive individuals
are often excluded, but rejection itself can lead to increased aggression in
those who are excluded.

Key Points:

1. Trigger for Aggression:

 Social rejection often leads to increased aggression as a form of retaliation.

 This aggressive response can lead to further exclusion, creating a negative
cycle.
2. Reasons Behind Aggression Due to Exclusion:

 Contrary to initial beliefs, emotional distress from rejection does not mediate
aggression.
 Instead, social rejection triggers a hostile cognitive mindset:
 Individuals begin to perceive ambiguous or neutral actions as hostile.
 They view aggression as a common and appropriate response in social
interactions.

3. Supporting Research:

 DeWall et al. (2009) conducted studies showing that social rejection leads
to hostile cognitive biases.
 Study 1: Participants rejected by a partner in an experiment were more
likely to complete word fragments in an aggressive manner.
 Study 2: Participants told they would face future social exclusion rated
ambiguous actions as hostile.
 Study 3: Those facing social exclusion rated a stranger negatively, affecting
their chances for a needed position.

4. Cognitive vs. Emotional Effects:

 Social exclusion leads to aggression primarily through cognitive effects, not

emotional distress.
 Rejected individuals tend to perceive others’ actions as hostile, which fuels
their aggressive behavior.

Example from Research:

 Hostile Cognitive Bias: Participants who were socially excluded completed
word fragments with aggressive words more frequently and rated ambiguous
actions as more hostile, leading to negative evaluations and aggressive
behavior toward strangers.

Overall, the findings suggest that social exclusion results in a hostile

cognitive mindset, making individuals more prone to aggression not just
toward the sources of their exclusion but toward others as well.