Review of Electrostatics and magnetostatics

(Based on and relevant topics from INTRODUCTION TO

ELECTRODYNAMICS by David J. Griffiths)

Introduction

To the best of our knowledge, four fundamental forces govern the universe. On
large scales, gravity is the dominant force. At the very smallest scales (around the
size of a femtometer), two nuclear forces—the strong and weak forces—come into
play. For everything in between, it is the electric and magnetic forces that
dominate. Initially, electricity and magnetism were considered separate subjects.
However, through the efforts of scientists like Oersted, Ampere, Faraday, Maxwell,
and Lorentz, it was understood that electricity and magnetism are not distinct but
are two aspects of a single phenomenon: electromagnetism. The special theory of
relativity, which deals with relative motion, allows us to make a direct connection
between the electric force in one reference frame and the magnetic force in
another. Maxwell further demonstrated that light is connected to these
phenomena, showing that it is an electromagnetic wave. This course focuses on
understanding Maxwell's equations, which elegantly encapsulate all the physical
laws of electricity and magnetism in four elegant equations. In the latter part of
the course, we will discuss the properties of electromagnetic wave and its
propagation through different mediums.

Electrostatics

Properties of Electric Charge:

1. Types of Charge: Electric charge exists in two forms: positive (+) and
negative (-). Like charges repel, while opposite charges attract.
2. Conservation of Charge: Electric charge is conserved locally, meaning it
cannot simply disappear in one location and reappear somewhere else. It
must move continuously from one point to another. This principle has
significant implications and is mathematically represented by the continuity
equation.

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 3. Quantization of Charge: Electric charge is quantized, meaning it exists in
discrete units or "lumps."

Fig 1.1

Electrostatics deals with stationary charges. The main task at our hand is to find
the force between charges for a given charge distribution such as in Fig.1.1. For
this we require two things,

- Coulomb’s law
- Principle of Superposition

Together with the coulomb’s law and superposition principle, we can find the net
force on a test charge due to any given charge distribution.

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This suggests that the flux through any closed surface is a measure of
the total charge inside

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Now let us try to find the curl of an electric field of positive point charge, As
depicted in the we can physically understand that there is no swirl in the electric
field (if we put a test charge it won’t move in a circle or loop) hence the curl is
zero.

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Now let us try to understand magnetostatics, whenever a charge is in motion it
produces a magnetic field, and a moving test charge experiences a force in the
presence of a magnetic field.

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This is the precise mathematical statement of local charge conservation; it is called
the continuity equation.

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Divergence of magnetic field is zero as magnetic lines neither start nor end at any
point, as the net flux through any surface would be alwayszero. In other words,
unlike electric fields, which can have point sources such as electric charges,
magnetic fields do not have point sources; there is no magnetic equivalent of
electric charge.

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Displacement Current
The concept of displacement current was first introduced by Maxwell purely on
theoretical ground. To resolve the paradox of the charging capacitor and inadequacy
of Ampere’s magnetic law for time varying field. Maxwell postulated that it is not only
the in current in a conductor that produces a magnetic field, but a changing electric
field in a vacuum, or in a dielectric, also produces a magnetic field. It means that a
changing electric field is equivalent to a current which flows as long as the electric filed
is changing. This equivalent current in vacuum or dielectric produces the same
magnetic effect as an ordinary or conduction current in a conductor. This equivalent
current is known as displacement current. Maxwell redefined that the current density
⃗
in the Ampere’s circuital law is not 𝐽⃗, but (𝚥⃗) + .
⃗
Where, is known as displacement current density and 𝚥⃗ as conduction current
density.

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 Maxwell Equation
The classical wave equation is written as

𝜕 𝑓 1 𝜕 𝑓
=
𝜕𝑧 𝑣 𝜕𝑡
Here f (z, t) represents the wave function of the wave traveling along the z-direction with velocity v.

Solution of this equation can be written as

𝑓(𝑧 − 𝑣𝑡) = 𝐴 𝐶𝑜𝑠 𝑘(𝑧 − 𝑣𝑡)

It is the real part of a more general function

( )
𝑓(𝑧 − 𝑣𝑡) = 𝐴 𝑒
Where k is the propagation vector (or wave vector, which tells about the direction of propagation),
and A is a constant vector that shows wave magnitude.

Any wave traveling along arbitrary direction “r” can be written as

( . )
𝑓(𝑧 − 𝑣𝑡) = 𝐴 𝑒
Maxwell Equation can be written in differential form
𝜌 𝜕𝐵
∇. 𝐸 = ∇XE = −
Ɛ 𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝐸
∇. 𝐵 = 0 ∇𝑋𝐵 = µ 𝐽 + µ Ɛ
𝜕𝑡

Maxwell equation in vacuum can be written as

In vacuum charge density (𝜌), current density (J) are zero.

𝜕𝐵
∇. 𝐸 = 0 ∇XE = −
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝐸
∇. 𝐵 = 0 ∇𝑋𝐵 = Ɛ µ
𝜕𝑡

Maxwell equation in the medium (for medium, replace Ɛ 𝑡𝑜 Ɛ, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 µ 𝑡𝑜 µ)

As medium may be a conductor or dielectric

So, for the dielectric, the bound charge density appears due to the polarization of the molecules of
the medium.

When dielectrics are kept under external electric field E, dipoles (due to charge separation) appear in
molecules.

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 The bound charge density can be given by the equation below

ρ = −∇. 𝑃 (only for dielectrics)

Here P is polarization due to electric field E.

𝑃∝𝐸
𝑃 =∈ 𝜒 𝐸
𝜒 is electronic susceptibility of the material.

Now total charge density is sum of free charge density plus the bound charge density. 𝜌 = 𝜌 +
𝜌

The total current density J can be written as the sum of

𝐽=𝐽 +𝐽 +𝐽

Free current density J = 𝜎𝐸 (for conductor only)

𝐽 = ∇𝑋𝑀 M is magnetization (for magnetic medium (for conductor and dielectric))

𝐽 = P is polarization (Jpolarization current density involves the current flow due to

change in the polarization by any means). If Polarization changes, the flow of the charges from one
side to another will constitute the current. (For conductor only)

So, the Maxwell equation in the dielectric is

∇. 𝐸 = ∈
𝜌 is zero for dielectric, 𝜌 is −∇. 𝑃

So, ∈ ∇. 𝐸 = −∇. 𝑃

∇. (∈ 𝐸 + 𝑃) = ∇. (∈ 𝐸 +∈ 𝜒 𝐸) = ∇. (∈ (1 + 𝜒 )𝐸) = ∇. (∈ 𝐸) = 0
Type equation here.
Also
𝜕𝐸
∇𝑋𝐵 = µ 𝐽 = 𝐽 +𝐽 +𝐽 +µ Ɛ
𝜕𝑡
𝐵 𝜕𝑃 𝜕𝐸
∇𝑋 = 𝐽 + ∇𝑋𝑀 + +Ɛ
µ 𝜕𝑡 𝜕𝑡

𝐵 𝜕(Ɛ 𝐸 + 𝑃)
∇𝑋( − 𝑀) = 𝐽 +
µ 𝜕𝑡

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 𝜕(𝐷)
∇𝑋𝐻 = 𝐽 +
𝜕𝑡

Here H= µ − 𝑀, M is magnetization and equal to χmH

µ 𝐻 =𝐵−µ 𝜒 H
µ (1 + 𝜒 ) 𝐻 = 𝐵
µ (µ ) 𝐻 = 𝐵
B=µH

So, for dielectric 𝐽 is zero, and for conductor it is 𝜎𝐸

Maxwell Equation in dielectric

𝜕𝐵
∇. 𝐷 = 0 ∇XE = −
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝐷
∇. 𝐵 = 0 ∇𝑋𝐻 =
𝜕𝑡

Here D = ƐE, and 𝐻 =

µ

OR
𝜕𝐵
∇. 𝐸 = 0 ∇XE = −
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝐸
∇. 𝐵 = 0 ∇𝑋𝐵 = µƐ
𝜕𝑡

Maxwell Equation in conductor

For conductor,

(i) Any free charge densities will be swept away instantly after applying E so, ρ =0

𝜕𝐵
∇. 𝐸 = 0 ∇XE = −
𝜕𝑡
𝜕𝐸
∇. 𝐵 = 0 ∇𝑋𝐵 = µ𝜎𝐸 + µƐ
𝜕𝑡

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 Electromagnetic Wave Equations:
Maxwell's equations are coupled partial differential equation in E and H. This form is
difficult to solve hence, we need to uncouple and obtain a differential equation either in E or
H alone. To obtain the electromagnetic wave equation using the modern method, we begin
with the modern Maxwell's equations.
From Faraday’s law (Maxwell 3rd equation)

∇ × E = − μ0 (1)

And from Ampere’s circuital law (Maxwell 4th equation)

∇×H=J+

Or ∇ × H = 𝛔E + ε0 (2)

Take the curl of equation (1),

(∇ × )
∇ × (∇ × E) = − μ0 (3)

Now putting the value of ∇ × H from eq (2)𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑞(3)

∇ × (∇ × E) = − μ0 (σE + ε0 ) (4)

-∇2E =− μ0σ − μ0ε0 (5)

𝛛𝐄 𝛛𝟐 𝐄
∇2E − μ0𝛔 𝛛𝐭 − 𝛍0𝛆0 𝛛𝐭 𝟐 = 0 (6)

This is the electromagnetic wave equation for electric field in 3-D (for perfectly conducting
medium)
Or
Similarly, Take the curl of equation (2),

∇ × (∇ × H) =∇ × (𝛔E + ε0 ) (7)

Now putting the value of ∇ × E from eq (1)𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑞(7)

∇ × (∇ × H) = − 𝛔μ0 - μ0ε0 (8)

-∇2H =− μ0σ − μ0ε0 (9)

𝛛𝐇 𝛛𝟐 𝐇
∇2H − μ0𝛔 𝛛𝐭 − 𝛍0𝛆0 𝛛𝐭 𝟐 = 0 (10)

This is the electromagnetic wave equation for magnetic field in 3-D (for perfectly conducting
medium).

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Electromagnetic Wave Equation for free space or vacuum:
Free or vacuum space is a perfect dielectric which does not absorb any wave. In this
condition J=0, 𝛔=0, ε=ε0, μ=μ0, εr=2, μr=1.
Now equations (6) and (10) becomes

𝛛𝟐 𝐄
∇2E − 𝛍0𝛆0 𝛛𝐭 𝟐 = 0 (11)

𝛛𝟐 𝐇
∇2H − 𝛍0𝛆0 𝛛𝐭 𝟐 = 0 (12)

Equations (11) and (12) are EM wave equations for free space.

Velocity of Electromagnetic wave:

We know that general wave equation is given by
𝟏 𝛛𝟐 ѱ
∇2ѱ − 𝒗𝟐 𝛛𝐭 𝟐 = 0 (A)

Now comparing Equation A with (11) and (12), we get

μ0ε0=

or 𝒗 =1/√μ0ε0 (B)
where μ0= 4𝛱×10-7 Wb/Am2
andε0= 8.8×10-12C2/Nm2
On solving,
𝒗 =3×108m/s=c
Which shows that EM waves travel with the speed of light in vacuum or free space.

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 Transverse nature of EM waves

For an EM wave propagating in free space, the wave equation for the electric and magnetic
fields can be written as:

Where, E is the electric field vector, B is the magnetic field vector, μ0 is the permeability of
free space and ϵ0 is the permittivity of free space.

A plane wave solution for the electric field and magnetic field:

(1)

(2)

Where, E0 and B0 are the amplitudes of electric and magnetic fields, k is the wave vector its
magnitude is k = 2𝜋/𝜆, which points in the direction of wave propagation, r is the position
vector, ω is the angular frequency of the wave and t is time.

Therefore,

Or

Or (3)

Differentiating (1) w.r.t. time, we get

Or

Or (4)

Substitute (3) and (4) Maxwell equations in free space, i.e.,

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This shows k is perpendicular to electric field vector 𝐸

This represent k is perpendicular to magnetic field vector 𝐵

This represent vector 𝐵 is perpendicular to both k and 𝐸

This represent vector 𝐸 is perpendicular to both k and B.

In the first two cases, the dot product of the vectors being zero shows that the vectors are
perpendicular to each other. In the next two cases, the cross product not being zero also
indicates that the vectors are perpendicular. The vector k represents the direction in which the
wave is traveling. From all four cases, we can see that the three vectors k, E, and B are all
perpendicular to one another. This confirms that electromagnetic waves are transverse,
meaning their electric and magnetic fields oscillate perpendicular to the direction of wave
propagation.

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Skin Depth
Skin depth defines the distance a wave must travel before its amplitude has decayed
by a factor of 1/e. The skin depth is the reciprocal of the decay constant β.

Figure: Skin depth is defined as the depth at which the amplitude of the wave has
been reduced by 1/e.
Skin depth is given as;

Where µ= magnetic permeability of the medium, ω= angular frequency and σ =

electric conductivity

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