Environment and Natural Resources Research; Vol. 7, No.

2; 2017
ISSN 1927-0488 E-ISSN 1927-0496
Published by Canadian Center of Science and Education

Vertical Characteristics of Reflectivity in Intense Convective Clouds

using TRMM PR Data
Shailendra Kumar1
1
IISc, India
Correspondence: Shailendra Kumar, IISc, India. E-mail: shailendra@[Link], shailendrak89@[Link]

Received: April 7, 2017 Accepted: April 26, 2017 Online Published: May 15, 2017
doi:10.5539/enrr.v7n2p58 URL: [Link]

Abstract
Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission Precipitation Radar (TRMM-PR) based vertical structure in intense
convective precipitation is presented here for Indian and Austral summer monsoon seasons. TRMM 2A23 data is
used to identify the convective echoes in PR data. Two types of cloud cells are constructed here, namely intense
convective cloud (ICC) and most intense convective cloud (MICC). ICC consists of PR radar beams having
Ze≥40 dBZ above 1.5 km in convective precipitation area, whereas MICC, consists of maximum reflectivity at
each altitude in convective precipitation area, with at least one radar pixel must be higher than 40 dBZ or more
above 1.5 km within the selected areas. We have selected 20 locations across the tropics to see the regional
differences in the vertical structure of convective clouds. One of the important findings of the present study is
identical behavior in the average vertical profiles in intense convective precipitation in lower troposphere across
the different areas. MICCs show the higher regional differences compared to ICCs between 5-12 km altitude.
Land dominated areas show higher regional differences and Southeast south America (SESA) has the strongest
vertical profile (higher Ze at higher altitude) followed by Indo-Gangetic plain (IGP), Africa, north Latin America
whereas weakest vertical profile occurs over Australia. Overall SESA (41%) and IGP (36%) consist higher
fraction of deep convective clouds (>10 km), whereas, among the tropical oceanic areas, Western (Eastern)
equatorial Indian ocean consists higher fraction of low (high) level of convective clouds. Nearly identical
average vertical profiles over the tropical oceanic areas, indicate the similarity in the development of intense
convective clouds and useful while considering them in model studies.
Keywords: Convective precipitation, Precipitation vertical structure, land ocean contrast, cloud hydrometeors,
TRMM PR
1. Introduction
Convective clouds transport the net energy gain at the surface to the upper atmosphere (Riehl & Simpson, 1979).
Radar reflectivity (Ze) variation in the vertical structure is important as higher Ze at higher altitude indicates the
convective intensity (Zipser et al., 2006; Xu & Zipser, 2012), and vertical characteristics in convective
precipitation will lead the improvement in model studies (Xu & Zipser, 2012). In the present study, Tropical
Rainfall Measuring Mission Precipitation Radar (TRMM-PR) is used to explore the vertical variation of Ze in
intense convective precipitation area.
TRMM PR with other onboard TRMM sensors has been used to extract the vertical structure for precipitation.
Peterson and Rutledge (2001) observed the similar precipitation vertical structure above the freezing level over
the globe. Alcala and Dessler (2002) compared deep (≥10 km) and overshooting convection (≥14 km) and
observed higher convective precipitation over land areas compared to oceanic areas. Nesbitt et al. (2000; 2006)
defined precipitation features (PFs) based on multiple TRMM sensors, and observed that area of PFs are higher
over the land in comparison to the oceans. Liu et al. (2007) observed the large areas of cold clouds over West
Pacific Ocean, whereas central Africa, Argentina, and India consist deeper and more horizontally extensive PFs,
and Land dominated areas consist higher 20 dBZ area above the freezing level (Liu et al., 2008). Liu et al.
(2012) observed the relationship between lightning flash rates and vertical structure of thunderstorms. Yuan and
Qie (2008) explored the south China sea before and after the onset of the summer monsoon. Qie et al. (2014)
observed the deep and intense deep convective clouds over Tibetan Plateau-South Asian monsoon using 40 dBZ
crossing 10 and 14 km altitude respectively. Bhat and Kumar (2015) observed a close similarity in vertical
profiles over land and oceanic areas in cumulonimbus towers over south Asian areas during Indian summer

58
[Link] Environment and Natural Resources Research Vol. 7, No. 2; 2017

monsoon. Many TRMM observations show that Southwest Himalaya, east of the Andes in south America and
West Africa consist extreme the deepest convection (Zipser et al., 2006; Houze et al., 2007; Romatschke &
Houze, 2010; Kumar & Bhat, 2016).
Previous studies consider the 40 dBZ at and above 10 km to observe the vertical structure in convective
precipitation (Houze et al., 2007; Qie et al., 2014; Romatschke & Houze, 2010; Romatschke et al., 2011a;
2011b). Previous criteria underestimate some intense clouds, which evolve near the surface, but are not very
deep (>10 km). Their cloud top height lies into the mixed phase altitude (mid-troposphere) and even can be very
shallow, and are important while considering the ice and warm rain microphysics in the model study. TRMM PR
provides a unique opportunity to measure the Ze over all the tropics compared to ground based radar or aircraft,
as the information of vertical profiles in intense convective clouds is not clear in different part of the tropics. The
aim of the present study is to explore the vertical structure of Ze in intense convective clouds over the tropics
during Indian and Austral summer monsoon at the individual length scale of convective clouds (~5 km, Lucas et
at. 1994). We consider both land and oceanic areas. The paper is organized as follows, section 2 explain the data
followed by methodology in section 3. Section 4 explain the results followed by the discussion in section 5.
Section 6 concludes the paper.
2. Data
TRMM PR derived radar reflectivity factor (Ze) for June-July-August-September (JJAS) and
January-February-March (JFM) months are used in the present study for the year between 2001-2010. TRMM is
a non-sun synchronous satellite and samples the globe 15-16 times in a day (Kummerow et al., 1998). TRMM
PR is the first radar on board a satellite, works in Ku band (13.8 GHz), and has a wavelength of 2.2 cm. The
TRMM multi-satellite precipitation analysis 3B42 rain product (Huffman et al., 2007) is used for the
precipitation climatology (Figure 1) and to select the different regions to compare the Ze profiles in intense
convective precipitation. Figure 2 shows an example of cloud vertical structure for an MCS over southeast south
America observed from TRMM PR. Inset figure shows the line along which the vertical structure has been
observed. We can see several individual deep clouds with Ze ≥ 40 dBZ and their tops more than 10 km, whereas
overall cloud extends more than 18 km. The horizontal size of the tall vertical structure is more than 10 km and
is larger than the size of an updrafts core (e.g. ~5 km, Zipser & Lutz, 1994). The echo top height lies between 10
to 18 km altitude even the Ze values are equal near the surface.

Figure 1. Daily average rainfall derived from TRMM 3B42 rainfall product for Indian summer monsoon (JJAS)
seasons and Austral summer monsoon (JFM) months. Unit is in mm day-1

59
[Link] Environment and Natural Resources Research Vol. 7, No. 2; 2017

Figure 2. An example of vertical section through a MCS seen by TRMM-PR on 3rd February 2003. The inset
shows horizontal section through the cloud system at 3.25 km height. The ordinate and abscissa are height and
latitude (°S), respectively. The colour bar on right shows Ze in dBZ unit

3. Methodology
To identify the convective cells enclosed in a 3D reflectivity field, a Ze threshold is needed at a certain height.
40 dBZ is chosen as a reflectivity threshold based on the past studies, as in the absence of vertical velocity, the
maximum altitude of 40 dBZ can be used as a convective proxy (Zipser at al., 2006; Xu & Zipser, 2012). Steiner
et al. (1995) used Ze≥40 dBZ as a proxy for a convective area in cloud systems based on ground-based radar
data. In radar observation, Ze≥40 and 35 dBZ at 4.4 and 3.9 km respectively, were used for defining convective
clouds over mid latitude and tropical systems (Zipser & Lutz, 1994). Dixon and Wiener (1993) used the
Ze≥40-45 dBZ as a proxy for individual convective cells in TITAN project. Deep and wide intense convective
echoes consist Ze≥40 dBZ above 10 km altitude and are more than 1000 km2 respectively (Houze et al., 2007;
Romatschke et al., 2010; Romatschke et al., 2011a; 2011b). Qie et al. (2014) used Ze≥40 dBZ above 10 km as a
measure of intense deep convective clouds. In the recent study using TRMM PR data, Kumar (2015; 2016) used
the 40 dBZ as a proxy for the intense convective precipitation over south Asian regions.
Two types of cloud cells are constructed here, namely intense convective cell (ICC) and most intense convective
cell (MICC) based on Ze and height thresholds and briefly explained in Kumar (2015;2016) and here as well.
First TRMM 2A23 data is used to identify the convective precipitation (Awaka et al., 2009) in each of the
selected areas, and then ICC and MICC are derived. Each TRMM PR beams, which consist at least one pixel of
Ze≥40 dBZ above 1.5 km altitude within the selected areas, are considered as ICC (Kumar, 2016). A single
TRMM PR pass consists several ICCs (Figure 2). Zipser and Lutz (1994) & Xu and Zipser (2012) mentioned
that, maximum Ze vertical profiles within a cloud system indicate a storm type. MICC is derived in such a way
that, it consists of maximum Ze at each altitude from the population of convective clouds present in each PR
pass, within the selected areas, with at least one convective pixels higher than 40 dBZ above 1.5 km altitude
(Kumar, 2015). It is important to know that all the pixels are not connected in the MICC, but most of the times
they are connected (Kumar, 2015). To remove the multilayer clouds, only those vertical profiles are considered
here, which consist at-least four Ze pixels higher than 17 dBZ above the altitude, where Ze was less than 17 dBZ.
Also, MICCs and ICCs with less than 1.5 km width are not considered in the present study, which is very
shallow.

60
[Link] Environment and Natural Resources Research Vol. 7, No. 2; 2017

Figure 3. Average vertical profile for ICCs (a) and MICCs (b). The average is calculated by considering that 90%
of data points contribute at each altitude. Data below 1.5 km is also removed because of ground clutter. Only
extreme cases are shown by dark colour line and rest is shown by thin black line

The physical significance of MICC and ICC are mentioned below. Evolution of cloud system consists growing,
mature and decaying stages. In deep and intense convective clouds, growth phase lifts the hydrometeors to the
upper troposphere and when updrafts weaken, large hydrometeors start their downward journey as well as grow
in size along with their journey. The early mature phase consists a Ze peak in the upper troposphere (Williams et
al., 1989). Below the freezing level, Ze increases because of microphysical processes as well as phase change
from ice to liquid phase (Houze, 1993; Fabry & Zawadzki, 1995), and the peak below the freezing level may
correspond to the later stage of the mature phase. So, we expect the ICC and MICC consist the cells derived
from the different phases of the cloud systems.
4. Results
Nearly 41000 TRMM PR passes are used in the present study. Table-1 shows the number of ICCs and MICCs
observed over different selected areas. Supplementary figure-1 shows the individual vertical profiles of ICCs
over Bay of Bengal and Maritime Continent. Some individual vertical profiles cross the 16 km altitude, whereas
some are very shallow and are not able to cross the freezing height (~4-5 km).
4.1 Selection of Different Areas
TRMM PR data products from same instruments provide Ze around the globe for long time series (almost 17
years). Because of the large volume of data sets, we consider 20 areas (locations) based on the past studies.
Figure 1 shows the precipitation climatology for JJAS and JFM months from the TRMM 3B42 daily
precipitation data at 0.25° × 0.25° resolution (Huffman et al., 2007), for 2001 to 2013 years. Selection of
different areas is based on the and past studies (Figure 1). Bay of Bengal (Bay) exhibits organized convective
systems (Zudima, 2003) and selected to understand the intense convective precipitation vertical structure.
Convection over Eastern equatorial Indian Ocean (EEIO, 90°-110°E, 0-10°S) and Western equatorial Indian
Ocean (WEIO, 50°-70°E, 10°S-10°N) is negatively and positively correlated with Indian summer monsoon
rainfall (Bhat et al., 2001), and so we select the boxes over EEIO and WEIO during both the seasons. The
Maritime Continent (MC) contributes significantly to the precipitation during both JJAS and JFM months
(Ramage, 1968) and so the MC is selected during both seasons. Several areas are selected over Pacific and
Atlantic oceans (e.g., center and north Pacific, CP1, CP2, NP and AL) to compare them with the other areas over
tropical oceans. Indo-Gangetic plain (IGP) consists the highest number of cumulonimbus clouds during JJAS
(Bhat & Kumar, 2015) and selected for the study. Land dominated areas over Africa (AF), north Latin America
(NLAM), southeast south America (SESA) and north Australia (AUS) are selected, which are known to produce

61
[Link] Environment and Natural Resources Research Vol. 7, No. 2; 2017

the intense convective clouds (Zipser et al., 2006; Romatschke & Houze, 2010; Zuluaga & Houze, 2015; Kumar
& Bhat, 2016). The common areas during both seasons are indicated by ‘1’ and ‘2’ for JJAS and JFM months
respectively.

Table 1. Number of ICCs and MICCs occur in each area with the distribution of cloud top height e.g., maximum
height of 20 dBZ. The fraction of ICCs, which are shallow (<6 Km) and deep (>10 Km) are shown here. The suffix
'O' is used to indicate the ocean except for Bay
MH20 for ICC (%)
Regions ICC MICC
< 6km >10 Km
1. BAY-JJAS 51098 1084 19.75 20.79
2. EEIO1-JJAS 74084 1844 38.1 8.43
3. WEIO1-JJAS 108253 2213 14.34 30.28
4. MC1-JJAS 179720 3023 19.1 23.64
5. NPO-JJAS 135313 2302 16.18 20.9
6. CPO1-JJAS 117578 2067 25.19 13.07
7. CPO12-JJAS 64147 1997 33.92 12.48
8. ALO1-JJAS 71325 1617 25.16 16.16
9. EEIO2-JFM 114041 2090 28.68 15.09
10. WEIO2-JFM 129979 2051 23.52 17.9
11. MC2-JFM 490973 4664 19.58 20.98
12. CPO2-JFM 243669 3403 21.14 16.5
13. CPO22-JFM 94429 2086 18.44 17.85
14. ALO2-JFM 93891 1719 32.16 14.9
15. AF2-JJAS 309092 1229 13.48 26.7
16. NLAM-JJAS 256295 1375 15.5 29.67
17. IGP-JJAS 118431 921 9.11 36.82
18. AF2-JFM 165658 825 15.19 36.46
19. SESA-JFM 203526 520 6.05 41.04
20. AUS-JFM 43175 542 16.35 20.72

4.2 Average Characteristics of ICC and MICC

Figure 3 shows the average vertical profile for ICCs and MICCs, and MICCs show the higher regional
differences compared to ICCs. Only the extreme cases are shown by solid color lines whereas other are shown
by thin black lines. Average behavior can be mainly discussed in two regions, below the 4 km where Ze is either
increases, remain constant or decreases with altitude, and above 5 km, where Ze decreases rapidly as the altitude
increases. In both the cases, the mixed phase regions (6-9 km) consist the higher regional differences. Below 4
km, ICCs show a close the similarity among different selected areas, and regional differences are less than 3 dBZ.
Regional differences increase at higher altitude and ~8 dBZ differences are observed in extreme cases. SESA
shows the highest Ze between 6-10 km followed by AF1, IGP, and MC1 respectively, whereas Bay of Bengal
shows highest Ze above 13 km altitude (Figure 3a), and AUS shows the weakest vertical profile among land
dominated areas (not shown). Among the tropical oceans, Bay of Bengal shows the highest Ze values above 13
km altitude, whereas WEIO2 and EEIO1 contribute to weakest Ze profiles, e.g. consist least Ze at all the
altitudes (Figure 3a). MICCs show the higher regional differences and extreme cases show more than 10 dBZ
differences above the 6 km altitude, whereas 5 dBZ differences below the 4 km altitude (Figure 3b). Again
SESA shows the strongest vertical profile (highest Ze) followed by MC2, MC1, IGP and AF1 below the 4 km,
whereas above 6 km except for MC2, all the areas nearly overlap. WEIO2, WEIO1, and AL1 contribute to
weakest vertical profile e.g. consist least Ze (Figure 3b).

62
[Link] Environment and Natural Resources Research Vol. 7, No. 2; 2017

Figure 4. Average vertical profile for MICCs, which are crossing 10 km (a) and 15 km (b) respectively. The
average is calculated by considering that atleast 90% of data must contribute at each altitude. Data below 1.5 km is
also removed because of ground clutter. Only extreme cases are shown by dark colour line and rest is shown by
thin black line

Figure 4 shows the average vertical profile of MICCs, which are crossing 10 km (MICC10) and 15 km (MICC15)
altitude respectively. Now the land and ocean differences are more clear compared to the previous case, and
again land dominated areas consist stronger vertical profile e.g., higher Ze compared to oceanic regions, and the
extreme cases show more than 10 dBZ differences. Again SESA shows higher Ze followed AF1, IGP, NLAM
and AF2, and AF1 matches with SESA above 12 km altitude. WEIO2, CP12/2, and AL1 show the weakest
vertical profile (Figure 4a). MICC15 shows the same characteristics, and SESA shows the strongest vertical
profile followed by AF1, IGP, NLAM and AF2, and CP12/2 and AL1 show the weakest vertical profile.
MICC10 and MICC15 show weaker gradient above the 6 km compared to the previous case (Figure 4b).
4.3 Cloud Top Height Distribution
Figure 5 shows frequency distribution of maximum height of 20 dBZ (MH20), 30 dBZ (MH30) and 40 dBZ
(MH40) for MICCs at 0.25 km interval. In each panel, extreme cases are shown by dark color lines, whereas rest
cases are shown by the thin black line. MH30 and MH40 represent the proxy for convective intensity in absence
of vertical velocity (Zipser et al., 2006), whereas MH20 is considered as cloud top height (CTH) in the present
study. Common features are observed in all the cases, and land (ocean) areas consist the highest fraction of high
(low) level of convective clouds. MH20 and MH30 consist the single mode, whereas MH40 consists two modes.
Overall SESA and IGP consist higher fraction of deep convective clouds, whereas WEIO1 and CP12 consist
higher fraction of low level of convective clouds.
Figure 6 shows cumulative frequency distribution for ICCs. SESA has the higher fraction of deep convective
clouds followed by IGP and AF2, whereas WEIO1 and CP12 consist the higher fraction of the low level of
convective clouds. More than 80% ICCs CTH (MH20) cross the 6 km over SESA, whereas the corresponding
altitude for WEIO1 is 4 km (Figure 6c) and, 50% ICCs cross 9 km altitude over SESA whereas the corresponding
altitude over WEIO1 is only 6 km (Fig 6a). Table 1 shows the detailed information about the CTH in ICCs. SESA
has 41% ICCs above 10 km followed by IGP and AF2 (36%) and NLAM (30%), whereas WEIO1 has the least
fraction (9%) of ICCs above 10 km altitude. Among the tropical oceanic areas, EEIO1 has the highest fraction
(30%) of ICCs above 10 km altitude followed by MC1. WEIO1 has the 38% of ICCs having their tops, which are
below 6 km, followed CP12 (33%) and AL2 (32%). Within land dominated areas, AUS has highest fraction
(~21%) of the low level of convective clouds followed by NLAM, and least over SESA (6%) followed by IGP
(9%).

63
[Link] Environment and Natural Resources Research Vol. 7, No. 2; 2017

Figure 5. Frequency distribution of cloud top height (MH20) for MICC (a) MH30 (b) and MH40 (c) respectively
(see the text for definition for MH20, MH30 and MH40). The x-axis is height and the frequency is calculated at
each 0.25 km interval. Only extreme cases are shown by dark color line and rest is shown by thin black line

Figure 6. Cumulative frequency distribution of cloud top height distribution for ICC. The x-axis is height and the
cumulative frequency is calculated at each 0.25 km interval. Only extreme cases are shown and rest is shown by
thin black line

5. Discussions
Present study explores the vertical characteristics of intense convective clouds, depicted by MICCs and ICCs.
The convective cloud cells, which are treated in the present study are very intense as some of them extend deep
into the upper atmosphere (>10 km) whereas some are very shallow (< 4 km), but both of them exhibits Ze
higher than 40-50 dBZ (Supplementary Figure 1) near the surface. A close similarity in ICCs in mid and lower
troposphere indicate the similar development in ICCs across the tropical areas and can play a key role for
understanding of the intense convective clouds across the tropics. The maximum average values are observed
between 3 to 5 km altitude; and the lower value above the 10 km could be because of Ze values approaching the
PR detection limit (17 dBZ; Kummerrow et al., 1998). Average behavior shows that Ze increases from their tops
to freezing level and then either increase, remains constant or decreases below the freezing level, depends on
areas. This corresponds to different microphysical processes occur below and above the freezing level.
Updraft speed plays an important role in determining the microphysical processes, but unavailable for the study
(Liu & Zipser, 2013; Heymsfield et al., 2010). An average vertical profile, which consists higher Ze in upper
altitude, suggests the higher growth rate of hydrometeors. Due to high updraft velocity, hydrometeors consist

64
[Link] Environment and Natural Resources Research Vol. 7, No. 2; 2017

very less time to grow during their growth phase and higher hydrometeors are carried to upper atmosphere
(Heymsfield et al., 2010). In mixed phase regions, higher updraft velocity provides fewer time to the
hydrometeors to enlarge and they get carried to higher altitudes (Fabary & Zawadaki, 1995). During its upward
journey hydrometeors grow in size, and only fall when terminal velocity exceeds the updraft speed. Weaker
updraft velocity provides enough time to hydrometeors to fall down, and their size increases, as they fall within
clouds (Lucas et al., 1994). When the updraft speed tends to lower in the upper troposphere, large sized
hydrometeors start their downward journey and grow in size in mixed phase regions, and even when they melt,
Ze shows the bright band.
The decreasing trends of Ze above the freezing level are related to phase change of water, as well as the
precipitation processes, occur above and below the freezing level. Ze within the mixed phase regions depends on
the size of the hydrometeors at the different altitude that too affected by the phase change i.e. hydrometeors are
in lower, upper troposphere or in mixed phase regions. Ze value in dBZ is calculated using the complex
reflective index of water which is much higher (~4.5 times) compared to ice. Also, above the freezing level (~5
km over tropics) conversion from liquid to ice decreases the Ze by 6.5 dBZ (Fabary & Zawadaki, 1995).
Hydrometeors grow in size within the mixed phase region due to ascending of cloud air mass, whereas larger
sized hydrometeors descend and grow in size during their downward journey because Ze is proportional to 6th
power of the hydrometeors size (Houze, 1993). These mechanisms are more favored over the regions, where the
updraft speed in mixed phase region is low such as over the oceans (Lucas et al., 1994).
All the average vertical profiles show the less Ze values as well as less slope above the 10 km altitude and may
be TRMM PR sensitivity (~17 dBZ) at these levels plays a vital role. TRMM PR samples the cloudy pixels as a
function of altitude (Figure 3 from Bhat and Kumar 2015; Figure 6 from Kumar and Bhat 2016). Also a very
close look at supplementary Figure 1 shows that almost all the ICC clouds extend up to 4-5 km and then their
number decreases rapidly with height above 6 km altitude. Over the tropical oceanic areas due to the
precipitation fallout above the freezing level, hydrometeor concentration becomes too less for the PR echo
strength. Because of this sampling issue the actual cloud top height could be few km higher at upper altitude as
well as the number of ICCs and MICCs could be higher at upper altitude. If sampling does not affect the results
then less slope and value at upper levels due to less concentration, low growth rate and size of the hydrometeor.
6. Conclusions
The main conclusions of the present study as follows:
1) Different tropical oceanic areas consist similar average vertical structure. Land dominated areas have higher
regional variability and the differences in the vertical profile are higher in mixed phase regions. Radar
reflectivity decreases more rapidly above 5 km over the oceanic areas compared to land dominated areas.
2) Reflectivity decreases toward the surface below 4 km for ICC and MICC over both land and ocean. Land
versus ocean separation is visible in most intense convective clouds and even higher, when it crosses 10 km
altitude.
3). On an average, clouds over the south-east south America are more intense (shows higher reflectivity values)
and Australia has the weakest vertical profile among the land dominated areas. Other land dominated areas lie
between them and their intensity depends on the cloud top height. Within the tropical oceanic areas, Bay of
Bengal shows the most intense convective clouds, whereas western equatorial Indian ocean and Atlantic ocean
show the weakest vertical profile in ICC.
4). Cloud top height shows the single mode irrespective of areas. Within the tropical oceans, western equatorial
Indian ocean consists highest (least) fraction of cloud tops below (above) 6 km (10) km respectively, whereas
eastern equatorial Indian oceans consist the highest fraction of clouds more than 10 km altitude. Among the land
dominated areas south-east south America and Indo-Gangetic plain consist more deep clouds whereas Australia
has higher shallower clouds.
References
Alcala, C. M., & Dessler, A. E. (2002). Observations of deep convection in the tropics using the Tropical
Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) precipitation radar. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres,
107(D24). [Link] 2002JD002457
Awaka, J., Iguchi, T., & Okamoto, K. I. (2009). TRMM PR standard algorithm 2A23 and its performance on
bright band detection. Journal of the Meteorological Society of Japan. Ser. II, 87, 31-52.

65
[Link] Environment and Natural Resources Research Vol. 7, No. 2; 2017

Bhat, G. S., & Kumar, S. (2015). Vertical structure of cumulonimbus towers and intense convective clouds over
the South Asian region during the summer monsoon season. Journal of Geophysical Research:
Atmospheres, 120(5), 1710-1722. [Link] 2014JD022552
Bhat, G. S., Gadgil, S., Kumar, P. H., Kalsi, S. R., Madhusoodanan, P., Murty, V. S. N., ... & Ravichandran, M.
(2001). BOBMEX: The Bay of Bengal monsoon experiment. Bulletin of the American Meteorological
Society, 82(10), 2217-2243.
Dixon, M., & Wiener, G. (1993). TITAN: Thunderstorm identification, tracking, analysis, and nowcasting—A
radar-based methodology. Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology, 10(6), 785-797.
Fabry, F., & Zawadzki, I. (1995). Long-term radar observations of the melting layer of precipitation and their
interpretation. Journal of the atmospheric sciences, 52(7), 838-851.
Heymsfield, G. M., Tian, L., Heymsfield, A. J., Li, L., & Guimond, S. (2010). Characteristics of deep tropical
and subtropical convection from nadir-viewing high-altitude airborne Doppler radar. Journal of the
Atmospheric Sciences, 67(2), 285-308.
Houze, R. A. (1993). Cloud Dynamics. San Diego, Calif: Academic Press Inc.
Houze, R. A., Wilton, D. C., & Smull, B. F. (2007). Monsoon convection in the Himalayan region as seen by the
TRMM Precipitation Radar. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, 133(627), 1389-1411.
Huffman, G. J., Bolvin, D. T., Nelkin, E. J., Wolff, D. B., Adler, R. F., Gu, G., ... & Stocker, E. F. (2007). The
TRMM multisatellite precipitation analysis (TMPA): Quasi-global, multiyear, combined-sensor
precipitation estimates at fine scales. Journal of Hydrometeorology, 8(1), 38-55.
Kumar, S. (2016). Three dimensional characteristics of precipitating cloud systems observed during Indian
summer monsoon. Advances in Space Research, 58(6), 1017-1032.
Kumar, S. (2015). A 10-year climatology of vertical properties of most active convective clouds over the Indian
regions using TRMM PR. Theoretical and Applied Climatology, 127(1-2), 429-440. [Link]
s00704-015-1641-5
Kumar, S., & Bhat, G. S. (2016). Vertical profiles of radar reflectivity factor in intense convective clouds in the
tropics. J Appl Met Climatol, 55(5), 1277-1286.
Kummerow, C., Barnes, W., Kozu, T., Shiue, J., & Simpson, J. (1998). The tropical rainfall measuring mission
(TRMM) sensor package. J Atmos Oceanic Tech, 15, 809–817
Liu, C., & Zipser, E. J. (2013). Why does radar reflectivity tend to increase downward toward the ocean surface,
but decrease downward toward the land surface?, J Geophys Res Atmos, 118, 135–148,
[Link]
Liu, C., Cecil, D. J., Zipser, E. J., Kronfeld, K., & Robertson, R. (2012). Relationships between lightning flash
rates and radar reflectivity vertical structures in thunderstorms over the tropics and subtropics. J Geophys
Res, 117, D06212. [Link]
Liu, C., Zipser, E. D., & Nesbitt, S. W. (2007). Global distribution of tropical deep convection: different
perspectives from TRMM infrared and radar data. J Climate, 20, 489–503
Liu, C., Zipser, E. D., Cecil, S. W., Nesbitt, S. W., & Sherwood, S. (2008). A cloud and precipitation feature
database from nine years of TRMM observations. J Appl Meteorol Climatol, 47(10), 2712–2728
Lucas, C., Zipser, E. J., & LeMone, M. A. (1994). Vertical velocity in oceanic convection off tropical Australia. J
Atmos Sci, 51, 3183–3193
Nesbitt, S. W., Cifelli, R., & Rutledge, A. (2006). Storm morphology and rainfall characteristics of TRMM
precipitation features. Mon Weather Rev, 134, 2702–2721
Nesbitt, S. W., Zipser, E., & Cecil, C. (2000). A census of precipitation features in the tropics using TRMM
radar, ice scattering, and lightning observations. J Climate, 13, 4087–4106
Petersen, W. A., & Rutledge, S. A. (2001). Regional variability in tropical convection: Observation from TRMM.
J. Clim., 13, 4087–4106.
Qie, X. S., Wu, X. K., Yuan, T., Bian, J. C., & Lu, D. R. (2014). Comprehensive pattern of deep convective
systems over the Tibetan Plateau-South Asian monsoon region based on TRMM data. J Clim, 27, 6612–
6626. [Link]

66
[Link] Environment and Natural Resources Research Vol. 7, No. 2; 2017

Ramage, C. S. (1968). Role of a tropical ‘Maritime Continent’ in the atmosphere circulation. Mon Wea Rev, 96.
365–370
Riehl, H., & Simpson, J. S. (1979). The heat balance in the equatorial trough zone, revisited, Contrib. Atmos Phy,
52, 287–305
Romatschke, U., & Houze, R. A. Jr (2011a). Characteristics of precipitating convective systems in the
premonsoon season of South Asia. J Hydrometeorol, 12, 3–26. [Link]
Romatschke, U., & Houze, R. A. Jr (2011b). Characteristics of precipitating convective systems in the South
Asian Monsoon. J Hydrometeorol, 12, 157–180. [Link]
Romatschke, U., Medina, S., & Houze, R. A. Jr (2010). Regional, seasonal, and diurnal variations of extreme
convection in South Asian region. J Climate, 23, 419–439
Steiner, M., Houze, R. A., & Yuter, S. E. (1995). Climatological characterization of three-dimensional storm
structure from operational radar and rain gauge data. J Appl Meteorol, 34, 1978–2007
Williams, E. R., Weber, M. E., & Orville, R. E. (1989). The relationship between lighting type and convective
state of thunderstorms. J Geophys Res, 94, 13213–13220
Xu, W., & Zipser, E. J. (2012). Properties of deep convection in tropical conti- nental, monsoon, and oceanic
rainfall regimes. Geophys Res Lett, 39. [Link]
Yuan, T., & Qie, X. (2008). Study on lightning activity and precipitation characteristics before and after the onset
of the South China Sea summer monsoon. J Geophys Res, 113, D14101.
[Link]
Zipser, E. J., & Lutz, K. (1994). The vertical profile of radar reflectivity of convective cells a strong indicator of
storm intensity and lightning probability. Mon Weather Rev, 122, 1751–1759.
Zipser, E. J., Cecil, D. J., Liu, C., Nesbitt, S. W., & Yorty, D. P. (2006). Where are the most intense
thunderstorms on Earth? Bull Am Meteorol Soc, 87, 1057–1071.
Zuidema, P. (2003). Convective Clouds over the Bay of Bengal. Mon Wea Rev, 131, 780-798.
Zuluaga, M. D., & Houze, R. A. Jr (2015). Extreme convection of the near equatorial Americas, and adjoining
oceans as seen by TRMM. Mon Wea Rev, 143, 298-316.

Appendix

Supplementary Figure 1. Individual vertical profile for intense cloud cells for Bay and Maritime Continent

Copyrights
Copyright for this article is retained by the author(s), with first publication rights granted to the journal.
This is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
license ([Link]

67