The American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin

V. 59, No. 3 (March 1975), P. 413-450, 27 Figs.

Geology of Tunisia and Adjacent Parts of Algeria and Libya'

WIUIAM F. BISHOP^
Houston, Texas 77001

Abstract The southern part of the study area is port of the field. Cambrian-Ordovician strata are productive at Rhourde
stable Saharan platform which, since the beginning of the El Baguel in Algeria, and sandstones of the Silurian-Lower
Paleozoic, has been affected only by epeirogenic move- Devonian Acacus Formation are capable of production in
ments. Pre-Carboniferous Paleozoic strata are largely clastic, many Libyan wells. Major fields are structurally controlled,
both continental and marine. Early invasions of the sea came but distribution of reservoir rocks is related to Hercynian
from the west, but Carboniferous and younger transgressions uplift, which influenced erosion of Cambrian-Ordovician clas-
come from a northerly (Tethyan) direction. Caledonian tecton- tic strata and deposition of presalt Triassic detritus. Hydrocar-
ic movements produced structural alignments and important bon source beds for both systems are believed to be Silurian
regressions, but general uplift resulting from the Hercynian euxinic shales. (3) Cretaceous shoreline-, several small oil
orogeny caused the major withdrawal of the sea. The domi- fields and one gas field currently are productive, mostly from
nant feature of post-Hercynion erosion in Algeria is a great bioclostic carbonate reservoirs of Aptian to eariy Senonion
T-shaped onticlinorium which projects into Tunisia. On the age. These accumulations are on surface anticlines in a foot-
east, a projection of the Hercynian Nefuso uplift of Libya hills belt which is not deformed so severely as the main Atlas
extends westward and connects with the anticlinorium. Just ranges.
south of these positive areas is the Erg Oriental basin, which
was connected during most of the Paleozoic with the Homra
basin of western Libya. The former is bounded in the western INTRODUCTION
part of the study area by the north-northeast-trending Hassi
Touoreg anticlinorium. The purpose of this study is to summarize the
Restriction of the western Tethys basin and post-Hercynian
general geology of Tunisia and of the adjacent
subsidence along the margin of the African landmoss led to parts of Libya and Algeria where hydrocarbons
deposition of a thick series of Triassic and Liassic evaporites. are found, and to integrate subsurface and outcrop
Younger strata of the Saharan platform are relatively thin, data in an attempt to define the parameters which
and although continental sands were important during certain control various productive trends. The regional
stages, lagoonal dolomite, evaporite, and shale are the domi-
nant rock types. North of the platform was a subsident zone, geology is documented fairly well, and a thorough
the Jeffora flexure, where considerably thicker and more search of the literature was conducted, from which
marine strata are characteristic. Associated with the flexure most of this paper was derived. A structural map
and extending beyond it is a complex series of faults. On the and isopach maps of all intervals from Ordovician
north and west, the principal later Mesozoic events consisted
largely of epeirogenic uplifts with regression and local ero- through Miocene-Pliocene were prepared, utiliz-
sion, and transgressive downworps. Frequent and more in- ing data from scout reports in Tunisia and western
tense movements characterized the early Cenozoic, and local Libya, and from electric and sample logs in east-
deformation, marking the onset of Alpine orogeny, began in em Algeria. Some of the maps differ from pub-
the Oligocene. Stronger orogenic pulses occurred at the end
of the AAiocene, but the last and most violent phase of the lished ones because of different interpretation or
Tunisian Atlasic orogeny took place during the Pliocene-Pleis- faulty correlations resulting from lack of logs. The
tocene. geology of certain trends was discussed with local
In addition to the Saharan platform and Jeffora flexure, operators during a visit to Tunis.
AAesozoic-Cenozoic tectonic features include stable shelves of
the Pekigion craton in eastern and offshore Tunisia, and of The only Paleozoic outcrop in the study area is
Kosserine Island in central Tunisia. The latter was exposed a small exposure of Permian strata in southeastern
during latest Cretaceous time and is bounded on the east by Tunisia. Paleozoic strata were mapped in time-
a series of north-south-trending faults and Jurassic horsts
marking the eastern boundary of the Atlas zones. Between
stratigraphic units, as was the Miocene-Pliocene
this axis and the Pelagian shelf and between the Saharan interval. As these units are uniformly recorded in
platform and Kosserine Island is a series of Cretaceous and
Tertiary intracratonic basins, and in northern Tunisia ore sim- ©Copyright 1975. The American Association of Petroleum
ilar ones containing thick sections of Miocene-Pliocene clastic Geologists. All rights reserved.
rocks. In northwestern Tunisia are many Triassic evaporite
diapirs, and some thrust faults are present in a zone of very •Manuscript received, January 19, 1974; accepted, July 3,
thick Oligocene flysch. 1974.
Three hydrocarbon-productive trends are present in the 2Ashland Exploration Co.
study area: (1) Ypresian (early Eocene) carbonate roda: fa- The writer thanks Ashland Exptoration Co. for permission to
des change regionally southwestward from globigerinid mud- publish this paper. The manuscript was reviewed by A. H. Brink,
stone (source beds) to dolomitized nummulitic calcarenite Tenneco Oil Co., and J. P. Hea, Weaver Oil and Gas Corp., but
(reservoir) to evaporite (updip seal). Recent diKoveries seem the writer takes full responsibility for conclusions reached. Spe-
to be associated with small structures, but regional extent of cial thanks are due to C. F. Kahle, Bowling Green State Univer-
the trend and attendant possibilities for stratigraphic entrap- sity, Ohio, for the photomicrographs and petrographic descrip-
ment suggest the potential for large reserves. (2) Paleozoic tion of Figure 23. Ann Nelson and Charlotte Norton typed the
and Triassic sandstones: this trend contains the only proved, manuscript, and Esther Gomez and Stella Holt drafted the illus-
major reserves of Tunisia in the Triassic reservoir at El Bormo trations. The assistance of all is acknowledged gratefully.

413
414 William F. Bishop

aU of the data sources, no problems were encoun- the Ordovician transgression, which covered most
tered in mapping between different parts of the of Africa north of the equator, deposition of main-
study area. Older Tertiary strata were mapped ly coarse clastic material suggests the presence of
only in Tunisia, where formational units are tab- high land nearby; according to Furon, the Hoggar
ulated on scout reports. Because outcrops of these was emergent in the Late Ordovician, and a land-
rocks are scattered and incomplete, they are not mass was present west of Mauritania. Whiteman
shown on the interval isopach maps. (1971) postulated "great sand banks and fans ex-
Mesozoic strata, particularly of later Cretaceous tending around the northern margin of the Ahag-
age, crop out extensively in southeastern Tunisia gar" in Cambrian-Ordovician time.
and western Libya. Correlations are complicated A prominent feature projecting northward from
by the fact that formation boundaries do not co- the Hoggar was termed "Amguid spur" and its
incide with age units and by the use of different northern extension "El Biod high" by Heybroek
formation names for Libyan and Tunisian out- (1963). This uplift consists of horsts and grabens
crops and of Uthologic units in the Algerian sub- bounded by local, north-south-trending flexures
surface. A Mesozoic columnar section (Fig. II) and faults, some having displacements of more
and stratigraphic cross section (Fig. 10) were pre- than 1,500 m. Block movements probably were
pared to facilitate isopach mapping of these inter- controlled by Precambrian basement fault zones.
vals. Movement along these lines of weakness recurred
during the Caledonian and Hercynian orogenies,
STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY but in some places local structural activity oc-
Paleozoic curred mainly in the Mesozoic—at the beginning
Libya, southern Tunisia, and Algeria south of of the Early Cretaceous, according to Heybroek.
the Adas Mountains are part of the stable Saharan A less well-defined extension of the Amguid-El
platform which was intensively folded in the Pre- Biod feature trends northward through Hassi
cambrian. Since then it has been affected only by Messaoud field, where the latest movement report-
epeirogenic movements which produced wide, ed by Balducchi and Pommier (1970) was a reju-
shallow basins and broad upUfts. Pre-Carbonifer- venation of the Paleozoic surface by a late Hercy-
ous Paleozoic rocks of this region are largely clas- nian phase at the beginning of the Mesozoic. A
tic, both marine and continental. The major Paleo- north-northeast-trending feature branches off the
zoic transgression began in Morocco with depo- Amguid-El Biod high at about lat. 28° N. This
feature appears on Figure 3 and was termed "Has-
sition of thick Infracambrian carbonate sedi- si Touareg anticlinorium" by Claret and Tempere
ments (Furon, 1963), and the sea spread gradually (1967); an orogenic phase, accompanied by ero-
eastward, reaching its maximum areal extent in sion, at the end of the Early Cretaceous (Austrian)
the Silurian (Gothlandian). Tectonic movements produced, or at least accentuated, the characteris-
of Caledonian age (Ordovician to Early Devoni- tics of the main structures. However, the distribu-
an) produced east - west and northwest - southeast tion of hydrocarbon reservoirs on all of these fea-
structural alignments and important regressions, tures is related to Hercynian uplift, which influ-
but general uplift, beginning in the middle Car- enced erosion of Cambrian-Ordovician clastic
boniferous as a result of the Hercynian (Variscan) strata and deposition of presalt Triassic detritus.
orogeny, caused the major withdrawal of the sea.
Northerly trending Uneaments in eastern Algeria Figure 1 shows the regional effects of post-Her-
were reactivated by Hercynian movements, and in cynian erosion in Algeria and their projection into
northern Libya, east-west-trending structures re- Tunisia. The dominant feature is a great T-shaped
lated to tectonic movements in the Tethys region anticlinorium with surrounding late Paleozoic ba-
were formed during the Early Permian or Late sins. According to Megatelli et al. (1969), the pres-
Carboniferous; from this time on, transgressions ence of Carboniferous, Devonian, and Silurian
came from the north and northeast (Hecht et al, strata on the north flank is interpretive, there
1964; Hoffman-Rothe, 1966). being no deep well control. A local paleogeologic
The major positive feature of the central Sahara, map (Fig. 9) confirms that the Ordovician subcrop
the Hoggar massif (Fig. 1), is a large inlier of Pre- turns northwest on the Tunisian extension of the
cambrian igneous and metamorphic rocks, ex- anticUnorium. Fields of the anticlinorium are pro-
posed by erosion and surrounded by a plateau of ductive from Cambrian-Ordovician and Triassic
Paleozoic strata. The most severe tectonism affect- sandstones, and those of the Illizi (Polignac) basin
ing the massif occurred in the Precambrian, but in (Fig. 1), mainly from Devonian sandstones.
some areas there are Caledonian structures, and The Illizi basin is bounded on the west by the
the present appearance of the feature results from Amguid spur, and included in it by some writers
early Hercynian movement (Furon, 1963). During is the Erg Oriental basin (Fig. 2). However, struc-
 Geology of Tunisia 415

FIG. 1—SubcTop of Hereynian unconformity in Algerian Sahara and adjacent parts

of Tunisia and Libya. Modified from Megatelli et al. (1969). See Figure 9 for detail
in study area.

tural maps (cf. Oaret and Tempere, 1967) show the Hercynian Nefusa uplift to the Mediterranean
the latter to be a well-defined basin, and regional (Fig. 2). South of the study area, it is bounded by
isopach maps show that it was a separate deposi- the Gargaf uplift and on die east by the Hon ^ a -
tional basin in both the Paleozoic and Mesozoic. ben and Sirte embayment (Conant and Goudiurzi,
Therefore, the writer follows Hoffman-Rothe 1967). A western extension of the Nefusa uplift
(1966), who stated that its separation from the connected with the eastern end of the great Algeri-
Dlizi basin can be verified from well control. an anticlinorium. The former feature dso was pos-
On the east, the Erg Oriental basin joined the itive near the end of the Carboniferous and in the
Homra basin of Libya, which extended south of Permian, resulting in erosion of Paleozoic strata.
416 William F. Bishop

Saharan KASSERINEg
Atlas /fsLAND

Pelagian

ALGERIAN \ ^ l^^v TRIPOLI 4 ^ .

LEGEND
j ^ TECTONIC MOVEMENT \ = \ MIOCENE TROUGHS i=[]=i POSITIVE AXIS

I//} INTRACRATONIC BASINS ||||||||||[| FLYSCH ZONE |:g::::::::| PALEOZOIC BASINS

+
GRABENS a i A B FLEXURES AND FAULTS \* ^ ^\ HERCYNIAN UPLIFT

SUBSIDENCE AXIS

Fic. 2—Diagrammatic tectonic map of study area in Tunisia, eastern Algeria, and western Libya. Mod-
ified from Burollet (1967a).

Mesozok and Cenozoic From Middle Jurassic on, strata of the stable Sa-
After the close of the Hercynian orogeny, active haran platform are relatively thin, and although
subsidence along the margin of the African land- continental sands were important during certain
mass resumed, and during the Triassic and Lias stages, lagoonal dolomite, evaporite, and shale are
very thick deposits of evaporites were laid down.^ the dominant rock types. North of the platform
was a subadent zone (Jeffara flexure. Fig. 2)
^In the Algerian Sahara, up to 1,600 m of massive evaporite where thicker and mott marine strata are charac-
with salt beds as thick as 300 m is overlain by 3,000 m of over-
burden, but no salt domes or diapirs are recognized; however, a teristic (Busson, 1967). In Libya subsidence, ac-
few low-relief salt swells were mapped seismically (Demaison, companied by block faulting, began along the
I96S). nordiem edge of the Nefusa uplift in the Permian
 Geology of Tunisia 417

(Khtsch, 1968). Coque and Jauzein (1967) stated rassic horsts, and marks the eastern boundary of
that, in Tunisia, downwarping along a flexure has the Atlas zones and the basin and range structural
been recurrent since the Late Carboniferous and province, in which southeastward compressional
has displaced Late Jurassic strata about 4,000 m. forces were dominant.
Differing elevations of the Quaternary Strombus Negative areas include a series of Cretaceous
bubonius shoreline may have resulted from very and Tertiary intracratonic basins between the Sa-
recent subsidence of the Gulf of Gabes related to haran platform and Kasserine Island, and be-
this flexure, and the straight shape of the coast east tween the Pelagian shelf and the "N-S axis." In the
of Djerba Island also is influenced by this complex central Adas is the Tunisian trough, which was the
system. site of deeper water sedimentation during Jurassic,
Very low dips characterize Mesozoic strata of Cretaceous, and Paleocene-Eocene.
the platform, whereas those of the subsident zone North of the Tunisian trough, structural com-
have been folded and faulted. The Umit between plexity increases, and Cretaceous and Eocene
these structural and depositional provinces partly rocks are affected by many faults. The Eocene is
follows the trend (Fig. 2) of the Jeffara flexure and of irregular thickness and variable facies, and Oli-
of the fault complex which extends from Gafsa to gocene strata are thin or absent, but a zone of
TripoU ("accident Sud-tunisien" of Castany, troughs contains thick Miocene-PUocene clastic
1954). North and west of Gabes the flexure is sep- rocks (Fig. 2). The northwestemmost part of Tuni-
arate from the fault complex, as indicated by the sia is occupied by a very thick Oligocene sand-
very steep north dip shown on Figure 3 and by the stone flysch. On the west, this mass appears to be
deep troughs of Figures 15 and 16. thmst over the foreland; but elsewhere, although
Elsewhere in Tunisia, the principal later Meso- many faults are present, there is no large-scale
zoic events consisted largely of epeirogenic uplifts thmsting. This zone and most of the others dis-
with regression and local erosion, and transgres- cussed narrow and bend around the northern end
sive downwarps. With the beginning of the Ceno- of the Pelagian block and there turn southeast-
zoic, orogenic movements became more frequent ward and widen again.
and more intense; local deformation, marking the Some of these features are shown in greater de-
onset of Alpine orogeny, began in the Oligocene. tail on Figure 3. Also present are Triassic evapo-
Although stronger orogenic pulses occurred at the rite diapirs, which are most common in the north-
end of the Miocene, the final and most violent em part of the Tunisian trough and in the zone of
movements, comprising the last phase of the Tuni- Miocene troughs. Tertiary grabens in central Tu-
sian Atlasic orogeny, took place during the Plio- nisia are similar to East African rift faults but are
cene-Pleistocene (Burollet, 1967a; Coque and of much smaller scale. The southern half of Figure
Jauzein, 1967). 3 was contoured from well control at the post-
Tectonic features of the study area not already Hercynian erosional surface. Although some of
discussed are summarized from Burollet (1967a). the relief shown is a result of differential erosion,
Alpine folding and faulting of northern and west- this datum consistently is selected on logs and
em Tunisia were buttressed against stable shelf scout reports, and has a much wider areal extent
areas of the Saharan platform on the south and the than any of the Paleozoic data, even though the
Pelagian shelf on the east (Fig. 2). The latter is a latter are more nearly true structural horizons. Ho-
large craton which extends far offshore, the most rizon "B" (Fig. 10) in the Jurassic is an excellent
positive area being the Kerkennah uplift. The few mapping horizon but is not always recorded on
folds of eastern Tunisia (Fig. 3) are asymmetrical scout reports. Relief on this marker would be re-
with steep flanks on the nortihwest and are the only duced greatiy through infilling of topographic and
examples of tectonic forces acting from the south- structural irregularities with Triassic clastic rocks
east. and evaporites.
Another stable shelf during parts of the Jurassic The Paleozoic Rhourde el Baguel field and
and Cretaceous was Kasserine Island, but it be- many of the Libyan discoveries are associated
came a positive feature in Late Cretaceous time, with large, regional positive features with structur-
and in the central part no marine strata younger al closure (Fig. 3), whereas the Triassic El Borma
than Turonian are known. The eastern border of field is on a gentle local nose. On the west are the
Kasserine Island was a zone of irregular sedimen- northward extensions of the Hassi Touareg anti-
tation with various positive areas. The tectonic clinorium and Erg Oriental basin, and the area is
orientation is north-south in contrast with the pre- bounded on the east by the "accident Sud-tuni-
dominant northeast trend of the Adas ranges of sien" (Castany, 1954). In Libya a fault of un-
Kasserine Island and northern Tunisia. This "N-S certain strike is suggested by a 1,000-m difference
axis" (Fig. 2) extends along major faults and Ju- in subsea depth between two wells, and Conant
418 William F. Bishop

Fie. 3—Structural map. Datum is post-Hercynian erosional surface. CI 200 m. Regional pattern in Algeria
modified from Claret and Tempere (1967) and in Tunisia from Buason (1967). N<»th half of map modified
from BuroUet (1967a). Solid circles, wells capable of production.
 Geology of Tunisia 419

and Goudarzi (1967) noted that the Jeffara basin transgression occurred, and marine clay deposi-
"is bounded on the south by an east-west subsur- tion reached a maximum in northwestern Libya.
face fault" about 40 km from the coasUine. Regression at the end of the Middle Ordovician
led to erosion and redeposition of continental
STRATIGRAPHY sands in Libya. In Algeria, Caledonian move-
Paleozoic ments caused emergence of parts of the lUizi basin.
The principal references for the following dis- Marine influence then became stronger, and in-
cussion of Paleozoic stratigraphy are Hoffman- terbeds of black micaceous shale with graptolites
Rothe (1966) and Hecht et al. (1964). As pointed and trilobites indicate connection with the open
out by one of the critics of this paper, the definitive sea. No major hiatus is present in North Africa
work on Ordovician-Devonian stratigraphy in the between Ordovician and Silurian strata, but the
Sahara is the treatise by Beuf et al. (1971). Unfor- thick graptolitic shales in the latter indicate trans-
tunately, this volume was not available at the time gression and a deeper, but still epicontinental, sea
of principal writing of the paper. It is, however, (Furon, 1963). An interesting possibiUty is that
included in the "Selected References" and is rec- melting of the vast (8 million sq km) ice cap which
ommended to the interested reader. covered the central Sahara initiated this transgres-
Cambrian—In the study area, Cambrian rocks sion (Rognon, 1971); interbedded glacial and in-
overlie a folded and nearly peneplaned Precambri- terglacial deposits are present north of the Hoggar,
an surface, but basement (granite) was reached and wells in the northern Sahara penetrated Ordo-
only by one well in Tunisia and one in Libya (Fig. vician ice-rafted deposits. Again, attention is di-
27). Although moderately metamorphosed shale rected to Beuf era/. (1971) for detail on Ordovician
glaciation and Silurian eustatic transgression.
of Infracambrian age was encountered at Hassi
Messaoud, strata of this age were not reported Cambrian-Ordovician sandstones are impor-
from the two basement tests in the study area. tant reservoirs in Algeria; e.g., Hassi Messaoud, 40
Lack of diagnostic fossils and similar lithologies km west of the study area, has probable reserves
make Cambrian and Ordovician rocks difficult to in place of 25 billion bbl (Balducchi and Pommier,
distinguish. In Algeria, they crop out around the 1970). Rhourde el Baguel field (Fig. 4) is produc-
Hoggar and have been studied in detail in the tive from fractured Cambrian sandstones which
subsurface (Whiteman, 1971). Cambrian trans- are overlain by Ordovician strata directly below
gression began in Morocco, but no marine influ- the post-Hercynian unconformity. Depth to the
ence has been discovered in the study area, where top of pay is 2,600-2,900 m, and the following are
crossbedded, nonfossiliferous sandstone suggests average statistics: net pay 130 m, porosity 9 per-
short transportation, probably by a largeriversys- cent, gravity 45°. Cimiulative production to 7-1-73
tem. Early Caledonian movements (Sardinian was 238,990,000 bbl, and recent average produc-
phase) at the end of the Cambrian caused tilting tion (first six months of 1973) was 55,000 b/d (Oil
and many unconformities (Balducchi and Pom- and Gas Jour., 1973). According to Hoffman-
mier, 1970). Rothe (1966), this structure is faulted with steep
Ordovician—Although the older paleogeograph- flanks and has an oil column of 650 m; its structur-
ic features discussed earlier existed during the Pa- al history is similar to that of Hassi Messaoud,
leozoic and influenced sedimentation patterns as except that Rhourde el Baguel was uplifted again
reflected by the interval isopach maps, the sub- during the Early Cretaceous.
crops shown on these maps result from post-Her- Balducchi and Pommier (1970) described the
cynian erosion, and the expression of positive fea- migrational history of oil at Hassi Messaoud, and
tures is obliterated with decreasing age. similar conditions prevailed in many other Sahar-
Southward thickening of the Ordovician sequence an fields. At the end of the Carboniferous, the
(Fig. 4) represents the north flank of a depocenter Paleozoic section, including most of the Ordovi-
which included the Erg Oriental basin of Algeria cian and part of the Cambrian, was removed by
and the western end of the Homra basin of Libya. erosion, and any existing oil accumulation was
The positive area at the western side of the map is lost. Compaction and elevated temperature after
an erosional expression of the Hassi Touareg anti- burial by Triassic shale and evaporite resulted in
clinorium, and on the north are those of the Nefu- a second generation of hydrocarbons from Siluri-
sa uplift and the eastern end of the Algerian anti- an shale, which is believed to be the major source
clinorium. of Saharan oil. As the nearest Silurian strata are 40
Early Ordovician deposition was characterized km northwest of the field (Fig. 1), hydrocarbons
by shallow-marine sand in Libya and by interbed- had to migrate below the unconformity until they
ded sand and mud with Tigillites (?worm tubes) in reached Ae subcrop of the reservoir. Similarly,
Algeria. In the Middle Ordovician, a large-scale Rhourde el Baguel is about 35 km west of the
420 William F. Bishop

— 37

PANTELLERIA IS

Mediterranean Sea

LAMPEDUSA IS,

MILES
0 10 30 50

0 40 80
KILOMETERS

FIG. 4—Isopach map of Ordovician System. CI 100 m. Cambrian-Ordovician: production, black; well
capable of production, circle; hydrocarbon shows, triangles. Dotted line, erosional limit of Silurian from
Figure 5.
 Geology of Tunisia 421

Silurian subcrop, but few other shows of oil and because of distance to the sea and flush produc-
gas in Ordovician strata are found beyond this tion in the Sirte basin, but Michel (1971) stated
subcrop (Fig. 4). As the effectiveness of such mi- that these discoveries are estimated to contain to-
gration over unlimited distances is questionable, a tal reserves of more than 200 milUon bbls.
large part of the study area is considered to be Devonian—The effects of post-Hercynian ero-
unprospective for Paleozoic clastic rocks because sion are strikingly demonstrated by complete re-
of the absence of nearby source rocks. moval of Devonian strata from the Nefusa upUft
Silurian—On Figure 5, the Nefusa uplift is still (Fig. 6) and from all but the flanks of the Algerian
prominent, but Silurian beds on the westward ex- anticlinorium (Fig. 1). The southern flank of the
tension into Algeria were removed by post-Hercy- much reduced Erg Oriental-Homra basin appears
nian erosion. In northwestern Libya, the Homra in the study area.
basin still was connected north (and south) of a Where predominantly continental, plant-bear-
slightly positive area with the Erg Oriental basin. ing Early Devonian sandstones overlie the Acacus
Silurian stratigraphy is summarized here, but a with local unconformity; they consist partly of
detailed study of these strata in Tunisia was made reworked older constituents. Some of the positive
by Bonnefous (1963). Renewed transgression be- areas formed islands in the transgressing sea, but
gan in the Early Silurian, and deposition of marine by Late Devonian the entire region was inundated.
sediments (largely gray to black, bituminous, Sandstone grades upward into shale and siltstone
graptolitic mud with thin beds of silt and fine which, in Libya, are more marine than the older
sand) was greatest in the Homra basin. Late Siluri- section; in Algeria, the Middle Devonian section
an regression led to deposition of nonfossiliferous comprises a thick carbonate and shale sequence
continental sands interbedded with mud of the indicating deeper water and more stable tectonic
Acacus Formation. Similar sandstones of the conditions. At some localities in Libya, erosion
Lower Devonian locally are unconformable with has removed part or all of the middle unit, but this
the Acacus, but the contact commonly is obscure. unconformity is not present elsewhere. Coarser
Caledonian deformation resulted in erosion of Si- clastic rocks of the Late Devonian reflect renewed
lurian and earlier strata in some parts of Libya and movement in some positive areas.
Algeria, but elsewhere the gradation from Silurian The basal sandstone was reported by Hecht et
shale to Devonian sandstone resulted from epeiro- al. (1964) to be an oil reservoir in Libya. This was
genic rather than orogenic movements. not recorded on available scout reports, but the
According to Byramjee and Vasse (1969), the difficulty of distinguishing this sandstone from the
Acacus Formation in Libya contains both source Acacus has been noted. A few shows of oil and gas
and reservoir rocks. Stratigraphic accumulations were reported in the study area. Devonian sand-
are present where it is overlain unconf ormably by stones are important reservoirs in the Illizi basin,
Permian red shale (Fig. 9), but south of the sub- and Devonian shales may be source beds.
crop, traps are structural. As the former traps are Carboniferous—Stable conditions terminated at
sealed by Permian shales, which are not source the end of the Devonian, but the first pulses of
rocks, Acacus oil must be of early Paleozoic origin. Hercynian orogeny were of an epeirogenic nature.
Geochemical analysis demonstrated that some of Seas transgressed for the first time from the north-
the Acacus and earlier Silurian shales are good east, and shallow-marine sediments including
source rocks and that all crudes are of the same shale, evaporite, marl, dolomite, and oolitic lime-
family {i.e., of the same origin). Minor differences stone were deposited across the Illizi and Erg Ori-
resulted from deeper burial and higher tempera- ental basins, which apparently were combined in
ture of the southern structural traps and also sup- the Carboniferous. More than 1,000 m of shale
port regional migration toward the northeast. Lib- and fine sandstone with dolomitic marl and lime-
yan oils are similar in origin to those of Hassi stone were deposited in the Homra basin, but
Messaoud but are less mature, because they were these gave way at the end of Carboniferous trans-
less deeply buried. Balducchi and Pommier (1970) gression to regressive shallow-marine carbonate
found two zones in Silurian black shale northwest deposits. As shown on Figures 7 and 1, post-Her-
of Hassi Messaoud which have high organic car- cynian erosion has stripped these beds from a wide
bon content and are rich in kerogen, organic de- area over the Nefusa uplift and from the Algerian
bris, and well-preserved spores. anticlinorium, although their absence on the latter
Oil and gas shows are common in Acacus sand- results at least partly from nondeposition. A few
stones of the study area. At least two Libyan fields shows were re{>orted in Tunisian wells.
are capable of production from these sandstones Penman—Permian seas transgressed from the
(Fig. 5) and many other wells tested large flows of north across Paleozoic rocks of various ages, thin-
oil. Homra basin exploration is inactive at present ning onto the Nefusa uplift, which roughly corre-
422 William F. Bishop

— 37'

PANTELLERIA IS

Mediterranean Sea

LAMPEDUSA IS

35°-

ALGERIA °i^llk\

-33

0 40 80
KILOMETERS

Fio. S—Isopach map of Silurian System. CI 200 m. Silurian: production (shut in), black; wells ci^ble
of production, circles; hydrocarbon shows, triangles.
 Geology of Tunisia 423

1"

PANTELLERIA IS

soussE^k. Mediterranean Sea

l> DOULEB
LAMPEDUSA IS

TAMESMIDAS ^ ^ ^ " * " ' *

o
-35° SIDI t L ITAYEM
)
ALGERIA °i"oNK\ ENNAH IS

GAFSA
Gulf of cGabes
,J ASHTART

TUNISIA CABE.
•
KEBILI

MEDENINE
^-\

\ LIBYA

• ^ o ^3I°-

0 40 80
KILOMETERS

FIG. 6—Isopach map of Devonian System. CI 400 m. Devonian hydrocarbon shows, triangles.
424 William F. Bishop

1
13°

PANTELLERIA IS

Mediterranean Sea

LAMPEDUSA IS

ALGERIA °i"oNi<l

TUNISIA
•
KEBILI

EL BORMA

RH EL BAGUEL
O 01^-2

0 40 80
KILOMETERS

FIG. 7—Isopach map of Carboniferous System. CI 400 m. Carboniferous hydrocarbon shows, triangles.
 Geology of Tunisia 425

sponded to the hinge line of the western Tethys Hercynian unconformity to the base of "Triassic"
basin (Baird, 1967). In Algeria, invading seas were evaporite or Bir el Ghnem (Fig. 10). An interme-
Umited by the Amguid-El Biod uplift, and the diate section of dolomite and dolomitic shale with
southern and western regions were land. In south- scattered anhydrite interbeds is widespread and
em Tunisia, a very thick marine series was depos- crops out in Tunisia as the Djebel Rehach dolom-
ited, and a well drilled at Djebel Tebaga near the ite (Fig. 11) and in Libya as the Azizia Formation
only known Permian outcrop in the study area (Busson, 1967). Below this are reddish-brown
(Fig. 8) penetrated more than 4,000 m of these shale, siltstone, and fine-grained sandstone; ande-
rocks and was still in Upper Permian at total site or dolerite flows as thick as 75 m are common
depth; depositional environments ranged from at or near the base." Above the dolomite are red
continental through intertidal to open-marine and green shale and siltstone with intercalations of
shelf (Baird). In a well west of Tebaga, fusulinids, fine- to medium-grained sandstone containing
stromatoporoids, encrusting and dasycladacean feldspar and rock fragments.
algae, together with reported reef talus, suggest the These largely continental and shallow-marine
presence of calcarenitic and possible reefal reser- beds filled irregularities on the eroded surface
voirs along the unstable shelf edge. In wells in the (Fig. 9), resulting in the local thick and thin areas
southeast, the Upper Permian thinned to less than shown on Figure 12. Streams draining Paleozoic
1,000 m and changed to a largely detrital facies, highlands on the south supplied detritus; the
indicating a more landward position. Also present southern depositional limit of Triassic elastics is
in these wells are about 800 m of Middle Permian just south of the study area, but the northern Umit
anhydritic shale overlying a thick dolomite and is not known. Northward thinning is largely ero-
limestone section, and about 200 m of Lower Per- sional, and the northern part of southern Tunisia
mian detrital and carbonate rock. Farther south, near Djebel Tebaga (Tebaga salient) is an area of
the entire interval is reduced to a thin, detrital condensed Mesozoic strata with hiatuses and un-
section, and foraminiferal correlation indicates a conformities, one of which truncates Middle and
Late Permian age (Baird). As this section overlaps Early Triassic clastic rocks (Busson, 1967). A large
older Paleozoic rocks of various ages (Fig. 9) and positive area through El Borma separated the
the thickness of Upper Permian detritus in the Homra from the Erg Oriental basin, which was
Jeffara basin is several thousand meters, much divided into two east-west troughs. The Nefusa
erosion occurred in the Late Permian. uplift was reduced to a narrow, east-west positive
Minimal hydrocarbon shows were found in area. On the northeast is shown extreme fliicken-
Permian rocks, but control is sparse. Traps may ing into the Jeffara basin, an arm of which extend-
exist in shelf-edge carbonate rocks and sandstones ed into the north half of the Erg Oriental basin.
in Tunisia and Libya between the Nefusa uplift, Triassic sandstones are reservoirs at El Borma
where the Permian is thin or absent, and the Meso- field, which is a faulted anticline and has the fol-
zoic part of the Jeffara basin, where it is below lowing average statistics: depth to top of pay 2,400
current economic drilling depth. m, net pay 15 m, porosity 18 percent, permeabiUty
200 md, gravity 40". Cumidative production to
Mesozoic 7-1-73 was 175,094,000 bbl from the Tunisian side
Figure 10 extends from the Libyan outcrops to and 27,674,000 bbl from the Algerian side; recent
a well in the Erg Oriental basin in Algeria; the daily averages were 75,600 and 25,000 bbl, re-
datum, Horizon "B," is a time marker and an ex- spectively (Oil and Gas Jour., 1973). The clastic
cellent electric-log marker. The Mesozoic se- interval is capable of production on the northwest
quence shown on the section is conformable in at Hassi Keskessa and in the D-23 and F-90 fields
Algeria, but in Libya an unconformity between in Libya. No production or shows are present in
the Neocomian and Barremian resulted in local the study area beyond the Silurian subcrop (Fig.
removal of Cabao sandstone. There is depositional 12), and these shales are believed to be the source
thickening of Libyan formations into the Erg Ori- of Triassic oil, as the organic content of Triassic
ental basin with continuity of evaporites from out- red shale is too low to be measured (Balducchi and
crop to basin in the Bir el Ghnem and Les Abreghs Pommier, 1970).
Formations. Reference to this section is made to "Triassic" evaporite—Included in this interval is
illustrate Triassic and Jurassic intervals mapped; the section from the base of Horizon "B" through
as these units are not enclosed by time markers,
some thickness figures are erratic because of facies ^Demaison (1963) stated that the lowest part of this series is
proved by palynomorphs and microfauna to be Late Permian in
variations. age, and therefore the major erosional unconformity is actually
Triassic "clastic rocks"—This interval includes within the Permian. However, as a matter of convenience, the
the largely sandstone-shale section from the post- base of this series is assumed to be the top of Paleozoic.
426 William F. Bishop

•37°

PANTELLERIA IS

Mediterranean Sea

LAMPEDUSA IS,

-Z5'

ALGERIA °i"oNk\

-33°

RH EL BAGUEL
O

-31"

0 40 80
KILOMETERS

FIG. 8—Isopadi map of Permian System. CI 100 m, 800 m. Pennian: hydrocarbon shows, triangles;
outcrop (west of Medicine), black.
 Geology of Tunisia 427

FIG. 9—Paleogeologic map on Hercynian erosional surface. Compiled from subcrops on Figures 4-8.
 A RE-l EI-23 A-l-61

JEFREN
TACBAL

GARIAN

DATLIM-

/ -' BU GHEILAN

Km 4 0 20

FIG. 10—Stratigraphic cross section A-A' from wells in Erg Oriental basin of Algeria to Libyan outcrops. Location shown on Figure 13. Evaporite patterns: diagonal,
gypsum; crosshatched, anhydrite; T-shaped, salt.
 Geology of Tunisia 429

TRIASSIC JURASSIC
1
LOWER
r UPPER LIAS DOGGER IMALM
MIDDLE I

T l ) OULED BU SCEBA BIR EL GHNEM LES

RAS HAMIA
> 1 CHEBBI (BU G H E I L A N CARB FACIES) ABREGHS

DJEBEL BASAL PART OF

M TRIAS SS. LOWER EVAPORITE
REHACH "LWR. EVAP"
^5

DOL C. UPR SOT-SHY

LOWER SDY.-SHY. TRIAS. "TRIASSIC EVAPORITE" LIAS-DOGGEH-MALM
TRIAS." TRIAS"

C R E T A C E O U S

LOWER UPPER

AIN
TOBI

BOU ALEG a ABIOO

^)
HEOMA
II oo
l-O

NEO-
CENOMANIAN SENOMANIAN -
COMIAN
MAESTRICHTIAN i><

FIG. 11—Mesozoic columnar section: (1) Libyan outcrops and subsurface, terminology mostly from Hecht et al.
(1964); (2) Tunisian outcrops, from Busson (1967); (3) Algerian subsurface, from electric and sample logs.

the oldest evaporite in Algeria, and the Bir el tures is not apparent on cross sections through
Ghnem Formation of Libya (Fig. 10). As shown fields of the Hassi Touareg anticlinorium (Claret
on Figure 11, this section probably includes most and Tempere, 1967) or Hassi Messaoud (Balduc-
of the Lias, although time correlations are not pos- chi and Pommier, 1970). Regional thinning with a
itive. The deepest part of the Erg Oriental basin (a slight nose is indicated at Hassi er R'Mel (Ma-
graben according to Demaison, 1965) is at the gloire, 1970).
western edge of Figure 13, and reentrants extend In Tunisia the section in a well just south of the
south and east from this depocenter. The minor outcrop consists mostly of anhydrite interbedded
thick area in southeastern Tunisia probably is a with salt and dolomite, with anhydritic shale at the
remnant of the Homra basin. The Nefusa uplift on base (Busson, 1967). Red shale, anhydrite, and salt
the east and the Tebaga salient are prominent. were reported from wells on the opposite side of
After peneplanation of older Triassic strata, the the Tebaga salient. In northern and central Tuni-
latter were overlapped progressively until the end sia, evaporitic Triassic deposits are known from
of the Middle Jurassic, but pre-Aptian uplift re- diapirs (Fig. 3) which contain thick masses of gyp-
sulted in further erosion of Triassic and Jurassic sum and anhydrite, some salt, and thin beds of
strata (Busson, 1967). siltstone and fossihferous marine carbonate (Bu-
In Algeria the typical evaporite interval includes rollet, 1967a).
a lower section of salt interbedded with shale, fol- Jurassic evaporite—This interval includes Les
lowed by shale with a few beds of salt and dolo- Abreghs Formation of Libya, "Lower Lias" of Tu-
mite. Thinning of evaporites over producing struc- nisian scout reports, and Jurassic evaporite as se-
430 William F. Bishop

Fic. 12—Isopach map of Triassic "clastic" interval. CI 100 m, 400 m. Triassic in southeastemmost part
is undifferentiated and dashed contours represent total Triassic thickness. Triassic "clastic": production
(shut-in in Libya), black; well capable of production, circle; hydrocarbon shows, triangles; outcrop
stippled. Dotted line, erosional limit of Silurian from Figure S.
 Geology of Tunisia 431

13°

PANTELLERI4 IS

soussf^L Mediterranean Sec

<3
LAMPEDUSA IS
TAMESMIDA> ^EMMAMA

•35' SID! EL ITAYEM 35°-

ALGERIA °i"oNi<\ SF/IXJf ^^^^KERKENNAH IS

Gulf of Gabes
ASHTART

TUNISIA

0 40 80
KILOMETERS

FIG. 13—Isopach map of "Triassic" evaporite interval. CI 200 m. Note line of section of Figure 10; solid
triangles are surface sections. Outcrop is stippled (contacts dashed where partly covered).
432 William F. Bishop

lected by the writer from Algerian logs (Fig. 10). and micrite with echinoderms) marks the subsi-
The lower datum (Horizon "B") is an excellent dent trough; east of Gafsa it broadens nearly to
marker, but the upper is affected by facies change Sousse and includes the whole Gulf of Gabes area.
and varies considerably. Figure 14 shows essen- The rest of Tunisia received radiolarian-micrite
tially the same configuration as Figure 13, al- deposits. Essentially the same distribution persist-
though thicknesses are much less. The Erg Orien- ed during the Late Jurassic except that lagoonal
tal basin had an east-west orientation and joined and terrigenous facies advanced northward to
a greatly reduced Homra basin. The Nefusa uplift about the latitude of Medinine, beginning the ma-
and Tebaga salient were exposed completely as a jor regression which continued to the Aptian. A
result of erosion and nondeposition. reefal facies including coelenterates, hydrozoans,
In southern Tunisia the Mestaoua gypsum (Les rudistids, and encrusting algae developed in places
Abreghs equivalent, Fig. 11) consists of a mostly along the "N-S axis" (Fig. 2).
lagoonal series of gypsum with saliferous shale, Neocomian—This interval includes the Cabao
but thin carbonate beds contain a marine fauna; Sandstone of Libya, the Asfer Formation of south-
20 m of oolitic limestone (Zmilet Haber) is at the em Tunisia (Figs. 10, 11), and the Meloussi of the
base (Busson, 1967). Wells around the Gulf of central Tunisian subsurface. Deposition was con-
Gabes penetrated mostly limestone with a few tinuous from the Late Jurassic, but in the Homra
beds of dolomite and anhydrite. In the Algerian basin most Neocomian strata were removed by
subsurface, the interval consists of interbedded pre-Barremian erosion. Part of the north-trending
shale, dolomite, and anhydrite. trough remained but probably was separated from
Detailed petrographic and stratigraphic studies the main trough by a southwest-trending positive
of Tunisian Mesozoic microfacies by Bismuth et area (Fig. 16). A poorly defined thick area marks
al (1967) and Jurassic strata by Bonnefous (1967) the Erg Oriental basin. Neocomian rocks were re-
are recommended to the interested reader. Both moved from the Nefusa uplift and Tebaga salient
have generalized paleogeographic maps, and later by pre-Aptian erosion. Again, a great trough ap-
comments made on facies distribution in northern peared in central and eastern Tunisia and the Gulf
and central Tunisia were summarized from these of Gabes. Local thins probably resulted from ero-
maps. During most of the time interval repre- sion, but the eastern side of the trough may be
sented by Figure 14, evaporite sedimentation ex- present near Kerkennah Island.
tended to about the latitude of Gabes. A httoral The Saharan region is characterized by a thin
facies characterized by abundance of algal frag- lagoonal-terrestrial facies of shale with beds of
ments was deposited elsewhere except for the Tu- fine-grained sandstone, siltstone, shaly dolomite,
nisian trough (Fig. 2), which had a pelagic envi- and anhydrite. In the trough area, the Meloussi
romnent. Small flows of gas, probably from shore- consists of a very thick section of interbedded
line carbonate rocks, were tested in two wells. SMidstone and shale with a few carbonates and
Jurassic clastic rocks and limestone—The base ofscattered anhydrite; on the north are pelagic marl
this interval is poorly defined, and its top also is and radiolarian shale with ammonites. A few gas
arbitrary, as the contact with the Neocomian is shows were reported from the Meloussi.
gradational (Figs. 10, 11). A shallow trough (Fig. Barremian—The Chicla Formation of Libya
15) constituted the remnants of the Erg Oriental and Boudinar of Tunisia (Figs. 10, 11) are includ-
and Homra basins, and a northern extension may ed in this interval which marks the period of maxi-
have joined the main Jurassic trough on the north. mum regression in the Early Cretaceous. It direct-
Again, nondeposition and erosion have obscured ly underhes the Aptian unconformity and was
expression of the Nefusa uplift and Tebaga salient. stripped back farthest from the Nefusa uplift (Fig.
The very thick section near Gabes is an expression 17), but its absence in southern coastal wells may
of the central Tunisian Jurassic trough described have resulted from nondeposition. The Erg Orien-
by Buchanan and Schwab (1966); most (1,500 m) tal basin is vaguely outlined and extends north-
of the great thickness of limestone and calcareous ward for some distance. The absence of Barremian
shale is Middle Jurassic. Those writers emphasized strata from part of the area of the Neocomian
the role of these beds as reservoir or source rocks, trough suggests a miscorrelation, and the upper
but only a few shows of gas have been foimd. part of the Neocomian may include some Barre-
Thin lagoonal shales and shaly dolomites were mian strata.
deposited on the southern part of the Saharan As far north as Douleb-Semama, subaerial de-
platform during the Middle Jurassic, but more lit- position is indicated by conglomerate, channel
toral conditions farther north are indicated by fos- sandstones, wood and bone fragments, and shale
siliferous micrite with oohtic beds. Near Gabes, an pebbles. Between these deposits and the pelagic
east-west belt of open-marine mixed facies (shale sediments of the Tunisian trough is a zone of mar-
 Geology of Tunisia 433

PANTELLERIA IS.

Mediterranean Sea

i> DOULEB
LAMPEDUSA IS

TAMESM,DAS ^ ^ " " * " *

o SIDI EL ITAYEM
J
ALGERIA ^^"ONKV ENNAH IS

Gulf of Gabes
ASHTART

( TUNISIA ^,,,,

0 40 80
11° KILOMETERS

FIG. 14—Isopach map of Jurassic evaporite interval. CI 100 m. Jurassic evaporite: hydrocarbon shows,
triangles; outcrop, stippled.
434 William F. Bishop

PAMTELLERIA IS

Mediterranean Sea

<3
LAMPEDUSA IS

ALGERIA °i^ll\,\

I^

0 40 80
11° KILOMETERS

Fio. IS—Isopach map of Jurassic clastic rock and limestone interval. CI 100 m, SOO m. Jurassic clastic
rock and limestone: hydrocarbon shows, triangles; outcrop, stippled (northern limit in Libya entirely
covered).
 Geology of Tunisia 435

13°

PANTELLERIA IS

Mediterranean Sea

LAMPEDUSA IS,

ALGERIA °fll'-.\

33°-

(7A-2

-31

MILES
0 10 30 50

0 40 80
KILOMETERS

Fio. 16—Isopach map of Ncocomjan Stage. CI 100 m, 400 m. Neocomian: hydrocarbon shows, triangles;
outcrops, stippled.
436 William F. Bishop

PANTELLERIA IS

Mediterranean Sea

LAMPEOUSA IS

MILES
0 10 30 50

0 40 80
KILOMETERS

FIG. 17—Isopach map of Barremian Stage. CI 100 m. Barremian: hydrocarbon shows, triangles; outcrop,
stippled.
 Geology of Tunisia 437

ly, dolomitic biomicrite, and in these regions no MCFD in 1972 (Nicod, 1973). The hydrocarbon
unconformity is present at the top of the Barrem- accumulations and shows are in a shorehne facies
ian. Thick, porous sandstones are common, but associated with the series of northeast-trending
only two wells encountered even gas shows, and anticlines of a foothills belt which is less disturbed
fresh water was reported in some Saharan wells. than the main Atlas ranges farther north.
Aptian-Albian—The Giado and Uazzen Forma- Cenomanian-Turonian—This interval includes
tions of Libya and the Gafsa of Tunisia are includ- the Ain Tobi, Jefren, and Garian Formations of
ed in this interval (Fig. 11). The Erg Oriental basin Libya and the Zebbag of Tunisia (Fig. 11). The
still was slightly negative and connected with the Late Cretaceous transgression covered most of
remnant of the Homra basin (Fig. 18). Slight thick- North Africa and reached the Hoggar during late
ening is present in the Gulf of Gabes and eastern Cenomanian (Furon, 1963). Whereas depositional
Tunisia but the major thickening is toward the limits of earlier units were in or just south of the
northwest. The north-trending trough in southern study area. Figure 19 shows southward thickening
Tunisia was again present, but shifted slightly into an expanded Erg Oriental-Homra basin. A
from its earUer position. The Nefusa upUft, Teba- remnant of the north-south trough was connected
ga salient, and areas of central and eastern Tunisia with the intracratonic basin west of KebiU. An-
again were exposed, and steep gradients suggest other such basin was present in eastern Tunisia
that much of the thinning was erosional. An un- and the Gulf of Gabes. The large thin area around
conformity is present at the top of the Gafsa in Douleb-Semama is an early expression of Kasse-
most of Tunisia (Burollet, 1967a), but the more rine Island. The area north of KebiU was still posi-
gradual rate of thinning in Libya suggests nonde- tive and may have joined the Nefusa uplift; again,
position along part of the Nefusa uphft. Similar close spacing of contours indicates erosion of
Barremian and Aptian lithologies in a well on much of this area. Local basins and upUfts appar-
Pjerba Island indicate continuous deposition in ently were present on the north.
the Gulf of Gabes basin. The large positive area During the Cenomanian, a lagoonal series of
around El Borma also appears on the next map. shale, dolomite, and anhydrite was deposited
The Aptian transgression extended over most of south of KebiU. In central Tunisia (to about lat.
the Saharan platform, and a thin, fairly uniform 35 °N), a bioclastic facies similar to the Aptian
sheet of dolomite was deposited. Between KebiU "subreefal" facies was deposited except in the
and Sousse, central Tunisia, Uttoral facies of fossil- troughs, which received argillaceous micrites. In
iferous micrite with oosparite were deposited. The the Kasserine thin area, a mixed facies containing
abundance of rudistids, echinoids, foraminifers, benthonic foraminifers, ostracods, and globigeri-
and bryozoans in this sequence led Bismuth et al. nids suggests varying environmental conditions.
(1967) to term it "subreefal;" the southern half of On the north, deposition of radiolarian marl con-
this facies has many vuggy, crystalline dolomite tinued, but extended slightly farther south than
layers. Marl and shale with ammonites and foram- before.
inifers were deposited in the Tunisian trough. According to Busson (1967), Turonian dolomite
In the Albian, the area south of Kebili received is ubiquitous in the northern Sahara and is the
only continental detritus (very fine sand a!nd silty most homogeneous and extensive horizon of the
mud with lignite). Elsewhere the Bou Hedma Mesozoic. Turonian and early Senonian strata
member of the Gafsa Formation (Fig. 11) consists were grouped together by Bismuth et al. (1967),
mostly of interbedded sandstone and shale, and who described the following sequence: Saharan
the Sidi Aich member of fine-grained, well-sorted platform, dolomite and chalky limestone'; south-
sandstone with a few beds of shale and dolomite. em part of central Tunisia, oyster marl with beds
After this brief regression, limestone and dolomite of gypsum and rudistid limestone; northern part,
of the Orbata member indicate further transgres- oyster marl with fossiliferous micrite and oospar-
sion. Pelagic deposition continued in the Tunisian ite; Tunisian trough, deep-water marl and micrite.
trough. The Turonian-Senonian boundary is problematic,
Gas shows are common in the Aptian-Albian, but locaUy a hiatus is present, e.g., in the Gulf of
mostly from carbonate beds of the "subreefal" Gabes. A few shows of oil and gas were reported
complex. This zone has produced oil since 1958 at from Cenomanian and Turonian shallow-marine
Douleb, Semama, and Tamesmida fields; Early carbonate rocks in central Tunisia.
Cretaceous sandstones produce gas at Cap Bon Senonian-Maestrichtian—Included in this inter-
field (Burollet, 1969). Douleb and Tamesmida to- val are the Aleg and Abiod Formations of Tunisia
gether had produced 8,103,657 bbl to 7-1-73, re-
'Well control in Algeria indicates a more restricted environ-
cently averaging 4,344 b/d (Oil and Gas Jour., ment where the early Senonian contains salt near the base, the
1973), and Cap Bon produced an average of 121 remainder being anhydrite, dolomite, and shale.
438 William F. Bishop

PANTELLERia IS

'•^ V /souss£)L Mediterranean Sec

-35'

3I°-

0 40 80
KILOMETERS

Fio. 18—Isopach map of Aptian-Albian Stage. CI 100 m, 400 m. ^tian-Albian: production, black;
hydrocarbon shows, triangles; outcrop, stippled (Gafsa-Zebbag undifferentiated, includes Aptian-Turoni-
an strata).
 Geology of Tunisia 439

PANTELLERIA IS

Mediterranean Sea

LAMPEDUSA IS

ALGERIA °i"oNkt

MILES
0 10 30 50

0 40 80
KILOMETERS

FIG. 19—Isopach map of Cenomanian-Turonian Stage. CI SO m, 200 m. Cenonumian-Turonian: hydrocar-

bon shows, triangles; outcrop, stippled (Gafsa-Zebbag undifferentiated, includes Aptian-Turonian strata).
440 William F. Bishop

and the Mizda of Libya (Fig. 11). Abrupt thinning contoured from subsurface control. The latter re-
near Kebih suggests erosion, but more gradual flects further deposition in the eastern intracraton-
thinning farther south indicates probable nonde- ic basin, but the orientation is northeast, and the
position over the Nefusa uplift (Fig. 20). The Erg depocenter shifted from near Sousse to Kerken-
Oriental and part of the Homra basin are still nah Island. About 100 m of lagoonal sediment was
apparent; the local thin area in the latter probably deposited in an intracratonic basin near Gafsa,
is a result of erosion. The enlarged Kasserine Is- but the El Haria is absent from the rest of southern
land was positive during deposition of this inter- Tunisia and Kasserine Island.
val; the AJeg shale is absent from the center and, Metlaoui Formation—This early Eocene unit
in some places, transgressive Abiod limestone di- transgressed farther onto Kasserine Island than
rectly overiies middle or Lower Cretaceous (Burol- did the El Haria. It consists mostly of limestone,
let, 1967a). Intracratonic basins again were pre- but the lower part may include phosphate (com-
sent south of Kebili and in the eastern mercially extracted around Kasserine Island) and
Tunisia-Gulf of Gabes area. The southward exten- shale. High percentages of gypsum are found in
sion of the latter is indicated by a water well on the
small, restricted intracratonic basins. Although
maiidand south of Djerba Island in which Aleg not mapped because of lack of surface control,
shale was reported. one of these is present near Maknassy (midway
Fades progression from south to north in the between Gafsa and Sfax), and a cross section by
Turonian-early Senonian has been noted. In the Burollet (1967b) showed a thickness of evaporite
late Senonian and early Maestrichtian, transgres- which is more than double that of the nonevapori-
sion ended evaporite deposition on the Saharan tic Metlaoui. Depositionally downdip (northeast),
platform. A bioclastic facies (Inoceramus, oysters, the Metlaoui becomes a massive, widespread car-
bryozoans, and large foraminifers) extended as far bonate rock which has been dated paleontologi-
north as Gafsa. A micritic facies with mixed fauna cally as Ypresian. The three principal biofacies
(planktonic foraminifers alternating with oysters, (coquinoid, nununuhtic, globigerinid; Fig. 22) in-
bryozoans, and echinoids) was deposited north- dicate change in envirormiental conditions from
ward around the flanks of Kasserine Island, which lagoonal to shallow-shoal to deeper water open-
was an area of nondeposition. Micrites with plank- marine.
tonic foraminifers were deposited in the Tunisian Several recent wells have tested good oil flows
trough and in the eastern intracratonic basin. Ba- from calcarenites of the nunmiuUtic facies, which
saltflows,bentonitic shale, and tuff were reported have excellent reservoir characteristics and consist
from several wells near Sfax in this interval and of large foraminifers in a matrix of sand-size shell
also in Albian and Cenomanian strata. debris with a little mud. Where porosity is greatest,
Several wells had gas shows in the Abiod, and nununuUtes were removed by solution, creating
oil is produced from lower Senonian (Coniacian) vugs, and matrix was dolomitized, creating inter-
limestone in Djebel Onk field (Hedberg, 1961); crystalline pore space (Fig. 23). A well near Sfax
cumulative production was 1,697,000 bbl to 7-1- penetrated 175 m of Ypresian limestone; the single
73, and the recent average is 800 b/d (Oil and Gas core taken was described as chalky, recrystallized,
Jour., 1973). nummulitic Umestone with intercrystalhne porosi-
ty averaging 25 percent; permeability is more than
Cenozoic 100 md. Analyses of fresh outcrop samples are in
El Haria Formation—This unit ranges in age the same range. The pelagic facies, believed to be
from Maestrichtian through Danian to Paleocene, the source of hydrocarbons, is a lime mudstone
and the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary only can with traces of bitumen and abundant globigeri-
be determined micropaleontologically (Burollet, nids.
1967a). El Haria usually overlies Abiod limestone Figure 22 was contoured from limited subsur-
conformably, but its distribution and thickness are face data and indicates a northeast-southwest pat-
related to Late Cretaceous paleogeography; e.g., tern of thick and thin areas. Thickness variations
in the stable shelf of eastern Tunisia and in some in Ypresian limestone are extreme on the surface,
positive areas, particularly along the "N-S axis" and seismic isopach maps show subsurface varia-
(Fig. 2), the Danian part is missing. tions of as much as 500 m in 10 km. Prospects are
ITie transgression which began in Late Creta- defined seismically by coincidence of isopach-thin
ceous continued into the Tertiary, and El Haria areas with structural closure.
consists largely of gray, black, or brown shale with A significant Ypresian limestone discovery was
thin interbeds of limestone in the lower half (Bu- made in 1971 at Sidi el Itayem (Fig. 22), where the
rollet, 1967b). The western part of Figure 21 was initial well tested 3,000 b/d. Although Nicod
modified from. Burollet, but the eastern part was (1973) mentioned a potential of 9,000 b/d from
 Geology of Tunisia 441

FIG. 20—Isopach map of Senonian-Maestrichtian Stage. CI 100 m, 400 m. Senonian-Maestrichtian:

production, black; hydrocarbon shows, triangles. Senonian eroded edge, short-dashed line; Maestrichtian
eroded edge, dotted line. Although much of central Tunisia was positive, total absence of mapped interval
should not be construed. As most weUs were drilled on surface anticlines where younger beds were eroded,
strata of this and following maps commonly are present between anticlines, but these erosional remnants
were not mapped.
442 William F. Bishop

1^
13°

— 37°

PANTELLERIA IS.

Mediterranean Sea

I LAMPEDUSA IS.

35°-

ALGERIA °i"oNK\

33°-

\ LIBYA

^ C:>D-23

EL BORMA

RH EL BAGUEL
9
O £JA-2

3I°-
\

/F-90
MILES
0 10 30 50

9° C y 0 40
KILOMETERS
80

J A.

Fio. 21—^Isqwch map of El Haria Foniiation. CI 100 m, 200 m.

 Geology of Tunisia 443

PANTELLERIA IS.

Mediterranean Sea

o
LAMPEOUSA IS
TAMESMIDA "/
O
J
ALGERIA °^"ON'KV

TUNISIA
•
KEBILI

MEDENINE

-33° 33°-

S LIBYA

J' C:)D-23
EL BORMA

<?
RH EL BAGUEL
O Ol^-2

\
; C0C3UIN0I0 \
NUMMULITIC
GLOBIGERINID V / F-90
MILES
0 10 30 50

0 40 80
9° ( KILOMETERS

Fio. 22—Isqwush map of Metlaoui Formation. CI 200 m. Metlaovi: production, black; well capable of
production, circle; hydrocarbon shows, triangles. Fades boundaries modified from Burollet (l%7b).
 William F. Bishop

1975 was reported in the Oil and Gas Journal

(1974). Reserves are estimated at 292 million bbl;
three development wells have been completed,
and a production platform and offshore loading
facilities are under construction. The A-1-137, a
1971 discovery offshore Libya, is believed to be
capable of production from Ypresian limestone.
Gas shows were reported from the Eocene in wells
near Bizerte.
Souar Formation—This largely shale unit of
middle and late Eocene age is present over most
of northern Tunisia, where it commonly is very
thick (1,114 m at the type locaUty). It generally is
underlain by the Metlaoui. In the western part of
the flysch zone (Figs. 2,3), Oligocene is thrust over
the plastic Souar, but in the eastern part, no dis-
placement has been observed, and the sections are
continuous (BuroUet, 1967b). Early Eocene
troughs still were present and received thick de-
posits of gypsum (1,000 m near Maknassy). Only
a small area of subsurface data was mapped on
Figure 24; a few shows of oil and gas were report-
ed from coquinoid interbeds.
Fortuna Formation—As a result of increased
tectonic activity in the Oligocene, thick sands were
deposited in Tunisia. The source of these was be-
heved by BuroUet (1967b) to have been basement
outcrops on the Pelagian craton. The lower part of
the Fortuna is shale with beds of fine-grained
sandstone; the upper part is coarse-grained, mas-
sive, crossbedded sandstone representing shallow-
marine to continental deposition. There common-
ly is a hiatus marked by redbeds at the top.
Distribution of the Fortuna is different from
that of earUer Tertiary strata and reflects a new
tectonic framework. As shown on Figure 25, thick-
nesses vary considerably (see BuroUet, 1967b, for
a more complete map). Oligocene strata are ab-
FIG. 23—^Ypresian carbonate rock from outcrop at Dje- sent, probably because of nondeposition, south
bel Cherahil, Tunisia; (a) polished slab, scale in mm; (b) and west of the zero line and are thin or absent in
thin section, bar is O.S mm. Crystalline dolomite with much of north-central Tunisia. On the northwest,
fabric-selective fossil (niunmuUte) moldic and intercrys- as much as 4,000 m of Oligocene flysch crops out
tal porosity (Choquette and Pray, 1970). Porosity is
about SO percent, most of which is contributed by fossil and is intensely folded and faulted; thick wedges
molds. Pore-filling dolomite and overgrowths on crystals are thrust over older rocks. In the subsurface of
forming pore walls are scarce, indicating that porosity eastern Tunisia, carbonate beds with slight shows
has remained essentially unchanged since its creation. of gas were reported.
Dolomite crystals are mainly hypidiotopic, and most are Miocene - Pliocene — According to BuroUet's
unzoned and free of inclusions. Crystals range in size work (1967b), a pre-Miocene hiatus is present in
from 10-60 fi, average being 40 /t. eastern Tunisia, and the transgressive basal ma-
rine limestone of the Miocene commonly is con-
glomeratic. Elsewhere, older strata are overlain
this well and two confirmation wells, production with angular unconforauty, indicating widespread
had decUned to 7,058 b/d by 7-1-73; cumulative pre-Miocene orogenic or epeirogenic movements.
production was 2,865,458 bbl (Oil and Gas Jour., Increasing tectonic activity culminated in the
1973). An important offshore discovery at Ashtart main Tunisian orogenic phases at the end of the
1 flowed up to 1,500 b/d from 250 ft of Ypresian Miocene and especially at the end of the ViUa-
limestone, and a field potential of 40,000 b/d by franchian Stage of the Pleistocene.
 Geology of Tunisia 445

1 1
7° 13°

-37°

PANTELLERIA IS

Mediterranean Sea

LAMPEDUSA IS

TAMESMIDAS ^^""^'^^

ALGERIA "i^lVki C^FAX-f ^ ^ i ^ ^ E R K E N N A H IS.

GAPS A

J
TUNISIA GABE,
•
KEBILI

MEDENINE

-33° '-\

\ LIBYA

/ C:3D-23

EL BORMA

RH EL BAGUEL
9
O
ot^-z

-31°

' F-90
MILES
0 10 30 50
.y
> y 0 40 80
r ( KILOMETERS

FIG. 24—^Isopach map of Souar Formation. CI 400 m. Souar hydrocarbon shows, triangles.
446 William F. Bishop

PANTELLERIA IS.

Mediterranean Sea

LAMPEDUSA IS.
TAMESMIDA^> ^^'*'*^**^

-35° 35°-

ALGERIA °i^ll\,\
6AFSA

TUNISIA
KEBILI

MEDENINE

— 33°

\ LIBYA

\ / Ci,D-23

EL BORMA r
\

RH EL BAGUEL
O 01^-2
\ \
-31° \ \ 3M

\
i.
;' F-90
MILES
\ / " 0 10 30 50

„. r"^ 0 40 80
^ ( 1,1° KILOMETERS
_l > 1

FIG. 25—Isopach map of Fortuna Formation. CI 400 m, 2,000 m. Fortuna hydrocarbon shows, triangles.
 PANTELLERIA IS.

Mediterranean Sea

LAMPEDUSA IS.

35°-
ALGERIA °i"oNK^,

33°-

3I«-

0 40 80
KILOMETERS

FIG. 26—Isopach map of Miocene-Pliocene stage. CI 100 m, 400 m.

The study area was divided into several unstable A major basin or series of basins with at least
basins, one of which was in southwestern Tunisia 1,300 m of Miocene-Pliocene strata trends north-
and eastern Algeria. Nonmarine deposits of the south through eastern Tunisia and offshore (Fig.
Miocene and Pliocene attain a known maximum 26). The regaiax appearance of the subsurface iso-
thickness of 300 m near Kebili (Fig. 26) and con- pach map is complicated in actuality by local sub-
sist of fine- to coarse-grained sandstone with thin sident basins around pre-Miocene anticlines, but
interbeds of sandy carbonate, shale, and gypsum. these are not shown because of lack of control.
448 William F. Bishop

PANTELLERIA IS

5(?<755fiL • Mediterranean Sea

«3
LAMPEDUSA IS

33 ^^ „ ° *' 35°-

ALGERIA ^^"ON'K'^

-3.1 31°-

MILES
0 10 30 50

0 40 80
KILOMETERS

FiG. 27—^Well control and principal productive trends: (1) Ypresian carbonate; (2) Cambrian-Ordovician
and Triassic sandstone; (3) Cretaceous shoreline. Circles, dry holes; solid circles, wells capable of produc-
tion; large circles, wells billed to basement.
 Geology of Tunisia 449

Basal Miocene here is a sandy, conglomeratic co- Exploration is currently in progress north and
quina which grades upward into a very thick shale south of El Borma.
with interbeds of sandstone, oyster coquina, and Reservoirs of the Cretaceous shoreline trend are
Ugnite. In the eastern coastal area, this series is mostly bioclastic carbonate rocks, but sandstone
overlain unconformably by marine sandstone and is reported in one place. Several small oil fields
coquina of PHocene age. Pliocene fossihferous and one gas field currently are productive from
shale and oyster beds also were reported from reservoirs ranging in age from Aptian to early Sen-
Lampedusa Island. onian. Detailed information is not available, but
Miocene-Pliocene sediments probably were not these accumulations are believed to be controlled
deposited in southern Tunisia, but north of Gafsa structurally. They are on surface anticlines in a
are scattered outcrops of continental beds of this foothills belt which is not so severely deformed as
age. In northern Tunisia (Figs. 2, 3) and extending the main Atlas ranges.
offshore around the Pelagian block to Sicily is a
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