Global environmental issues and

environmental pollution
Air pollutant – agents or contaminants that cause or induce the formation
of air pollution

Classification of air pollutants –

I) Based on origin –
a) Primary pollutants like PM, SO2, CO etc.
b) Secondary pollutants like O3, PAN, H2SO4 etc.

II) Based on states of matter

a) Particulate pollutants or suspended particulate
matters (SPM) like smoke, fly ash, mist etc.
b) Gaseous pollutants like carbon dioxide, oxides of
sulphur, oxides of nitrogen etc.

III) Based on chemical composition

a) Inorganic compounds like carbon dioxide, oxides of sulphur, oxides
of nitrogen, ozone etc.
b) Organic compounds like formaldehyde, acetone etc.
Types of air pollution –
A) Outdoor air pollution
B) Indoor air pollution

Sources of air pollution –

A. Natural – Volcano, storm, forest fire, ocean release, biological

decay etc. release different types of pollutants like sulphur
dioxide, carbon dioxide, methane, ammonia, fly ash, dust
particles etc. into the atmosphere.

B. Anthropogenic – Anthropogenic or man-made sources can be

further divided into
I) Industries
II) automobiles
III) domestic
IV) agriculture
 Air quality standards
The objectives of air quality standards are:
1. To indicate the levels of air quality necessary with an adequate margin of safety to protect
the public health, vegetation and property;
2. To assist in establishing priorities for abatement and control of pollutant level;
3. To provide uniform yardstick for assessing air quality at national level;
4. To indicate the need and extent of monitoring programme.

International standards

• The 2005 World Health Organization's "WHO Air quality guidelines" offer global guidance
on thresholds and limits for 4 key air pollutants that pose health risks - particulate matter
(PM), ozone (O3), nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and sulfur dioxide (SO2).
• The Clean Air Act in the US requires the Environment Protection Agency (EPA) to set
National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) and NAAQS has been set for six
pollutants namely, carbon monoxide, lead, nitrogen dioxide, ozone, particle pollution and
sulphur dioxide.
• Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) has published the Revised National Ambient Air
Quality Standards (NAAQS) in November, 2009 of 12 air pollutants namely PM10, PM2.5,
Lead, Nickel, Arsenic, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, ammonia, ozone, carbon
monoxide, benzene and Benzo(a)Pyrene (BaP).
• The European Union has also developed air quality standards for PM2.5, sulphur dioxide
(SO2), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), PM10, lead (Pb), carbon monoxide (CO), Benzene, Ozone,
Arsenic (As), Cadmium (Cd), Nickel (Ni), Polyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons
 Physical parameters are
colour, odour,
temperature, total
suspended solids, total
dissolved solid (TDS),
turbidity, electrical
conductance etc.

Water
quality
Chemical parameters are
pH, dissolved oxygen (DO), Biological parameters
biochemical oxygen are E. Coli, Coliform
demand (BOD), chemical bacteria,
oxygen demand (COD), Ephemeroptera,
total hardness (TH) , heavy Plecoptera,
metals pesticides, nitrate Trichoptera etc.
etc.
Point and non- point sources

Point sources
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) defines point source pollution as “any
single identifiable source of pollution from which pollutants are discharged, such as a
pipe, ditch, ship or factory smokestack” (Hill, 1997).
For example factories and sewage treatment plants . Factories, including oil refineries,
pulp and paper mills, and chemical, electronics and automobile manufacturers,
typically discharge one or more pollutants in their discharged waters (called effluents).
Some factories discharge their effluents directly into a waterbody. Others treat it
themselves before it is released, and still others send their wastes to sewage
treatment plants for treatment. Sewage treatment plants treat human wastes and
send the treated effluent to a stream or river.

Non- point sources - Non-point sources of pollution are often termed ‘diffuse’
pollution and refer to those inputs and impacts which occur over a wide area and are
not easily attributed to a single source. They are often associated with particular land
uses, as opposed to individual point source discharges. Most nonpoint source
pollution occurs as a result of runoff. When rain or melted snow moves over and
through the ground, the water absorbs and assimilates any pollutants it comes into
contact with (USEPA, 2004b).
 Domestic
source which
includes both
biodegradable
and non-
biodegradable
waste
Radioactive Industrial
Substances waste

Sources of
water
Marine pollution Agricultural
Dumping waste

River Oil
dumping Pollution
Water footprint for a person , company or country can be defined as the ‘ total
volume of fresh water that is used for producing the commodities, goods and services
consumed by the person, company and nation.

Components of water footprint are

i. Blue water footprint
ii. Green water foot print
iii. Grey water footprint

Blue water – refers to fresh water i.e water in lakes, rivers, aquifers etc.

Green water – refers to precipitated water on the land or stored in the soil or
vegetation.

Grey water – waste water generated from domestic activities like bathing , washing
clothes, dishwashing etc.

Black water or sewage – It refers to waste water generated from toilets, garbage
grinders, feces etc. which are generally considered as hazardous.
Effects of water pollution –
❑ Ground water pollution
➢ Seepage of municipal waste and industrial effluents contaminate ground water
➢ Leeching of inorganic fertilizers leads to accumulation of nitrates in water. On
consumption, the nitrates get reduces to nitrites by the intestinal bacteria of
human beings and animals. Accumulation of nitrites in the body damages the
respiratory and vascular system and leads to suffocation. This disease is known as
methaemoglobinemia (blue baby syndrome).
➢ Excess fluoride in drinking water causes teeth deformity, skeletal fluorosis and
knock knee syndrome
➢ Presence of excess arsenic in ground water causes black foot disease (BFD),
diarrhoea, hyper keratosis and cancer of lungs, bladder, skin etc.
➢ Chronic lead poisoning causes fatigue, weakness, paralysis etc.

❑ Industrial effluents
Industrial wastes contain large amount of heavy metals, toxic chemical, non –
biodegradable waste etc. which directly or indirectly affect the whole ecosystem. Mercury
poisoning causes Minamata disease. Cadmium causes a painful disease of joints and bones
known as itai-itai (ouch – ouch). Cadmium poisoning also causes cancer of lungs and liver.
❑ Domestic sewage
Diseases like dysentery, cholera, typhoid, jaundice, hepatitis are caused by water
polluted by domestic sewage.
❑ Eutrophication - the process by which a body of water becomes enriched in dissolved
nutrients (such as nitrogen and phosphorus) that stimulate the growth of aquatic plant
life usually resulting in the depletion of dissolved oxygen (DO). It leads to an explosive
increase in the growth of algae, called algal blooms.
Types of eutrophication –
i. Natural eutrophication - gradual buildup of nutrients, sediments and organic
material begin to fill many lake basins over centuries.
ii. Cultural eutrophication - The alteration of nutrient input to water basins by
anthropogenic activity can dramatically increase eutrophication, leading to major
ecological changes in decades, rather than centuries. One of the primary sources of
man-caused sedimentary eutrophication is soil erosion caused by the removal of
trees and vegetation.
Sources of eutrophication –
Point sources are municipal and industrial wastewater runoff, runoff and leaching from
waste disposal systems, animal feedlots, hog and chicken farming operations and
industrial sites etc.
Non- point sources include runoff from agriculture and pastures, runoff from urban areas
without sewer systems and abandoned mines, as well as leaching from septic tanks,
atmospheric deposition etc.
Effects of eutrophication –
✓ It leads to an increase in phytoplankton biomass and algal blooms. This can result in
decreased water clarity, a reduction in sunlight penetration and a decrease in oxygen
levels, known as anoxia.
✓ Decomposition of algal blooms leads to oxygen depletion in water. Thus with a high CO,
level and poor oxygen supply, aquatic organism begin to die and the clean water turns
into stinking drain.
✓ During eutrophication, algal blooms release toxic chemicals which kill fishes, birds and
other aquatic animals
Biomagnification
Also known bioamplification or biological
magnification. It is the process by which a compound
(such as a pollutant or pesticide) increases its
concentration in the tissues of organisms as it travels
up the food chain. As a result of biomagnification,
organisms at the top of the food chain generally suffer
greater harm from a persistent toxin or pollutant than
those at lower levels.
For example - For example, spraying a marsh to control
mosquitoes will cause trace amounts of DDT to
accumulate in the cells of microscopic aquatic
organisms, the plankton, in the marsh.
In feeding on the plankton, filter-feeders, like clams
and some fish, harvest DDT as well as food.
(Concentrations of DDT 10 times greater than those in
the plankton have been measured in clams.)
The process of concentration goes right on up the food
chain from one trophic level to the next. Gulls, which
feed on clams, may accumulate DDT to 40 or more
times the concentration in their prey. This represents a
400-fold increase in concentration along the length of
this short food chain
Bioaccumulation
refers to the accumulation of a toxic chemical in the tissue of a particular organism.
An example of bioaccumulation is the use of DDT as an insecticide in the 1950s and
1960s. Birds of prey were badly affected because it made the shells of their eggs very
thin, causing them to break easily when the birds tried to incubate them.
Biological or Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
It represents the amount of oxygen consumed by bacteria and other microorganisms while
they decompose organic matter under aerobic conditions at a specified temperature. he
BOD value is most commonly expressed in milligrams of oxygen consumed per litre of
sample during 5 days of incubation at 20 °C.
It is an important water quality parameter because it provides an index to assess the effect
discharged wastewater will have on the receiving environment. The higher the BOD value,
the greater the amount of organic matter or “food” available for oxygen consuming
bacteria. If the rate of dissolved oxygen (DO) consumption by bacteria exceeds the supply of
DO from aquatic plants, algae photosynthesis or diffusing from air, unfavourable conditions
occur. Depletion of DO causes stress on aquatic organisms, making the environment
unsuitable for life. Dramatic depletion can lead to hypoxia or anoxic environments.

Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)

Chemical oxygen demand (COD) is a measure of the capacity of water to consume oxygen
during the decomposition of organic matter and the oxidation of inorganic chemicals such
as Ammonia and nitrite. The chemical oxygen demand test procedure is based on the
chemical decomposition of organic and inorganic contaminants, dissolved or suspended in
water. A commonly used oxidant in COD assays is potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) which is
used in combination with boiling sulfuric acid (H2SO4).
It is commonly expressed in mass of oxygen consumed over volume of solution which in SI
units is milligrams per litre (mg/L).
 MINAMATA DISASTER

Mercury was in the waste product

dumped into Minamata Bay of Japan on
a massive scale by a chemical plant.
Methyl mercury had accumulated in
fishes and shellfishes and those who ate
them had been poisoned with it. These
cases of the poisoning with organic
mercury poisoning were the first to take
place in the world through the food
chain transfer of its environmental
pollution. The cases of organic mercury
poisoning that had been known prior to
Minamata Disease occurred as the
result of the direct poisoning of those
who were engaged in organic-mercury
handling occupations or those who took
it in accidentally
Harmful effects:
Foetuses are most susceptible to developmental effects due to mercury.
Methylmercury exposure in the womb can result from a mother's consumption of
fish and shellfish. It can adversely affect a baby's growing brain and nervous
system. The primary health effect of methylmercury is impaired neurological
development. Therefore, cognitive thinking, memory, attention, language, and fine
motor and visual spatial skills may be affected in children who were exposed to
methylmercury as foetuses.
Wetlands
Wetlands are ecosystems saturated with water, either seasonally or permanently. They
store water and ensure its quality, providing resilience against drought. They are among
the world’s most productive environments; cradles of biological diversity that provide the
water and productivity upon which countless species of plants and animals depend for
survival.
According to the RAMSAR Convention, wetlands include: “all lakes and rivers,
underground aquifers, swamps and marshes, wet grasslands, peat lands, oases, estuaries,
deltas and tidal flats, mangroves and other coastal areas, coral reefs, and all human made
sites such as fish ponds, rice paddies, reservoirs and salt pans”.
There are four main kinds of wetlands – marsh, swamp, bog and fen (bogs and fens being
types of mires)
Wetlands are often referred to as “Earth’s kidneys” because they absorb the wastes such
as nitrogen and phosphorous.
Importance of wetlands
❑ Ecosystem services provided by wetlands carbon sequestration, flood control,
groundwater recharge, nutrient removal, toxics retention and biodiversity
maintenance.
❑ Ecosystem goods provided by wetlands are water for irrigation; fisheries; non-timber
forest products; water supply; and recreation
 East Kolkata Wetlands (EKW)– A Ramsar Site
It is the world’s only fully functional organic sewage management system. These
wetlands receive the city’s sewage, organically treat it with the help of sunshine,
oxygen and microbial action and turn into a productive fish habitat. It acts as a
natural flood defence for the low-lying city.
➢ Primary waste water treatment – It involves sedimentation of solid waste within the
water. Wastewater is passed through several tanks and filters that separate water from
contaminants and the resulting “sludge” is then fed into a digester, in which further
processing takes place. This primary batch of sludge contains nearly 50% of suspended
solids within wastewater.

➢ Secondary Wastewater Treatment –

▪ Biofiltration It employs sand filters, contact filters, or trickling filters to ensure that
additional sediment is removed from wastewater. Of the three filters, trickling filters are
typically the most effective for small-batch wastewater treatment.
▪ Aeration - Aeration is a long, but effective process that entails mixing wastewater with
a solution of microorganisms.
▪ Oxidation Ponds In this method, wastewater is allowed to pass through this body for a
period of time and is then retained for two to three weeks. Oxidation ponds are
typically used in warmer places

➢ Tertiary Waste water treatment –

It is the removal of phosphates and nitrates from the water supply. Substances like
activates carbon and sand are among the most commonly used materials in this process.
NOISE POLLUTION
 Noise on the other
. hand is an
unpleasant sound
especially a loud
one comprising of
shouts too.

Thus, it is understood that there is

unpleasantness about noise whereas there
is no unpleasantness about sound.
SOURCES OF NOISE POLLUTION
Industrial – High intensity noise
caused by different types of
machines in industries, factories
and mills.

Transport - Transport noise mainly

consists of traffic noise from road,
rail and aircraft.

Neighbourhood - This type of noise

includes disturbance from household
gadgets and community. Common
sources being musical instruments,
TV, VCR, Radios, Transistors,
Telephones, and loudspeakers etc.
IMPACT OF NOISE POLLUTION

Audiological – affecting satisfactory performance of

hearing mechanism. Excess of noise pollution may
lead to temporary or permanent loss of hearing

Biological – interfering with the biological

functioning of the body. Adverse biological effect of
noise include cardiovascular problems (like heart
diseases, high blood pressure etc.), neurosensory
impairment (nervous disorder, short memory etc.),
sleep interference, mental stress etc.

Behavioural – affecting the sociological behaviour of

individuals. They include mental stress, interference
with communication, irritability etc.
 Identifying
noise issues or
sources

Planning noise
mitigation and
Continual control
improvement measures

management
Implementation
Periodic review and operation
of noise control

Assessment and
corrective
action
Radiation pollution is defined as the release of radioactive substances or high-energy
particles into the air, water, or earth by natural or anthropogenic sources.

Radioactivity – spontaneous emission of radiation from a nucleus.

Units of radioactivity
The original unit for measuring the amount of radioactivity was
the curie (Ci)
1 curie = 3.7x1010 radioactive decays per second
In the International System of Units (SI) the curie has been replaced
by the becquerel (Bq), where
1 becquerel = 1 radioactive decay per second = 2.703x10-11 Ci.
 Radiation dose
➢ Three “R”s of radiation –
1. Roentgen – unit of exposure, unit of exposure, energy deposition in air,
specific energy deposition in air, specific to X –rays.
2. Rad(Radiation Absorbed Dose)
3. Rem (Roentgen Equivalent in Man)

➢ Radiation dose
❑ The absorbed dose( also known as physical dose) defined by the amount of energy
deposited in a unit mass in human tissue or other media.
The original unit is the rad (Radiation Absorbed Dose)[100 erg/g];
it is now being widely replaced by the SI unit, the gray (Gy) [1 J/kg],
where 1 gray = 100 rad.
❑ The biological dose, sometimes also known as the dose equivalent, expressed in
units of rem (Roentgen Equivalent in Man)or, in the SI system, sievert (Sv).
This dose reflects the fact that the biological damage caused by a particle depends not
only on the total energy deposited but also on the rate of energy loss per unit distance
traversed by the particle (or "linear energy transfer")
1 Sv = 100 rem
 Sources of radiation pollution

Natural sources

1. Radioactive minerals - The minerals containing Uranium- 235 (U235), Uranium-238

(U238), Thorium-232 (Th232), Plutonium- 239 (Pu239) etc. are capable of emitting
energetic radiations causing pollution.

2. Cosmic rays - The cosmic rays containing highly energetic particles reach the
surface of the earth causing pollution. The intensity of cosmic rays depends on
latitudes and altitude of the place. The intensity is maximum at the poles and
minimum at the equator.

3. Radio nuclides - The unstable radio-nuclides in the atmosphere can be splitted up

into smaller parts emitting energetic radiation. The smaller radio-nuclides enter
into the body of organism along with air during respiration
 Man- made sources

1. Radio-active Wastes:
The nuclear power plants produce a lot of nuclear radio-active wastes. The disposal of
these wastes has become a global problem. Some countries producing large quantity
of nuclear wastes dump them in ocean near other countries.

2. Nuclear Power Plants:

Nuclear power plants emit radiation to a very smaller extent except accidental leaks
(Chernobyl accident of undivided USSR).

3. Nuclear Explosion: During nuclear explosion, a large number of radio-nuclides are

generated in the atmosphere. The radio nuclides settle down with rain contaminating
the soil and water bodies. Finally, these enter into food chain causing serious problem
to the living organisms.

4. Radio-isotopes:
Radio-isotopes are also prepared artificially either by nuclear fusion or by nuclear
fission. If these radio-isotopes are not properly handled, these emit radiations causing
pollution.
Adverse effects of radiation pollution –

On environment –
❑ When soil is contaminated by radioactive substances, the harmful substances are transferred into the plants
growing on it thereby leading to genetic mutation and affects the plant's normal functioning. As green plants are
the base of all food chains, their contamination can lead to radioactive deposition all along the food web.
❑ When radioactive substances are washed down the water source, they can affect the entire aquatic food web.

On human beings –
The magnitude of the adverse effects largely depends on the level and duration of exposure to
radioactivity.

• Low levels of localized exposure may only have a superficial effect and cause mild skin irritation.
• Effects of long, but low-intensity exposures include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, loss of hair, bruises due to
subcutaneous bleeding etc.
• Radiation may cause skin burns which may lead to skin cancer.
• disrupts central nervous system, loss of sight, inactivation of bone marrow activity.
• Shortening of life and changes in characteristics due to mutation. This effect can be passed on to the future
generations as well.
 and high risk analysis
Control measures for radiat

• Global understanding about nuclear explosions

 Solid waste management (SWM) is the collection,
transportation, processing, disposal or recycling and
monitoring of the solid wastes.

The objectives of solid waste management

are –

1. to identify the different sources, nature

and volume of solid wastes in an area
2. to identify any potential environmental
impacts from the generation of waste in
that area
3. to categorise waste material where
practicable for disposal considerations
4. to recommend appropriate waste
handling and disposal measures
5. to recommend recycling and reuse ,
where ever applicable
6. to encourage energy generation from
the wastes and sustainable development
 Municipal
solid waste
(MSW)

Biomedical Hazardous
wastes wastes
Types
of solid
wastes

Agricultural Industrial
wastes wastes
E waste (electronic waste)
As per the e-waste management guidelines provided by
Government of India, definition of e-waste is as follows -
“E-waste comprises of wastes generated from used
electronic devices and household appliances which are not
fit for their original intended use and are destined for
recovery, recycling or disposal. Such wastes encompass
wide range of electrical and electronic devices such as
computers, Executive Summary 7 hand held cellular
phones, personal stereos, including large household
appliances such as refrigerators, air conditioners etc.”

Items and their toxic components

COMPONENTS CONSTITUENTS
➢ Printed circuit boards Lead & cadmium
➢ Cathode ray tubes (CRTs) Lead oxide & Cadmium
➢ Switches & flat screen monitors Mercury
➢ Computer batteries Cadmium
➢ Capacitors and transformers Poly Chlorinated Bi-phenyls (PCB)
➢ Printed circuit boards, plastic Brominated Flame Retardant casings cable
➢ Cable insulation/coating Poly Vinyl Chloride (PVC)
 Rapidly increasing volume of e-waste
 Low level of awareness of the hazards of incorrect disposal
 Widespread e-waste recycling in informal sector using rudimentary
techniques leads to severe environmental damage and health hazards
 Recyclers recover precious metals and improperly dispose off the rest.
Moreover, inefficient recycling processes result in substantial loss of
material value
 Absence of proper mechanism for Collection of e-waste material and its
proper disposal techniques
 Effective recycling processes through technologically sound systems involve
initial investment
 Huge gap between generation & recycling of E-Waste
 Lack of producer responsibility for take back of products, at the end of its
useful life.
 Biomedical waste

Waste generated during the diagnosis, testing, treatment, research or production

of biological products for humans or animals (WHO)

Sources of biomedical waste:

Hospitals , health care centers, research
centers, blood banks, medical college,
dentist’s clinic, animal houses, vaccination
centers etc.

Biomedical waste management :

➢ Characterization
➢ Quantification
➢ Segregation
➢ Storage
➢ Transportation
➢ Treatment
➢ Disposal
 Recycling is the process of collecting and processing materials
that would otherwise be thrown away as trash and turning them
into new products. It is a key component of modern waste
management is the third component of the "Reduce, Reuse, and
Recycle"

Benefits :
❑ It reduces the amount of waste sent to landfills and
incinerators and saves energy
❑ It Prevents pollution by reducing the need to collect new
raw materials and conserves natural resources (like timber,
water and minerals)
❑ It creates job opportunities in various manufacturing and
recycling industries.
Methods of solid waste disposal -

1. Composting - Composting is a
biological process in which micro-
organisms, mainly fungi and bacteria,
convert degradable organic waste into
humus like substance.

Advantages of composting –
▪ It helps the in retaining more
nutrients in the soil and providing all
the elements essential for growth of
plants
▪ It helps reduce the adverse effects of
excessive alkalinity, acidity, or the
excessive use of chemical fertilizer and
enrich the soil
▪ It prevents soil erosion
 2. Sanitary Landfill –
The waste is spread out in thin layers and compacted. When the landfill is completed, it is
capped with a layer of clay or a synthetic liner in order to prevent water from entering. A
final topsoil cover is placed, compacted, and graded, and various forms of vegetation may
be planted in order to reclaim otherwise useless landIn modern sanitary landfills, covered
with an impermeable liner, usually several layers of clay, thick plastic and sand and
sometimes with some impermeable synthetic liner.

Leachate from bottom is pumped and sent for treatment. Wells are drilled near the landfill site to
monitor if any leakage is contaminating ground water. Methane produced by anaerobic
decomposition is collected and burnt to produce electricity or heat.
Advantages of sanitary landfill –
❑ It is a cost effective method for disposal of solid waste
❑ Landfill gas can be used for the generation of energy
❑ Proper monitoring of the disposal method can be done

Disadvantages of sanitary landfill –

➢ Ground water contamination
➢ Soil contamination
➢ Improper landfilling may lead to growth of vectors such as flies, mosquitoes, rats
etc.
While selecting the sanitary landfill site…..
✓ It should be above the water table, to minimize interaction with
groundwater
✓ Avoid using sand, gravel pits, rock quarry to to prevent high
leeching
✓ Avoid using flood plain as sanitary landfill sites. Most garbage
tends to be less dense than water, so if the area of the landfill
floods, the garbage will float to the top and wash away
downstream.
3. Incineration
A waste disposal method which involves the combustion of organic substances. Incineration of
waste materials converts the waste into ash , flue gas and heat.

Advantages
❑ It is useful for disposal of residue of
both solid waste management and
solid residue from waste water
management

Disadvantage –
❑ It is a costly method for disposal of
solid waste
Photochemical smog (also known as Los Angeles smog)

The complex mixture of products formed from the interaction of sunlight with
major components of automobile exhaust, nitric oxide and hydrocarbon.

Favorable conditions for smog formation –

❑ intense sunlight
❑ high concentration of oxides of nitrogen and hydrocarbon
❑ stagnant air

Formation of photochemical smog –

➢ Formation of oxides of nitrogen
Atmospheric nitrogen reacts with nearby oxygen to form nitrogen monoxide.
N2 + O2 => 2NO
Nitrogen monoxide further reacts with oxygen to form nitrogen dioxide.
2NO + O2 => 2NO2
In nature, nitrous oxide (N2O) is produced by soil bacteria and oxidized to nitric
oxide (NO) by atomic oxygen in the atmosphere:
N2O + O => 2NO
➢ Formation of Ozone
In the early morning, the concentration of NO increases in the atmosphere mainly
from the automobile exhausts. As the morning progresses, the concentration of NO
gradually decreases due to oxidation by O2 and the concentration of NO2 increases.
With increase in intensity of sunlight, the rate of oxidation of NO gradually increases
which in turn increases concentration of ozone.
2NO + O2 2NO2
NO2 + hv (λ< 390 nm) NO + O
O + O2 + M O3 +M
M is the third body which absorbs the excess energy formed in the reaction to
stabilize O3.
➢ Formation of hydrocarbons
Vehicular exhaust is the major source of hydrocarbons in the atmosphere.
➢ Formation of particulates
The tiny particulate matters are mainly formed from incomplete
combustion resulting in soot
(carbon). Incineration plants, factories and diesel vehicles are sources of emission.
Incineration plants, factories and diesel vehicles are sources of emission.
➢ Formation of Peroxy acyl nitrate (PAN)
RCHO + OH• => RC•O + H2O
RC•O + O2 => R(O)OO• (acyl peroxy radical)
RC(O)OO• + •NO2 => RC(O)OONO2 (PAN)
Adverse effects of photochemical smog

•Both ozone and PAN act as powerful eye irritants

• Ozone and nitric oxide irritate the nose and throat and their high
concentration causes headache, chest pain, dryness of the throat,
cough and difficulty in breathing
• It also causes corrosion of metals, stones, building materials, rubber
and painted surfaces
• Photochemical smog leads to cracking of rubber and extensive
damage to plant life
• Ozone reduces plant growth rate and reduces crop production

Control of photochemical smog

Photochemical smog is a secondary pollutant. So the control the

primary precursors of photochemical smog, such as NO2 and
hydrocarbons, the secondary precursors such as ozone and PAN, the
photochemical smog will automatically be reduced. Usually catalytic
converters are used in the automobiles, which prevent the release of
nitrogen oxide and hydrocarbons to the atmosphere.
ACID RAIN Acid rain, or acid deposition, is a
broad term that includes any form of
precipitation with acidic components,
such as sulphuric or nitric acid that
fall to the ground from the atmosphere
in wet or dry forms. This can include
rain, snow, fog, hail or even dust that
is acidic.
 On oceans
and aquatic
life

On building
On forest
architecture
and soil
and metals Effects
of acid
rain

On
On public vegetation
health cover and
plantation
WHAT CAN YOU DO TO PREVENT ACID RAIN?

1. Use of alternative sources of energy like wind energy,

geothermal energy, solar energy, hydropower, and nuclear
power. This will reduce the amount of acid forming gases into
the atmosphere.

2. Implementation of emission reduction technologies.

Washing coal, use of coal comprised of low sulphur, and use
of scrubbers can reduce the emission of sulphur dioxide from
the industries. Emission of oxide of nitrogen from automobile
fossil fuel combustions are mitigated by using catalytic
converters.

3. Restoration of the damaged environment. Use of

limestone or lime (a process called liming) can balance the
acidity of water and thus repair the damage caused by acid
rain to lakes, rivers and brooks

4. Awareness about energy conservation and ways of

reducing emissions .
Ozone can be thought of as “Good” ozone in the stratosphere and “Bad”
ozone in the troposphere.
Mechanism of Ozone destruction by CFC in the Stratosphere

When ultraviolet light waves (UV) strike CFC (CFCl3) molecules in the upper
atmosphere, a carbon-chlorine bond breaks, producing a chlorine (Cl) atom. The
chlorine atom then reacts with an ozone (O3) molecule breaking it apart and so
destroying the ozone. This forms an ordinary oxygen molecule(O2) and a chlorine
monoxide (ClO) molecule. Then a free oxygen atom breaks up the chlorine
monoxide. The chlorine is free to repeat the process of destroying more ozone
molecules.
Why ozone hole occurs mainly over Antarctica?

The unique atmospheric conditions prevailing over Antarctica which

help in creating the ideal environment for ozone destruction –
1) Antarctica has the coldest winter on Earth. This chilling temperature
results in the formation of polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs) which
are a conglomeration of frozen H2O and HNO3. On the surface of
PSCs, ClONO2 is formed which undergoes transformations –

ClONO2 + HCl Cl2 + HNO3

Photolysis of the Cl2 molecules at polar sunrise produces chlorine
atoms, a reactive species to initiate ozone depletion.
Cl2 + light 2 Cl

2) At the beginning of the austral winter, a large, circular vortex

develops over the Antarctic continent .This vortex effectively
isolates the air above Antarctica from mid latitude air, preventing
ozone-rich air from the tropics from mixing with the polar air.
Effects of stratospheric ozone depletion

Depletion of stratospheric ozone layer penetration of more

UV radiation in the Earth’s biosphere. This leads to

❑ skin cancer
❑ eye damage
❑ immune system damage
❑ reduced photosynthesis and reduction in phytoplankton
❑ affects crop productivity
❑ damage to DNA in various life forms

How to control ozone depletion?

• As chlorofluoro carbons are responsible for depletion of ozone layer, their
use should be stopped.
•Hydrofluoro carbon can be used as alternative to CFCs. Due to the
presence of H- bond, HFCs participate in chemical reaction by which they
get destroyed in the troposphere and can not reach the stratosphere.
•Different protocols were signed in Montreal, London and Kyoto in 1987,
1992 and 1997 respectively for reducing ozone depletion
El Nino is a Spanish word. The term El Nino basically means ‘the child’.
This is due to the fact that this current starts to flow around Christmas and hence
the name referring to baby Christ.

During normal conditions in the Pacific ocean, trade winds blow west along the
equator, taking warm water from South America towards Asia. To replace that
warm water, cold water rises from the depths — a process called upwelling. El
Niño and La Niña are two opposing climate patterns that break these normal
conditions. Scientists call these phenomena the El Niño-Southern Oscillation
(ENSO) cycle. El Niño and La Niña can both have global impacts on weather,
wildfires, ecosystem, and economies. Episodes of El Niño and La Niña typically
last nine to 12 months, but can sometimes last for years. El Niño and La Niña
events occur every two to seven years, on average, but they don’t occur on a
regular schedule. Generally, El Niño occurs more frequently than La Niña.
can be defined as the organization and management of resources
and responsibilities for dealing with all humanitarian aspects of
emergencies, in particular preparedness, response and recovery in
order to lessen the impact of disasters.
 The United Nations defines disaster as the occurrences as ‘the of sudden or
major misfortune which disrupts the basic fabric and normal functioning of the
society or community.’

As per the Disaster Management Act, 2005, disaster can be defined as :

‘ a catastrophe, mishap, calamity or grave occurrence in any area, arising
from natural or manmade causes, or by accident or negligence which
results in substantial loss of life or human suffering or damage to , and
destruction of, property, or damage to, or degradation of, environment,
and is of such a nature or magnitude as to be beyond the coping capacity
of the community of the affected area.’
Types of disasters –

➢ Natural or geogenic disaster: including floods, hurricanes, earthquakes,

volcano eruptions, fires, tsunami etc.

➢Man-made or anthropogenic disaster

Environmental emergencies: including technological or industrial
accidents, usually involving the production, use or transportation of
hazardous material, and occur where these materials are produced, used or
transported, and forest fires caused by humans
Pandemic emergencies: involving a sudden onset of contagious
disease that affects health, disrupts services and businesses, brings economic
and social costs
Complex emergencies: involving a break-down of authority, looting
and attacks on strategic installations, including conflict situations and war.
Traffic emergencies: involving air, rail, road or ship related accidents.
 Preparedness –
activities prior to
disaster

Mitigation –
Response –
activities that Disaster activities
reduce the management during a
effects of
disaster
disaster

Recovery –
activities during
a disaster
 Disaster management in India
Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA)

National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA)

National Executive Committee Advisory

National National
comprising of representatives from committee
Institute of Disaster
the ministries and departments
controlling agriculture, defence, Disaster Response
environment and forest, water supply, Manageme Force
finance health etc. nt

State Disaster Management

Authority

State Executive Committee Advisory Committee

District Disaster Management Authority

Case study: Earthquake of Nepal in 2015
Nepal earthquake of 2015(also called Gorkha earthquake) was severe earthquake that struck
near the city of Kathmandu in central Nepal on April 25, 2015. It killed nearly 9,000 people
and injured nearly 22,000. It occurred at 11:56 Nepal Standard Time on 25 April. The initial
shock was of moment magnitude of 7.8. Its epicentre was about 21 miles (34 km) east-
southeast of Lamjung and 48 miles (77 km) northwest of Kathmandu, and its focus was 9.3
miles (about 15 km) underground. Two large aftershocks, with moment magnitudes 6.6 and
6.7, shook the region within one hour of the main quake, and several dozen smaller
aftershocks occurred in the region during the succeeding days.
A major aftershock occurred on 12 May
2015 at 12:50 NST with a moment
magnitude (Mw) of 7.3.The epicenter was
near the Chinese border between the capital
of Kathmandu and Mt. Everest. More than
200 people were killed and over 2,500 were
injured by this aftershock.
 Cyclone
A cyclone is an intense low pressure area or a whirl in the atmosphere over tropical or sub-
tropical waters, with organised convection (i.e. thunderstorm activity) and winds at low levels,
circulating either anti-clockwise (in the northern hemisphere) or clockwise (in the southern
hemisphere). It is usually characterized by destructive wind, storm surges and torrential rainfall.
The word Cyclone is derived from the Greek word Cyclos meaning the coils of a snake. It was
coined by Henry Peddington because the tropical storms in the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian
Sea appear like coiled serpents of the sea.
Cyclones are classified as:
(i) extra tropical cyclones (also called temperate cyclones); and
(ii) tropical cyclone
The development cycle of tropical cyclones may be divided into three stages:

Formation and Initial Development Stage

The formation and initial development of a cyclonic storm depends upon
▪ A warm sea (a temperature in excess of 26 degrees Celsius to a depth of 60 m) with abundant
and turbulent transfer of water vapour to the overlying atmosphere by evaporation.
▪ Atmospheric instability encouraging formation of massive vertical cumulus clouds due to
convection with condensation of rising air above ocean surface.
Mature Tropical Cyclones
When a tropical storm intensifies, the air rises in vigorous thunderstorms and tends to spread
out horizontally at the tropopause level. Once air spreads out, a positive perturbation pressure
at high levels is produced, which accelerates the downward motion of air due to convection.
With the inducement of subsidence, air warms up by compression and a warm ‘Eye’ is
generated. Generally, the ‘Eye’ of the storms has three basic shapes: (i) circular; (ii) concentric;
and (iii) elliptical. The main physical feature of a mature tropical cyclone in the Indian Ocean is a
concentric pattern of highly turbulent giant cumulus thundercloud bands.

Modification and Decay

A tropical cyclone begins to weaken in terms of its central low pressure, internal warmth and
extremely high speeds, as soon as its source of warm moist air begins to ebb, or is abruptly cut
off.
Components of National Cyclone Risk Mitigation Project (NCRMP)
1. Improving early warning broadcasting system
Establishment of Early Warning System (EWS) comprising of observation, prediction,
warning and advice, commissioning of early Aircraft Probing of Cyclone(APC),
National Disaster Communication Infrastructure (NDCI) etc.
1. Cyclone risk mitigation investment
It covers mapping coastal wetlands and mangroves, ensuring lifeline infrastructure in
coastal areas, developing Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM), designing of
drainage system to carry additional flow
3. Technical assistance for hazard risk management and capacity building
It covers all the aspects from prevention to recovery and involves training knowledge
management, technology framework etc.
4. Project management and support from institution
Cyclone impact assessment, rescue and evacuation plans, identification of vulnerable
population, medical preparedness etc. are covered by this.
Cyclone Aila
Severe Cyclonic Storm Aila hit the west Bengal coast at 88E, west of the Bangladesh border,
on 25th May 2009. It caused a storm surge of 2-3m above tide levels along the west Bengal
and Bangladesh coasts, with severe devastation to these areas. Aila was the second tropical
cyclone of the 2009 season. It formed as a tropical depression 950km south of Kolkata on
21st May. It intensified over the next few days while moving northwards, becoming classified
as a severe cyclonic storm early on 25th May. A storm surge of 2-3 m above tide levels was
experienced along the coasts of West Bengal and the adjoining areas of Bangladesh. This was
in line with forecasts made ~19 hrs before landfall.
 Landslide
It involves the down slope slipping of soil and rocks or rock pieces under the influence of
gravity.

Natural causes of landslides –

❑ induced by earthquake
❑ prolonged rainfall or incessant heavy rain
❑ Erosion caused by sporadic running water such as streams, rivers, wind, currents, ice
and waves wipes out latent and lateral slope support enabling landslides to occur easily.
❑ Volcanic eruptions can trigger landslides.

Man-made causes off landslide-

➢ deforestation for timber extraction and other purposes
➢ Mining activities that utilize blasting techniques contribute mightily to landslides.
Vibrations emanating from the blasts can weaken soils in other areas susceptible to
landslides.
 Malpa landslide (1998)
It is one of the worst landslides in India. The rockfall started on 16 August bringing
down huge rocks which initially killed three mules. On 18 August 1998 at 3.00 a.m.,
massive landslides wiped away the entire village of Malpa in the Pithoragarh
district of Uttarakhand, then in Uttar Pradesh in Kali Valley of Higher Kumaon
division of the Himalayas. The rockfall continued till 21 August. According to Wadia
Institute of Himalayan Geology, this area lies in a seismic zone and the earthquakes of
1979 and 1980 may have been the underlying cause. The landslide generated around
one million cubic meters of rock fall and debris flow. This debris partially blocked
the Sharda River. The landslide prevailed mostly due to steep, almost vertical, slopes of
rock above the valley. In addition to the slopes, the proximity of the rock mass to major
tectonic plates, major rainfall into the porous rock, and stress on the rock formations all
contributed to the landslide.
GANGA ACTION PLAN
The works of started with the launching of the Ganga Action Plan (GAP) Phase-I in
the year 1985. Subsequently, GAP Phase-II was initiated which included the works
on the major tributaries of the river Ganga, namely, Yamuna, Gomti and Damodar.
Since GAP Phase I did not cover the pollution load of Ganga fully, GAP Phase II,
which includes plans for Yamuna, Gomti and Damodar besides Ganga, was approved
in stages between 1993 and 1996.

During the course of the journey of Ganga from the hills to the sea, municipal sewage
from large urban centres, trade effluents from industries and polluting waste from
several other non-point sources are discharged into the river resulting in its pollution.
It was launched in the year 1985.
At the time of launching, the main objective of GAP was to improve the water quality
of Ganga to acceptable standards by preventing the pollution load reaching the river.

Namami Gange Programme

‘Namami Gange Programme’, is an Integrated Conservation Mission, approved as
‘Flagship Programme’ by the Union Government in June 2014 with budget outlay of
Rs.20,000 Crore to accomplish the twin objectives of effective abatement of pollution,
conservation and rejuvenation of National River Ganga.
Bhopal disaster, chemical leak in 1984
in the city of Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India.
On December 3, 1984, about 45 tons of the
dangerous gas methyl isocyanate escaped from
an insecticide plant that was owned by the
Indian subsidiary of the American firm Union
Carbide Corporation. The gas drifted over the
densely populated neighborhood around the
plant, killing thousands of people immediately
and creating a panic as tens of thousands of
others attempted to flee Bhopal. The final
death toll was estimated to be between 15,000
and 20,000. Some half a million survivors
suffered respiratory problems, eye irritation or
blindness, and other maladies resulting from
exposure to the toxic gas;
Delhi Air Pollution and public health issues
Sources of Pollution:
•Vehicular Emissions
•Industrial Activities
•Construction Dust.
•Crop Residue Burning
• Geographical local location
Public Health Issues:
1.Respiratory Problems:
1. Increased cases of respiratory illnesses, including asthma and
bronchitis.
2. Higher vulnerability among children and the elderly.
2.Cardiovascular Issues:
1. Long-term exposure to air pollution is associated with cardiovascular
diseases.
3.Reduced Lung Function:
1. Prolonged exposure can lead to a decline in lung function, impacting
overall respiratory health.
4.Mortality Rates:
1. Studies have linked high levels of air pollution to increased mortality
rates.
5.Children's Health:
1. Exposure during childhood can have long-term consequences, affecting
respiratory health and overall well-being.
Efforts to tackle air pollution in Delhi
• Odd – even scheme
• Emission norms
• Crop residue management
• Public awareness
• Restriction on construction activities